Cornisa: GEOLOGICAL FORMATION AND EARTHY EPOCHS.

Geological Formation and Earthy Epochs.

BSB2004 Principals of Earth Science

Humboldt International University

11/03/2018

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GEOLOGICAL FORMATION AND EARTHY EPOCHS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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1 Types of rocks
1.1 There are 3 basic types of rocks:
1. Igneous or magmatic.

They began as molten rock in the interior of the Earth, at depths where temperatures are

very high. However, they are the most common type found in the earth's crust.

Igneous rocks are formed from magma. The process begins when the fusion of materials from

the bark or mantle occurs, which gives rise to the magma, which is a melt that contains dissolved

gases and some suspended solid materials. Magma usually rises to the surface, and as it cools

during this process, it crystallizes and becomes solid.

All igneous rock has interlaced crystals of different sizes, depending on how quickly the

magma cools. Large crystals are the result of slow cooling, while smaller crystals result from a

rapid cooling process. Likewise, intrusive igneous rocks are formed from slowly cooled magma

at great depth, and the extrusive come from rapidly cooled lava.

There are 3 types of igneous rocks, depending on the place where the magma solidifies:

1) plutonic or intrusive, if crystallization occurs inside the crust and plutons or moderate-sized

masses are formed, 2) volcanic or extrusive, if , as mentioned, they are formed by the cooling of

the lava, and 3) phyllonians, which are created when the magma passes to the surface through a

crack in the earth's crust called the reef, between the surrounding rocks, and becomes solid

inside.

Examples of igneous rocks: andesite, basalt, dacite, granite, obsidian and trachyte.

1.1.1 Metamorphic
Their formation is interesting, since they are produced from other rocks, either sedimentary,

igneous or metamorphic, which change their properties due to the effect of heat, pressure and

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reactions between different minerals. Once they are formed, they are very resistant to erosion

and wear.

Examples: marble, mylonite, quartzite, slate, gneiss, skarn and anthracite.

1.1.2 Sedimentary
They form when the sediments dragged from the rocks by weathering or erosion join

together and form cumulus clouds that reach considerable thickness until they become

new rocks.

The whole process is a little more complex. Ripped materials are usually deposited in the

bottom of bodies of water, and over time accumulate in several layers. The weight of the

upper layers crushes the lower ones, and therefore, they compact. Later the fragments are

united in a process called cementation, which originates the sedimentary rocks.

Examples: slab, gravel, flint, travertines, evaporate and sandstone. (Tipos.EU, n.d.)

1.2 The relief is the set of all the forms that the terrestrial surface adopts.

Mountain

Is the elevation, more or less large, of the terrain produced by the subsidence or folding

(elevation) of blocks of the earth's crust as a consequence of the movement of the tectonic plates.

Almost always forms groups called saws or mountain ranges.

A special type of mountains are volcanoes, formed by the expulsion of lava from the interior

of the earth's crust through cracks in the surface.

Cordilleras: can be defined as a set of mountains of great extension.

Sierra

They are mountainous alignments of lower altitude and of mountain attached to great

mountain ranges or that they are part of them.

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Plateau or Altiplano: are large areas of flat land but are elevated (sometimes at high altitude) on

land that surrounds them.

Plain

It is a large extension, flat or slightly undulating, of land at low altitude above sea level. It is

formed by the erosion of higher ground or by the accumulation of gravel, sand and mud.

Valley:

Is an extension of flat land, of variable size, located between the mountains and through the

center of which a river usually flows. The valley is very narrow in the interior of the mountain

ranges and much wider at the mouth of the river.

2 Origin and location of groundwater in the earth origins

Most groundwater originate as meteoric water that falls from of rain or snow. If is not lost by

evaporation, transpiration of plants or runoff, water infiltrate the ground.

At first there are amounts of precipitation water that fall on the dry soil are fixedly retained as

a film on the surface and in the micro pores of the soil particles.

In an intermediate step, the water films cover the solid particles but the air is present in the

porous areas of the soil. This area is called the unsaturated or aeration zone, and water is present

in gravitational water.

At retail depths and in the presence of an adequate volume of water, all gaps are filled to

produce a saturation zone, the upper level is the water table or water table. The water present in

the saturation zones is called groundwater. (Manahan , 2005)

The porosity and structure of the soil determines the type of aquifer and the circulate and

alluvial. It can circulate and be stored in fissures or failures of compact rocks that are not

themselves permeable, like most volcanic and metamorphic rock. Water runs through the rock

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and circulates in localized and dispersed fissures. The compact rock of large fissures or caverns

are typically limestone.

Approximately 3% of the total water on earth is fresh water. Of this 95% constitutes surface

water and 1.5% to the humidity accumulated in the soils. Of all existing fresh water only 0.36%

is available for consumption.

Groundwater is an important source of water supply. 53% of the US population receives

water from underground sources. Groundwater is also in of the main sources of industrial and

agricultural use.

We are extracting water from aquifers at rates higher than their replacement. The water in

some aquifers is millennia old and is located below some of the driest regions that currently exist

on earth. Although people have extracted water from natural sources and wells from early

civilizations for their use, in the last 50 years the multiplication of populations means that more

water and food are needed, causinggreater exploitation of water resources.

In some coastal areas, so much fresh water has been extracted from aquifers that saltwater

intrusion has been caused, causing well water to be brackish and not be used. For more

information you can see the pages about salt water intrusion.

The natural contributions are irregular in time, with great seasonality. The surface reservoirs,

channels and pipes, as elements of artificial regulation, allow to regulate normally the seasonal

irregularity and, sometimes, the hyperational irregularity. Aquifers, underground reservoirs,

especially in droughts. These are cyclical, and the cycles can be more or less long, and more or

less periodic.

Achieving security in the supply of water demands is one of the basic objectives of

hydrological planning. In general, greater security will imply higher cost.

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The hydrological cycle is unique, it has an external or superficial phase and an internal or

subterranean one. The fundamental difference, between one and the other, lies in the time the

water stays in its environment, which makes it available, when it comes to groundwater, for

longer periods, adapting to demand, and concentration in short periods of time, when it comes to

surface water, which forces to build reservoirs to retain it and not lose it, while avoiding floods.

It seems necessary to take advantage of resources rationally. This obligatory rationality will be

facilitated by a more precise knowledge of the variable elements of the system, and the great

adaptability of groundwater to the demand perfectly complements the irregularity of surface run-

off. The weight of one or the other will depend on multiple causes, so each exploitation system

mulct be perfectly characterized. The important thing to be able to characterize it will be to know

is hydrologically, as well as to know the demands and remaining elements of the system.

3 What is the atmosphere?

It is only the thing that keeps you from being burned to death every day, helps to bring the

rain that our plants need to survive, not to mention it holds the oxygen that you need to breath.

Essentially, the atmosphere is a collection of gases that makes the Earth habitable.

The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% water vapor, and a minute

amount of other trace gases like argon, and carbon monoxide. All of these gases combine to

absorb ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and warm the planet’s surface through heat retention.

The mass of the atmosphere is around 5×1018kg. 75% of the atmospheric mass is within 11 km

of the surface. While the atmosphere becomes thinner the higher you go, there is no clear line

demarcating the atmosphere from space; however, the Karman line , at 100 km, is often regarded

as the boundary between atmosphere and outer space. The effects of reentry can be felt at 120

km. (Coffey, 2010)

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The atmospheric phenomena caused by the atmosphere: wind, clouds, precipitation (rain,

snow, hail ...) and electrical phenomena (polar auroras, thunderstorms ...).

The winds, however, are the triggers of most atmospheric phenomena. It is mainly due to

changes in temperature and air density from one place to another.

The rainbow and the ray, it is worth noting that the rainbow is one of the most well-known

and beautiful phenomena that occur in the sky. They occur when, during a rainy day, the

raindrops act as mirrors that scatter light in all directions, decomposing it and forming the

rainbow.

This is formed with the rays of the Sun that impact on the drops and disperse at an angle of ~

138º, forming the arc; the ray of light enters the drop, retracting itself, then moving towards its

opposite end and reflecting on its inner face, to finally refract itself as it leaves the drop as

decomposed light; the rainbows usually last up to 3 hours, and always look in the opposite

direction to the Sun. (Maleta)

3.1 Waterspout
It is a tornado that occurs over the sea, and is usually not associated with electrical storms.

It occurs in tropical waters in rainy conditions.

3.2 Hurricane
Hurricanes are strong storms that form in the sea and usually cause winds over 100 km / h.

Although they frequently become highly destructive.

3.2.1 Effects

The most devastating effects of a hurricane occur when they touch land and can cause damage

in four different ways: wind, tide, torrential rain, tornadoes.

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3.2.2 Lightning

The temperature inside the ray, the measurement by means of spectroscopic analysis, varies

during 50 microseconds of the ambient temperature to 20,000 K or up to 30,000 K, to go down

slowly until the 10,000 K.2 this heat causes a huge expansion of the air in all directions, driving

the surrounding air at speeds higher than the sound. This wave is finally a shock wave that

travels quickly through the atmosphere. In some cases, the sound of thunder can reach 110 dB,

close to the threshold of pain for the human eye.

3.3 Some disasters generated by meteorological or hydrological phenomena are:

 floods

 drought

 frost

 storms

 hail

3.3.1 Floods
Slow or violent invasion of river waters, lagoons or lakes, due to strong river pressures or

ruptures of reservoirs, causing considerable damage.

3.3.2 Frost
Produced by low temperatures, causing damage to plants and animals.

3.3.3 Hail
Hail storms are especially devastating on farms and fields, killing livestock, ruining crops and

damaging sensitive equipment.

4 As a didactic strategy of study, the geological history of the earth was divided into five
eras:
archaic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic and quaternary.

 The archaic era includes the period called Precambrian.

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Is a very long period in the history of the Earth that spans from its formation, about 4,500

million years ago, until about 580 million years ago, that is, almost 4,000 million years of the

planet's history. It occupies 88% of the history of the Earth. A long time seems.

 The Paleozoic era is subdivided into six periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,

Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.

This was ancient, the Paleozoic, lasted about 315 million years. The planet was very different

from the present one. The emerged lands had the appearance of more or less dissimilar islands

around the terrestrial equator. Some of these islands were South America, Laurentia and

Gondwana.

During this time there were numerous folding that originated mountains. The weather was

still warm and humid. This favored the proliferation of multicellular organisms and their

subsequent evolution.

 The Mesozoic era, in turn, is subdivided into the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous

periods.

This intermediate era lasted about 160 million years. In its beginnings all the continents, or

islands, of the previous period had gathered in a single gigantic continent which we called

Pangea, that is, the whole Earth.

The main folds occurred on the western slope of America, the Rocky Mountains in the north

and the Andes in the south.

The weather remained warm, but somewhat drier. The Earth was dominated by huge conifers

so that its appearance, from space, should be much greener than the current one. Among the

animals appeared and, in the end, the famous dinosaurs became extinct.

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 The Cenozoic era, which subdivided into the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and

Pliocene periods corresponds to the period called Tertiary.

The last and most recent geological era covers the last 65 million years and, generally, is

divided into two parts known as Tertiary and Quaternary. The continents gradually acquire the

current appearance and situation although, at first, the Atlantic Ocean was much narrower and

what is now the Indian peninsula was "traveling" from South East Africa to its current location.

At this time the Alpine folding takes place, creator of great mountain chains like the Alps, the

Atlas and the Himalayas. The climate cools and glaciations appear. Among the animals

highlights the evolution of mammals, the best known being the imposing mammoth, a kind of

elephant especially prepared for icy climates. (The Earth)

4.1 Pleistocene

It began a million years ago. There are still large areas covered by ice. Profound climate

changes caused the disappearance of many species of plants and animals. During the glacial

periods bison, musk ox, chamois, mammoth, cave bear lived in Europe, while in the interglacial

periods there were giraffes, hippos, elephants, that is, animals of the African fauna. (Teacher)

4.2 Holocene

During the recent period, the Holocene, which began about 10,000 years ago, the thaw caused

thirty or more meters of sea level rise, flooding large areas of land and widening the continental

shelf of western Europe and eastern North America. In general, it is a time of warm weather, in

which the current geographical distributions of fauna and flora are based.

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Human beings began to organize themselves into social groups that focused on "cities" (hence

the word "civilization"). Gradually began to combine hunting and fishing with agriculture and

livestock, which led to settlement in stable places and the abandonment of nomadic life.

Although, as a geological period, it extends to our days, the study of the Holocene extends

until the invention of writing. The first known writing is attributed to the Sumerians of

Mesopotamia, about 5,000 years ago. From this moment begins what we call "history"

(Astronomy)

5 Solar system on Earth

The Earth is the third planet closest to the Sun, a distance of around 150 million kilometers

and the fifth in size of the nine main planets. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers, only a few

kilometers larger than the diameter of Venus. Our atmosphere is composed of 78 percent

nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents. It is the only known planet that has

life, although some of the other planets have atmospheres and contain water.

The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but has the shape of a pear. Calculations based on

disturbances in the orbits of artificial satellites reveal that the Earth is an imperfect sphere

because the equator swells 21 km; the north pole is dilated to 10 meters and the south pole is

sunk about 31 meters. (The Earth, n.d.)

Fragments of extraterrestrial matter that come from the Solar System or from farther away

arrive at Earth sometimes. Most of them ignite and disintegrate when they enter the atmosphere.

They are meteorites.

5.1 The solar wind

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The solar wind is a flow of charged particles, mainly protons and electrons, that escape from

the external atmosphere of the sun at high speeds and penetrate the Solar System.

Some of these charged particles get trapped in the Earth's magnetic field by spiraling along

the lines of force from one magnetic pole to another. The northern and aurorally auroras are the

result of the interactions of these particles with the air molecules.

The solar wind speed is about 400 kilometers per second in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. The

point where the solar wind is found that comes from other stars is called heliopause, and it is the

theoretical limit of the Solar System. It is found at about 100 AU from the Sun. The space within

the boundary of the heliopause, containing the Sun and the solar system, is called a heliosphere.

(AstronoMia, n.d.)

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6 Reference

Tipos.EU. (s.f.). Obtenido de https://tiposde.eu/tipos-de-rocas/

Manahan , S. E. (2005). Environmental Chemistry (eight edition ed.).

Aguamarket. (02 de 2017). Obtenido de http://www.aguamarket.com/tema-

interes.asp?id=3939&tema=RELACION+ENTRE+AGUA+SUPERFICIAL+Y+SUBTE

RRANEA

Coffey, J. (07 de 02 de 2010). Universe Today. Obtenido de

https://www.universetoday.com/54760/what-is-the-atmosphere/

Maleta, R. (s.f.). Monografias.com. Obtenido de

http://www.monografias.com/trabajos93/fenomenos-atmosfericos/fenomenos-

atmosfericos.shtml

Astronomy. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://www.astromia.com/tierraluna/origen.htm

Teacher, O. (s.f.). Obtenido de

http://www.profesorenlinea.cl/geografiagral/GeologiaEpocasGeolog.htm

Astronomy. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://www.astromia.com/tierraluna/cuaternario.htm

The Earth. (s.f.). Obtenido de https://www.todoelsistemasolar.com.ar/tierra.htm

AstronoMia. (s.f.). Obtenido de http://www.astromia.com/solar/solactivo.htm

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