Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Semeiosis
of Poetic Metaphor
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS ix
PREFACE xi
Introduction 3
I. Through the Peircean Telescope:Metaphor as Symbol, Index, and Icon 8
II. Under the Peircean Microscope:Metaphor as Image, Diagram, and
Metaicon 19
III. Focus Interpretation: Metaphoric Possibility as Firstness 47
IV. Focus Interpretation: Peircean Hypoicons in Poetry 77
V. Vehicle Interpretation: The Peircean Index in Poetic Metaphor 97
VI. Vehicle Interpretation: The Index of Figural Displacement 116
VII. Metaphoric Growth 141
REFERENCES 170
INDEX 174
ABBREVIATIONS
CP Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. 1935, 1958. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press. References by vol. and paragraph number.
CB A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Published Works of Charles Sanders
Peirce. 1986. 2nd ed., revised, by Kenneth Laine Ketner. Bowling Green, OH:
Philosophy Documentation Center, Bowling Green State University. References
by publication number (in CB) and page number (in original source).
NEM The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce. 1976. Ed. by Carolyn
Eisele. The Hague: Mouton. References by vol. and page number.
PW Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between Charles S. Peirce and
Victoria Lady Welby. 1977. Ed. by Charles S. Hardwick. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
W Writings of Charles S. Peirce. 1982, 1984, 1986. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press. References by vol. and page number.
MS Peirce Manuscripts as numbered in Annotated Catalogue of the Papers of
Charles S. Peirce. 1967. Ed. by R. S. Robin. Amherst: University of Mass. Press.
Page numbers as stamped by Institute for Studies in Pragmaticism, Texas Tech
University.
O.E.DCompact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. 1971. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Reference by page number.
PREFACE
As late as 1984, when I enrolled in Michael Shapiro's summer seminar, "Semiotic Perspectives on Linguistics and Verbal Art,"
the term semeosis was entirely new to me. Before that summer, I had barely heard the name of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-
1914), whose general theory of signs (semeiotic, following his preferred spelling as noted by Fisch, 1978: 32) has endowed the
word semeiosis with far-reaching significance for a growing body of scholars in various disciplines. To the many contemporary
disciples of Peirce who have devoted the greater part of their lifetimes to the careful study of his thought, it must seem
presumptuous for a newcomer, offering his first effort in the field, to entitle it The Semeiosis of Anything At All, let alone of
Poetic Metaphor.
Despite its title, however, this book does not pretend either to present the total picture of Peirce's semeiotic or to exhaust its
manifold relevance to the study of metaphor. It cannot claim even to treat everything Peirce may have written directly on the
topic of metaphor. The reason it cannot make that claim is worth noting for those unfamiliar with the magnitude of Peirce's
work: Despite the eight volumes of his Collected Papers, the four volumes of his New Elements of Mathematics, the three
volumes now available of the projected twenty volumes of (selected) chronological Writings, plus several other collections, not
to mention the surprising quantity of material Peirce published during his own lifetime (as amplified by Kenneth Ketner in the
1986 Comprehensive Bibliography, i-iii, and requiring over 150 accompanying microfiche to reproduce, the equivalent of some
twenty-four volumes)despite this multitude of published materials, much of what Peirce wrote still remains in the form of
unpublished manuscripts. The editors of the Peirce Edition Project estimate that a complete printing of the manuscripts Peirce
left unpublished at his death would require an additional eighty volumes (W 1: xi). My sampling of this huge body of material,
particularly of the unpublished manuscripts and of those earlier publications available on fiche, has been "selective" at best.
Add to the prolixity of Peirce's writing his interdisciplinary (sometimes downright digressive, though always seminal) grafting
and crosspollinating of subject matter, and you will have some idea of what one is up against in asking to know Peirce's
thoughts on any single topic. Peirce was almost as likely to say something profound about metaphor, for instance, while
lecturing on mathematical or chemical notation as he was after having promised to talk about his favorite poets.
INTRODUCTION
Metaphoric truth is the primary substance of the poetic imagination. A good metaphor is not merely a clever embellishment of
the poet's vision; it is often the only precise embodiment of that vision. Nor is metaphor a riddle to be solved, a semantic
obstacle to be leapt over, before the poem's meaning can be discovered; it is itself a solution, a leap, a meaning, and a discovery.
As Robert Weiman has put it (1974: 149-150):
metaphor is neither an autonomous nor an ornamental aspect of poetry but forms the very core and center of that poetic
statement by which man as a social animal imaginatively comprehends his relation to time and space and, above all, to the
world around him.
Archibald MacLeish may have had the truth of tacit metaphor in mind when he wrote ("Ars Poetica"): "A poem should not
mean/ But be." Even those forms of poetry which, like the haiku, deliberately avoid ''figurative language" in preference to literal
imagery usually turn upon some sort of metaphorical suggestion. Consider this simple example:
One green shoot of rice,
Too early in the paddy,
Bending under ice.
The image, while literal in itself, is nonetheless suggestive of a correspondence to something beyond the rice paddy. It is thus
part of a tacit metaphor, the other part or parts of which must be discovered by the reader. This is not to say that a reader must
consciously stipulate what the other parts are-as, for instance, saying that the shoot of rice is a metaphor for 'youth" and that the
ice is a metaphor for "unyielding tradition" or "old age." On the contrary, the "otherness" suggested by the image may-in fact
should, in such cases-remain just that, a subliminal suggestion, an overtone of possible correspondences as opposed to an
explicit correspondence.
This subliminal character of the "otherness" in poetic imagery often produces the sensation of enjoying an image "for its own
sake alone." However, to my mind at least, that is not a complete or satisfactory account of such imagery. Any image,
graphically depicted, could be enjoyed for its own sake; but the images of a successful poem are not just any images, nor does
their real power reside (despite the protestations of many successful poets) in the vividness of the images' sensory detail. In the
above example, for instance, the image is decidedly unvivid, even ambiguous: Is the rice shoot bending beneath a sheet of ice
on
I.
THROUGH THE PEIRCEAN
TELESCOPE
METAPHOR AS SYMBOL, INDEX,
AND ICON
Definitions of metaphor vary widely and invariably excite debate. This is no surprise when we consider how much is at stake in
such a definition. Metaphor is so central an element of poetry, of language, of the learning process, and of meaning itself, that
we cannot define it without delimiting our views in almost every field of human inquiry. Descriptions of metaphor are bound to
differ as radically as do theories of meaning and thought, as well as any and all theories to which notions about meaning and
thought are central.
Nevertheless, three common elements of definition frequently recur in various descriptions of metaphor. Consider the following:
Metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else ...
A good metaphor implies the intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars.
(Aristotle, Poetics, XXI, XXII)
The metaphor . . . is an assignment of a signans to a secondary signatum associated by similarity . . .
with the primary signatum.
(Jakobson 1971: 355)
Metaphor states an equivalence between terms taken from separate domains ...
(Sapir 1977: 4)
[Hypoicons] which represent the representative character of a representamen by
representing a parallelism in something else, are metaphors.
(Peirce [italics his]CP 2.277)
To define metaphor for the purposes of this study, I am content to list (Fig. 1.1), and to elaborate upon, what might be
considered the common elements from the above statements.
Figure 1.1
These seem to be the crucial elements which can be found in various forms in most definitions of metaphor since Aristotle.
Indeed, the global phenomenon I have in mind when I speak of metaphor is precisely what Gumpel (1984) discards as the
'traditional" and "Neo-Aristotelian" concept of metaphor. As Gumpel herself points out (82, 134), Peirce's description of
metaphor squarely aligns his notion with that of the traditional Aristotelian perspective. For purposes of her own, she chooses to
reject that perspective. For the purposes of this study, on the other hand, I am entirely comfortable with the descriptive elements
suggested by Peirce's formulation, no matter how obviously 'traditional" or "neoAristotelian" they may be. That Peirce follows
Aristotle certainly should not be construed to imply that there is no additional insight to be gained from Peirce's formulation, for
when the elements of his description are considered fully in light of his Categories and his sign trichotomies, they acquire a
manifold new significance for an aesthetics and semantics of metaphor.
In view of my purpose to consider metaphor in connection with Peirce's theories, why not simply adopt Peirce's description of
metaphor above as a working definition, instead of reducing it to a paraphrase with three elements? Peirce's wording, I believe,
does offer a powerful though cryptic suggestion about genuine metaphoricity. Despite my preliminary alignment of the elements
from his wording with traditional definitions, however, I believe that Peirce's formulation should not and cannot be used as a
complete definition, or even a complete Peircean definition, of metaphor. Specifically, I think his intent (at CP 2.277) was to
distinguish the metaphorical icon from other kinds of icons (signs of likeness), not from all signs in general, as a global
definition ought to do. By aligning the elements of Peirce's description with other and more general definitions, I intend only to
suggest that Peirce's formulation of metaphorical iconicity proper is perfectly fitted to, and thus prefigurative of,
Figure 1.2
The alignment illustrated suggests a number of claims, the full defense and development of which must await subsequent
chapters. For the present, I will offer only a general overview of these claims with a few preliminary comments. First, figure 1.2
suggests that metaphor, because of what it is, and especially poetic metaphor, brings together in one "microcosm" all the
phenomena of Peirce's ontological 'macrocosm." Second, the alignment in figure 1.2 implies that poetic metaphor in particular
represents a perfect blending of all three of Peirce's most famous sign functions. Peirce held that all these functions must be
present to some degree in any "naturally fit" or "sufficiently complete" sign (CP 2.295; NEM 4:256); poetic metaphor is an
example par excellence of the complete or fit sign, I will argue, for though its ground is iconic, this icon is embedded within an
exceptionally powerful interactive index endowing the metaphor with extraordinary potentials for symbolic growth. (See also
Jakobson 1971: 349 on blending of sign functions.)
Further, the alignment of Similarity with Possibility is meant to assert that the 'similarity" between the two (or more) elements
of a genuine poetic metaphor is not at all the fabrication of the poet. Rather, the relation of terms in the metaphor is a linguistic
actualizationa dynamic bringing into sharp existential focusof the real and positive, albeit abstract, quality the two referents
share. This 'quality' takes its distinctive nature, in Peircean terms, from the nature of real possibility or potentiality, not from the
merely verbal mechanism which calls attention to it. In other words, the claim is that genuine poetic metaphorical similarity is a
creative discovery, not a creation, by the poet. A full defense of this claim will be offered in chapters 2 and 3.
Next, the parallel between Duality and Actuality in figure 1.2 is meant to
Figure 1.3
ject/Interpretant. Peirce clearly demonstrated that genuine triadic relations are
not reducible to any combination of dyads or monads (see Ketner 1986); and,
as far as I know, Peirce never used a triangle to configure the S-O-I relation.
I use the triangles, instead of Peirce's favored form of existential graphs, for the
sake of clearly isolating what I view as discrete and teleological but irreducible
levels or 'moments" of metaphorical semeiosis.
II.
UNDER THE PEIRCEAN
MICROSCOPE
METAPHOR AS IMAGE, DIAGRAM,
AND METAICON
In this survey of the Peircean conception of metaphor, let us begin with the full text of a passage cited in chapter 1, namely
Peirce's description of the hypoicons. Just prior to this passage, Peirce explained that a pure icon (a pure resemblance) can only
be a possibility, not an actuality; but an actual sign "may be iconic, that is, may represent its object mainly by its similarity, no
matter what its mode of being" (CP 2.276). Such an iconic sign, which represents its object mainly by resemblance to it, Peirce
named a hypoicon. We may thus think of the term as referring to any actual embodiment of an icon proper. (See Ransdell 1979:
55 and Anderson 1984b: 455-456.) Next Peirce classified the hypoicons:
Hypoicons may be roughly divided according to the mode of Firstness of which they partake. Those which partake of
simple qualities, or First Firstnesses, are images; those which represent the relations, mainly dyadic, or so regarded, of the
parts of one thing by analogous relations in their own parts, are diagrams; those which represent the representative
character of a representamen by representing a parallelism in something else, are metaphors. (CP 2.277)
Despite my earlier provisional alignment (chapter 1) of the elements from this statement about metaphor with the definitions of
metaphor by others, I believe the statement should not be taken as a global definition, or even a complete Peircean definition, of
metaphor. Rather, we should keep in mind that Peirce was setting out here to classify hypoicons, not to define metaphor, and I
believe this classification of metaphor deals explicitly only with the iconic identity of metaphor proper; it just so happens that
the iconic identity of metaphor proper is perfectly fitted to and thus prefigurative of its other dimensions. But these other
dimensionsnamely, the indexical and symbolicare in themselves critically important; they may not have been important to Peirce
in his briefest treatments of metaphor, and they are only tacitly acknowledged here by his use
While it is of course unnecessary for anyone to formalize or "intellectualize" the metaphor in this way, I believe that any
interpreter who was successful in understanding it at all would have to take the first step of identifying any of a number of
properties (X) in some field, properties with which the "blank" in the above analogy might conceivably be filled. Thus, while the
field itself and its properties (the object) might be entirely imaginary, interpretation would have to proceed on the hope that the
relations which hold between the parts of the icon [smile / human] might prove isomorphic with the relations which hold
between the parts of the object [X / field]. I believe this is precisely what Peirce had in mind in the hypoicon passage when he
described diagrams as iconic signs "which represent the relations, mainly dyadic, or so regarded, of the parts of one thing by
analogous relations in their own parts" (CP 2.277). While the object of a successful diagram need not be an actually existent
thing, then, the isomorphism between icon and object in a successful analogy (a relation between relations,
Figure 2.1
The increasing abstractness as we move from the image through the diagram to the metaicon has also been described above as a
progress from concrete sensory resemblance through formal analogical similarity to general archetypal iconicity. The
identification of imaginal similarity as sensory resemblance poses little difficulty, I take it; Peirce said the image is like its object
in "simple quality," and his most frequent examples of "quality" are the sense qualities like redness. Certainly, more is involved
in Peirce's notion of Quality than the sense qualities, but the key word here is the "simple" quality of the image. I take it to
mean "sensory" because, as we have already seen, Peirce contrasted a picture-image with the diagram on the grounds that a
diagram need not possess any such "sensuous" resemblance (CP2.279). In that same passage and in many others, he identified
the diagram with analogy, and in the hypoicon passage spoke of the diagram as embodying "analogous relations," so I presume
no one would have any difficulty with my reading of the second hypoicon.
How, though, can any sort of iconicity be typological, as I am hypothesizing the third kind of hypoicon to be? Ransdell points
out that there are "laws and types which function iconically" (1979: 56), but he may not have had in mind the same thing I do. I
am talking about a type at the level of Firstness. Am I not committing the same mistake I accused Anderson of makingthat is,
the mistake of going beyond Firstness to Thirdness for an explanation of third Firstness? To put it in my own terms, is not
metaiconicity, precisely, "beyond iconicity"? This is certainly a difficulty I must deal with. Apparently, it is similar to a problem
Peirce himself had to deal with, in his progress from nominalism to realism, when he found that he must "distinguish the
generality of firsts from that of thirds," as Fisch puts it (1967: 173). I believe J. Jay Zeman has expressed the possible solution
very well:
The theory of abstraction is a theory of thirdness, but . . . the thirdness of abstraction is afirst with respect to certain other
viewpoints on thirdness. The
Figure 2.2
dent that Peirce, in his efforts to explore the universe semeiotically, frequently employed a host of organic metaphors. On the
other hand, the more we study the logic and life and growth of symbols, man-made or natural, the more we come to understand
new things about ourselves as human beings. Symbolicity is iconic of humanity, and humanity in turn is iconic of symbolicity.
Wherein does this symmetrical figurality lie? If my reading of Peirce is correct, it does not lie in the mere fact that human beings
make symbols, and so imbue them with their own idiosyncrasies, for that explanation leaves out the enormous iconic potential of
natural symbols, indispensable to poet and anthropologist alike in their efforts to make sense of human life. Nor is it the case
that even natural symbols just happen to exhibit, in their own structures, patterns which furnish serendipitous analogues for
poets and anthropologists to use in telling what they already know of man. Someone who uses the ManSymbol connection as
mere rhetorical analogy is displaying a grasp of part, but not all, of its power, for the rhetoric of the analogy is but a
"degenerate" form of the metaphor. Its real power is not rhetorical but revelatory, even prophetic. It is forever suggesting new
hypothesesalternately about the nature of symbols and about the nature of manwhich frequently prove to be tellingly true. These
hypotheses are confirmed by subsequent experience much more often than could reasonably be expected if there were not
"something else" to the metaphor. And what, again, is that "something else"? In Peirce's theory, it is the very
III.
FOCUS INTERPRETATION
METAPHORIC POSSIBILITY
AS FIRSTNESS
As suggested in chapter 1, the similarity between the two (or more) things related to each other by a genuine poetic metaphor is
a creative discovery, not a creation, by the poet. The juxtaposition of the opposed and parallel objects is but the linguistic
actualizationa dynamic bringing into sharp existential focusof the real and positive character the two things share. The similarity
takes its distinctive nature, in Peircean terms, from the nature of real possibility, not from the merely verbal mechanism which
calls attention to it. While the poet's metaphorical perception is highly imaginative, the perceived similarity is not imaginary. It
is real. Peirce wrote:
Existence, then, is a special mode of reality, which, whatever other characteristics it possesses, has that of being
absolutely determinate. Reality, in its turn, is a special mode of being, the characteristic of which is that things that are
real are whatever they really are, independently of any assertion about them. (CP 6.349)
I will argue that metaphoric similarity, at least in the case of its best examples in poetry, is real before it "exists" in the mind of
the reader, in the linguistic construct of the metaphor, or in the mind of the poet.
Why does this matter for the study of poetic metaphor? There are several important implications of Peirce's philosophical
realism for a semeiotic of figurative language. First, it implies that not just any fiat of fancy that brings two contrary objects
together in an anomalous connection, however imaginative, can qualify as poetic metaphor. Second, it suggests that the choice
of the metaphoric "vehicle"the icon whose quality, relation of parts, or representative character is necessarily what it is by virtue
of the quality, parts, or character of its objectis not by any means a totally free choice or a "stylistic option"; rather, it is
(broadly) constrained by aesthetic purity and accuracy. Thus the peculiar invented or created circumstances of a poetic metaphor
ought to be evaluated not entirely on their novelty, cleverness, or even their contextual apt-
Figure 3.1
We might of course specify more detail about the shared quality of sparkling (such as noting the oscillating crystalline aspect of
the luminosity) but it is not necessary to do so; these details merely analyze what sparkling means. Indeed, a shared "Quality" in
the Peircean sense ought to be thought of as "monadically" as possible (CP 1.424).
Now another reader of the metaphor might have chosen a different similarity; for instance, "high value," relating the height of
the stars, or their literary symbolism of "aspiration," to the diamonds' monetary value. In poetic metaphor, many readings of
similarity (seen as dynamic interpretants) are possible; this is not to say, however, that all such readings are equally productive
(or that all dynamic interpretants will survive the process of "natural selection" in the evolution towards a final interpretant). In
this case, "high value" seems to be an ac-
Figure 3.2
Keats's introduction of "trembling through and through" is what drives the interpretation of this otherwise mild metaphor onward
(or upward) to an exceedingly abstract, nearly primal reality. Specifically, the interpreter's task, as I see it, is to discover what
further character is shared by the sparkling of a luminous crystalline object and the trembling of some animate organism (the
predicate trembling implies an animate subject). Now note that if "high value" or the like were chosen as the first ground, it
would furnish no hypostatic object for experimentation with the second icon, tremblinghowcould trembling be like ''high value"
in any salient respect? (Perhaps there is some respect, but it is not clear to me.) Thus sparkling or the like must be the First
qualitative ground of the trope, for sparkling and trembling present an immediate and salient (though perhaps unconscious)
shared character.
In whatever way we choose to verbalize this character represented in figure 3.2 as a waveform (~)say, "rapid oscillating motion"
or "structured energetic vibration"it is clear that it is not at all the peculiar invented property of this metaphor. Its most obvious
token today is an energy wave, a recursive sine function whose "motion" is structured in alternating peaks and valleys. It
characterizes light, the atomic vibrations of a crystal, nuclear radiation, radio signals, brain waves, and nerve impulses. In brief,
it is in all that "shines" or "quivers." Abstracted hypostatically on its own, it recalls Aristotle's pronouncement (Metaphysics,
Book 0): "Being is the active principle." Keats's simple metaphor thus drives us to experience, if not to contemplate, a pervasive
reality
Figure 3.3
It might at first seem absurd to classify a paradox such as a square circle as a "kind of possibility," since it seems, to the
ordinary conception, a clear impossibility. But "seems" is a big word. In some other dimension or possible world, a geometric
shape might very well be literally described as being both circular and square at the same instant. The very fact that we call it an
"impossibility" under ordinary conceptions of time and Euclidean space means that at least some predication of possibility is
applicable to it.
On the other hand, a square baseball, as silly as the notion may sound, is of a different order of possibility. So far as I know, no
such thing as a square baseball has ever been thought of before, let alone been produced, but we see immediately that it could
be. Someone might object that a baseball is by definition a spherical object, but I believe that without ever having mentioned the
notion to you before, I could draw a picture for which you would be unable to find a better or more precise (albeit figural)
description than "square baseball" (unless it might be "cubic baseball"; but since I invented it, I will call it "square"!). The least
that may be said of it, then, is thatunlike the square circlethe square baseball involves no contradiction with what we think is
possible; still, as we have no positive reason to expect or predict the actual existence of it, I call it a negative possibility.
IV.
FOCUS INTERPRETATION
PEIRCEAN HYPOICONS IN POETRY
At the level of Firstness, Peirce found possibilitiesin a kind of miniature preconfiguration of the entire semeioticwhich fit the
development of metaphorical Secondness and Thirdness. There is a first, second, and third kind of iconicity in possibility,
distinguishing the imaginal, analogical, and metaiconic metaphors discussed in chapter 2.
I have argued in chapter 3 that poetic metaphorical similarity is grounded at least in positive possibility (kind 3, figure 3.3) and
suggested that metaiconic similarity, as a metaphoric typology, is grounded in "irresistible" possibility (kind 4). I believe this
describes metaphor in the epitome, as it comes into existencethe archetypal metaphor. Poetic tropes in which a metaicon is fully
actualized go far beyond the level of metaphoricity achieved in metaphorical diagrams and images, and yet metaicons invariably
contain diagrams and images. Indeed, the most powerful and successful poetic diagrams and images are spun from the
overarching figural congruence of some metaicon. This chapter will further pursue the distinctions and hierarchical relations
among the three kinds of metaphorical iconicity and explore some of their possible applications in poetry, concluding with a
detailed application to a sonnet by Shakespeare.
First, consider again the Keats metaphor discussed in chapter 3: "[the stars are] diamonds trembling through and through." The
initial similarity between stars and diamonds is a clear example of the Peircean image in metaphor. The twinkling of stars and
the glittering of diamonds are sensuously (optically) alike: They both have a sparkling quality. We may elaborate this quality if
we choose, expanding the image into a diagram (stars / twinkle :: diamonds / glitter), but the elaboration merely explicates, in
"slow motion," as it were, our immediate apprehension of the linksparkling or the like. If it were not for the immediacy of this
simple sensory link between stars and diamonds, we would have great difficulty understanding that Keats is in fact talking about
stars (which are never explicitly named in the passage).
However, there is no immediate or primary sensory linkage between the spar-
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
This well-known metaphorical archetype would seem to fit my reading of Peirce's hypoiconic "metaphor" as metaicon rather
well. Someone may object that it is a "dead" metaphor; I doubt it, but even if it is, I would add that its "decay" yields fertile
ground for poets. Shakespeare used it in his Sonnet 73, "That Time of Year Thou Mayst in Me Behold" (extended discussion at
the end of this chapter), and he was not the first to do so. Later, Thomas Hardy employed a "winter day'' as the controlling
metaphor for the death of love in his poem "Neutral Tones." Such modern poets as e.e. cummingshardly a purveyor of dead
metaphorhave used it, as in his "anyone lived in a pretty how town," where the cycle of seasons is a tacit metaphor for the
monotonous circularity of life in "how town." Archibald MacLeish (in "Ars Poetica") offered a "maple leaf" (which, in
conjunction with an "empty doorway," is a striking though subliminal icon of the fall) as a figure for "the whole history of
human grief."
This is archetypal metaphor not merely because it is a recurrent figure in many poems but because there is a reason for its
recurrence. The reason, in Peirce's terms, is law (here serving as an iconic type). While law of course would include mere
conventions (literary conventions, in this case, which make the metaphor a fully resonant symbol), Peirce's notion of law is not
limited to arbitrary convention (see CP 2.307). Indeed, what I have in mind as the "third Firstness" of law in possibility (the
ground of the metaicon) is an antecedent final cause which motivates the literary convention enveloping the metaphorical
archetype. Thus, the reason for the recurrence of the "seasons-life" metaphor in poetry is no mere accident of literary tradition.
That is, I think it is not the case that some prominent poet just happened to invent it, whereupon it became
Figure 4.2
Similarly, in the "wine-blood" metaphor, another perennial archetype which I believe has metaiconic status, we can have Bink
Noll's "last Bordeaux" for (dying) blood (Gordon 1973: 82-83, discussed in chapter 3), or we can have "the blood of the grape"
for wine. Such metaphors are reversible, I believe, be-
Because the object is fully explicit and because we have a morphemic fragment of the icon (-wrap), we can readily complete the
frame with something like:
Of course the icon need not be specified precisely as a blanket or cloak covering a body; any provisional or crude icon will do,
as long as it involves some concrete "wrap" around some concrete object. The metaphor makes the rather abstract "soul in
gloom" situation more vivid and tangible for us precisely by offering a concrete iconic model of it.
But suppose we try to reverse the icon and object roles in this metaphor. That is, suppose a body wrapped in a blanketinstead of
being a subliminal, provisional iconhad been Keats's precise (but implicit) object. And suppose, in order to indicate this precise
object, he had to use only "the soul in gloom" as an icon. It is difficult to see how he might use such an abstract, intangible thing
for a 'model"even though all terms of it are explicitto make us imagine, precisely, a body wrapped in a blanket or cloak. Abstract
and immaterial phenomena like the soul in gloom do not serve well as icons, even with all terms explicit, to signify concrete
objects like a body in a wrap. Conversely, concrete icons, even if they are implicit and fragmentary like "-wrap / [ ],'' serve very
well to signify abstract or insubstantial objects. Apparently, then, implicit concrete icons are readily reconstructible from explicit
abstract objects in poetic metaphor of the diagrammatic sort, with only a modicum of contextual cueing. But the reverse is not
true. Unnamed concrete objects cannot be reliably reconstructed from abstract or intangible icons, not even from fully explicit
ones, and no matter how elaborate the contextual design. Therefore, unlike the metaicon, the poetic diagram is not generally
reversible or reciprocal (unless, as we will see, it is generated from and enveloped by the symmetrical matrix of a controlling
metaicon).
This constraint on diagrams seems to accord with some general diachronic laws of linguistic change. As Bloomfield has put it
(1933: 429-430), "The surface study of semantic change indicates that refined and abstract meanings grow out of more concrete
meanings." Bloomfield is correct to call this a conclusion from "surface study" only, for as we will observe in chapter 7,
semantic growth via the metaicon, in factis in exactly the reverse order, namely from abstract to concrete. Nevertheless, prior to
the entelechy of a metaiconic system in the language (the elaboration of which system, I believe, is often one of the principal
debts owed by a language to its creative literature), then semantic growth must be according to Bloomfield's "surface" law: from
concrete to abstract, or as I would say, from concrete iconic image, towards abstract metaicon, via diagrammatic or analogical
extension. Needless to say, such growth from concrete to abstract could not occur except for the fact that the image, and
especially the diagram, represent asymmetrical "leaps upward." In the case of poetic images and diagrams, these are often
"quantum leaps"a condition of exaggerated
All four of these fit my reading of Peirce's "metaphor" as metaicon. All four are recurrent figures in creative literature and in the
linguistic culture because they all possess nearly universal breadth, and yet they maintain a perennial fertility, not just
encompassing but generating a myriad of particular images and diagrams. In each case, the overarching figural congruence is
very nearly symmetrical and reversible. The diagrammatic and imaginal extensions which Shakespeare builds within these
master tropes lend their controlling metaphors a sensory immediacy and a logical certitude.
Peirce's hierarchical hypoiconic structure, when applied to this poem, calls keen attention not only to the elaborate variety of
tropological instruments which Shakespeare brings into harmony, with images appealing to the immediate sense or feeling and
diagrams to the aesthetic logic of proportion, but also to Shakespeare's genius for embedding one trope inside another,
generating one from another, exactly as Peirce's diagram may subsume the image and as the metaicon subsumes them both.
Peirce's sense of isomorphic structure within structure within structure is what makes his theory especially sensitive to the
analytical interpretation of poetic metaphor, a kind of analysis which, far from doing any violence to the whole, actually
encourages a more holistic reading. The following exercise in completing Shakespeare's metaphoric diagrams, for instance, even
if my versions of these are inaccurate, may lead us to consider possibilities in the poem that we might otherwise have missed.
First, Shakespeare's opening line, "That time of year thou mayst in me behold," more than initiates the first metaicon of "life-
season" (specifically, "agedness-autumn," as we soon learn); his wording of it also reminds us that this metaicon is a
congruence, not a mere correspondence: A is not merely beside or like B, but A is actually ''in" B. (Note that Shakespeare uses
the same "A in B" predication in the first line of each of the three quatrains to announce the controlling metaphor for that
stanza.) Thus the autumn is not merely a mechanism for designating the poet's time of life, but a kind of axiomatic
truthcondition by which the typological metaphorical qualities of the icon autumn are accorded the status of a controlling first
principle. We see not two things side by side but two things in one; we see the unnamed and sublimated object,
It is no surprise that words like expire develop such different (and yet somehow the same) senses in the language, or that poets
like Shakespeare exploit such words for their compression of different meanings into one. What is more interesting is the
question of what semeiotic principle fosters and governs the metaphoric growth of such linguistic meanings. When words like
expire, originally meaning to "breathe out," acquire additional senses such as "burn out" or ''die" or "terminate" (as when a lease
expires), surely it is no accident or mistake or arbitrary usage which just happens to catch on. True, "mistakes" or arbitrary
idiomatic codes are often adopted as conventionexamples abound in the study of slang and jargonbut for the most part these are
short-lived in the language and are usually restricted to usage among linguistic or cultural subgroups. Only those "mistakes" or
seemingly arbitrary innovations which we all somehow recognize as serendipitous tend to catch on and to survive for long. What
makes them seem 'serendipitous"? Many things, perhaps, but Shakespeare's use of the word expire suggests one possible
explanation: Could it be that the figurative extensions from the original meaning of expire naturally arose and continue to
survive in accordance with a metaiconic "final cause" of something like "breath ¬ life ¬ fire"? I suspect that Peirce would have
been amenable to the idea. Though it is certainly beyond the scope of this study (except for some brief suggestions in chapter 7),
perhaps linguists would do well to investigate the diachronic life cycle of such figurative extensions in the language not just as
linguistic, psychological, or sociological phenomena but as semeiotic patterns having a broader basis in nature.
At any rate, Shakespeare's use of expire is more than just clever diction or the exploitation of linguistic convention. True, by the
time of Shakespeare, expire had probably already acquired its euphemistic usage for "die." But his attribution of it, not to the
literal object of death but to the fire-icon of life points us back to the original meaning of the word-"to breathe out," in the sense
of "to breathe out one's last breath." In the history of the word, that latter sense was probably the allowing condition by which
expire was adopted as a euphemism for "die" (see O.E.D. 931). Shakespeare's reversal of the metaiconic sign-object roles,
however, along with his embedding of a triple diagram interlocking upon expire, strips the euphemistic convention away, and
we almost hear the dying man's last breath, in the hiss, perhaps, of an extinguished flame. The fact that this 'exhaust" of life is
sublimated and subordinated to the icon of a dying fire not only makes the metaphor more psychologically effective; it also puts
life and death into a new, but quite proper and correct, perspective.
V.
VEHICLE INTERPRETATION
THE PEIRCEAN INDEX IN
POETIC METAPHOR
The sort of metaphoric truth we have considered in chapters 2-4 is discovered by the reader through what Reinhart calls "focus
interpretation" (1976). As I view this process, it consists of the discovery of the icon(s) and the literal object(s), often left
implicit or unnamed by the poet, and a contemplation of the qualities or character which the object(s) and icon(s) share. As we
have seen, the similarity between the icon and object may be a simple sense quality, an analogical proportion, or a universal
congruence (first, second, or third Firstness). However, it is only because the Firstness of the similarity is embodied in the
Secondness of the metaphor that the metaphorical possibility becomes forceful and actual to the consciousness. This Secondness
therefore deserves careful attention in a complete interpretation or interpretive theory of poetic metaphor. Borrowing again from
Reinhart, I will call this attention to metaphorical dualism "vehicle interpretation."
Recall from chapter 1 the claim that the Two-ness of a genuine poetic metaphor must involve opposition between the two (or
more) sign referents. It is the "two-sided consciousness of effort and resistance" which for Peirce characterized our sense of
Actuality (CP 1.24). The dynamic linguistic actualization which poetic metaphor characteristically enacts upon vague possibility
(see PW 81) is therefore a function of the metaphor's semantic tension. The truth of metaphor is compelling, paradoxically,
because it is embodied in a "lie"an apparent impossibility which "flags our attention,'' invites us to consider more carefully, and
thus ultimately to sharpen our understanding of possibility. This sort of linguistic "red-flagging" function can be formalized and
studied under the rubric of Peirce's Index. Vehicle interpretation, therefore, I will undertake as a focus upon the Peircean Index.
Since a metaphorical index, as we have seen, does not exist for its own sake but exists first to 'indicate" the icon from whose
introduction in the metaphorical frame the index arises, does the index deserve to be studied in its own right?
Figure 5.1
Crossing a conceptual boundary (kind 1) produces the highest degree of tension because it predicates what we perceive as a
literal impossibility, a negation (at the indexical level) of what Peirce called "Formal Logical Possibility" (CP 3.527). (The
negation corresponds to my "Paradoxical Possibility," kind 1, figure 3.3.) Initially, we may get some sense of what it means to
cross such a conceptual boundary by considering anomalous expressions like the now famous "colorless green ideas sleep
furiously." It is conceptually impossible, under our present limits of mind, for something to be literally green and colorless at
the same time, and so forth. However, even when such an anomaly is devoid of any interpretation out of context, it can be
"rescued" by a context which gives
Note that the context helps us to interpret (I hope) the high indexical tension by duplicating it three times in parallel but
incremental fashion, thus making it seem purposeful; it points to a redeeming "similarity" between the relative "sharpness" of
sounds (whine, growl, or bark) and the relative "acuteness" of angles in the various geometric shapes (circle, rectangle, triangle).
I seriously doubt that this sort of "rescue' operation is the ultimate purpose of genuinely poetic metaphor, even if some paradox
or another is the first thing which occurs in the actual chronology of events in the poet's mind. The paradox may be first as a
psychological means, but it is not First as a semeiological goal. Poets typically cross conceptual boundaries, thereby creating
paradoxes in the contextual frame, during the intuitive discovery of natural icons; they do not manufacture icons out of the
contextual frame in order to rationalize natural paradoxes. The paradox is the vehicle; the icon is the focus. Nevertheless, if we
are not prepared to do both focus and vehicle interpretation, then we may underestimate the magnitude of the "conceptual leap"
the poet has made in this sort of metaphor, thereby underestimating the interpretive possibilities of the iconic ground itself.
Carefully considered, Tom Sexton's metaphor (discussed in chapter 3) twice crosses a conceptual boundary; yet the iconic
possibility it captures in so doing gives the metaphor an aesthetic and semantic ease which belies its conceptual effort:
Our words float before us
In fine syllabic nets
Of frost ....
Floating words and syllabic nets are no more "possible" in Peirce's "Formal Logical" way than are barking triangles. The
metaphor takes a big "conceptual leap" which is easily lost sight of because it "lands" on something subtly true. (Contrast the
absurdist Squircle!square + circlewhich leaps but apparently never lands on solid iconic ground.) Still, the semantic tension of
the
Figure 5.2
It seems clear to me that the items in column 1 could occur in the actual world, though to my knowledge they have not occurred
there. (These correspond to my "Negative Possibility," kind 2, figure 3.3.) Because, so far as I know from experience, they have
not occurred in actuality, they cross only experiential or "existential" boundaries and thereby obtain a moderate degree of
semantic oddity or tension (creating the sense of a new experience, but not requiring a modification of conceptual possibility).
Unlike the items in column 2, which cross conceptual boundaries, the items in column 1 are ideally possible, although they are
probably only "negative possibilities," which consist in my own "ig-
The passage begins in low tension, with two crossings of conventional boundaries: the Magic sleep and the comfortable bird. As
already suggested, "comfort" is conceptually and actually predicable of birds; it is simply an unconventional predicate for non-
human animals. The tension is therefore so mild as to be hardly noticeable, effecting only a slight figural displacement of the
human ego (the habitual scope of comfort) into the image of the bird. The result is thus a subtle initiation of Keats's "Negative
Capability"his theory of poetic projection of the human spirit into that of other bodies or objects. "Magic sleep!" is also mildly
figural. To those who know Keats, this is no ordinary sleep; it is probably that trance-like state which he associated with poetic
visionary experiences. However, even the uninitiated reader of Keats might sense something unusual about this sleep: Magic is
normally associated with potions, charms, incantations, spells, and the like, not with sleep. ''Magic sleep" is therefore an
unconventional association (except in the special world of fairy tales); it does not, however, necessarily cross any boundary of
actual experience or of conceptual possibility. Given the existence of magic to begin with, at least as an actual psychic or
anthropological phenomenon, there is no difficulty in believing that sleep could beand in the case of a religious trance, actually
isthe
VI.
VEHICLE INTERPRETATION
THE INDEX OF
FIGURAL DISPLACEMENT
In chapter 5, I developed some of the ways in which the kinds and degrees of figural tension in poetic metaphor function in its
semantic and aesthetic interpretation. Specifically, we have seen that the degree of figural tension depends, in part, upon the
kind of boundary the metaphor crosses (conceptual, existential, or conventional) and that these kinds and degrees of dissimilarity
facilitate the interpretation and re-interpretation of iconic possibility. However, figural tension only partly depends upon the kind
of boundary crossed, and the interpretive significance of the Peircean Index in metaphor is only partially accounted for as
conceptual, experiential, or linguistic displacement. The kind of boundary crossed is only one of three factors mentioned in
chapter 4 as affecting the quality and degree of figural tension:
1. nature of boundary crossed;
2. number of boundaries crossed;
3. direction of the crossing(s).
Having discussed the first factor in chapter 4, I now turn to the second and third factors which also figure prominently in
shaping and re-shaping poetic metaphor's meaning and delight.
It should be immediately clear that there is no way to consider the second factor (number of boundaries crossed) unless such
boundaries exist in some sort of numerical sequence, or at least in some countable order, with respect to one another. Similarly,
we cannot discuss the direction of boundary crossing (the third factor) without an ordered set of boundaries. The reason, as we
will see, is that poetic metaphor seldom crosses just a single boundary between contiguous categories or semantic domains;
rather, it characteristically makes radical leaps (though often in subtle stages) between widely separated domains, the semantic
space between which is not empty, but occupied and organized by other implicit domains that have been leapt over; while these
implicit domains are not
Figure 6.1
(CP 1.24). Thus anything that moves, including material mass or pure energy, I will take as an example of the Actual. However,
since it is possible for two opposing (actual) forces to be in equilibrium, or for a thing to exist in a (dualistic) state without
actual motion, I will further divide the Actual into the Motive versus the Stative. Of course physical bodies or materials which
are apparently in a "state of rest" are actually in motion, as we would know if only we could see the vibrations of their
molecules, but I have in mind something else in my distinction between Motive and Stative Actuality. I will consider a thing's
being in a certain position in space as a case of Stative Actuality, not by reason of its materiality or molecular motion, but by
reason of its predicability of position alone. For instance, I wish to consider even a point in (prescribed) space as an actual thing,
not simply a potential thing; though I recognize that a point can be considered a hypothetical abstraction, the "mark" of which
on a piece of paper is but a physical instantiation, it seems to me that a point in space, at least in the sense of a "coordinate"
point, meets Peirce's fundamental criterion of Actuality: It is at the intersection of two dimensions, a kind of Secondness,
whether these dimensions or their intersecting point are plotted on a physical graph or not. At least in the study of metaphor,
things which are literally predicable of position in space possess a kind of Actuality lacking in pure or true abstractions (even
those which suggest potential relations to the actual). Thus to say that a point is here or there in space is literally either true,
false, or approximate. But to say that an abstract thing like ''Truth" or 'Beauty" is here or there in space is to speak figuratively.
Position or Stative Actuality, then, is (for me) the primal instance of Actuality or the first occurrence of Secondness, although
for Peirce position may have been a case of Firstness. He said, "Position is first, velocity or the relation of two successive
positions is second" (CP 1.337). Still, my division of the Actual into the Motive and the Stative preserves Peirce's notion of the
relation between position and velocity; under my classification, all things literally predicable of motion are also (redundantly)
predicable of position; however, not all things predicable of position are also predicable of motion. A point in space, for in-
Figure 6.2
The latter distinction, by which mere position in space is brought under the notion of Actuality, may seem overly technical or
semantic, but it turns out to be quite useful in plotting the figural displacement of the so-called "metaphor of ascent" in Western
poetry. By considering position in space as Actual, on a ground which excludes abstractions from that category, I formalize a
condition that helps to explain why so many poets tend to treat abstractions as "beyond space." This condition, as we will see,
semeiotically initiates a sense of spatial sublimity or expansiveness in the poetic metaphor of ascent.
In any case, this quibbling about whether a "point" is Actual or only Potential indicates something very interesting and important
about the nature of this hierarchy. When attempting to classify any given object in one of these categories, we will sometimes
encounter an ambiguity: does the object in question belong to this or that class? Such ambiguity, far from negating the logic of
the categories, actually affirms it. At least, the logic that it is supposed to reflect is a general teleology in Being: Future facts of
Secondness follow the Firstness of Possibility. Since any higher node in the tree precedes all lower nodes and branches, placing
an object under any given node automatically places it after all higher nodes in the hierarchy. For instance, placing a "point" or
"position'' under Actual [Stative] automatically places it under (indicating its "history" as) Metaphysical and Being; placing
position in the Actual also leaves it (now) only one step removed from abstract Potentiality, two steps removed from Mere
Possibility. We should therefore follow the general rule of placing any given
Figure 6.3
tion of mass (Inertial) at one extreme, and by the concept of shape (Objective) at the other: they must all be more or less
shapeless masses. Since my purpose is to capture only the broad outlines of this 'metaphor map," I will forego these finer
distinctions.
There is a second and more interesting reason for attending to the bifurcation of only the left branches: They lead ultimately to
the Human. Since the purpose of the model is to explore the relationship of human semeiosis (poetic
Figure 6.4
Test your sense of figural displacement against mine. For me, as the nouns 1-7 (finger, leaf, diamond,...) are sequentially
combined with the predicate "trembles," there is a (near) sequential increase in semantic tension. A trembling finger is entirely
literal, showing no indexical tension. This would be accounted for in the diagram of figure 6.4 by the hypothesis that a finger
belongs to the same general semantic class [ + Animate], or the domain on the plus side of that boundary, to which the predicate
"tremble" also belongs. A trembling leaf, conversely, possesses for me a very slight metaphorical tension, which the diagram
accounts for by placing the leaf on the [-] side of the Animate boundary; thus "a leaf trembles" crosses a single boundary in the
hierarchy (though in the case of "leaf trembles," the boundary may have been nearly erased). In the case of a trembling diamond,
the tension is increased to a factor of at least two because two boundaries are crossed by that predication, and so forth through
the rest of the combinations of a trembling vapor (three boundaries), a trembling light (four boundaries), a trembling point (five
boundaries), and a trembling idea (six boundaries).
As much as possible, I have tried to keep other factors equal. All boundary
Figure 6.5
Again I invite you to test intuitions with me. Figure 6.5 presents, for each sub-Being domain in the hierarchy, examples of
nouns, general predicates, and hyponymic predicates belonging to each domain. (By a "hyponymic" predicate
Figure 6.6
Therefore, when hyponyms are viewed in this way (as slightly lower predicates within the span of a general predicate) their
tension-causing behavior is completely consistent with the model: Predication up to a general type produces no tension; but
predication back down to a lower token of the general type would
Figure 6.7
ment means for poetic metaphor, I will not attempt a detailed defense of my placement of the icons and objects in figure 6.7.
The extreme breadth of the categories allows room for plenty of variance of opinion as to where this or that object should be
placed in the hierarchy. Instead of arguing these points, I will
Figure 6.8
This mirror-image balance of the associative and predicative functions, combined with the linguistic/semeiotic motion and
countermotion already noted, gives the whole figure a complex symmetry very nearly approximating (at the indexical level) that
of a metaicon. I do not think that the associations of "birdliberty" or "sea-freedom" are in themselves metaicons; I rather think
the sense of symmetry in this metaphor obtains from Keats's complex indexical patterning.
Specifically, I think that it is Keats's overall indexical pattern that subliminally implies the (clear) metaicon of
ascent (or voyage) in space = quest for being (or truth)
which perhaps fosters and controls the bird-liberty and sea-freedom connections. Now note that Keats does not explicitly
mention either space, an ascent or voyage, a quest, or being or truth. There is no particular object or icon in the complex which
instantiates anything like "voyage ¬ quest(ion)." Rather, it is the indexical pattern itself which implies it. We build up to the
abstract reconstitution of sleep as imprisoned liberty because the metaphor leads us stepwise through these successively more
expansive semantic domains:
human > faunal > energial > stative > potential
Thus, while Keats does not mention space or a quest, his metaphor's upward and outward pattern of displacement does remind
me of the words of Arthur Lovejoy (1936: 139): "The poet takes an imaginary voyage through space and at the same time
conceives of this as an ascent of the Scale of Being." I believe Lovejoy was discussing what I have called the metaicon of
"ascent in space =
Figure 6.9
With only poetry of this kind to read, no one would ever suppose that complex poetic metaphor instantiates an orderly hierarchy
of semantic domains. "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" would seem friendly in comparison to the model. Remembering
that Eliot's purpose was to describe a "Waste Land," however, perhaps we can see the utility of such a metaphor map even here.
Reconstructible from pre-twentieth-century poetry and thought, the model hierarchy formalizes precisely how twentieth-century
surrealism (Eliot's term
VII.
METAPHORIC GROWTH
Sparshott (1974: 84) writes, "A language is nothing but a necropolis of dead metaphors." The more we examine the growth of
languages, the less hyperbolic this statement appears to be; the lexicon of a language, at least, is grounded to a significant extent
upon buried (if not dead) metaphor.
Consider the semantic evolution of the word scruple as a case in point (see O.E.D. 2685). The process of unearthing the word's
metaphoric skeleton also turns up a host of other figural relics. Apparently, the early referent of scruple's Latin "ancestor" was
something like "a small sharp stone"perhaps of the sort that might get into your shoe and annoy you, but not usually enough to
make you stop, pull off your shoe in public, and shake the little stone out. Now, in American English, the primary referent of
scruple is "a reluctance or hesitation on grounds of conscience." This evolution from the little rock to the idea of morality is no
random change; rather, it strikes me as a rather teleological change, for it has a certain wit about it: The small sharp stone is
metaphorically the cause for moral halting or hesitation. Despite the fact that scruple's quaint history has dropped out of
common knowledge, once we are reminded of it, we take conscious pleasure (or displeasure) in finding the worrisome little
pebble still there, for a moral scruple is not a major cornerstone of our ethical foundation; it is simply a small pebble of
conscience that we seldom think about until it turns up under foot to pang us if we tread upon it. The metaphorizing of scruple is
an instance of a kind of poetry buried deep in the nature of ordinary language and semeiosis. Even dead metaphor fertilizes
semantic growthof language, of poetry, of thought.
The very large number of examples of this kind, however, should not be taken as evidence for the false notion that ordinary
language or even metaphor is all there is to poetry. Throughout this study I have emphasized the differences between ordinary
and poetic metaphor, which itself of course is not the whole of poetry, though it is clearly central to it. On the other hand, I have
also tried to show that the differences between ordinary and poetic metaphor are differences in the use and degree, not in the
kind, of linguistic or semeiotic competence.
To be sure, such differences are vitally important. One difference seems to
This evolution is strikingly parallel to the iconic movements of at least one kind of complex poetic metaphor we have examined.
The evolution of cosmos, however, took centuries; poetic metaphor leaps across those centuries, transcending linguistic time,
accelerating the process by which word meaningalong with the world view delineated by word meaningis convincingly made
and remade. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to say that very often in poetic metaphor, the "ontogeny" of meaning "recapitulates
the phylogeny" of language.
If my hypothesis in chapter 6 is correctthat both the ontogeny of a poetic molecule and the phylogeny of language are but
discoveries, in one way or another, of a semeiotic macrocosm like the one I have sketched from the leading suggestions of
Peircethen the evolution of the word cosmos itself would make good sense:
lady's headdress > horse's harness > army ranks > [order] > universe
While it is unnecessary to accept these particular designations of the category distinctions, such examples (and they are legion)
suggest that there must be an overarching and relatively stable hierarchy of broad semeiotic domains which fosters and guides
(or at least marks the inherent logic of) many new meanings. It is not enough to say, with Bloomfield, that "refined and abstract
meanings largely grow out of more concrete meanings" (1933: 429-430). It is not enough because, as Bloomfield also said, that
much is obvious from the mere "surface study of semantic change." It is not enough becausein examples like the evolution of
cosmos, where any given intermediate stage may seem an accidental mutation or free associative hybridthe sequence of palpable
categories which emerges over time suggests an internal logic not accounted for by simply noting the abstract result.
Additionally, it is not enough because the growth of meaning is often in the reverse order (from abstract to concrete) as we have
already seen in the case of the metaicon in poetry (some further comments to follow
Figure 7.2
Roughly, this would represent a conception of the universe which was literally and utterly anthropomorphic, a world view in
which there was no indexical "otherness"in the mind of manbetween his own mind and nature's. It would thus have been a world
view in which metaphor, as such, was impossible (indeed, it is doubtful that even the other categories above Human in the
model would have existed per se in the human mind at such a stage). I also suspect that such a view of the world is rather
typical of young children today; they cannot imagine that anything in nature would go against their Wishes and feelings and
thoughts. Under such a conception, there would be a dawning "awareness" (as we see among lower animals), but there would be
no consciousness; for consciousness, as psychologist Julian Jaynes has put it (1976: 75), is awareness
Figure 7.3
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INDEX
A
Abduction, 27, 52, 60, 68, 164
Abstraction: degrees of, 25, 31-34, 37, 41-43, 85
as spatial remoteness, 45, 122
precisive vs. hypostatic, 49, 50, 51, 65, 66, 67, 79, 80
in oxymoron, 115
in semantic growth, 142,150, 156
Actuality: in Secondness, 5, 10, 11, 14, 111
As Index, 10
linguistic, 10, 47, 51, 55, 78, 97
as "event," 11
as brute force, 11
as tension, 11, 97
vs. Possibility, 34
as existence, 108
semantic category of, 120, 122
Analogical metaphor: vs. metaicon, 20, 26, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 46
within metaicon, 35, 36, 46, 91,92
vs. imaginal metaphor, 35, 36, 40, 41, 42, 44, 78, 90, 153, 161
frequentin speech, 36
irreversible, 40, 43-45, 46, 84, 86
asymmetry of, 45, 46, 84-86
containing metaphoric image, 79
in rebus messages,156.
See also Analogy; Degenerate metaphor; Diagram
Analogy: as basic law of thought, 4, 152
explicit vs. implicit, 12, 13, 84
as Peirceandiagram, 19, 22, 24, 25, 32, 33, 36, 38
vs. genuine metaphor, 20, 22, 26, 36
as degenerate metaphor, 24, 25, 35, 39, 40, 43, 45, 67, 87, 151
abstractness of, 26, 42
ornamental vs. revelatory, 32, 39
in synesthesia, 42
dyadic nature of, 75
mentioned,30, 35, 39, 41, 44, 46, 49, 56-58, 59, 64, 68, 69, 77-79, 85, 90, 91, 92, 94, 97, 104, 107, 114, 143, 151, 153, 154,
155, 156, 158, 161, 164, 166.
See also Analogical metaphor; Degenerate metaphor; Diagram
Anomaly: vs. metaphor, 15, 102, 134, 135
as crossing of conceptual boundary, 106
as possible metaphor, 134
Archetype. See Metaicon
B
Being: Peirce's Theory of, 5, 117, 119, 120
semantic category of, 120, 127
revelation of, as final cause, 153
Boundaries: related to Categories, 106
Conceptual, 106, 107-111, 113, 114, 129, 130
Existential, 106, 108, 109, 110, 113, 129, 130, 131
Conventional, 106, 109-112
erasure of,106, 128
redundancy of, 111
ordering of, 118
reality of, 118
natural fuzziness of, 123
persistence of, 125
C
Categories (Peircean): parallel to sign types, 5, 10-12
related to definition of metaphor, 9-10
related to kinds of boundaries, 104-106
mentioned, 62, 111, 120, 127
Categories (semantic): spatial orientation of, 45
implicit, 116
binary division of, 118-119
as contiguous, 122-125
predictable 'fuzziness"of, 123
sequence of, 125, 142
hierarchical redundancy of, 130
displacement across, 130,166
in language acquisition, 151
mentioned, 129, 132, 133, 134, 147, 149
Causation. See Efficient cause; Final cause
Classes:
natural, 26
purposive, 26
vagueness of, 26.
See also Categories (semantic)
Comparison theory, 21, 53
Conceptual boundary. See Boundaries
Consciousness: as part of semeiosis, 5
relatedto acutality, 11
growth of, 146, 148, 166, 167
vs. awareness, 147, 164
based on spatial metaphor, 167, 168
Continuity: Peirce's doctrine of, 123
in the signsystem, 150
Convention: literary and linguistic, 14
symbols related to, 14
as example of Thirdness, 49
egocentrism of, 110
Conventional boundary. See Boundaries
Cross-predication: in definition of metaphor, 9,10, 12, 14
as metaphoric interaction, 11
mentioned, 125, 143
D
Dead metaphor: moribund, 79, 84
resurrectionof, 81, 82
among ideograms, 156
mentioned, 106, 141, 165
Degenerate metaphor: defined, 35
illustrated,40
mentioned, 24, 25, 39, 43, 45, 67, 87,151.
See also Analogy; Analogical metaphor;
Diagram; Image; Imaginal metaphor
Diagram: as dyadic, 19, 33, 51, 75
vs. metaicon, 20-22, 24-27, 32-39, 42, 43, 45,82, 83, 86, 92
vs. image, 20-22, 24-27, 32-39, 42, 43, 45, 78, 152, 159
as analogy, 24,25, 33, 42, 78, 79, 82, 84, 88
inclusive of image, 25, 42, 78-81, 88, 94
withinmetaicon, 25, 43, 77, 82, 86, 88, 93-95, 94
as geometer's creation, 29
as second Firstness, 33
asymmetry of, 45, 84, 84-86, 148
complements metaicon, 46, 82, 84, 87
irreversible, 46, 84-87
as metaphorical hypothesis, 74, 75
complements image, 78,79
transitory growth of, 86
overreading of, 87
extension of, 89, 93, 155
as provided bycontext, 107
interlocking, 114
in semantic growth, 152, 158
in final causation, 153
E
Efficient cause: vs. Final cause, 34, 160
of iconic growth, 144
Emotional Interpretant, 6
Energetic Interpretant, 6
Existential boundary. See Boundaries
Figural displacement: as a sign in itself, 17
result of vehicle interpretation, 17
as Keats' Negative Capability, 112
as semantic index,117-118, 135
between semantic categories,127
degrees of, 128 iconic force of, 134
as chaotic in surrealism, 139
F
Final cause: as rule of metaphoric growth, 12,34, 148-163
in evolution, 26, 144
as present possibility, 34, 68
vs. backward causation, 34
as general type, 38, 40, 149
as metaicon, 81,95, 148-163
vs. conscious purpose, 145
vs. efficient causation, 160
Final Interpretant: as last stage of interpretation,6
and metaphoric truth, 17
of radical vs. conservative tropes, 105
mentioned, 48, 61, 98
Firstness: subsuming possibility, 5, 7, 111
antecedence of, 11, 52, 65, 66, 67
different modes of, 19, 23, 33, 36, 51, 75, 78, 81, 82,84
generality of (vs. thirds), 33
subsuming Quality, 49, 51
Peirce's definition of, 51
ofmetaphoric similarity, 51, 52, 57, 62, 65, 67
of aesthetic experience, 51, 57, 62
known through Secondness and Thirdness, 57, 62, 67
includes more than sense qualities, 62
independence of, 66
vs. Hegelian synthesis, 67
universal, 119
mentioned, 47, 76, 77, 97, 121, 122, 127, 134, 135
Focus interpretation: vs. vehicle interpretation,13, 17, 18
mentioned, 47, 77, 97, 98, 135
H
Haiku: implied metaphor in, 3
semantic tension in, 4
Hierarchy: of hypoicons, 34-36, 42, 81, 88
of lexical classifications, 44
of icons in complexmetaphor, 117
as master boundaries, 118,126
redundancy relations of, 122
predictable vagueness of, 122
persistence of, 124
left-branching, 127
psychological reality of, 127
anthropocentricism of, 127
disruption of, 139
as goal of semantic growth, 142, 150
of semantic species, 165
mentioned, 45, 77,112, 119, 123, 125, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133,135, 146, 151, 159
Hieroglyphics, 154, 156
Hypoicons: defined, 19, 20, 21, 54
classified,19, 22-27, 32-39, 36, 39, 81
hierarchy of,34-36, 34, 42, 88, 96
as developmental sequence, 36, 144, 148, 152, 154, 157, 159
mentioned, 5-7, 51, 77, 96, 153, 155, 158.
See also Diagram; Image; Metaicon
Hypostatic abstraction. See Abstraction
Hypothesis. See Abduction
I
Icon: as possibility, 10, 19, 54
as ground of metaphor, 9-10, 53-56, 61
vs. symbol andindex, 14, 35
as object of metaphoric index,15-17, 89, 91, 93
as figural vehicle, 15, 47
as abstract, 16
vs. Iconic sign, 19, 21
epitomized in metaphor, 20
identical in metaphor and simile, 21
hierarchy of, 22-25,33-35, 41, 42, 77, 159
self-signifying, 23, 24
reality of, 25, 26
antecedent form of, 26, 27, 55
levels of, 26, 34, 35, 41, 42, 81, 85, 90,152
vagueness of in metaphor, 32
in symbols, 35, 157
reversible, 39, 40
commerce of (in metaiconic relations), 46
as revealer oftruth, 41, 54, 74
embodying Firstness, 57
naturalness of, 57, 67
independence of, 67
as derived from hypostatic object, 79, 80
in algebraic formula, 84
fragmentary, 84, 85
concreteness of, 85
typological, 88-89
within another icon, 91
in stanzaic structure, 96 as
primal core of Symbol, 157, 159
mentioned, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 31, 43, 45, 48, 49, 50, 60, 62, 75, 78, 83, 87, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 106, 107, 111-115,
117, 118, 133-138,140, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 158, 160-165.
See also Diagram; Image; Metaicon;Similarity
Idealism (objective): Peirce's theory of, 113, 145, 146, 164
Ideas: reality of, 54, 119
actualization of, 68
degrees of persistence, 68, 120
as possessor of the soul, 72
in possession of the soul, 75
Ideogram, 156, 157, 159, 160
Image: in haiku, 3-4
as simplest icon, 16, 19,33, 148, 155
vs. metaicon, 19-22, 25-27, 32-39, 46, 77, 82, 83, 86, 87
vs. diagram, 19-22, 25-27, 32-39, 40-42, 44, 77, 78, 81, 86, 87, 153, 161
within diagram, 25, 26, 42, 78, 79, 80, 88, 94
within metaicon, 27, 36, 43, 46, 77, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 94
as degenerate metaphor, 35
irreversible, 38, 40, 43-45, 46, 84, 86
asymmetry of, 44-46, 85-86
sensory immediacy of, 46, 49, 77, 78, 79, 82, 88, 90
in semantic growth, 86, 157, 158
overreading of, 87
mentioned, 15, 29, 93, 109, 112-114, 135, 136, 137, 143, 144, 151,
L
Law: in Thirdness, 5, 12
governing cross-predication, 10
as Symbol, 10, 14
in growth,12
as iconic type, 32-34, 43, 46, 81, 82, 93
in creation, 81-82
as ground of metaicon, 92, 93, 96
mentioned, 4, 61, 70, 84-87, 89, 94,140, 144, 153, 160, 161, 165
Logic: of Vagueness, 26, 163
as Semeiotic, 27
Whatley's Elements of, 30
Dictionary of
(Peirce MS 145), 143
Logical Interpretant, 6
M
Man-Symbol metaphor. See Symbol-Man metaphor
Map of metaphor, 104, 132-133
Metaicon: term defined, 20, 88
vs. image anddiagram, 22, 25, 33, 36, 38-40, 43
subsumes images and diagrams, 22, 34, 35, 43, 77, 82,88
as archetype, 26, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 43, 46, 77, 81-83, 86, 144, 146, 160, 161,166
as metaphoricity, 26, 151, 152
generality of, 27, 33, 36
vagueness of, 27,83
as possible law, 33, 34, 83, 90, 92, 94
as third firstness, 33, 36, 38, 81
as final cause,34, 40, 81, 82, 84, 144, 148, 159
as irresistible, 34, 83
as iconic possibility, 34, 154
universality of, 36
as master metaphor, 36, 40, 81
generative potential of, 36, 46, 82, 84,87, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162
as prototype of Symbol, 36, 84, 144, 157-164
reversibility of, 38, 40, 43-46, 83-88, 90-91, 93, 96, 137-138, 168
illustrated in Peirce's Man-Symbol metaphor, 38-40, 46, 158
as congruence, 38, 83, 88
symmetry of, 40-46, 83-89, 96, 137, 146, 168
epistemic advantage of, 44
complemented by images and diagrams, 46
as perennial, 82, 84, 165
actualization of, 82,160
as algebra of poetry, 83, 86
growth ofas system, 85
controlling semantic growth,85, 152
power to shape world view, 86
universality of, 90
misreading of, 87, 92
as suggested by indexical patterning, 137
in rebus message, 156
as efficient cause once codified, 161
mentioned, 74, 75, 95, 114, 135, 142, 143, 145, 149, 153, 163, 167
Metonymy: vs. metaphor, 12-13
in cultural evolution, 13
as underlying metaphor, 13
in linguistic change, 13, 142
role of in growth of ideograms, 156
mentioned, 99
Mind: as part of universal semeiosis, 5
as channel of actualization, 47, 54, 55, 57, 67, 68, 72
attuned to reality, 52
as type and token,146
scope of, as predicate, 147
cultural conceptions of, 147, 149
Model: vs. metaphor, 30, 52-60
O
Objective idealism (Peirce's theory), 113, 145, 146, 164
Onomatopoeia, 152, 161
Orthography, 144, 152, 155-157, 159
Oxymoron: as radical trope, 105
as conceptual boundary crossing, 114
as culmination of indexical pattern, 114
as circling paradox in Keats, 136
mentioned, 80, 115.
See alsoParadox
P
Paradox: as element of metaphor, 17, 107
circular, 136
mentioned, 34, 66, 69, 71, 80, 99, 106, 108, 111, 114, 120, 121.
See also Oxymoron; Tension
Personification: in religious metaphor, 28
asymmetry of, 45
as objective idealism, 146
mentioned, 24
Pictogram, 155, 156, 159, 160
Platonism, 5, 108, 119, 120, 138
Possibility: Firstness of, 5, 111, 122
in Icon,10, 17, 154
as antecedent reality, 10, 34, 35, 122
vs. actuality, 19, 34, 122
Irresistible, 34,68, 69, 71, 72, 75-77, 82, 83, 120
in final causation, 34, 149
Positive, 51, 52, 57, 66, 69, 70, 72, 75, 76, 77
different kinds of, 68-73, 77, 120, 154
Paradoxical, 69, 71, 106
Negative, 69, 71, 73, 108, 121
determinate vs. indeterminate, 82
Formal Logical, 106,107
implies relation to existence, 119
Q
Quality: as First Firstness, 19, 51
in imagery,33, 49, 62
as monadic, 48, 63
immediacyof, 49
as unanalyzable, 57
as self-evident beauty, 57
linguistic codification of, 62, 65
as object of discovery, 62, 65
infinity of, 67
R
Realism (philosophical): in Peirce's theory of being, 5
Peirce's progress towards, 31, 33
implications of, 47
mentioned, 7, 140
Reality: as potentiality, 27
as special mode of Being, 47
as persistence of idea, 68
grades of, 68
as fragment of ideal world, 108
Reasonableness: as archetype of human reason,32, 46
as God, 40
as ground of Man-Symbol metaphor, 40
Universal, 40, 146
expressing itself in creation, 57
mentioned, 83, 91, 164
Retroduction. See Abduction
Reversible metaphor. See Metaicon
S
Secondness: subsuming Actuality, 5, 11, 111
as indexical tension, 11, 57, 97, 119
in aesthetics, 57, 62
as avenue to Firstness, 65, 67
future facts of, 118, 122
as position, 121
mentioned, 51, 66, 77, 125, 127, 140, 162
Similarity: as ground of metaphor, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18
as antecedent possibility, 10, 11,55, 56
as ground of Icon, 10, 19, 35
as creative discovery, 10, 23
reality of, 11, 25-27, 47, 48, 51, 54-57, 61, 66
levels of abstraction in, 25, 26, 32, 33, 40, 42, 45
vagueness of, 26, 72
many readings of possible, 48, 49
Mills's nominalistic view of, 56
as Firstness,62, 65, 67
vs. Hegelian synthesis, 67
actualization of, 134
vs. identity, 148
vs. association, 156
as basic to language, 163.
See also Icon
Simile (vs. metaphor), 12, 13, 21
Space (dimensional): narrowing frame of, 96
position in, 121
as analog of consciousness,167
as primal idea, 168
as a form of thought,168
Peirce's notions of, 168, 169
Space (semantic): spanned by metaicon, 27
as medium of lexical hierarchy, 45
subjectivity of, 45
displacement within, 119, 136
gaps in, 134
mentioned, 16, 105, 116, 139
Substitution theory, 21, 53
Surrealism, 86, 112, 139, 140
Symbol: as element of metaphor, 10, 19, 20, 23,36
in cross-predication, 10
growth of, 10, 12, 14, 26, 38, 39, 57, 157
grounded in Law, 10,14
origins of, 12, 29, 82, 144, 157, 162
vs. Index and Icon, 14, 35
based on convention, 15, 81
self-signifying, 23, 24
indexical, 35
iconic, 35, 152
as third, 36
natural vs. man-made, 39
literary, 48
containing index and icon, 53, 157
in creation, 82
as purpose, 82, 145
as culture-determining sign, 158
as cell of consciousness, 159
etymology of, 163
mentioned, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 16, 18, 26, 28, 32, 38, 40, 43, 46, 54, 103, 104, 111, 143, 146, 155, 160, 161, 164, 165, 168
Symbol-Man metaphor, 28, 32, 38, 39, 40, 43, 46, 146, 163, 165, 168
T
Teleology: in semeiosis, 5, 12
in poetic metaphor, 18, 36, 38, 143
goal-directed, 57, 75, 107, 143, 150, 151
as anthropomorphic,145
vs. occultism, 149
of word growth, 150
mentioned, 82, 84, 117, 122, 134, 140, 141, 144, 153, 154, 157, 160, 165, 167
Tension (semantic): in literal imagery of haiku, 4
in the nature of actuality, 11
essential to metaphor, 11, 13, 97
arising from icon, 15
as metaphoric index, 15, 118, 132
shapes icon, 16, 108, 114, 117
acquires iconic force of its own, 17, 115
causes interaction, 53
as species dissimilarity, 100
imaginative pleasure of, 104
as function of icon-object distance, 105
three conditions regulating, 106
levels of, 106-114, 128, 136
role in reader orientation, 109, 113
in up vs. down-predication, 130-132
Thirdness: subsuming Law, 5, 12
of metaphoric proposition, 11
as cross-predication, 23, 36, 57, 125, 140
vs. First in abstraction, 33
as creativity of metaphor, 36
in aesthetic experience, 57, 62
as avenue to Firstness, 65, 67
as Hegelian synthesis, 67
transcending poet and reader, 93
subsuming Habit, 111
intermediates brute Secondness, 127
mentioned, 49, 77, 110
Token. See Type, vs. token
Truth (metaphoric): as primary in poetry, 3, 75
actualized by semantic tension, 11, 16
as part literal, part figural, 14, 16
as Final Interpretant, 17
typological, 26
evolution of, 27
approximation to Beauty, 29
based on real similarity, 48, 54
in naming, 57
transcending fact, 90, 91, 93, 94
Type: as goal of semantic growth, 12, 150, 151
as (meta)icon, 26, 27, 32, 33, 38, 40, 45, 46, 77, 81, 87, 88, 91, 93
vs. token, 32, 38, 40,45, 46, 50, 71, 87, 91, 93, 111, 114, 127, 130-132, 136, 146, 152, 159, 160, 163
as law, 34
as final cause, 149
V
Vagueness: of metaphoric similarity, 11, 26, 27, 32, 72
of imagery in diagram, 25
indeterminacy, 26
Peirce's Logic of, 26, 163