HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 1

Health Effects of Language Revitalization:

An Exploration on the Relationship between Language, Identity, and Health

Jenn Anderson, 001159905

LING 4850A, Inge Genee

April 14 2018
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................3

2. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY.................................................5

2.1 Theory of Linguistic Relativity......................................................................................6

3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN IDENTITY AND HEALTH........................................................7

3.1 Influence of Identity on Mental Health..........................................................................8

3.2 Influence of Identity on Physical Health........................................................................9

4. IMPACT.....................................................................................................................................11

5. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................12
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 3

Health Effects of Language Revitalization:

An Exploration on the Relationship between Language, Identity, and Health

1. Introduction

The effects of colonialism on indigenous communities have been deeply debilitating and

long lasting, persisting across decades and generations. In Canada, the historic forced

assimilation of indigenous groups has resulted in a loss of ancestral land, strangulation of culture,

and slow destruction of language—which are, in many ways, crucial to indigenous way of life,

understanding, and identity. This horrific systematic process, stemming from “the belief that the

distinctive Aboriginal race needed to be eliminated so that they would be no different from other

Canadians” (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, p.104) has left deep and

abiding wounds on indigenous groups in Canada; similar processes have had similar results on

indigenous communities worldwide. Whalen finds that “Intergenerational trauma or historical

trauma has been termed as a ‘spiritual injury’, or ‘soul wound’. A large driver of this trauma was

the taking away of language” (2016). In this essay I will focus in particular on the effects of

forced language loss, or rather, how its hopeful reversal may have the potential for profound

effect on communities and individuals.

At present, many indigenous communities suffer from lower health standards in

comparison to their larger regions (Whalen, 2016). For example, in Canada, “arguably the most

egregious health disparities ... are those existing between Aboriginals and the rest of the

Canadian population.” (Frohlich, 2006). This pattern holds true in other countries and regions of

the world as well, including places such as Australia, New Zealand, Latin America, and the

United States (Whalen, 2016). While other factors must be taken into consideration as well, such
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 4

as rural location, poverty, infrastructure, and access to health services, “there is a growing

recognition that historical trauma plays a role as well” (Whalen, 2016). Indigenous people in

Canada have lower life expectancy and higher rates of obesity, chronic and infectious disease,

diabetes, injury, and suicide (Frohlich, 2006; Spence, 2016).

If we accept the assumption that the effects of historical trauma contribute to this

staggering health disparity, what might trying to reverse some of these effects accomplish? As

previously mentioned, this essay will be focused on the potential of language revitalization to be

a tool for empowerment and healing.

Language is a core part of culture, imbued with historical and spiritual significance. It is

the medium by which we communicate, share, and build unique experiences and perspectives,

and in many cases the lens through which we view the world. As I will be exploring in this essay,

language is essential to shaping the unique worldviews which in turn carve out our identity. As

Spence explains, “Language: the ability to understand or speak an Aboriginal language is a

measure of ethnic and cultural identity ... Attachment to Aboriginal culture, including reclaiming

lost cultural identity, has been thought to have a potentially positive effect on health” (2016).

In this essay, I will be arguing that language, in particular language revitalization

movements, have the potential to contribute to improved health for both individuals and larger

communities as a whole. I argue that these positive effects would be accomplished through the

connections which exist between language, identity and health. Language is central to shaping

identity, and one's sense of self—in particular their sense of self worth, and connections to

history, culture, and spirituality—has drastic influence on both the mental and physical health of

an individual. As Whalen states, “Native health, from their own perspective, includes four
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 5

domains: spiritual, mental, emotional and physical; a disruption in any part, is a loss in ‘health’”

(Whalen, 2012). This essay will be focusing primarily on mental and physical health as

mentioned above, however I wish to underline the importance of understanding how these four

facets of health are closely intertwined in an indigenous perspective, as this creates an essential

context of interconnectedness in which I will be exploring these connections throughout the

essay.

In the following sections I will first be examining the connections between language and

identity to establish the first link. The following section will describe the connections between

identity and health. Finally section four will give an overview of the broad impact of language

revitalization movements on health, and section five will contain concluding thoughts.

2. Connections between Language and Identity

Imagine that you have been asked to describe yourself in a few words. Perhaps you might

mention something about your interests, area of study or work, your age or any number of roles

that you fulfil within your community (such as mother, brother, sister, friend, volunteer, etc). As

for myself, the language that I speak would not be an obvious identifier to mention in my self

description, however I might say I am a lover of books and poetry; is language not deeply

connected to that? The songs, stories, and turns of phrase that we learn as we are children and

into adulthood carry with them unique semantic, cultural, and historical significance. As Brian

McDermott eloquently puts it in his online article discussing the documentary film Language

Healers, “to assume that language is simply a utilitarian tool for communication and that all

languages are the same misses the deeper point: one’s culture, identity, and unique worldview are

all housed within and transmitted through the language.” (2014). I find this concept particularly
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 6

well illustrated when one takes into consideration the many notable examples of words or

phrases, oftentimes deeply imbued with cultural relevance, which are difficult to directly

translate. One may give a definition of that word or phrase, but that does not necessarily transfer

all of the meaning it contains.

An example of this phenomenon can be found in the following passage from the Truth

and Reconciliation Commission report:

For example, the Anishinaabe word sabawaa is used to describe a time in the

Ontario spring when cold and warm air masses intermingle and cause fine mists

to rise over the earth. The snows melt and the waters start to flow at this time. The

Anishinaabe word for forgiveness is a related word: aabawewenimaa. It describes

a process in which we loosen our thoughts towards others and let relationships

flow more easily, becoming warmer towards each other. (2015, p. 127).

To better understand connections between language, identity, and health, it is first

necessary to attempt to define the broad concept of identity, which here I refer to as: the way in

which a person regards and understands him or herself. This can include their self-esteem (an

especially important factor which I shall be examining more closely in the section on mental

health;) but also their role in a community, their interests, beliefs, and behaviour.

2.1 Theory of Linguistic Relativity

The Theory of Linguistic Relativity, commonly known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,

suggests that language impacts the way we think and perceive the world. Although there are

different iterations of this theory at varying levels of radicalism, the basis for the theory,

proposed by Sapir, can be summarized thus: “a) The language we speak and think in shapes the
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 7

way we perceive the world,” and “b) The existence of the various language systems implies that

the people who think in these different languages must perceive the world differently.” (Hussein,

2012). A contributing factor of this phenomenon may be that language contains culturally unique

words and phrases that have direct and powerful connotations which may be deeply tied to

emotion, history, and spirituality.

Hussein concludes that “The fact that language plays a role in shaping our thoughts, in

modifying our perception and in creating reality is irrefutable.” (Hussein, 2012). Here we can see

that even if there is still argument regarding the precise degree to which language impacts our

perceptions, it certainly plays a universally important role in carving out our identities.

3. Connections between Identity and Health

Our sense of self, or more broadly, our identity determines many things about our

feelings, opinions, and perhaps most importantly (when taking into consideration the potential

impact on health): our feelings of self-worth, behaviour, and lifestyle. Coming to an

understanding of one's own self can have strong positive benefits such as increased feelings of

confidence, pride, and happiness (Swasson, 2015; Johnson, 2001). The reverse, however, can be

—and has been in the historical context of forced assimilation of indigenous groups—extremely

damaging; for example, while speaking of residential school victims in Canada, the Truth and

Reconciliation Commission report explains that “Aboriginal students were forced to abandon

their languages and cultural practices. They became alienated from their families, their

communities, and ultimately from themselves. This damage was passed down through the

generations, as former students found themselves unable or unwilling to teach their own children

Aboriginal languages and cultural ways” (2015; p. 105). This disconnect between individuals
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 8

(and their larger communities) from their ancestry, history, culture, and language continues to be

deeply traumatic. These wounds can have negative effects on both physical and mental health.

These wounds, of course, cannot be marginalized or erased, but perhaps they may be treated with

cultural reclamation efforts that attempt to reestablish strong ties of comprehension about

traditional ways of life, such as language revitalization movements.

3.1 Influence of Identity on Mental Health

Understanding one's own linguistic and cultural identity is central to establishing our

perceptions of our own self as a whole. These perceptions, particularly in regards to self-esteem

—the ability to respect, cherish, and have confidence in oneself—carry enormous significance to

our overall happiness and emotional well-being. There is importance and meaning in feeling

connected with ancestors, history, spirituality, and community; as mentioned above, these are

potentially powerful methods of overcoming trauma. Reforging such understanding may have

positive effects both on the individual and community, since individual and community identities

share a reciprocal relationship. A community is made up of a group of individuals, but

individuals are conversely moulded by their community and the cultural teachings and practises

therein.

Feeling included in a community and able to participate and share in traditional practises

can result in positive feelings of empowerment and fulfilment. This concept is well illustrated in

the following passage of a study about an aboriginal women's hand drum group related to their

identity and health:

Increased emotional well-being of the Pugwales women was identified as feeling

safe and supported in the group, having a sense of healing and feelings of
 HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 9

personal growth. Furthermore, the women felt emotionally well, they experienced

good feelings from listening, drumming for themselves and drumming for others

in the community. Many of the women described finding something healing when

they drummed, this healing allowed many of them to emotionally heal from loss.

The women felt comfortable in the group where they shared stories, laughed and

when needed received emotional support from others (Swasson, 2015, p. 91).

The above quote displays that a community sense of identity is shaped by culture, and this can

improve mental health and emotional well-being by increasing feelings of security,

empowerment, and interconnectedness among others. In the same study, one speaker says of

language in particular: “I feel proud to do that you know it gives me a sense of pride to stand

there and you know I know my language, I can sing it, I can understand it, and to be part of

something that’s like it’s positive for sure, incredibly positive and it’s empowering.” (Swasson,

2015, p. 75). Sharing in traditional practises and speaking one's own ancestral language

contribute to an understanding of cultural identity, and in the above-mentioned cases this has

provoked positive feelings and improved overall mental health—which here I mean

synonymously with emotional health, although I would like to note that these are separate, but

interwoven aspects of health in a native American perspective. The relationship between mental,

emotional, and physical health are similarly interwoven.

3.2 Influence of Identity on Physical Health

The connections between a positive, stable sense of identity and mental health may be

more immediately noticeable, however this is intrinsically tied to physical health as well because

our pattern of behaviours and lifestyle choices do have sway on our physical health. These
HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 10

include (but are not limited to) choice of diet, the decision to exercise, drinking in moderation,

and abstaining from tobacco and drug-use. Existing studies and literature suggest that there exists

“a positive association between self-esteem, racial identity, and health-promoting lifestyles”

(Johnson, 2002). I would explain this association simply as follows: when we understand our

own self and subsequently value our own self more highly, it is easier to put a greater priority on

self-care. Environmental and cultural factors also play a role: when community health is

generally low and unhealthy behaviours are pervasive and frequently reproduced by family and

friends, these behaviours are more readily spread and adopted.

Identity may have an impact on physical health in unexpected ways. A study in Alberta

found a correlation between language, cultural continuity, and diabetes. The findings are

summarized thus:

The importance of traditional culture, or “being who we are”, was the most

widespread and recurring theme participants mentioned, and the most relevant to

health and diabetes. The need for a strong attachment to and respect for culture

was emphasized time and again as the basis of any thriving and healthy First

Nation, as one participant said, “All things flow from our culture.” Participants

described their culture as “sacred”, “essence”, “well-being”, “livelihood”,

“balance”, “respect”, “way of life” and “everything”. (Oster et. al., 2014).

The same study reports that “Type 2 diabetes and its complications burden Indigenous

populations in Canada at rates two to five times higher than that of the general population”.

(Oster et. al., 2014). Of course, it is important to note here that correlation does not necessarily

equal causation. However, this correlation is an extremely interesting one worthy of further, in-
HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 11

depth study to examine if any additional processes are at work here, beyond the relationship

between identity, health-behaviours, and health outcomes.

4. Impact

There are numerous ways in which language revitalization movements have impacted

communities, many of which have resulted in health benefits for individuals and groups. One

particularly telling indicator is the suicide rate of these communities. One study found that “the

youth suicide rate for indigenous bands in British Columbia in which 50% of the community is

conversationally fluent (L1) to be 1/6th that of less fluent bands. The language factor was

predictive even when other correlated cultural factors were subtracted from the analysis.”

(Whalen, 2012). McDermott similarly makes the claim that

“Keeping languages alive within tribes is also correlated with keeping the

younger people in tribes alive. The suicide rate among Native Americans in the

United States is reported to be anywhere from 9 to 19 times higher than the rate

among non-Native youth. However, research from Canada concludes that

Aboriginal youth who know their own Aboriginal languages are less likely to

commit suicide, and that when at least half of a tribe reported a conversational

knowledge of its own language, the suicide rate in that community drops to zero”

(2014).

While the shocking disparity in suicide statistics between communities that speak their

indigenous languages is alone enough to prompt further investigation into this

phenomenon, it is not the only noticeable trend in regards to the health. Studies have also

shown that in certain communities where indigenous language use is more prevalent,
HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 12

there may be a lower percentage of smokers, higher self-reported health, higher incidence

of practising traditional healthy behaviours, a reduction in alcohol and drug abuse, and a

lowered rate of violence and victimization (Whalen, 2012).

5. Conclusion

Language revitalization movements in indigenous communities have facilitated

opportunities for healing and personal growth. Language is an integral part of culture and

essential to shaping the unique worldviews and perspective which shape our individuality.

Increased use of ancestral language within communities, the home, or one's personal life can

potentially result in positive effects such as a deeper understanding of oneself, and one's own

culture, history, and spirituality. This can have an impact on emotional well-being and self-

esteem. It can also have an impact on physical health of individuals and communities, as

mentioned above, by influencing health behaviours. A number of studies support a correlation

between language use and health benefits (Whalen, 2012). Further study into the subject is

required to determine the exact nature of this correlation and find the underlying causes and

processes, however it is apparent that language has an amazing potential to promote mental and

physical health in indigenous communities.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 13

References

Frohlich, K. L., Ross, N., & Richmond, C. (2006). Health Disparities in Canada Today: Some

Evidence and a Theoretical Framework. Health Policy, 79(2), 132-143. doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.12.010

Hussein, B. A. (2012). The sapir-whorf hypothesis today. Theory and Practice in Language

Studies, 2(3), 642-646. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.uleth.ca

/docview/1348130535?pq-origsite=summon

Johnson, R. L. (2002). The relationships among racial identity, self-esteem, sociodemographics,

and health-promoting lifestyles. Research and Theory for Nursing Practice, 16(3), 193-

207. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.uleth.ca/docview/207665810?

pq-origsite=summon

Kirmayer, L.J., Brass, G.M., & Tait, C.L. (2000). The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples:

Transformations of Identity and Community. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45(7),

607-616. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/070674370004500702

McDermott, B. (2014). Language Healers: Revitalizing Languages, Reclaiming Identities.

Cultural Survival Quartlery Magazine, 38(1). Retrieved from https://www.cultural

survival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/language-healers-revitalizing-

languages-reclaiming

Oster, R.T., Grier, A., Lightning, R., Mayan, M.J., & Toth, E.L. (2014). Cultural continuity,

traditional Indigenous language, and diabetes in Alberta First Nations: a mixed methods

study. Int J Equity Health. 13(92), 1–11. doi: 10.1186/s12939-014-0092-4

Spence, N.D. (2016). Does Social Context Matter? Income Inequality, Racialized Identity, and
HEALTH EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION 14

Health Among Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples Using a Multilevel Approach Racial and

Ethnic Health Disparities, 3(21). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-015-

0108-9

Swasson, S. (2015). EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL IDENTITY,

HEALTH, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT WITH AN ABORIGINAL WOMEN’S HAND

DRUM GROUP. Dalhousie University. 1-118. Retrieved from https://dalspace.library.dal.

ca/ bitstream/handle/10222/71208/Swasson-Sara-MA-HPRO-December-2015.pdf?

sequence=1

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Canada's Residential Schools: The

Legacy. The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.

McGill-Queen's University Press, 5.103-138.

Whalen, D.H., Moss, M., & Baldwin, D. (2016). Healing through language: Positive physical

health effects of indigenous language use [version 1; referees: 2 approved with

reservations]. F1000Research. 5(852). doi: 10.12688/f1000research.8656.1