Module 1 Notes: 1.1 - Introduction To Medical Physics (Not Assessed)

Module 1 Notes
16 September 2013 19:07
1.1 - Introduction to Medical Physics (not assessed)

1.1.1 - Appreciate the structure of the Physics course.
1.1.2 - Appreciate the role of applying simple physical principles in: making a clinical examination, diagnosis, and therapy of a patient.
1.1.3 - Appreciate that the body operates as a complex physical system.
1.2 - What is a measurement?
1.2.1 - Define the MKS system of units.
• MKS is the system of units based on measuring lengths in meters, mass in kilograms, and time in seconds.
○ Metre (m) - length
○ Kilogram (kg) - mass
○ Second (s) - time
• These units of measurement; metric units are accepted internationally as Systeme Internationale (SI) units
• Other units of the SI system:
○ Ampere (A) - electrical current
○ Kelvin (K) - Temperature
○ Mole (mol) - amount of substance
○ Candela (cd) - luminous intensity (light)
Quantity Derived Unit Name
Speed m s-1
acceleration m s-2
force Kg m s-2 newton(N)
pressure Kg m-1 s-2 Pascal(Pa)
energy kg m2 s-2 Joule(J)
charge As Coulomb (C)
potential difference kg m2 A-1 s-3 volt (V)
resistance kg m2 A-2 s-3 Ohm (W)
• Pressure is a different unit of force when looking at force itself
• No need to memorize the derived unit
• Force = mass/acceleration - therefore can work out the units
• Only need the correct quantity and name
1.2.2 - Demonstrate the use of dimensions as an aide to understanding.
• Dimension - The dimensions of an object are the measurements that define its shape and size
• Dimensions are what we measure to describe an object
○ Length (l) - the unit is meters but the dimension is length
○ Time (t) - the unit is seconds but the dimension is time
○ Mass (m) - the unit is kg but the dimension is mass
○ Temperature (K) - the unit is Kelvin but the dimension is temperature
○ Electric Charge (Q) - the unit is coulombs but the dimension is electric charge
• These fundamental quantities are called the dimensions.
• Dimensions are different from units
○ Take the dimension length. It can be expressed in different units - for example, we can add 150m and 2km, because they both have the same dimension of
length
○ However, we cannot add 3m and 10 seconds because they have different dimensions.
• We can use the concept of dimensions to check simple formulae/mathematical expressions to see if they are dimensionally valid
○ For example, we can take the equation; S = ut + (1/2)at2 where S is the distance travelled, u is the initial velocity, t is time and a is acceleration
○ We can write this equation in terms of dimensions as well
○ This is where the distance travelled has the dimension length, the velocity or speed is calculated, in terms of dimensions, length over time (distance over
time), the value of 0.5 is ignored as it holds no dimension, acceleration is the length over the time squared which is then multiplied by time squared
○ This leads to cancellation of some of the values of dimensions from the above diagram
○ This leads to the following equation:
○ L=L+L
○ Both the right hand side and the left hand side of the equation have the same dimensions.
1.2.3 - Demonstrate an understanding of scientific notation.
• Scientific notation can involve simplifying big numbers
○ For example, the speed of light = 300,000,000 m/s
○ This can be written as 3 x 108 m/s
Always put in units
○ Similarly, 4500 can be written as 4.5 x 103
○ For numbers less than 1, we simply count the number of places the decimal point would have to be moved to the right to make n.nn and make the exponent
negative, i.e.
0.001 would be expressed as 10-3.
0.00024 would be written as 2.4 x 10-4.
○ Rules of scientific notification (basically indices rules)
103 x 104 = 10(3+4) = 107
(2 x 103) x (6 x 102) = (2x6) x 10(3+2) = 12 x 105 = 1.2 x 106
105/102 = 10(5-2) = 103
(9 x 105)/(3 x 107) = (9/3) x 10(5-7) = 3 x 10-2
Foundation Year Semester 1 Page 1

(9 x 105)/(3 x 107) = (9/3) x 10(5-7) = 3 x 10-2
1.2.4 - Differentiate between vector and scalar quantities.

• Vectors have a magnitude (size) as well as a direction
• Scalars only have a magnitude (size)
Vectors Scalars
Displacement (distance) Mass
• Velocity (involves direction as well) Speed
Acceleration (derived from velocity) Temperature
Force Time
• Examples
○ Mass is a scalar - the quantity of material in an object, no direction involved
○ Weight (mg) is a force and according to different forces, weight can be manipulated (such as gravity) and therefore weight is a vector
1.2.5 - Resolve a vector into its components and conduct simple vector calculations.
• Vectors can be represented graphically as arrows, with a length proportional to its magnitude and oriented to indicate its direction
• Ax and Ay are the components of the vector A in the x and y directions respectively, and can be obtained using the above expressions
1.2.6 - Differentiate between accuracy and precision.
• Accuracy - How close a measurement is to the true value
○ Accuracy can depend on the instrument you use
Using a thermometer graduated in degrees only gives accuracy to a degree
The percentage error can be reduced by:
□ Repeating an experiment a number of times and taking an average of the readings
□ Designing an experiment so that the quantities measured are as large as possible
• Precision - the repeatability of a measurement using a given instrument
○ When giving the result of a measurement, it is important to state the uncertainty
6.8 ± 0.1cm
The percentage uncertainty will be (0.1/6.8) * 100 = 1.4706 = 1.5%
○ Significant Figures
All nonzero digits are significant: 1.234 g has 4 significant figures, 1.2 g has 2 significant figures.
Zeros between nonzero digits are significant: 6005 kg has 4 significant figures
Leading zeros to the left of the first non - zero digits are not significant; such zeros merely indicate the position of the decimal point: 0.001 oC has only 1
significant figure
Trailing zeroes that are also to the right of a decimal point in a number are significant: 0.0230 mL has 3 significant figures, 0.20 g has 2 significant
figures.
When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are not necessarily significant:
□ 190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.
□ The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard exponential, or "scientific," notation.
For example, depending on whether the number of significant figures is 3, 4, or 5, we would write 50,600 calories as:
□ 5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures), 5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).
By writing a number in scientific notation, the number of significant figures is clearly indicated by the number of numerical figures in the 'digit' term as
shown by these examples.
1.2.7 - Identify and characterize different types of error in simple measurements.
• Every measurement has an uncertainty
• Errors in measurement can be of several different types
○ Random errors
Shows no pattern from one measurement to another
Normal Distribution - cluster around an average
The width of the distribution is a measure of the random uncertainty
○ Systematic errors
Shifts all measurements away from the true value by the same amount
Affects accuracy of a measurement
Happens due to a lack of calibration
Systematic errors are present in all readings
○ Human Mistakes
Vision impairments
Inaccurate reading
1.3 - Electromagnetic Radiation - Use in therapy & diagnostics
1.3.1 - Draw a clearly labelled diagram showing all the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum and state typical values of frequency or
wavelength for each of these.

wavelength for each of these.
• Wavelength
○ A wave is specific periodic disturbance that travels through a medium. Light, sound, ultrasound, earthquakes are all examples of waves
○ A transverse wave is perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion - water, light waves and Mexican wave
○ A longitudinal wave is the displacement takes place in the same direction as the direction of wave motion - like sound
○ Regardless of wave type, all waves have certain characteristic properties
○ (lamda) = wavelength = dist. in metres between each following maxima or minima
○ The Wavelength (l) is the distance from one crest to the next. Its unit is the unit of distance the meter
○ Frequency - The number of waves passing a fixed point in one second (Hertz (Hz))
High frequency - short wavelength
Low Frequency - long wavelength
○ Amplitude - the greatest displacement from rest
1.3.2 - Understand the relationship between energy, frequency and wavelength of photons.
• Energy of a wave is related to the frequency
○ The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the wave
○ E = hf
Where E = energy, h is Planck's Constant (6.62606957 × 10-34 m2 kg / s) and f = frequency
○ Electromagnetic Radiation - A complex interaction between changing Electric and Magnetic fields
○ The electromagnetic spectrum shows the different types of electromagnetic radiation that exist
○ Although the various bands of radiation have different names, they are identical in nature in how they are generated. The only difference is the wavelength
or frequency of the radiation
○ All electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light - 3 x 108 m/s.
○ All electromagnetic radiation obeys the relationship Wave Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
○ Electromagnetic radiation consists of photons (packets of energy) and the photon energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the wave.
This is why gamma rays are more energetic than radio waves and blue light contains more energy per photon than red light - therefore gamma rays can
be more effective when it comes to terminating specific cells such as cancer cells as well as medical tracing however is not advisable for x rays as then
there will be too much energy which may harm the skin, muscles or bones.
1.3.3 - Discuss the role of each of the main components of the e-m spectrum in relation to diagnosis or therapy of patients.
• Gamma Rays
○ Gamma Rays can kill bacteria and is also used to sterilize medical instruments
○ Used to treat some cancers
○ Used to find disease - a medical compound that emits gamma rays is given to a patient - it is called Technetium 99m
○ The emitted rays are picked up by a gamma camera. However, there can be a spread of cancer to bones
• X - Rays
• UV Radiation
○ UV light has a lower frequency than gamma or x - rays, and therefore has less energy per photon
○ This may make it more useful as well as harmful at the same time
○ UV light with a wavelength of less than 300 nm is germicidal
Implications?
○ UV light can also convert molecular products in the skin to produce Vitamin D, which can improve skin conditions such as psoriasis.
○ UV radiation also effects melanin in the skin to cause tanning.
○ However, excessive exposure may burn and can be avoided by sunblock
These wavelengths are also well absorbed by DNA cells in the skin - and prolonged exposure can lead to the formation of skin cancers such as Basal Cell

○ These wavelengths are also well absorbed by DNA cells in the skin - and prolonged exposure can lead to the formation of skin cancers such as Basal Cell
Carcinoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma
○ UV light is very easily absorbed in the surface tissues and never gets through the lens at the front of the eye.
○ Excess absorption of UV light by the lens can result in cataracts.
○ People who have had the lens removed because of excess cataract formation can often see into the UV part of the spectrum (since the primary absorber of
UV – the lens – has been removed.
○ Infants suffering from jaundice (excess bilirubin excretion from the liver) respond very well to exposure from near UV/Blue light.
○ The reasons are not clearly understood, but broadband light (centred on ~450 nm) seems to produce the best effect when the infant is exposed to the lamp
source for a period of 12-24 hours.
• Visible Radiation
○ Eye - simply look at your patient
○ Fibre - optic endoscopes
○ Ophthalmoscope
○ Otoscope
○ Much of the white light used in endoscopy contains Infrared (IR) radiation (basically heat) and it is therefore desirable to use IR filters to absorb this, and
minimise unwanted heating of healthy tissue (cold light endoscopy).
○ Transillumination refers to the transmission of light (usually visible) into various parts of the body for the purposes of diagnosis.
A red glow is often associated with transillumination
□ Red light will penetrate further into tissue and undergo scattering, while blue light is more easily absorbed at the tissue surface
Transillumination can be used effectively to detect hydrocephalus in infants.
Since the skull is not fully calcified in infants, visible light penetrates quite easily. If there is an excess of CSF, light will be scattered to different parts of
the skull producing a characteristic pattern.
Transillumination can also be used to diagnose pneumothorax, as well as studying problems with the gums, sinus cavities and breasts.
○ Visible Lasers – Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
A photosensitive drug is administered to the patient and after some period of time, it will be selectively taken up by cancerous cells. When the
cancerous area is exposed to light of a certain wavelength, singlet oxygen is produced which is extremely toxic to the cancer cells.
Once the photosensitive drug (usually a porphyrin derivative) has been taken up by the cancer cells, the extent of the lesion may be observed using
fluorescence.
Most clinically useful lasers operate in the visible part of the spectrum.
• Infrared Radiation
○ More than half of the energy reaching the earth from the sun is in the form of infrared (IR) radiation – i.e. heat.
○ IR radiation is much more penetrating than UV light, and hence will penetrate through the lens and be focussed onto the retina – could be hazardous in the
form of a retinal burn.
○ Therapeutic heat lamps produce a high percentage of high intensity near-IR radiation (l ~ 1000-2000 nm).
Can be used to deep-heat tissues.
Increased metabolism results in a relaxation of the capillary system (vasodilation).
Increased blood flow in the region of treatment.
Excellent treatment for muscular and soft tissue injuries
○ Thermography
All objects with a temperature greater than absolute zero will emit radiation, and the wavelength of the radiation is inversely proportional to the
objects temperature.
□ Wien`s Law => 1/T
□ W = eAsT4
Where W is the amount of IR emitted by the body - this is determined primarily by the temperature of the body
E is the emissivity
A is the area of the body
S is the Stefan - Boltzmann constant (5.670373(21)×10−8 W m−2 K−4)
Since the IR intensity is proportional to T4, if we can ‘map’ or measure the IR intensity as a function of position, this gives a very good map of surface
temperature.
Since blood flow is an efficient means of heat transport within the body. Thermography can give a good indication of surface blood distribution
(although there are mixed views on its clinical usefulness nowadays).
It has been used as a good ‘first-indicator’ of tumours in breast cancer patients, as well as identifying areas of reduced blood flow in patients with
diabetes or vascular problems.
• Microwaves
○ Diathermy (Diathermy refers to the heating of body tissues due to their resistance to the passage of high - frequency electromagnetic radiation, electric
current or ultrasonic waves)
Relieves Pain
Increases Mobilization
Improves Blood flow
Water molecules in tissue absorb the microwave energy
Vibrational energy converted to heat
Frequencies used are around 2450 Hz
Provides deep penetration into tissue
Caution is required not to cause bone burns
○ Shortwave Diathermy - Short Wave Diathermy (SWD) uses radiation in the frequency range 10-100 MHz (Typical value is 27.12 MHz)
In SWD the radiation is passed to the patient via electrodes. The varying electrical and magnetic fields associated with the e-m radiation cause the
charged molecules within the tissue to vibrate, and hence the kinetic energy is converted to heat.
Tissues which contain a high number of free ions (i.e. muscle tissue, blood etc.) are usually good conductors & respond well to SWD. [Beware of
hazards as metal and sweat also respond well to SWD]
SWD can produce both superficial or deep tissue heating (the heating is a direct result of Joule Heating, E = I2Rt).
SWD has been observed to:
□ Increase Blood flow
□ Help reduce inflammation
□ Increase the flexibility of deep collagen tissues
□ Decrease joint stiffness
□ Relieve deep muscle pain and spasm
1.4 - Physics of Motion
1.4.1 - Define: time, displacement and distance, velocity and speed, acceleration.
• Time -
• Displacement - change in position of the object, and whose magnitude is the distance between the initial and final positions. Displacement is a vector

○
• Distance - distance is position, your coordinates.

• Velocity - rate of change of position. If you go to India from Bahrain and come back to Bahrain, your displacement is 0 and therefore your velocity is zero.
○ Average Velocity = Displacement Vector / Elapsed time
○ Average velocity does take into account the direction of motion
○ Slope = Rise / Run
○ If the velocity is increasing with time, the object is accelerating and the acceleration is positive.
○ If the velocity is decreasing with time, the object is decelerating and the acceleration is negative
• Speed - does not take into account the direction of motion from the initial and final position.
○ Average speed = total distance / elapsed time
○ Instantaneous speed = the speed at any given instant in time
• Displacement can be regarded as

the distance between the
straight line whereas the
definition of distance would be
○ the curved line
• Acceleration - The rate of change of velocity with time

○ Average acceleration = change in velocity / time
• Concept question - If the velocity of some object is not zero, can its acceleration ever be zero ?
○ Yes - If the object is moving at a constant velocity, then the acceleration is zero
1.4.2 - Recall the difference between vectors and scalars.
• Vectors have a magnitude (size) as well as a direction
• Scalars only have a magnitude (size)
Vectors Scalars
Displacement (distance) Mass
• Velocity (involves direction as well) Speed
Acceleration (derived from velocity) Temperature
Force Time
• Examples
○ Mass is a scalar - the quantity of material in an object, no direction involved
○ Weight (mg) is a force and according to different forces, weight can be manipulated (such as gravity) and therefore weight is a vector
1.4.3 - Explain Newton’s Laws of Straight-Line Motion.
• If an object at rest, to start it moving requires force, that to accelerate it from zero velocity to none - zero velocity.
• Force can be defined as a push or a pull
○ Technically, force is any influence that can produce a change in the velocity of an object(s).
○ Force is measured by Newton (N)
○ A force that causes an object with a mass of 1kg to accelerate at 1 m/s2 is equivalent to 1 Newton
• There are 3 Basic Laws which govern the behaviour of moving objects called Newton's Law of Motion
○ First Law: An object will remain at rest or in some uniform motion in a straight line unless some net external force acts upon it.
The tendency for an object to remain in its current state is called inertia (and is related to its mass)
An object moving at constant velocity
○ Second Law: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net external force exerted on it, and inversely proportional to its mass
For example; Acceleration = Force / Mass
□ Force = Mass x Acceleration
○ Third Law: If an object exerts a force (F) on a second object, then the second object exerts an equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction force (-F) on the
first object.
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
• Newton's Laws of Straight - Line Motion can be used to understand issues as diverse as:
○ Road Traffic Accidents
Whiplash and impact injuries
Safety Measures in Car design
□ Seat Belts
□ Foam padding
1.4.4 - Demonstrate an understanding of how to use these laws to solve simple calculations in dynamics.
• QUESTION: How much net force is required to accelerate a 1000 kg car at 5.00 m/s2?
• QUESTION: What is the net force on 200 g ball when it hits a wall with acceleration of 10 m/s2?
• QUESTION: What is the mass of an object that has a weight of 115 N on the Moon? The gravity of the Moon is 1/6 of g (g= 9.8 m/s2).
• If we suddenly travel upward in an elevator, we feel ‘heavier’.
• Likewise, if we suddenly travel downward in an elevator we feel ‘lighter’. In a stationary elevator, according Newton’s 3rd law mg= FN (Action and reaction)or
according Newton’s 2nd law a= 0 mg- FN = 0, mg=FN
1.4.5 - Explain inertia.
• The tendency for an object to remain in its current state is called inertia (and is related to its mass)
• Inertia is the apparent resistance an object offers to any change in its state of rest or motion

• Inertia is the apparent resistance an object offers to any change in its state of rest or motion
1.4.6 - Discuss the role of external forces in effective weight and g-force.
• The force with which an object is attracted to the earth is called weight
• We know that weight is given by mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• Weight = Mass x g
• Mass and weight are different: Mass shows the quantity of material, and weight shows the size of gravity
• If your mass is 70 kg on Earth, your weight is - W=(70 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 686 N
• Consider an elevator moving DOWNWARD with an acceleration of a.
• Consider an elevator moving UPWARD with an acceleration of a.
1.4.7 - Define work, power and energy.

• Energy: Anything that moves has the potential to do work
○ The net work done on an object is equal to change in its kinetic energy
• Power: time rate of doing work
• Work: Applying a force
○ Work Done = Force Applied (N) x Distance moved parallel to the applied force (m)
1.4.8 - Differentiate between kinetic energy and potential energy.
• Kinetic Energy: Anything that moves has the potential to do work
○ Example: A constant net force of Fn accelerate a car from V1 to V2.
• Potential Energyvis a type of energy associated with the position
1.4.9 - Discuss the conservation of energy.

• The total mechanical energy (E) in a closed system is defines as the sum of the kinetic energy plus the potential energy of the system at any moment
• E= K + U , we can write

• E= K + U , we can write
• K1+U1= K2 +U2 ( conversation of energy)
1.4.10 - Demonstrate an understanding of the Work-Energy Principle.
1.5 - Impulse & Automobile Design

1.5.1 - Recall the Impulse Equation and the Impulse Principle.
• The Principle of Impulse and Momentum describes how an object's linear and angular momentum change with applied forces and moments.
• Impulse Equation
○ Impulse = Force x Change in time
1.5.2 - Demonstrate the use of the impulse principle in automobile safety design.
• Let us assume that a car hits a tree and the 90kg driver decelerates from 20ms-1 to 0ms-1.
• Let we look at the important of impact time t
• Large Force applied in a small time (0.5s)
• ~ wt. exerted by 360kg

• Short interaction time, large force
• Small Force applied over a long time.
• ~ wt. exerted by 36kg

• Long interaction time, small force
• Can reduce the size of the force if we increase the interaction time.
• Consequently we can reduce the extent of the subsequent injuries if we increase the reaction time.
• Momentum = mass x velocity
• Linear momentum (or Momentum (p) ) is defined as the product of mass (m) and its velocity (v).
• Since v is a vector quantity , Momentum is also is a vector quantity (SI units for p is kg. m/s)
• Ex: Determine the momentum of a 1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s
○ P= mv= 1000 x 20 = 20000 kg m/s (north)
• The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that in the absence of external forces the momentum
• Before collision = After collision
○ p1+p2 = p\1+p\2
○ m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
• Collisions
○ Two types:
Elastic collisions
□ Both momentum and kinetic energy conserved
Inelastic collision
□ Momentum conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved
○ Two equal mass objects , in head on collision with equal speed, collide and bounces back with same speed (if the collision is elastic)
○ Or bounces back at much less speed or not at all , if collision is inelastic
○ A collision is said to be elastic when kinetic energy as well as momentum is conserved before and after the collision. Kbefore = Kafter
Carts colliding with a spring in between, billiard balls, etc.

Carts colliding with a spring in between, billiard balls, etc.
○ A collision is said to be inelastic when kinetic energy is not conserved before and after the collision, but momentum is conserved. Kbefore ¹ Kafter
○ Car crashes, collisions where objects stick together, etc.
○ Interesting things happen if particles are of equal mass
○ All p transferred from one to the other
○ Interesting things happen if particles are of unequal mass.
v1=-u1 (rebound)
m2 gains speed
○ A large particle can impart a considerable velocity to a much smaller stationary object.
m1 looses little speed ( lower v1) and m2 moves at speed v2 ~twice u1

• Example: A 1000kg car traveling at 20ms-1 strikes a stationary 50kg object. The car is slowed by 0.5 ms-1, calculate the speed of the object "leaving the scene"!
• Pinitial = Pfinal
• (pcar + pobject )initial = (pcar + pobject )final
1.5.3 - Discuss the application of the impulse principle in the use of: airbags, crumple zones, collapsible steering columns.
• The Impulse Principle is used extensively in the design of auto-mobiles to reduce injuries resulting from RTAs.
• Interaction times are increased by:
○ Air Bags
One example is the use of air bags in automobiles.
Air bags are used in automobiles because they are able to minimize the effect of the force on an object involved in a collision.
Air bags accomplish this by extending the time required to stop the momentum of the driver and passenger.
When encountering a car collision, the driver and passenger tend to keep moving in accord with Newton's first law.
Their motion carries them towards a windshield that results in a large force exerted over a short time in order to stop their momentum.
If instead of hitting the windshield, the driver and passenger hit an air bag, then the time duration of the impact is increased.
When hitting an object with some give such as an air bag, the time duration might be increased by a factor of 100.
Increasing the time by a factor of 100 will result in a decrease in force by a factor of 100.
○ Collapsible Steering columns
○ Padded Interiors
The same principle explains why dashboards are padded.
If the air bags do not deploy (or are not installed in a car), then the driver and passengers run the risk of stopping their momentum by means of a
collision with the windshield or the dashboard.
If the driver or passenger should hit the dashboard, then the force and time required to stop their momentum is exerted by the dashboard.
Padded dashboards provide some give in such a collision and serve to extend the time duration of the impact, thus minimizing the effect of the force.
○ Crumple Zones
Cars are designed with crumple zones , to absorb the force of impact by increasing the time of impact.
1.5.4 - Explain the principle of operation of 3-point real-inertia seatbelts.
• The basic idea is to keep the person in the car and increase stopping distance
• Seatbelts exert a “stopping” force on the passenger which he or she experiences as pressure across the chest and lap
• P = F/A
• It also prevents the person from contacting any of the glass windows in the car
• If the passenger is restrained by a seat-belt, their momentum is reduced more gradually by the constant and smaller force of the belt acting over a longer period of
time.
• Seat-belts can reduce the impact of a passenger to one-fifth of the impact suffered by the body of the car.
• Seat belts can reduce the impact of a passenger to about a fifth of the impact suffered by the body of the car.
• If the seat belt does what it is made to do then it would slow you down extremely as soon as the crash occurs.
• The more the seat belt holds you back the less momentum you have after making contact in a crash.
With no seat belt to stop the driver with the car, the driver would fly free until stopped suddenly by the impact on the steering column, windshield,etc.
The stopping distance is about a fifth of that with a seat belt, causing the average impact force to be about five times as great.
The work done to stop the driver is equal to the average impact force on the driver multiplied by the distance travelled in stopping during the crash.
A crash which stops the car and driver must take away all the kinetic energy, and the work-energy principle
1.5.5 - Explain the physical principles underlying the use of head restraints.
• Headrests are found in every type of car to prevent neck injuries that occur during an automobile collision.

• Headrests are found in every type of car to prevent neck injuries that occur during an automobile collision.
• The way the neck becomes injured is due to physics.
• In some collisions when the car slams into another object or the brakes are slammed on very quickly the body stays in the same position but the head is thrown
either backwards or forwards.
• Once the head is thrown one way it naturally is thrown the other way because the neck muscles and vertebrae force it that way.
• As the neck is thrown in the second direction it goes at a higher speed then when it was thrown in the first direction due to Newton's Laws.
• Particularly effective in rear - impact accidents
• As the car is shunted forwards, the back of your seat pushes your body forwards
• If head restraint not present, the inertia of your head means that it stays behind, while your body moves forwards and can cause whiplash injuries.
1.5.6 - Discuss the relationship between side-impacts and RTA induced coma.
• This redistribution of momentum is the source of many injuries if pedestrians are involved in RTAs.
• Extra p is usually in the form of extra velocity.
• Side collisions are vehicle crashes where the side of one or more vehicles is impacted
• The perpendicular impact can crush the car at rest or cause it to flip over.
• Many times, the force of the collision pushes the car into neighbouring vehicles, causing a chain reaction accident.
• In other cases, the passenger is ejected from the vehicle and made vulnerable to being run over by other cars.
• Side impact collisions are responsible for massive pile-ups at intersections across the country.
• Even at low speeds, they can cause debilitating injuries.
• The severe injury caused by the impact of the crash hurts the brain.
• Then the brain goes into self-defence mode, a coma, where the brain is functioning, but at its lowest stage of alertness.
1.5.7 - Describe Side-Impact Protection Systems.
• A Side Impact Protection System (SIPS) is a system of protection against injury in side collisions
• The SIPS system worked by having the driver and passenger seat mounted on transverse steel rails
• In a side impact these transverse rails allowed the seats to crush a reinforced centre console during a side impact. The system is designed to more widely distribute
the energy in a side collision across the whole side of the car
1.6 - Physics of Automobile Accidents
1.6.1 - Explain the origins of frictional force.
• Frictional force refers to the force opposing the direction of the motion of an object. If a force is applied on an object, a force will opposite the direction of the
motion. It comes from Newton’s third law of motion – for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Friction is high for rough surfaces, low for smooth surfaces.
1.6.2 - Differentiate between static friction, rolling friction and kinetic friction.
Static friction Rolling friction Kinetic friction
The frictional force on a Force attempting to stop an Force attempting to stop a
stationary object (against object from rolling on a surface moving object from moving (i.e. if
gravitation pull) (if you have a ball that is rolling a car is moving in direction X,
in direction X, then friction will then friction will act as in
act in direction Y). direction Y – opposite to direction
of normal force)
1.6.3 - Explain the mechanisms of skidding and subsequent recovery.
• There is something called braking distance or stopping distance. If you are going to apply a brake on a car, it will not automatically stop. It will travel a certain
distance before it comes to a stop.
• To calculate the braking distance, you use:
○ S = v2/2gµs whereas S = braking distance, v = velocity, g = gravity, µs = coefficient of friction… µs basically takes in the surface in which your car is travelling in.
○ The braking distance in a rough surface will not be the same as in a rainy one – there’s more skidding when you are travelling in a car down a rainy road then
you are travelling across a rough road.
○ With that in mind, the actual factor here to be aware of with braking distance is velocity because it is squared.
• This is calculating braking distance if you are travelling across a straight road. For a curved road, you have this equation: -
• Basically, this calculates the maximum velocity you could be travelling at when you’re turning across a curved road.
• It takes in the radius of that road (R), gravity (g) and also, the friction coefficient (µs).
• Obviously, if you travel at a velocity higher than the maximum velocity, you are in big trouble.
• In fact, if you start to skid then your frictional force = (-uk)(m)(g), because your friction is opposing the normal force (force of skidding).
• Once skid has started, inertia (in this case, refers to the tendency of the object to keep moving) will push an object towards whatever is in its way.
• If passengers unrestrained, inertia will propel them forward from impact.
1.6.4 - Define momentum.
• Momentum is the product of an object’s mass multiplied by its velocity and is a vector quantity (i.e. you always mention direction).
1.6.5 - Understand the Conservation of Momentum.
• If two objects are hitting each other, then momentum is not lost. The momentum of object one will equal to the momentum of object two. However, some kinetic
energy may be lost – momentum is conserved before energy.
1.6.6 - Explain the consequences of Newton’s laws in RTA’s.
• Newton’s first law refers to the fact that if an object is in motion, it will stay in motion unless an external force acts upon it.
• It also states that a stationary object will remain at rest unless an external force acts upon it.
• The tendency of an object to stay in its state of motion or rest is called inertia.
• The problem with inertia is that rotational inertia will cause whiplash and inertia of internal organs may cause internal injury.
1.6.7 - Explain the role of inertia in whiplash.
• Whiplash refers to a sudden movement of the neck forward or backward that may cause physical damage to the person.
• It could cause damage to the cervical vertebrae, the muscles that surround it, the nerves, and also, the vertebral discs.
• They are being stretched or worn out when whiplash happens due to the fact that the head wants to stay at rest, so it will oppose the direction of the movement
because of its tendency to stay in rest.
• Bones in the upper spine will crunch together just because they want to stay within the body, muscles stretched out due to rotation of head, etc.
1.6.8 - Explain the role of inertia in causing internal injuries from RTA’s.
• Internal organs have inertia.
• They do not want to move from their stationary position.
• When a car hits something, even if the passenger is restrained, he will move backward or forward.
• When this happens, there’s a risk of the internal organ being propelled against thoracic cavity or skull, causing internal injury because the organs will oppose this
unwanted motion due to their inertia.
1.7 - Physics of Gunshot Injuries
1.7.1 - Differentiate between rifles and handguns and explain the subsequent consequences to the severity of gunshot wound.

1.7.1 - Differentiate between rifles and handguns and explain the subsequent consequences to the severity of gunshot wound.
Rifles Handguns
Thicker barrel; withstand high pressure so more Cannot within high pressure; less chemical
chemical propellant – more injury to wound propellant – less injury to wound
Long barrel – distance increased; kinetic energy Short barrel – distance decreased; kinetic
of bullet is high energy of bullet is less
1.7.2 - Understand the consequences of bullet design
• Bullet is made out of led which usually melts due to high pressure in barrel, so it often wears a metal jacket.
• Bullet is designed to be as aerodynamically stable as possible – however, even so, it is still considered to be aerodynamically unstable.
• Bullet does not travel across a straight path and suffers from yaw (soft nose is being projected up and down as bullet moves), precession (bullet tip moves in
circular pattern) and nutation (bullet moving in rosette pattern).
• These can affect the accuracy of the bullet, size of the entry wound and the amount of damage they cause by the energy transfer.
1.7.3 - Define precession and nutation.
• Precession refers to the a type of movement in which the tip of the bullet is moving in a circular pattern
• Nutation refers to a type of movement in which the tip of the bullet is moving in a rosette pattern.
1.7.4 - Explain laceration and crushing.
• Laceration and crushing happen when the bullet is travelling below the speed of sound.
• The bullets leave out a permanent cavity when they enter the victim. This is only fatal if it hits a vital organ or a major blood vessel.
• When the bullet enters the victim and travels, it becomes unstable. Due to instability, it hits other organs and transfers the energy to them, causing tissue damage.
1.7.5 - Explain shock wave injury.
• Shock waves are produced when the bullet is travelling at high velocity (above the speed of sound).
• These shock waves are very strong at the entry site and are weaker when distributed across a large surface area.
• They produce permanent tissue damage at wound area.
• Organs that have high fluid content (brain, heart, etc) are very sensitive to shock wave injury and this can cause failure ofthese organs.
• Intima of blood vessels are also very sensitive to shock wave.
1.7.6 - Explain cavitations injury.
• When a bullet travels into the body, sometimes it carves out a temporary cavity that is 30-40 centimetres bigger than the bullet itself.
• Cavitation is the radial dispersion in the body as the bullet travels along its path.
• For tissues with high elasticity, this cavitation may cause it to be stretched above elastic limit and can be damaging.
• However, for tissues with high density, cavitations injury is not as harmful.
1.7.7 - Discuss mechanism of immediate wound infection.
• Bullet wounds are usually infected immediately because the temporary cavity creates a reduced air pressure which sucks in debris and bacterial contaminants from
air, skin and clothes
• Tissue necrosis caused by shock wave and cavitation create perfect conditions for bacterial growth
• Direct Injury (Direct cut)
○ Damage done as the projectile strikes tissue
• Pressure Shock Wave
○ Human tissue semi-fluid
○ Solid and dense organs damaged greatly
• Temporary Cavity
○ Due to cavitation
• Permanent Cavity
○ Due to seriously damaged tissue
• A variety of factors are responsible for the amount of kinetic energy lost in the body - amount of kinetic energy possessed by the bullet at the time of impact
mass, yaw (deviation of the missile from its flight path), caliber or size of bullet, shape, deformation, and density of the tissue being struck
• There are three mechanisms of tissue damage due to bullets: laceration and crushing, shock waves, and cavitation
• Laceration and crushing are generated by the projectile displacing the tissues in its track
• Shock waves, the second mechanism often cited as significant in wounding, occur by the compression of tissues that lay ahead of the bullet, are generated by high
velocity missiles generally exceeding
1.8 - Medical Imaging
1.8.1 - Describe the make-up of an image.
• Digital photography is a type of photography, uses electronic devices to record the image as binary data, in which images can be viewed on a computer screen.
• A 2-dimensional array of colours of different brightness projected onto the retina.
• It is just ambient light reflected from the object being viewed into the eye.
• A close-up view will show that this is just a series of dots (pixels), of different colour and intensity
• Actual photographic images (Bit Map) consist of a series of dots (pixels) (of different colour or intensity), which when viewed from a distance, form an image.
1.8.2 - Describe the factors that determine the quality of an image
• The number of dots per inch, or pixels per inch
• The number of bits per pixel – more the bits, more information stored
1.8.3 - Define resolution of an image
• The resolution of an image refers to the number of dots per inch.
1.8.4 - Explain the term pixel
• Pixel - Short for Picture Element, a pixel is a single point in a graphic image. Pixels are the basic units of digital images and make up a digital image.
1.8.5 - Describe how a digital image is constructed
• A digital image is constructed using a template first. Each pixel would correspond to a specific location that needs to be studied within the body and each pixel
would have a brightness or colour associated with it that could be assigned by the user.
1.8.6 - Outline the range of technologies used to from medical images
Ultrasounds High frequency sound waves used to produce imaging for diagnosis and treatment – used
for seeing progression of foetus; used for diagnosing heart problems; rarely used for optic
reasons
MRI Combination of radio waves and a magnet producing high quality images – used for
diagnosing soft tissue diseases, cancers, etc.
X-rays High frequency X-ray radiation that cannot penetrate through bone (provides contrast
between bone and rest of body) that produce a radiograph – used to see broken bones;
even some types of cancers; another application is fluoroscopy (to diagnose heart and
liver problems, etc)
Nuclear medicine Application of radio-isotopes into imaging; isotope is injected in bloodstream, detected

Nuclear medicine Application of radio-isotopes into imaging; isotope is injected in bloodstream, detected
and followed through by a camera
1.9 - Ultrasound 1 - Principle and Instrumentation
1.9.1 - Define waves and wave action
• Waves are a periodic disturbance that travel through a medium, transferring energy from one point to the next.
1.9.2 - Define wave properties (wavelength, wave velocity, amplitude, frequency, period, phase, polarisation)
• Wavelength (m) is the distance between a crest and a crest or a trough and a trough.
• Wave velocity (m/s) refers to the speed at which the wave travels in.
• Amplitude (m) is the maximum distance of disturbance from the wave’s initial position.
• Frequency (Hz) refers to the cycles per second.
• Period (s) refers to the time it takes for a wave to complete one cycle.
• Phase refers to the current position of something that changes periodically.
• Polarization is a property of waves that can oscillate with more than one orientation
1.9.3 - Compare & contrast transverse waves and longitudinal waves
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
The disturbance of the wave is The disturbance of the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of wave parallel to the direction of wave
motion motion
1.9.4 - Demonstrate compressions and rarefactions in longitudinal waves
• When a sound wave is produced, it produces compressions and rarefactions.
• Compressions are regions of high density (air molecules compress together)
• Rarefactions are regions of low density (air molecules spread out from one another) when sound is generated.
1.9.5 - Describe the Piezoelectric Effect
• The piezoelectric effect describes the rearrangement of charges across two electrons that effect the piezoelectric crystal, causing it to either stretch or compress
depending on the charges interchanging within the electrodes.
1.9.6 - Explain the role of the Piezoelectric Effect in the transmission and detection of ultrasound
• The piezoelectric effect helps transmit sound waves from the ultrasound by applying a voltage with the high ultrasonic frequency, causing piezoelectric crystals to
deform and compress.
• The piezoelectric crystals send vibrations back to the receiver as a weak echo, and it will help detect the efficiency of the ultrasound.
1.9.7 - Define infrasound, sonic frequencies, ultrasonic frequencies.
Infrasound Below threshold of human hearing
Sonic frequency Audible range of hearing
Ultrasonic Above threshold of human hearing
1.9.8 - Understand the dependence of image resolution on wave frequency
• The wave frequency helps obtain high resolution imagining due to the fact that high frequency means short wavelength.
• Objects will not interact with irregularities that are smaller than their dimensions and waves do not interact with dimensions that are smaller than their
wavelength.
• This is why you need short wavelengths and high frequency.
• This calls for high transmission of these waves and high resolution.
1.9.9 - Explain the dependence of wave penetration on wave frequency
• However, the ultrasound’s high frequency means that there is poor penetration.
• Due to the poor penetration, a compromise must be sought and ultrasonic waves should be between 1-10MHz for best results.
1.9.10 - Explain why ultrasound frequencies are used for diagnostic imaging
• Ultrasound frequency is used for diagnostic imaging because it is a non-invasive, cheap and fast effective way of receiving information through imagining.
• It is also not harmful, except for the fact that the ultrasound produces heat but that is the only disadvantage of the ultrasound.
1.9.11 - Explain the mechanisms of reflection, transmission, absorption of ultrasound waves
• When ultrasound waves travel from one medium to another, not all are transmitted to the second medium. Some of the ultrasonic waves are absorbed, and others
are reflected back towards the receiver.
• The ones that are reflected back towards the receiver are in vibrations and it is to detect ultrasonic efficiency.
• Ultrasonic waves are of high frequency and thus, tend to be absorbed (discussed before – this absorption means that you have poor penetration).
• Some of these waves are transmitted – the transmitted waves are the ones that gain the information from the body.
1.10 - Ultrasound 2 - Therapeutic
1.10.1 - Discuss acoustic impedance and the implications of impedance mismatch
• Acoustic Impedance (Z) is a measure of how ultrasound traverses that tissue and depends on -
○ Density of the medium (p)
○ Propagation velocity of ultrasound through the medium (v) such that
○ Z=p*v
• A large difference in acoustic impedance is referred to as acoustic impedance mismatch.
• The greater the acoustic mismatch the greater the percentage of ultrasound reflected and the less transmitted.
• Examples include soft tissue / bone and soft tissue / air interfaces.
• Indeed, the acoustic impedance of gas or air is such that it forms a virtually impenetrable barrier to ultrasound.
1.10.2 - Explain the principles of Sonar & A-Scans
• Sonar is a technique used to find the depth of an object.
• High frequency sound waves are sent to the object and these waves are refracted back towards the initial receiver.
• This is calculated through velocity x time divided by two considering that the distance travelled from the receiver to the object and then back to the receiver is
double the depth of the object.
○ (Velocity x time) / 2
• A-scans rely on the principle of sonar.
• In which velocity refers to the speed of the ultrasonic waves.
• The ultrasonic waves that are being produced are used to find the depth of something by taking the speed of the ultrasonic wave, multiplying it by the time and
dividing it by two.
○ (Speed x time) / 2
• This shows up as the amplitude of mediums as the waves are being transmitted, absorbed and transmitted, absorbed by differentmedia.
• These could be used for (for example) finding out the depth of the head of a baby.
• This is by generating an ultrasonic beam.
• It penetrates through the skull first, going in and out and then echoes back towards the receiver.
1.10.3 - Differentiate between A-Scans and B-Scans

1.10.3 - Differentiate between A-Scans and B-Scans
A-Scan B-Scan
Amplitudes of the peak produced on CRO represent echo strength Brightness of spot represents echo strength
1.10.4 - Explain the principle of operation of a phased-array ultrasound probe.

• A phased array ultrasound probe has multiple piezoelectric crystals in the transducer.
• Each vibration being passed from the piezoelectric crystal is in a different phase than the other (i.e. they could be delayedby a certain time) through focusing.
1.10.5 - List the advantages of diagnostic ultrasound
• Fast
• Cheap
• Non-invasive diagnostic imagining technique
• No harmful side effects (except for the fact that ultrasonic waves produce heat)
1.10.6 - Explain the obstetric uses of ultrasound
• Routine monitoring of the foetus (ultrasound B-Scans)
• Assessing size of foetus by measuring crown-rump length, femur length, bipareital diameter, and abdominal circumference of the mother
• Figuring out the location of the placenta, multiple pregnancies, ectopic pregnancies, presentation of baby, etc.
1.10.7 - Define: Crown-rump length, femur length, bipareital diameter, abdominal circumference
Crown-rump length The length of a foetus from his head to his rump; used to predict delivery date and foetus development
Femur length The length of a femur of a foetus; used to predict delivery date and foetus development
Bipareital diameter The diameter of the skull of a foetus; figured out using A-Scan
Abdominal circumference The circumference of a pregnant woman’s abdomen; used to predict size of baby
1.10.8 - Differentiate between B-Scans & M-Scans
B Scans M-Scans
Produces 2D image of structure; brightness of a spot representing how strong an echo is Modified B-Scan that allows the investigation of moving structures
1.11 - Ultrasound 3 - Doppler Effect and Blood Flow Measurement
1.11.1 - State the Doppler Equation
• The Doppler equation is FR = Ft (c –/+ vs)/(c +/- vo).
• The vs is the velocity of the source whereas the vo is the velocity of the observer.
• When the observer is moving towards the source, then it is positive.
• When the source is towards the observer, then it is negative.
1.11.2 - List Doppler effects
• Stationary object, stationary source – apparently frequency = actual frequency
• Stationary source, moving object – if object moving towards source then apparent frequency > actual frequency but if object moving away from source then
apparent frequency < actual frequency
• Stationary object, moving source – if source moving towards object, apparent frequency > actual frequency but if source moving away from object, then apparently
frequency < actual frequency
1.11.3 - Demonstrate how Doppler ultrasound is used in practice
• When measuring the blood flow of a patient, Doppler ultrasound is very useful.
• The ultrasonic beam is generated towards the bloodstream – depending on the direction of blood flow, the blood may be travelling towards the direction of beam
(apparent frequency would appear as higher than the actual frequency of ultrasonic waves) or they can be travelling away (apparent frequency is lower than actual
frequency).
• The ultrasonic beam here is the source and the red blood cells act as an observer.
• The red blood cells then act as a source as they reflect the sound waves towards the ultrasound.
• If they are moving away from the observer, the apparent frequency would be low whilst if they are moving to the observer, the apparent frequency would be high.
• These show as peaks and amplitudes on a graph.
• If flow of blood is smooth, then heart is in health condition but if flow is not smooth, then this could detect a problem with the cardiovascular system – usually, a
build-up of plague around the arteries.
1.11.4 - Discuss three-dimensional ultrasound imaging
• Ultrasound images can be processed on a computer through surface rendering to find outlines of soft tissues and organs.
• This creates a picture on the monitor.
• When sound waves are emitted from all angles, they are bounced back to the transducer and picture produced is three-dimensional.
• Images show depth and great detail due to high resolution of the ultrasound.
1.11.5 - Differentiate between 3- & 4-dimensional ultrasound imaging
• 3D scans are still pictures of your baby in three dimensions. 4D scans are moving 3D images of your baby, with time being the fourth dimension.
1.11.6 - Discuss the physiological effects of exposure to ultrasound
• Ultrasonic waves are still energy that could be absorbed by tissue, causing heat.
1. Diagnostic imaging – using pulse intensities of .01 Wcm^-2
2. Physiotherapy – using 1Wcm^-2 as source of deep heating; higher intensities sometimes used to destroy living tissue
3. Surgery – 10^6 Wm^-2 beams
4. Transfer energy could be maximised by using de-gassed water (okay for extremities)—otherwise, sterile gel is used.
1.11.7 - Compare & contrast high-intensity focussed ultrasound (HIFU) with shockwave lithotripsy
High intensity ultrasound Shockwave lithotripsy
Used to stop internal bleeding (especially in liver) Used to break up bladder or kidney stones
Generated with velocity of the object is higher than velocity of sound
1.12 - Thermography and Photo Thermal Therapy.
1.12.1 - Explain heat radiation and Black-Body radiation.
• Thermal Imaging - using infrared in range of around 900 to 10,000 nm of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Infrared radiation is emitted by all objects at ambient temperature, according to the black body radiation law
• The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperatures
• Therefore thermography allows you to see variations in temperature, hence the name
• In medicine, a heat-sensing infrared camera is used to record the surface heat produced by different parts of the body.
• Abnormal tissue growth can cause temperature changes, which may show up on the thermogram
• Thermography may be used to diagnose breast cancer and other tumors.

• Thermography may be used to diagnose breast cancer and other tumors.
• A "black body" is a theoretical perfect absorber, which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths falling on it.
• It reflects no light at normal temperatures and thus appears black.
• The black body, is also the best radiation emitter.
• The radiation emitted by a black body (when hot) - Black body radiation.
○ It is also known as "temperature radiation".
○ The intensities of the various wavelengths of radiation emitted by a black body depend only on its temperature.
• Planck's Energy Distribution
• Pl=Power per m² (area per m wavelength)

• h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js)
• c = Speed of Light (3 x 108 m/s)
• l = Wavelength (m)
• k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
• t = Temperature (K)
• The energy radiated by a blackbody radiation per second per unit area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature and is given by
• For hot objects other than ideal radiators, the law is expressed in the form:
• Where e is the emissivity of the object (e = 1 for ideal radiator, Polished black surface and e=0 means highly polished, silvered surface poor at radiating ).
○ Is the ratio of the total emissive power of a body to total emissive of the perfect black body at the same temperature
• Example
○ For an area of skin = 10cm2
○ at T = 310K (37oC)
○ p = (0.97)(5.67x10-8)(1x10-3)(310)4
○ p = 0.508Js-1
○ If T = 311K
○ p = 0.514Js-1
1.12.2 - State Stefan’s law.
• If the hot object is radiating energy to its cooler surroundings at temperature Tc, the net radiation loss rate takes the form:
• Body temperature T=37oC , cold day temperature Tc20 o C calculate radiation loss (e=0.5 , Area 0.1 m2) (Answer= 0.53)
• Stefan’s law stating that peak of wavelength would increase with increasing temperature – shorter wavelengths have high temperatures.
1.12.3 - State Wien’s law.
• Wien's Displacement Law
○ When the temperature of a black body radiator (surface) increases, the overall radiated energy increases and the peak of the radiation curve moves to
shorter wavelengths.
○ When the maximum is evaluated from the Planck radiation formula the product of the peak wavelength and the temperature is found to be a constant.
• The peak wave-length of the curve varies with the temperature of the radiating surface. The lower the temp., the longer the peak wavelength
1.12.4 - Use these laws to calculate peak wavelength, and radiative output.
• Example 1
○ For T= 6000K ( sun’s surface)
-7
p = 4.83x10 m = 483nm
p is blue
• Example 2

• Example 2
○ For body temperature.
○ T = 310K ( 37oC)
○ p = 9.35x10-6m = 9.4mm
○ lp is in (mid IR).
• KEY IDEAS
○ Blackbody radiation, refers to an object or system which absorbs all radiation incident upon it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating
system.
○ The energy radiated by a black body radiation per second per unit area is prop. Kelvin T4
○ Emissivity (e) is a number between 0 and 1, that is characteristic of the material (black surface e=1 and bright shiny surfaces e=0).
○ The peak wave-length varies with the temperature of the radiating surface
1.12.5 - Explain the applications of heat radiation in aural thermoscan systems.
• An interesting application of thermal radiation in diagnostic medicine is Thermography.
• Thermography: is a technique for visualizing the temperature of surfaces by recording the emission of long-wavelength, infrared radiation.
• This heat radiation is detected electronically and displayed with different colors representing different temperatures.
• The temperature range goes from hot (white) to cold (blue).
• Diagnostic Thermography: is a method of mapping slight variations in surface temperature as an indicator of some underlying pathology.
○ So, the body radiates most heat in the mid IR region and areas where metabolic activity is high, such as in tumours, can be detected on thermogram as a
result of their high temperature. And consequent increase radiation.
○ High temperature areas, radiate at a different lp than those areas at normal temperature.
○ An obvious application is measurement of core body temperature via aural thermoscan.
Forehead Thermometers Swine flu (H1N1)
1.12.6 - Differentiate between spectral & bolometric measurement.
• Spectral Measurement involves measuring the variations in peak wavelength across the surface of a patient
○ Examples include: Spectrometers, Monochromators and Prisms
• Bolometric Measurement involves measuring the variations in the rate of heat radiation across the body
○ Example
A bolometer is a device for measuring the energy of incident elect. mag. radiation
It consists of an "absorber" connected to a heat sink (area of constant temperature) The result is that any radiation absorbed by the absorber raises its
temperature above that of the heat sink—the higher the energy absorbed, the higher the temperature will be.
1.12.7 - Discuss applications of thermography in diagnostic imaging.
• Regardless of the basis of measurement, the resulting image is called a Thermogram, and the technique is called Thermography
• Thermography has extensive medical uses. It is particularly good at identifying areas of inflammation; such as sprains, frozen shoulder, inflammation at thoracic
vertebra and strain medial ligament
• Fractures
○ In the thermograms, we can see for example a fracture of the right ankle causes inflammation in the muscle of the left leg due to transfer of weight. Note the
activity at the fracture site is visible as it appears in a red colour filled with a white colour.
• Thermography is also good at spotting areas of reduced blood supply; for example a leg injury causing vasoconstriction in the right thigh.
1.12.8 - Discuss the reliability of diagnostic thermography (false positives, false negatives).
• An early application of thermography was screening for breast tumours due to the increased metabolic activity within the rapidly dividing cells.
• Accuracy of this technique
○ Results are disappointing. For 1000 randomly screened women above 45yrs. 30% will have abnormal thermograms
○ Only 40% of women with known breast cancer will test positive thermographically.
○ A 2012 research review found that thermography detected only a quarter of the breast cancers found by mammography.
○ Mammogram, ultrasound and MRI were performed two weeks prior to thermogram and did not detect patient’s cancer in the right breast (left in picture).
○ Finding is quite clear and dramatic with the thermogram demonstrating abnormality in the right breast - Good for early detection
• KEY IDEAS
○ All surfaces emits some amount of electromagnetic radiation across a range of energies (or wavelengths) (body surfaces emits in mid infra-red).
○ Thermal radiation has applications in diagnostic medicine (Thermography ).
○ Thermography is a technique for visualizing the temperature of surfaces by recording the emission of long-wavelengths.
○ Variations in surface temperature used as an indicator of some underlying tissue conditions.
○ Colour codes (or spectrum) are used distinguishing healthy organs from non-healthy once.
1.13 - Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1
1.13.1 - Understand the origins of the proton magnetic field.
• The proton magnetic field within the body is produced from the protons that are in hydrogen atoms.
• The hydrogen atoms (from mostly water molecules, some other organic compounds such as fats, proteins, carbs, etc) contain one proton in their nucleus that may
be small but is spinning very quickly. Because it is a charged particle (+) and a moving charge, it generates a magnetic field.
1.13.2 - Understand the implications for the nuclear magnetic field.
• The nuclear magnetic field is the applied magnetic field (B0 or Bz) that is applied on the patient.
• This applied nuclear field causes the protons within the body to align either against or with the applied magnetic field.
• The axis of the magnetic field is z, so if applied with the magnetic field then is spinning across z axis and resting on x-y plane.
• If against it, then spinning down the z-axis.
• Normally, the magnetic field alignment cancels each other out.
• Because the point of an MRI is to produce a magnetic field, radio waves in MRI act as source of energy.
• Energy causes a state of excitation that causes proton to spin down (because it is the higher energy state).
• There is now a net magnetic field (for ten of every million protons).
1.13.3 - Explain nuclear spin states spin up, spin down.
• The spin ‘up’ state of a proton refers to the lower energy state. It is parallel to the applied magnetic field.
• The spin ‘down’ state of a proton refers to a higher energy state and is anti-parallel or against the applied magnetic field.
1.13.4 - Explain the mechanisms of resonant absorption & resonant emission.
• Resonant absorption
○ In an MRI, resonant absorption happens when a wave of equal frequency to that of the body is introduced to the protons.
○ Because the body has the same frequency as the radio wave being introduced, it absorbs the energy of that frequency.
○ When energy is absorbed, the excitation of electron makes it jump to a ‘higher’ level and spin down.
• Resonant emission
○ In an MRI, when the radio frequency is no longer introduced to body, the protons that were previously in a higher up state of energy (i.e. spinning down) spin
back up.
○ Energy is neither created nor destroyed so the extra energy that the proton had is re-emitted back as a wave towards the MRI.
1.13.5 - Define precession.
• Precession refers to the circular spin and it is against an axis.

• Precession refers to the circular spin and it is against an axis.
• Protons spin across an axis instead of parallel to the magnetic field, but are in the same direction.
1.13.6 - State the Larmor Equation and explain gyromagnetic ratio.
• Larmor equation is FL = gyromagnetic ratio x applied magnetic field
• The gyromagnetic ratio varies with materials.
• It is specific to the material that is being used to generate applied magnetic field.
• The Larmor equation measures the amount of energy needed to ‘flip’ an electron from one state (lower) to another (higher).
1.13.7 - Discuss the origins of the longitudinal and transverse magnetic fields.
• The longitudinal magnetic field is a sum of the components of the vector of proton that is precessing parallel to the z-axis.
• The transverse magnetic field refers to the precessing that is anti-parallel to the z-axis.
1.13.8 - Explain the role of radio frequency pulses (RFPs) in MRI.
• The radio frequency in MRI is the energy that is given to the electrons to go from their low energy state to a higher energy state to produce a magnetic field.
• Before the radio frequency pulses are applied, the magnetic fields of each proton cancels each other out so no net magnetic field is generated.
• However, with the radio frequency pulses, there is a net magnetic field generated by the protons.
1.13.9 - Explain the effect of RFPs on proton excitation & precession phase.
• Radio frequency pulses ‘excite’ protons and make them jump from one energy level to the next due to the energy within the radio frequency.
• This is due to the fact that they both have the same frequencies so the protons will absorb the energy due to resonant absorption.
• When radio frequency pulses excite electrons to move from one energy level to the next, the spin of the electron changes.
• It used to spin ‘up’ but at a higher energy level, it spins ‘down’.
• Another effect of the radio frequency pulses is that they also have an effect on the precession phase.
• Beforehand, the transverse magnetic field were precessing out of phase and thus, cancelling out the transverse magnetic field.
• However, the radio frequency pulses causes them to precess in one phase and thus, a transverse magnetic field is generated.
1.14 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2.
1.14.1 - Explain spin-lattice relaxation T1.
• The recovery of BL is called Spin - Lattice Relaxation
• It is characterized by the time constant T1 which is defined as the time required for BL to recover to around 63% of its pre - pulse value
• T1 is the time it takes for the system to come to thermal equilibrium - this is unique to every tissue
1.14.2 - Discuss extrinsic effects, intrinsic effects.
• The loss of phase coherence among the proton magnetic fields is due to slight non - uniformities in the surrounding magnetic field
• These are due to inhomogeneity in the external magnetic field (extrinsic) and the magnetic fields of the surrounding atoms (intrinsic)
1.14.3 - Explain spin-spin relaxation T2.
• T2 tells us about the homogeneity of the atoms surrounding the nucleus emitting the NMR signal.
• T2 usually ranges between 30 - 150ms.
• Liquids have longer T2s than tissue since they are inherently more homogenous
• The random interaction of two spins gives rise to a loss of spin which also gives a loss of signal
○ Also known as transverse relaxation
1.14.4 - Understand the use of slice selecting gradient field (SSGF).
• Selecting gradient field is used in helping one construct the coordinates for the Z-axis.
• It is also used to aid in the construction of the Y and X axis, as the frequency encode gradient and the phase encode gradient would not be possible to measure if
there is no change in the gradient of magnetic field (i.e. frequency encode gradient relies on change in applied magnetic field to produce a change in frequency and
phase encode gradient relies on the changes in the frequency.)
1.14.5 - Understand the use of frequency encode gradients (FEG).
• Frequency encode gradients are used to produce values for the X-axis.
• When needing to find where an object is at, the exact coordinates of the objects must be known.
• The frequency of that object gives it its position across the X-axis.
• One could select the slice that they want by applying the Larmor frequency on a certain slice they want to investigate.
1.14.6 - Understand the use of phase encode gradient (PEG).
• Phase encode gradient are used to produce values for the Y-axis. When needing to find when an object is at, the exact coordinates of that object must be known.
• The phases of the protons of that object could give its position across the Y-axis.
• The protons would be precessed at the same speed, but have a different starting point which would give different values to Y-axis.
1.14.7 - Discuss how RFP sequences change the MRI image.
• Radio frequency pulses change the MRI image by measuring two different times, i.e. T1 and T2.
• Depending on what kind of tissue, T2 may provide a clearer image than T1.
• These both could not be measuring without different RFP sequences
1.14.8 - Explain 90o and 180o RFPs.
• These are pulses given to the proton to project it at different axes to measure T1 and T2.
• When measuring T2, a 90o degree pulse is given to project it on the X plane and then an 180o pulse is given (as protons are beginning to lose coherence) and they
are projected on the opposite side of the X plane.
• However, when measuring T1, a 180o pulse is given before a 90o degree pulse.
• This means that the BL is no longer parallel to the magnetic field and could finally be measured.
1.14.9 - Explain TR sequences.
• Time repetition sequences refers to the amount of time it takes to regenerate a radio pulse at a specific slice within the investigated tissue.
1.14.10 - List MRI instrumentation.
• Magnet, RF Coil and Gradient Coil
1.14.11 - Explain how MRI is used in diagnosis, and studies of organ function.
• MRI is used in diagnosing by reproducing an image of the person’s internal structure non-invasively.
• It is not harmful at all.
• It could help study different organ structures and possible disease by reproducing an image of their structure.
• The difference in the T1 or/and T2 from the normal would show a difference in contrast from the normal and indicate a possibly problem within the patient.
• For example, T1 refers to the time it takes for tissue to reach thermal equilibrium.
• If patient has cancer, then T1 value should be expected to be different because of the high metabolism within cancer cells.
1.15 - Production of X-rays.
1.15.1 - Recall simple atomic structure.
• Atoms consist of a nucleus which is surrounded by electrons in quantised shells or orbits.
• Each orbit has a very specific energy value
○ En = R'Z2/n2
Where Z is the atomic number, n is the principal Quantum Number and R; is the modified Rydberg Constant value which is 2.17 x 10-18
• If an electron exists in the lowest energy level (i.e. n = 1) it is said to exist in the Ground State
• If the electron is 'excited' or raised to a higher energy level, it is said to exist in an excited state.

• If the electron is 'excited' or raised to a higher energy level, it is said to exist in an excited state.
• We can easily calculate the energy for the ground state of hydrogen because in hydrogen, Z = 1 and n = 1
○ E1 = (-2.17 x 10-18 (1)2) / (1)2 = -2.17 x 10-18 Joules
○ Or in eV
○ E1 = (-2.17 x 10-18 J) / (1.6 x 10-19 J/ev)
= -13.6 eV
1.15.2 - Understand the processes of photon absorption and emission.
• If electrons move between energy levels in an atom:
○ If an atom absorbs a photon, low - energy electron jumps to a higher level (called ABSORPTION)
○ If an electron drops from a higher level to a lower level, a photon is emitted (called EMISSION)
1.15.3 - State the main properties of x-ray photons.
• Photons are electromagnetic radiation with frequency and wavelength, whose energy can be calculated using:
○ E = hf = hc/
Where h is Planck's constant (=6.62 x 10-34 Js) and c is the speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)
• Hence the energy of the photons emitted or absorbed is given by:
○ E = E1 - E0 = hf = hc/
• X ray is a high frequency electromagnetic radiation of frequency approximately between 1017 to 1020 Hz (3nm - 0.003 nm)
• It may considered as a wave of wavelength and frequency or particles or quanta of energy
○ Such quanta of energy is known as a x - ray photon
• Properties of x ray photons
○ High energy photons
○ Can cause ionisation in air and tissue
○ Blacken photographic film
○ Highly penetrating in tissue
○ Absorbed by high - density materials (bones)
○ Produce fluorescence
○ Generally travel in straight lines
• X rays are produced by accelerating electrons through very high voltages and allowing them to strike a metal target.
1.15.4 - Describe the structure and operation of a typical x-ray tube.
• Electron Source (Filament): Electrons are essentially ‘boiled-off’ a red-hot filament by a process called thermionic emission.
• Thermionic emission is, when a metal is heated, its electrons may acquire sufficient thermal energy to escape from the surface
• The number of electrons produced (and hence the number of x-rays) depends on the filament temperature.
• The filament is referred to as a CATHODE.

• The filament is referred to as a CATHODE.
• High Voltage: applied between cathode and anode; The electrons are accelerated to very high kinetic energies.
• Typical voltages vary between 20,000 and 200,000 volts (20 – 200 kV).
• The ‘tube voltage’ determines the energy of the x-rays produced (i.e. how ‘hard’’ or how ‘soft’ they are)
• Because E = eV, if V=90kV then Ee=1.6x10-19x90x103 = 1.44x10-14 J =90KeV
• The x-ray energy required is determined by what study is to be carried out.
• Target or Anode: This is what the electrons strike to produce the x-rays.
• The intensity of the x-ray beam (is determined by the anode material.( Intensity ~Z)
• Generally, (z) means efficiency x-rays production.
• The efficiency can be defined as; the ratio of energy emerging as X ray radiation from the target Pr (photon Energy) to the energy deposited by electron impinging
the target pd (heat energy)
• Where Z and V are the atomic number of the anode and applied voltage respectively.
• Efficiency= 0.9x10^9ZV , for tungsten Z=74 and 100 KV, Efficiency is 0.066
• Since most of the energy produced in the electron beam, (stopped by target)
• (~99%) is in the form of heat, the target anode must have a high melting point.
• Tungsten is commonly used since it has a high atomic number (Z=74) and a high melting point (~3,400 oC).
• A typical clinical tube current is greater than 1 amp.
• Since, Power = Current x Voltage, for a 100 kV tube the power is:
○ Power = (1 amp) x (100,000 V) = 100 kW
○ This is sufficient to boil a cup of water in < 1 second.
○ If the tube is only 6% efficient, then 99.4% of this appears as heat, 0.994x100=99.4 KW
○ Thermal damage to anodes is a big problem and certain design features are commonly used to distribute the deposited energy over a bigger area to minimise
damage.
Rotate the Anode
Circulating the oil
• Focusing spot: Focusing beam can be done by using an angled anode
• 4- Evacuated Glass Tube: Air molecules (around 4 x 1020 cm-3) act to stop or slow down the accelerating cathode electrons because of Coulomb Repulsion (with
electrons tied to air molecules) and collisions.
• In high quality tubes, air is evacuated to 1 in 1 billion, allowing the accelerated electrons to travel to the anode unimpeded.
• Only 0.6% of electron energy that is not converted to heat actually produce X-rays
• KEY POINTS
○ X-rays are EM radiation of high frequency 1017-1020 Hz short wavelength (0.003-300 nm), l=c/f.
○ X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube (vacuumed)
○ X-ray tube consist of, Heated filament (cathode), anode, high voltage power supply and supply for filament.
○ Only about 1% of high speed electron energy converted to x-ray
○ Overheating prevented by using a rotating anode and circulating oil
1.15.5 - Differentiate between Bremsstrahlung and Characteristic x-rays + 1.15.6 - Understand the processes which give rise to both of the above.
• X Ray Spectra
○ The x-rays emitted from an X-ray tube display a range of energies (frequencies and wavelengths).
○ The distribution of these energies is called spectrum which is usually presented as a function of energies or wavelength/frequency.
○ Two mechanisms contributes to features of the final spectrum
Bremsstrahlung X rays (Continuous Spectrum)
□ The incident electron is slowed-down by coulomb repulsion forces.
□ As the incident electron is decelerated, its loss in kinetic energy is converted to an x-ray photon.
□ X-rays are produced over a wide range of energies or frequencies (and hence wavelengths).
Characteristic X - Rays
□ A fast incident electron strikes a ground state electron in one of the target anode atoms and knocks it out of its orbit and free of the atom.
□ The vacancy in the K-shell is rapidly filled by an electron from a higher energy level, resulting in the emission of an X-ray photon whose energy is
equal to the difference between the two energy levels.
□ Characteristic X-rays are not commonly used for medical purposes (except mammography).
○ A typical spectrum of X-rays produced from a clinical X-ray tube would have 2 components:
○ A broad smooth curve due to the production of Bremmstrahlung x-rays with a wide range of energies.
○ Sharp ‘spikes’ at precise frequencies (energies) representing the characteristic x-rays.

1.15.7 - Draw a labelled diagram of a typical x-ray spectrum.
• An x-ray produced from the transition n=2 (L) to n=1 (k) is called a Ka x-ray, while a photon emitted from the n=3 (M) to n=1 (k) transition is called a Kb x-ray.
• Since the energy levels for a given target element are precisely determined, Ka and Kb x-rays will always have energies (and hence frequencies) which are
characteristic of the target anode material.
• They are therefore referred to as characteristic x-rays, i.e. characteristic of the specific anode material.
1.15.8 - Calculate the maximum frequency and minimum wavelength of x-rays.
• The maximum energy of the x-rays produced cannot exceed the maximum kinetic energy of the electron beam, and this maximum energy is achieved when the
incident electron is stopped completely
• Where e is the electron charge and V is the accelerating voltage.

• We also know that the maximum photon energy = hfmax

• Factors affecting X ray spectrum
○ High voltage supply (tube voltage):
If the tube voltage increases, the max. photon energy increases (Emax=eV).
The peak of the continuous spectrum moves to higher energy.
More characteristic lines may appear in spectrum.
The total intensity increases because more electrons have sufficient energy to produce X-ray total output intensity V2
○ Tube current (I):
Emax remains the same (since max. energy of electrons remains the same)
Intensity increases since more electrons available to release X-ray total output intensity is directly proportional tube current (I)
The current tube depends on the number of electrons crossing the tube per second
Controlled by filament
○ Target material:
An increase in target material atomic no. leads to increases the probability that the electrons make collisions resulting in X-ray emission.
Total output intensity is directly proportional to Z
Target material should have a high melting point and also high Z, to yield high X-ray outputs.
Tungsten: with, m.p.=3650K and z = 74 is commonly used as a target material.
○ Filtration:
A sheet of metal or other material is placed in the path of the beam acts as a filter. Absorbing more lower-energy photons than the high photon
energy.
The amount of the energy absorbed by the filter depend on :
Photon energy, filter thickness, z of material.
• KEY IDEAS
○ An x-ray spectra contains a spectrum of photon energies (or f, or l).
○ A continuous spectrum due to deceleration of electron in the target. Its max. energy is E= eV.
○ A line spectra due to orbital electron transition in target (anode). The lines have frequencies characteristic of the target.
○ Factors shaping the X-ray spectrum are: tube voltage, tube current, atomic no. of anode.
1.16 - Absorption of X - rays and contrast media
1.16.1 - Discuss the production of simple x-ray ‘shadow’ images.
• Shadow imagining is caused when x-ray is passing through body and some is being absorbed whilst some is passing through.
• For tissues, x-ray highly penetrating soft tissue and causing the blackening of the film but for bones, x-ray is being absorbed by the high density materials and is not
passing through to blacken film, so it’s showing up as white area.
• This all conspires to create our ‘shadow’ imaging.
1.16.2 - Describe the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production in relation to photon absorption.
Photoelectric effect High-energy photon causes electron to eject from atom with energy as high as photon
Compton scattering Electron is ejected from atom; photon loses energy and is travelling across a different path
Pair production X-ray causes production of electron and positron from nucleus; these cause the production of two gamma rays in opposite direction
1.16.3 - Describe how x-ray absorption depends on the x-ray photon energy.
• Photon energy effects x-ray absorption. For photoelectric effect, high energy proton is inversely proportion to E3. For Compton scattering, we know that the energy
is inversely proportional. For pair production, it is considered to be very high energy photon and absorption is higher with a higher energy.
1.16.4 - Define what is meant by the term contrast media and state what characteristics such media should possess.
• Contrast media refers to an element that is injected by a dye to a patient to be able to provide contrast to soft tissue by altering Z value.
• Media should have high Z value (such as iodine or barium) as with a high Z value, there is a higher amount of absorption.
1.16.5 - Define exponential decay and exponential growth, and state the Lambert-Beer law.
• Exponential decay refers to a decay in the transmission of the x-ray over thickness and the graph is not linear, but is dependent on an exponential value.
• Lambert-Beer law state that I = I0e-ux, i.e. transmitted ray = incident ray x e x – (absorbent coefficient)(thickness).
• Basically, our transmitted ray is equal to the incident ray, how much of it is absorbed through a certain thickness and the equation is exponential – NOT LINEAR.
1.16.6 - Define and calculate values for linear attenuation coefficient, half value thickness, and mass attenuation coefficient.
• Linear attenuation coefficient = in Lambert-Beer law, this is our u (noted as absorbent coefficient in written equation above)
• Half value thickness = amount of thickness needed to reduce transmission by half, i.e. x = .693/u
• Mass attenuation coefficient = I = I0e^um(px), whereas m = mass and p = density.
1.16.7 - Define K-edge and its role in selecting suitable contrast media.

1.16.7 - Define K-edge and its role in selecting suitable contrast media.
• When plotting a graph of mass attenuation coefficient over energy, the irregularities in that graph is defined as the K-edge.
• Different contrast medias will have different K-edge values.
• When the amount of energy given is more than K-edge, then x-ray producing image with good contrast.
1.17 - Radioactivity and Medicine
1.17.1 - Recall the structure of the atom
• Atom consists of electrons “orbiting” a nucleus in a ‘quantised’ shells or orbits.
• Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons bound together by the strong force.
• Protons and Neutrons are jointly called nucleons.
1.17.2 - Explain the nuclear constituents: electrons, neutrons, protons
1.17.3 - Recall atomic mass units

• Atomic mass unit (amu) is a unit expressing the masses of individual isotopes and defines as 1/12 of the mass of 12C
• Element are specified using the following notation:
○ X = Chemical Element
○ A = Atomic mass = no. of nucleons
○ Z = Atomic number = no. of protons
○ N = Neutron Number = no. of neutrons
○ 22Na, 238U
• Isotopes: Nuclei that contain same number of protons (Z) but different numbers of neutrons (N)
1.17.4 - Discuss the relationship between electrostatic repulsion & the strong nuclear force.
• How do protons and neutrons stay in the nucleus?
○ There are forces within the atom that account for the behavior of the protons, neutrons, and electrons. Without these forces, an atom could not stay
together
The electric force (Coulomb's force ) (Repulsion force) (FC)
□ The electric force (Coulomb's force FC) is a force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges
□ k is constant = 9x109 Nm2C-2

□ r is a distance (m)
□ ε0 = permittivity of space
□ Since protons all are positively charged
□ Coulombic force Fc is repulsion force between protons
□ Should Fc put nucleons apart but nucleus is stable; How nucleus stays together? This is explained by the Strong Nuclear Force
Strong Nuclear force (SNF)
□ Must be another force larger than Fc acting; it's called The Strong Nuclear Force (SNF) binds the nucleus of an atom together.
□ And energy associated with it is called the binding energy
□ Properties of SNF
It’s an attractive force.
It’s a short range < r=10-15m.
Charge independent force
◊ Equal Force!
□ SNF is so short range that it only operates between adjacent nucleons
□ Protons on opposite sides of nucleus feel no SNF attraction but are subject to Coulombic repulsion
□ Neutrons contribute SNF but no FC so as we go along the periodic table we see the ratio of neutrons to protons increases.
□ Stable element, the number of protons and the number of neutrons are equal.
□ Unstable elements, the number of neutrons does not equal the number of protons
□ Stable nuclei have (N= Z) up to about z=40 - Beyond this, no. of N >no of Z.
□ As Z increases, the electrical repulsion force increases and so do the number of neutrons

□ As Z increases, the electrical repulsion force increases and so do the number of neutrons
□ Neutrons exert only attractive nuclear force for very large Z, which the SNF can overcome and so causes the increase repulsion force
□ No stable nuclide above Z=82.
Binding energy (Eb)
□ The mass of the stable nucleus is always less of the masses of its separate protons and neutrons
□ Binding energy is the energy that is associated with the strong force, and this energy holds the nucleus together.
□ Consider Carbon 12
Atomic mass = 12.00 amu
Recall proton = 1.007 amu, n = 1.008 amu
Expect atomic mass = 6(1.007) + 6(1.008) = 12.09 amu
□ Difference in mass= 12.09-12= 0.09 amu
□ 1 amu = 931.5 MeV
□ 0.09amu = 83.7 MeV
□ Can calculate the Binding Energy per Nucleon for 12C = 83.7/12 = 6.98MeV (A=12 (12nucleons))
□ Where has these mass loss gone?
The mass deficit gone into energy of different kind Such as radiation or Kinetic energy)
The mass-energy equation (E=mc2) tells us, some mass converted into energy during nucleus formation that is emitted as a photon.
The mass difference 0.09 amu(energy 83.7 MeV) in case of carbon 12 is referred as the binding energy of the nucleus.
Binding energy is amount of energy required to put into nucleus in order to break it apart into constitute protons and neutrons.
Note: If the mass of, say 42He nucleus were equal to masses of 2N+ 2P, the nucleus fall apart (unstable).
For stable nucleus mass 42He < mass of 2N+2P
□ The Binding Energy per Nucleon, (BEN) increases as A increases
Plateau at above 8 Mev (above A=40)
Max stability at 2656Fe
Beyond about A=80 the curve decreases indicating that the larger nuclei are unstable. Why?
• Conclusion: Heavy nuclei are more unstable than lighter nuclei because the SNF is not able to deal with the cumulative Coulombic Repulsion generated by the large
numbers of positively charged protons.
• Heavier elements nuclei adopt a different approach to achieving nuclear stability. They become more stable by emitting : charge, mass and/or energy in the form
of Radioactivity
• Every element heavier than 82Pb is naturally radioactive.
• Summary
○ Nuclei contains P and N (Collectively known as nucleon).
○ The total no. of nucleon is A ,atomic mass number, A=(Z+N)
○ Isotopes: atoms of same element having same Z but differ in A
○ Nucleus not falling apart because SNF is larger than the Fc (coulomb force)
○ The mass of stable nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its component.
○ The total binding energy is given E=Dmc2.
○ Binding energy is great enough to hold the nucleus together. The nucleus of this kind of atom is said to be stable.
○ Binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus together, and the nuclei of these atoms are said to be unstable.
1.17.5 - Identify how radioactivity effects nuclear instability
• Heavy nucleii can release energy by splitting (Fission)
• Extremely light nuclei can release energy by combining (Fusion)
• The mass deficit associated with either Fission or Fusion is converted to energy by multiplying by c2 which is huge (9 x 1016)!!! --> E = mc2
• Definition: The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an atom.
○ Property of unstable nuclei
○ spontaneous break up of nucleus
○ forms other nuclide and emits radiation
• Many factors that determine radioactivity
○ N/P ratio
Too many or too few neutrons
□ Nuclear energy state
Above its ground energy state (excited)
1.17.6 - State the physical properties of alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays
• Types of Radioactivity
○ -particle = helium nucleus
type of ionizing radiation ejected by the nuclei of some unstable atoms.
○ -particle = electron-like particle of nuclear origin
○ -ray = high energy photon
1.17.7 - Demonstrate the implications of conservation laws on radioactive decay processes.
• All radioactive decay processes must obey several Conservation Laws:
○ Conservation of Mass/Energy (E=mc2)
○ Conservation of Momentum.
○ Conservation of Charge.
○ Conservation of Nucleon Number.
1.17.8 - Describe the mechanism of alpha decay

1.17.9 - Describe the mechanism of Beta Decay: beta-minus decay, electron capture, beta-positive decay
• There are 3 Beta-particle decay processes:
○ b- decay
○ b+ decay
○ electron capture (e)
All 3 processes cause a change in Z
○ Beta Minus Decay

Neutron splits into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. Electron and antineutrino are emitted from the nucleus
○ Beta Plus Decay
Proton converts to a neutron, emitting a positron and a neutrino
Neutrinos and anti-neutrinos are extremely fast, charge-less, almost mass-less particles whose main property is that they possess momentum
They are almost completely non-interacting and can be mostly ignored

○ Electron Capture
An S electron is captured by a proton, which converts to a neutron emitting a neutrino
Electron capture is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable.
During electron capture, an electron in an atom's inner shell is drawn into the nucleus where it combines with a proton, forming a neutron and a
neutrino.
The neutrino is ejected from the atom's nucleus.
Since an atom loses a proton during electron capture, it changes from one element to another.
For example, after undergoing electron capture, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of boron (with 5 protons).
Although the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus change during electron capture, the total number of particles (protons + neutrons)
remains the same.
Electron capture is also called K-capture since the captured electron usually comes from the atom's K-shell.

1.17.10 - Describe the mechanism of gamma decay
• Gamma Rays are photons having very high energy
• Excited nucleus emits a high energy gamma photon.

• No transmutation

• No transmutation
○ -decay usually follows by or decay process, which has left a new nucleus (Daughter) in an excited state
○ Mostly rays are emitted within fraction of millisecond of primary decay
○ But sometimes there is a delay for some time before emit rays
○ The nucleus said to be in a metastable state and called Isomer.
○ This indicated by symbol m as Technetium-99m ( 99mTc).
• Summary
○ Unstable nucleus undergo radioactive decay, they change to other nuclei with emission of a, b and For g ray change from excite state to ground state (no
change in nuclei)
○ A particle is a helium nucleus, b particle is an electron or positron and g is a high energy photon.
○ Radioactive decay occurs spontaneously only when the rest mass of the product is larger than the mass of the parent nucleus.
○ The loss in mass appears as KE of the product. (E= mc2)
1.17.11 - Calculate mass deficit and binding energy per nucleon.
• Example: Calculate the total binding energy and average binding energy (Energy per nucleon) for 5626Fe.
○ 5626Fe has 26 protons and 30 neutrons
○ 26x1.0078u=26.203u
○ 30x1.0086u=30.258u
○ 26x0.00054u=0.01404
○ 56.475 - 55.935u from tables and m= 0.525u
○ The total binding energy is 0.525x931.5MeV= 489 Me
○ Average binding energy (energy per nucleon) =489/56 = 8.733 MeV
1.18 Radiation safety, dosimetry, treatment planning.
1.18.1 - Recall modes of decay.
• Often one radioactive isotope decays, to another isotope that is also radioactive (daughter).
• The daughter also decays to a third isotope, which is also radioactive.
• Such successive decays called Decay Series.
• Often, different decay modes compete in the same unstable nuclei
226
• Ra decays by:
○ emission 98.8% to 222Rn Or
○ emission 1.2% to 222Rn (in metastable state (excite state) ------>
• The degree Penetration and ionization depends on the charge, mass and speed of the different types of radiation, as well as the physical properties of the material
(i.e. density etc.).
• -Particles: are very massive and carry a double +'ve charge. Therefore they are very highly ionizing but short penetrating (can be stopped by a sheet of paper).
Range of penetration: a few cm in air a few microns in tissue (less for outer dead cell layer)
• Their energies range from ~ 4 to 10 MeV
1.18.2 - Discuss the interactions of decay products with biological tissue.
• The poor penetrating power of decay products means a lot of energy/damage is dumped in a short distance.
• -interacting with electrons in material . These electrons may be excited to higher energy states or they may be ejected, (ionization), material becomes positively
charged and the electron leaves, causes considerable secondary ionization
• -Particles: have 1.35 x 10-4 mass of a-Particles. They carry a single -'ve charge & so are less ionizing than a-particles , have much higher velocities, more
penetrating than a-particles (up to several cm of Al up to a few meters in air, millimeters in tissue).
• 's undergo random walk as they interact with electrons and nucleus in tissue
• -Rays have no charge and no mass. They therefore interact poorly with matter and tend to be very highly penetrating (metres of concrete).
• E = 0.1- 10MeV
• No interaction with tissue
• Scattering only
1.18.3 - Recall the difference between the photoelectric effect and the Compton effect.
• - rays are the least ionizing type of natural radiation but still can produce ions through the photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and Pair-Production
• Photoelectric effect
○ Incident -ray knocks out one of the loosely bound inner electrons from the absorbing atom.
○ Emitted electron is called a Photo-Electron and can cause damage in a similar fashion as b-particles. Incident photon gives all its energy to a loosely bound
electron which is emitted as a photoelectron
• Compton Effect
○ Incident g-ray knocks out a Recoil Electron from the atom as well as a lower Energy -ray which is scattered into another direction
○ Incident photon scatters off a recoil electron which is emitted along with a lower energy photon - momentum is conserved
○ Can only be explained if we treat the photons as if they possess linear momentum, even though they have no mass
○ Using p = (Planck's Constant) / wavelength
1.18.4 - Differentiate between pair production & pair annihilation.
• Pair Production
○ h 1 > 1.02MeV
○ 1.022 MeV = rest mass of 2 electrons
○ This is an example of converting energy into mass (E=mc2)
○ When high energy photons pass close to the nucleus. The photon disappears replaced by two particles (electron - positron pairs) of equal mass and charge
and moving in different directions
○ 1.01 MeV gamma ray is pertubed by nearby nucleus converting into an electron and a positron
• Pair Annihilation
○ Electron and positron recombine to produce two identical gamma rays of equal energy travelling in opposite directions along a Line of Coincidence
○ PET scanners use these coincident gamma rays to form images
SUMMARY:
• Successive decays from radioactive materials called Decay Series.
• Alpha particles are very highly ionizing but very poorly penetrating
• -Particles are less ionizing than a-particles, but much more penetrating than a-particles.`
• -Rays are very highly penetrating, the least ionizing type, still can produce ions through the
• Photo-electric Effect, Compton Effect, and Pair-Production
1.18.5 - State the radioactive decay equation.
• Radioactive nuclei decay spontaneously, they either go, or don’t go, randomly:.
• The more radioactive atoms in a sample, the greater probability that a decays will occur in a set time interval.
• If there are N radioactive nuclei at some time t, then the number DN which would decay in any given time interval t would be proportional to N:

1.18.6 - Use the radioactive decay equation to illustrate half-life.
• Similar to the Lambert - Beer Law
• The number of emissions per second is called the Activity A,
○ A= -dN/dt= -d(No e- t) / dt
where A o = - No at t=o (initial activity)
• Half-life (T1/2)
• Half life of radionuclide is defined as: the time it take for a number of radioactive nuclei to decay to one half the original number No.
• setting N=No/2 at t=T1/2
1.18.7 - Define the terms; activity, Becquerel, the Curie.

• Activity units
○ 1 Curie = amount of material that will produce 3.7 x 1010 nuclear decays per second..( lab. Source in mCi)
○ 1 Becquerel = amount of material which will produce 1 nuclear decay per second.
○ 1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 Becquerel's.
• Example: Na- 24 has an initial activity of 4.6 x107 Bq, and Na-24 has half-life of 15 hr, given NA=6.0x1023 mol-1, calculate: a- the decay constant, b-the initial mass of
N-24, c- the activity of the N-24 after 2 days

1.18.8 - Define the terms absorbed dose and quality factor.
• Absorbed Dose (D) is the energy imparted by ionizing radiation to a unit mass of absorbing tissue.
○ The energy absorbed per unit mass - SI unit is: 1J per kg= 1 Gray = 1 Gy
○ Clinicians prefer units of rads - 1Gy = 100 rad
• Absorption Dose gives little information on the effect of radiation on biological systems.
• Some radioactive species are nastier than others
• Probability of cell damage is much greater for 1 rad of a-radiation than for 1 rad of g-radiation.
• We quantify this by using the Quality Factor QF, which is a relative factor for damage to biological cells.
• QF: define as biological effect of a given dose relative biological effect of an equal dose of X-ray
• Radiation Quality factors for various types of radiation
• We can then compare dose with that for a 200keV x-ray and g-ray (QF=1) using a quantity called the Dose Equivalent (DE)
• DE = D x QF
• SI Units = Sievert (Sv) = 1 Gy x QF
• Clinicians prefer DE units of Roentgen Equivalent Men (rem)
○ 1Sv = 100 rem
○ 1 rem = 1 rad x QF
○ Some biological organs are susceptible to radiation induced damage than others. For example, the gonads are more sensitive than the skin.
1.18.9 - Differentiate between equivalent dose (dose equivalent) and effective dose.
• Since the different organ tissues vary in their sensitivity to radiation, a factor must be introduced to weight this sensitivity, in order to compare effective doses
between organs
• The effective dose is the summation of equivalent doses weighted by the organ factor
• To account for this the Effective Dose (ED) - (but often called the dose) is given by:
• ED = DE x TWF
○ TWF = tissue weighting factor
• Example: Lungs, Liver & Bones receive DE’s of 100, 70 and 300 mSv resp.
○ ED = (100).(0.12)+(70).(0.05)+(300).(0.01) = 18.5 mSv
• Dose Calculation
○ A 88% of g ray incident energy of 0.0022 J was absorbed by a tissue of 12 cm . If the exposed area is 0.1m2. Find a- Absorbed dose. b- Dose equivalent. c-
effective dose equivalent. Energy absorbed is 0.88 x0.0022 =1.94x10-3 J
1.18.10 - Explain physiological effect of radiation.

• International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) has set the Maximum Permissible Dose (MPD) at:
• General Population = 1mSv Radiation Workers = 20mSv
• Average risk factor for the world population is 0.05Sv-1 i.e.
• 1 Sv annual dose - risk of dying from cancer = 5% (5 in 100).
• 1mSv dose -risk is 5 in 100000
• An exposure to 5 mSv radiation carries the same risk (1 in 20,000 per year) as:
○ Smoking 75 cigarettes
2500 mile car journey

○ 2500 mile car journey
○ 12500 mile air journey
○ Rock climbing for 75 min
○ Factory work for 1 year
○ Being a 30 yr old man for 20 days
○ Being a 60 yr old man for 16h
1.18.11 - State commonly used maximum permissible doses.
• Standard chest x-ray dose = 0.017mSv.
• CT scan of same part of body = 8mSv (why?)
• Diagnostic Nuclear medicine (Tc99)
• dose = 1 - 7 mSv
1.18.12 - Discuss environmental radioactivity.
1.19 - Lasers 1 - Structures and Operation

1.19.1 - Recall what the acronym LASER stands for.
• LASER - Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
1.19.2 - Recall the atomic processes of photon absorption and emission.
• Lasing Action
○ Process that occurs in matter
○ Since matter is composed of atoms, we need to understand about the structure of the atom and its energy states
• Bohr's Model (1913)
○ Every atom is composed of a very massive nucleus with a positive electric charge (Ze) around it electrons are moving in specific orbits
Z = number of protons in the nucleus
E = charge of electrons
○ The electron around the nucleus is connected to a specific energy level; E1, E2, E3 (energy states)
• When the atom receives energy, the electron raises to a higher energy level - the atom is then considered to be in an excited state
• The energy difference between the two energy levels (E3 - E1) determines uniquely the frequency and wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation
○ ( E) = E3-E1 = h = hC/
• If electrons move between energy levels in an atom:
○ If an atom absorbs a photon, low - energy electron jumps to a higher level (called ABSORPTION)
A photon with frequency 12 (f12) hits an atom at rest and excites it to a higher energy level (E2) while the photon is absorbed
○ If an electron drops from a higher level to a lower level, a photon is emitted (called EMISSION)
1.19.3 - Demonstrate an understanding of the processes of stimulated emission of radiation and population inversion.
• Moving electrons between levels, involves the following processes
○ Stimulation Absorption
Ground state electron absorbs a photon of energy E2 - E1 and is excited to a higher energy level
○ Spontaneous Emission
An atom in an excited state emits a photon with frequency 12 and goes to a lower energy level (E1)
Excited electron decays to the ground state emitting a photon of energy E2 - E1
○ Stimulation Emission
A photon with frequency 12 hit an excited atom and causes the emission of two photons with frequency 12 while the atom goes to a lower energy
level (E1)
Stimulated emission is usually much rarer than spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission is important for lasing action
Incident photon of energy E2 - E1 stimulates the excited electron to decay to the ground state
Emitted photon has identical energy, phase and travels in the same direction
○ Population Inversion
Since stimulated emission is usually much rarer than spontaneous emission
Laser action requires a lot of stimulation emission and so we need population inversion
□ The overpopulation of the upper state relative to the lower lasing state is called population inversion
□ This leads to excessive stimulation emission relative to spontaneous emission
□ Population inversion can easily occur in multi-level systems where there is an intermediate meta-stable level that has an unusually long excitation
lifetime.
Metastable state means that the stimulated absorption of a photon of energy (= E 3 - E1), excites the electron in the highest energy level.
Electrons are excited randomly up into the highest energy level by stimulated absorption of blue photons of energy hf = E 3 - E1.

Electrons are excited randomly up into the highest energy level by stimulated absorption of blue photons of energy hf = E 3 - E1.
1.19.4 - State and define the main characteristics of laser radiation (coherent, collimated and monochromatic).
• Laser Levels
○ Three Level Laser
The two energy levels between which lasing occur are: the lower laser energy level (E1), and the upper laser energy level (E2).
Pulsed operation possible
○ Four Level Laser
Compared to the equivalent diagram of a three level laser, there is an extra energy level above the ground state
This extra energy level has a very short lifetime
○ Advantages of four level lasers compared to three level lasers
The lasing threshold of a four level laser is lower
The efficiency is higher
Required lower pumping rate
Continuous operation is possible
• Properties of laser radiation; laser radiation is characterized into:
○ Monochromaticity
Means one colour which is called spectral line - means one wavelength
○ Directionality
Radiation comes out of the laser in a certain direction, and spreads at a defined divergence angle ( ) (small divergence angle)
□ I.e. collimated, narrow beam
Coherence
□ All waves of light are generated in phase with each other
□ The wave crests and troughs are locked together
□ Coherent laser radiation involves - monochromatic and directional
□ Non - coherent laser radiation involves polychromatic and non - direction.
1.19.5 - Describe the basic structure and operation of a laser.
• Laser System - all lasers basically consist of three components
○ Active Medium - serves as an optical amplifier
Collection of atoms or molecules, which can be excited into a population inversion situation
Can be solid, liquid, gas or plasma
Determines the possible wavelengths that can be emitted from the laser
○ Excitation Mechanism
Source of energy that raises the atoms in the active medium into their excited state, thus creating population inversion
Optical pumping, excitation by photons - flash lamps and other lasers
Electrical Excitation of a gas
□ Electron receives the energy from the collision with the accelerated free electrons
Collision with atoms
□ In this method at least two gasses are inside the laser tube
□ One gas receives the energy from the collision with the accelerated free electrons which results in the excitation of molecules
□ The second gas receives energy by collisions with the excited molecules of the first gas.
He - Ne, CO2 lasers
Chemical excitation
□ In this excitation, the energy is supplied by the chemical reaction between two atoms or molecules
Electric current in diode lasers
○ Cavity (feedback)
Using mirrors at both ends of the active medium
These mirrors are aligned so that the radiation is moving back and forth between them
○ Output Coupler
Partially reflecting mirror allows part of the beam transmitted
1.19.6 - Discuss how laser radiation differs from other light sources.
• Lasers differ from other sources of light because they emit light coherently.
• Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications like laser cutting and lithography.
• Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over long distances (collimation), enabling applications such as laser pointers.
• Lasers can also have high temporal coherence which allows them to have a very narrow spectrum, i.e., they only emit a single color of light.
• Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light—as short as a femtosecond.
• Laser output radiation properties
○ Beam Output
Constant flow of energy
Continuous wave laser OR as multiple discrete pulses (pulsed laser)
○ Wavelength
Property of the laser medium
○ Output radiation
Radiation energy is described in different terms for continuous radiation and pulsed radiation
○ For Continuous laser
The laser power (P) is a good measure:
□ P = Energy / change in time
Units is Watts
○ For pulsed laser
Detailed parameters of the pulses are needed
□ Energy per pulse (Ep)
Pulse duration, which is the change in time, is called the pulse width (ms = 10-3s to fs = 10-15s)
Number of pulses per second (PPS), which is called frequency, (repitition) (Hz - MHz)
□ Ppeak = Epulse / Tpulse where T is pulse duration
Pulse duration of a laser is 50ns, repitition 5 Hz and its pulse energy is 3mJ. Calculate the maximum power of the laser
◊ Ppeak = Epulse / Tpulse = (3 x 10-3) / (50 X 10-9) = 60000W = 60kW
◊ Paverage = Epulse x f = 3 x 10-3 x 5 = 15mW
□ Paverage = Epulse x frequency (Repetition rate)
• Beam Focusing
○ When a laser beam is focused by a positive lens with focal length f, the spot size (beam diameter w0) at the focus can be approximated by:
W0 = (1.27 x wavelength x frequency) / Diameter

W0 = (1.27 x wavelength x frequency) / Diameter
○ Irradiance at the retina
Example
□ A laser pointer produces a 2-mW beam. The beam enters the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens to a spot on the retina w o=16 mm in
diameter. Find the irradiance (intensity) on the retina, assuming that all of the 2 mW of power is focused on the retina.
Area of spot
◊ = πWo2 / 4
◊ = (1.6 x 10-3cm)2/4
= 2 x 10-6 cm2
Irradiance:
◊ I = P/A
◊ = 2 mW/[2 x 10-6 cm2]
◊ = 1000 W/cm2
• Mathematics in Laser Radiation
○ Power = laser output expressed as watts
○ Energy = laser output expressed as joules
○ Fluence = laser energy density => expressed as joules / cm2
Intensity = laser power density => expressed as watts/cm2
○ 1 watt = 1 joule/second
○ Watts x Seconds = joules
1.19.7 - Discuss different laser types and how this determines the emitted wavelength.
• Different types of laser
○ Solid State Lasers
The active medium is a doped crystal rod i.e. Nd: YAG, RUBY, Titanium - Sapphire, etc.
○ Gas Lasers
The active medium is a single or mixture of gases e.g. excimer lasers, carbon dioxide, copper vapour, He : Ne, etc.
○ Dye Lasers
Tuneable lasers where the active medium is a dye
○ Diode Lasers
Small semiconductor diodes as the active medium
• Common Visible light lasers
○ Gold Vapour 627
○ HeNe 633
○ Rohodamine (6G dye) 650
○ Ruby
○ CrAlO3 694
○ HeNE 610
○ Kr 568
○ Copper Vapour 570
○ Rohodamine (6G dye) 570
○ HeNe 590
○ Copper Vapour 510
○ Argon 514
○ Kr 528
○ Nd YAG 532 (frequency 2x)
○ HeNe 543
○ Kr 476
○ Argon 488
○ HeCd 411
• Delivery systems
○ Free Beam
Direct beam of light
○ Optical Fibre
Transmitting laser beam through very thin fibres to the target point
○ Articulated arm
Reflections using mirrors
• The light spots on the retina are produced by 0.25 s exposures to a green laser beam with a power of 10 mW. Each of these exposures heated the retinal tissue to
the point that the protein cooked, producing a “white burn”.
• This is the most common type of laser eye injury in humans.
• It is likely that thousands of people have received these small retinal burns.
• They are permanent blind spots.
• If the burn is outside the macula, the effect on vision is small.
• If the burn is inside the macula, the effect is much greater.
• One such burn in the center of the macula will mean that you cannot thread a needle using that eye.
• A slightly larger spot or multiple spots will make reading difficult.
• This type of injury can be prevented by wearing laser safety eyewear.
1.20 - Lasers 2: Tissue interactions and medical applications, Oximetry
1.20.1 - Understand and define the terms absorption, scattering, and tissue optical properties in relation to laser radiation.
•
1.20.2 - Describe how absorption of laser radiation by biological chromophores varies with laser wavelength.
1.20.3 - Describe how optical penetration depth varies with laser wavelength, and illustrate specific examples of how different lasers will interact with
tissue (CO2 and Nd:YAG).
1.20.4 - Discuss the implications of accidental exposure to skin and eyes from absorption dominated, and scattering dominated laser sources.
1.20.5 - Define the terms: energy, exposure time, power, radiant exposure, and irradiance in relation to laser radiation.
1.20.6 - Differentiate between photochemical, thermal and photomechanical interactions when tissue is exposed to laser radiation.
1.20.7 - Differentiate between specular and diffuse reflections and discuss the significance of this in relation to laser safety.
1.20.8 - Demonstrate knowledge of the wide range of laser therapies commonly used (i.e. PDT, surgery, retinal welding, port wine stain removal,
tumour therapy, LASIK, tattoo removal etc.).
1.20.9 - Explain the basic principles of transcutaneous pulse oximetry (TPO).

1.20.9 - Explain the basic principles of transcutaneous pulse oximetry (TPO).
1.20.10 - Describe basic constituents of a TPO system.
1.20.11 - Restate Beer’s law.
1.20.12 - Differentiate between absorption spectra of oxygenated and non-oxygenated blood.
1.20.13 - Explain basic principles of TPO operation.
1.20.14 - Distinguish between conditions that produce artifactual readings.
1.20.15 - Demonstrate understanding of the readings resulting from relevant medical conditions (CO poisoning, met-haemoglobin, etc).
1.21 - Refraction, Fibre Optics and Endoscopy
1.21.1 - Define ‘refractive index’.
• The Refractive Index (n) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (C) to the speed of light in the medium (V), i.e.
○ Refractive Index = speed of light in a vacuum / speed of light in the medium -----> n = C/V
C = 3 x 108 ms-1
• This is a dimensionless quantity whose value is greater than, or equal to 1.
• It is similar to the acoustical impedance (z) in sound.
○ Acoustic Impedance is opposition to the flow of sound through a surface; acoustic resistance is the real component of acoustic impedance and acoustic
reactance is the imaginary component
1.21.2 - Explain refraction of light.
• Light is bent or refracted as it travels from one medium to another with a different value of refractive index.
• When light travels from a less dense medium to a more dense medium (i.e. air to water), the light rays bend towards the normal.
• When light travels from a more dense medium to a less dense medium (i.e. water to air), the light rays bend away from the normal.
1.21.3 - Write the equation describing Snell’s Law.
• The relationship between the angle of incidence ( i) and the angle of refraction ( r) is given by Snell’s Law:
○ n1sin i = n2sin R
n1 is the first ray while n2 is the second ray
If n2 > n1 → Rays bend toward the normal.
If n2 < n1 → Rays bend away from the normal.
1.21.4 - Define ‘dispersion’.
• A wave of light has a speed in a transparent medium that varies inversely with the index of refraction (a measure of the angle by which the direction of a wave is
changed as it moves from one medium into another).
• Any transparent medium—e.g., a glass prism—will cause an incident parallel beam of light to fan out according to the refractive index of the glass for each of the
component wavelengths, or colours.
• Dispersion is sometimes called the separation of light into colours, an effect more properly called angular dispersion.
1.21.5 - Define ‘total internal reflection (TIR)’ and outline the conditions under which it occurs.
• Total Internal Reflection
○ When light travels from a more dense medium to a less dense medium, a proportion of the light is reflected and some is refracted
○ As the angle of incidence increases:
The angle of refraction increases
The intensity of the refracted beam decreases
The intensity of the reflected beam increases
○ For any angle of incidence greater than the critical angle (i.e. i > c), NO refracted beam is observed, AND all of the light is reflected.
○ TIR occurs when the first medium has a larger refractive index than the second medium
○ Another condition is that the incidence angle has to be more than or equal to Sin^-1 (n2/n1) (or the critical angle)
• In normal specular reflection, the reflected beam is always weaker than the incident beam
• However, in TIR there is NO loss in intensity in the totally internally reflected beam
• Hence, prisms are often used to produce TIR in sensitive optical instruments rather than mirrors.
• Light is traveling slower in the first medium than in the second medium (v1 < v2)
• Thus light is moving from medium of higher refractive index to one of lower refractive index (n1 > n2)
• Critical angle (C) is defined when the angle of refraction is 90o to the normal ( 2 = 90o)
• TIR occurs when angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle ( 1 > C)
1.21.6 - Define ‘critical angle’ and calculate this for a range of different conditions.
• When the angle of refraction = 90o, the refracted beam lies parallel to the surface.
• The corresponding angle of incidence ( c) is called the critical angle.
• Snell’s Law states that n1Sin i = n2Sin R
• When TIR is just occurring, r = 90o.
○ Sin r = 1
• At this point, the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, and hence we can rearrange Snell’s Law to get Sin c = n2/n1
• If the incident ray is increased beyond the critical angle, the light is no longer refracted
• Instead, it is reflected back inside the medium
• This is called “total internal reflection”
• When incident angle is greater than the critical angle (i>C), there is no refracted rays, all emergent rays are internally reflected
1.21.7 - Explain how a fibre-optic cable works.
• An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light
• It consists of a core and cladding that surrounds the core
• The fibre-optic cable MUST be covered with a cladding material which has a LOWER refractive index than the core cable itself
• A ray of light entering the fibre-optic cable will undergo TIR provided the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle for the fibre.
• Provided the cable curves gradually, light will travel its entire length unattenuated.
• A single fibre optic cable CANNOT transmit an entire image since all of the rays coming from different parts of the object would be completely scrambled due to
multiple reflections within the cable
• For a single f-o cable, the intensity exiting the cable is the same as that entering.
1.21.8 - Define ’acceptance angle’ and ‘numerical aperture’ and calculate these for a range of different conditions.
• Numerical Aperture
○ The measurement of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber, which is the maximum angle at which the core of the fiber will take in light that will be
contained within the core.
○ Taken from the fiber core axis (center of core), the measurement is the square root of the squared refractive index of the core minus the squared refractive
index of the cladding.
○ The numerical aperture of the fiber is closely related to the critical angle and is often used in the specification for optical fiber
○ All rays of light falling within the acceptance angle will undergo TIR.
○ N.A. = Sin A
The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture

○ The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture
○ A= i
• Acceptance Angle
○ It is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.
○ A = 90o - C
○ Note, if the acceptance angle is 0o (i.e. the critical angle is 90o), then N.A. = Sin(0o) = 0
1.21.9 - Discuss the significance of the above with regard to fibre-optics in endoscopes.
• For a cylindrical fibre-optic cable, the acceptance angle defines an Acceptance Cone - within which any light entering the cable will undergo TIR
• Any light rays entering the fibre-optic cable within this acceptance cone will undergo total internal reflection.
• Technology that uses light to transmit information along glass cables
• Fibre optics cable is made up of a bundle of glass fibres
• Sample materials: high-purity glass, Lucite
• Fiber optics cable has a small critical angle, thus a high refractive index
• Light entering will always have an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle
• Light does not escape as it travels along the fiber optics cable because it undergoes total internal reflection
• Signals are not affected by electrical storms.
• Cable is smaller and lighter than copper cable.
• More signals can be carried over longer distances.
1.21.10 - Discuss the role of fibre-optic cables in endoscopy.
• An endoscope is a flexible fibre optic cable through which internal cavities can be viewed.
• Routinely used in the diagnosis of cancer and ulcers.
• Endoscopy examination of a stomach
• Endoscope inserted through the patient's mouth and fed down through throat
• Image obtained by endoscope is projected onto a screen
• A surgical instrument for obtaining a biopsy has been fed through the endoscope cable and controlled by the doctor
• Doctors using a fibroscope to investigate suspected lung cancer in a patient's bronchi (airways). A fibroscope is a flexible fibre optic cable with a camera on the end,
similar to an endoscope.
• Optical fibres are narrow tubes of glass fibres with a plastic coating that carry light from one end to the other.
• The light bounces off the walls of the fibre and can even bounce around corners.
• Medical - to transmit pictures of organs and arteries
• Light rays use total internal reflection to travel along the fibres. In order for this to be achieved, the light ray must hit the walls of the fibre at a minimum angle of
82°, which is the critical angle for light travelling from glass to plastic. Since the fibres are very narrow, this is usually not a problem.
• Light is guided to the area under investigation by non-coherent fibre optic bundles (bundles where the optical fibres are not lined up at both ends).
• However, the image must be transmitted back by a coherent fibre optic bundle (a bundle where the optical fibres are lined up at both ends of the fibre so that an
image can be transmitted).
• In order to produce a clear image, the shaft contains up to 10 000 fibres
• The shaft is only 10mm in diameter and can be up to 2 metres long.
• It is flexible and coated in steel and plastic in order to make it waterproof, prevent chemical damage and to make it easy to manoeuvre through the body.
1.21.11 - Explain what endoscopy is.
• Endoscopy : is the examination and inspection of the interior of body organs, joints or cavities through an endoscope to allows physicians to see through the body's
passageways.
• An Endoscope is a device using fiber optics and powerful lens systems to provide lighting and visualization of the interior of a joint.
○ The portion of the endoscope inserted into the body may be rigid or flexible, depending upon the medical procedure.
1.21.12 - Explain how an endoscope is constructed and how it works.
• Most endoscopes use 2 bundles of fibre-optic cables - one to illuminate the region of interest (can use a few larger diameter cables for this), and the other to
transmit the image (need lots of small diameter cables for this).
• Others might have a biopsy channel and additional channels for passing water or air to the region of interest.
• However, full images can be transmitted using bundles of fibres, where each fibre transmits rays from a very small area of the object being viewed.
• Hence, the quality or resolution of the image being formed is determined by the diameter of each fibre-optic cable (some can be as small as 10-6 m) AND the
number of cables present in the bundle.
• Endoscopes can be used to diagnose disease, but they can also be used in conjunction with mechanical devices or lasers for therapeutic purposes.

1.21.13 - List the main clinical types of endoscopy.
• Flexible endoscopy
○ GASTROSCOPY: To see the gullet, stomach. esophagus, stomach, and duodenum and the first part of the small intestine.
○ COLONOSCOPY: To see the large intestine from the lowest part, the rectum.
○ PROCTOSCOPY: This is used to check for piles and other conditions of the anus and rectum.
○ Bronchoscopy: to see the air passages to the lungs through the nose or mouth
○ Laryngoscopy: to see the larynx or voice box
○ Cystoscopy: through the urethra into the urinary bladder.
○ Thoracoscopy : to see inside the chest cavity.
• Surgical Endoscopy (Rigid Endoscope)
○ Laparoscopy. The endoscope is inserted through an incision in the abdominal in order to look at abdominal organs and preform minor surgery
○ Arthroscopy. The endoscope is inserted through an incision in the skin near a joint under investigation. This can be used to look at the joint and preform
operations such as removing torn tissues
○ Nasopharyngoscopy: to see the nose and related cavities.
○ Proctoscopy: for visual inspection of the rectum.
• Capsule Endoscopy
○ Disposable flash camera only slightly larger than a vitamin pill. In a procedure called capsule endoscopy, the patient swallows the minicamera, which then
takes pictures inside the small intestine.
○ On its journey through the digestive tract, the tiny tumbling camera transmits images that are stored in a recorder that the person wears around the waist.
○ After 8 hours, the camera's battery runs out, and the capsule is eliminated in the faeces. then download the recorder's images into a computer.

Module 1 Notes: 1.1 - Introduction To Medical Physics (Not Assessed)

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16 September 2013 19:07

1.1 - Introduction to Medical Physics (not assessed)

Foundation Year Semester 1 Page 1

1.2.4 - Differentiate between vector and scalar quantities.

Foundation Year Semester 1 Page 2

○ (lamda) = wavelength = dist. in metres between each following maxima or minima

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• Distance - distance is position, your coordinates.

• Displacement can be regarded as

• Acceleration - The rate of change of velocity with time

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• Consider an elevator moving UPWARD with an acceleration of a.

1.4.7 - Define work, power and energy.

1.4.9 - Discuss the conservation of energy.

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1.4.10 - Demonstrate an understanding of the Work-Energy Principle.

1.5 - Impulse & Automobile Design

• Large Force applied in a small time (0.5s)

• ~ wt. exerted by 360kg

• ~ wt. exerted by 36kg

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m1 looses little speed ( lower v1) and m2 moves at speed v2 ~twice u1

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1.10.4 - Explain the principle of operation of a phased-array ultrasound probe.

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• Pl=Power per m² (area per m wavelength)

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• Where e is the electron charge and V is the accelerating voltage.

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1.17.3 - Recall atomic mass units

• Element are specified using the following notation:

□ k is constant = 9x109 Nm2C-2

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○ Beta Minus Decay

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• Excited nucleus emits a high energy gamma photon.

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where A o = - No at t=o (initial activity)

1.18.7 - Define the terms; activity, Becquerel, the Curie.

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1.18.10 - Explain physiological effect of radiation.

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1.19 - Lasers 1 - Structures and Operation

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