Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
FOOD
MICROBIOLOGY
Editor-in-Chief
RICHARD K. ROBINSON
Editors
CARL A. BATT
PRADIP D. PATEL
u
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and Nematodes
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Access for a limited period to an on-line version of the Encyclopedia o f Food Microbiology
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00 01 02 03 04 05 BP 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 3
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
R G Board G W Gould
South Lodge 17 Dove Road
Northleigh Bedford MK41 7AA
Bradford-on-Avo? UK
Wi Its hi re
BA152RG UK
M Griffiths
Department of Food Science
R L Buchanan
University of Guelph
US Food and Drug Admiiistration
Guelph, Ontaro N1G 2W1
Center for F3od Safety a i d Applied Nutritior:
Canaca
200 C-Street, SW
Washington
20204 DC USA G Kalantzopoulos
Department of Food Science and Technology
D 0 Cliver Agricultural University of Athens
Department of PopLlation Health and Reproduction Botanikos 118 55
School of Veterinary Medicine Athens Greece
University of California, Davis
Davis CA 956 16-8743
USA T Keshavarz
Schoo of Biological and Health Sciences
B Colonna Ceccaldi University of Westminster
Industrial Microbiology 115 New Cavendish Street
Pernod Ricard London W1 M 83s
Centre de Recherche UK
120 Avenue du Marechal Foch
94015 Creteil Cedex, France P Kulkarni
University of Murnbai
M A Cousin Department of Chemical Technology
DepartTent of Food Science Nathalal Parikh Marg
1160 Smth Hall Matunga
Purdue University Mumbai-400 019
W Lafayette IN 47907 India
USA
C 0 Gill S Notermans
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Researcn Centre TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute
6000 C & E Trail PO Box 360
Lacombe, Alberta 3700 AJ Zeist
T4L 1W 1 Canada The Netherlands
vi Editorial Advisory Board
Y Oda F M Rombouts
Department of Applied Biological Science LUW
Fukuyarna University PO Box 8129
Fukuyarna, Hiroshima 729-0292 6700 EV Wageningen
Japan The Netherlands
B Ozer A N Sharpe
Faculty of Agriculture PO Box 1224
Department of Food Science and Technology Alrnonte
University of Harran Ontario KOA 1AO
Sanliurfa Canada
Turkey
K Steinkraus
T A Roberts
Department of Food Microbiology
Food Safety Consultant
Cornell University
59 Edenharn Crescent
15 Cornell Street, lthaca
Reading RGl 6HU
N Y 14850, USA
UK
Public concern about food safety has never been greater. In part this is due to the ever increasing demand
from consumers for higher and higher standards. But new food-borne pathogens like E. coli 0157 have
emerged in recent years to become important public health problems, and changes in production and
manufacturing sometimes reopen doors of opportunity for old ones. A powerful reminder that food scientists
have much unfinished business to attend to is provided by the succession of food scares that generate strong
stories for the media.
Experience tells us that science must underpin all approaches to food safety, whether through the application
and implementation of well-tried approaches or the development of new or improved methods. Microbiologists
have had a central role in this since the high quality work of pioneers like van Ermengem on botulism and
Gaffky on typhoid more than a century ago. The large amount of important data that has accumulated since
then joins with the current rapid rates of technological and scientific advance to make the need for a structured
and authoritative source of information a very pressing one. It is provided by this encyclopedia.
These are exciting times for food microbiologists. Expectations are high that as scientists we will soon
provide answers to the many problems still posed by microbes - from spoilage to food poisoning. Approaches
like HACCP are making everyone think hard about how best to apply the data we have to develop better
ways for reducing and eliminating food-borne pathogens. The pace of scientific developments continues to
accelerate and more and better methods are available for the detection and enumeration of microbes than
ever before. The microbes themselves continue to evolve and so present moving targets. The solid foundation
presented by the mass of information in this encyclopedia provides the launching pad and guide for meeting
these challenges.
It could be said that a penalty of working in food microbiology is that because the subject is broad-ranging,
mature and dynamic, its practitioners, teachers and students have to know about many things in breadth and
depth. For most of us, of course, this is not a penalty but an attractive bonus because of its intellectual
challenge. I am particularly pleased to be associated with the encyclopedia because it will help us all to meet
this test with confidence. I wish it every success.
Professor H Pennington
Department of Medical Microbiology
University of Aberdeen
INTRODUCTION
The advent of antibiotics gave the general public, and many professional microbiologists as well, the feeling
that bacterial diseases were under control, and the elimination of smallpox and the control of polio suggested
that even viruses posed few problems. However, this complacency has received a nasty jolt over the last
decade, and the emergence of HIV and multiple-drug-resistant strains of bacteria has become a major concern
for the medical profession. The food industry has been similarly shaken by the appearance of new, and
potentially fatal, strains of Escherichia coli, a species that for over 100 years was regarded as little more than
a nuisance. Equally unexpected was the devastating impact of BSE, and fresh reports of the activities of so-
called ‘emerging food-borne pathogens’ are appearing with alarming regularity.
In some cases, it has been possible to understand, with the advantages of hindsight, why a particular species
of bacterium, fungus or protozoan has become a major risk to human health while, on other occasions, the
vagaries of nature have left the ‘experts’ totally bemused. However, even in these latter situations, control
over the threat posed to food supplies has to be instituted, but the ability of the food industry, in conjunction
with Public Health and other bodies, to develop effective responses can only be as good as the scientific
knowledge available. In the case of food microbiology, this background has to be derived from a wide range
of sources. Thus, agricultural practices may alter the biochemistry of a crop and, perhaps, its microflora as
well; the microflora of any given foodstuff and/or processing facility will have specific characteristics that
need to be understood before control is possible; techniques must be available to monitor a retail food for
microorganisms that would pose a risk to the consumer. As the procedures necessary to monitor these various
facets become ever more sophisticated, so fewer microbiologists can claim total competence, and the need for
a specialist source of outside knowledge increases.
It is this latter need that the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology seeks to satisfy for, within this work, a
busy microbiologist can find details of all the important genera of food-borne bacteria and fungi, how the
same genera may react in different foods and under different environmental conditions, and how to detect
the growth and/or metabolism of the same organisms in foods using classical o r modern techniques. In order
to place this information into a broader context, the reader can explore the latest advice concerning food
standards/specifications, or the role of monitoring systems like HACCP in achieving product targets for
specific microorganisms; potential concerns over viruses and protozoa are also evaluated in the light of current
knowledge. Readers interested in fermented foods will find the pertinent information in a similarly accessible
form; indeed, purchasers of the print version of the encyclopedia will be entitled to register for access to the
on-line version as well. This form allows the user the benefit of extensive hypertext linking and advanced
search tools, adding value to the encyclopedia as a reference source, teaching aid and text for general interest.
It is inevitable, of course, that short articles written to a tight deadline may have omissions, but it is to be
hoped that such faults are minimal and, in any event, more than compensated for through the careful selections
of further reading. If this optimism is justified, then the major credit rests with the authors of each article.
They are all recognized as experts in their fields, and their willing participation has been much appreciated
by the editors. The role of the Editorial Advisory Board merits a special mention as well, for their constructive
xii Introduction
criticisms of the list of articles, their suggestions for authors and their expert refereeing of the manuscripts
has provided a solid foundation for the entire enterprise.
However, the finest manuscripts are of little value to the scientific community until they have been published,
and the editorial team at Academic Press - Carey Chapman (Editor-in-Chief),Tina Holland (Associate Editor),
Nick Fallon (Commissioning Editor), Laura O’Neill (Editorial Assistant), Tamsin Cousins (Production Project
Manager), Richard Willis (Freelance Project Manager), Emma Parkinson (Electronic Publishing Developer),
Peter Lord (Publishing Services Manager), Emma Krikler (Picture Researcher) - have been outstanding in
their support of the project. Obviously, each member of the team has made an important contribution, but it
must be recorded that the role of Tina Holland has been absolutely invaluable. Thus, not only has Tina co-
ordinated the numerous inputs from the editors, referees and authors, but even found time to help the editors
with the location of authors; the editors acknowledge this unstinting assistance with much gratitude.
Although food microbiology and food safety have, in recent times, become major concerns for governments
around the world, equally importts the fact that, without yeasts and bacteria, popular meals like bread
and cheese would not exist. Consequently, a knowledge of the relationship between foodstuffs and the
activities of bacteria, yeasts and mycelial fungi has become a top priority for everyone associated with food
and its production. Farmers have concerns related to produce harvesting and storage, food processors have
to generate wholesome retail products that are both free from pathogenic organisms and have a satisfactory
shelf life and, last but not least, food handlers and consumers need to be aware of the procedures necessary
to ensure that food is safely prepared and stored.
In order for these disparate groups to operate successfully, accurate and objective information about the
microbiology of foods is essential, and this encyclopedia seeks to provide a source of such information. In
some areas, introductory articles are provided to guide readers who may be less familiar with the subject but,
in general, superficiality has been avoided. Thus, the coverage has been developed to include details of all the
important groups of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites, the various methods that can be employed for their
detection in foods, the factors that govern the behaviour of the same organisms, together with an analysis of
likely outcomes of microbial growth/metabolism in terms of disease and/or spoilage. A further series of articles
describes the contribution of microorganisms to industrial fermentations, to traditional food fermentations
from the Middle or Far East, as well as during the production of the fermented foods like bread, cheese or
yoghurt that are so familiar in industrialized societies. The division of these topics into 358 articles of
approximately 4000 words, has meant that the contributing authors have been able to handle their specialist
subject(s) in real depth.
Obviously, another group of editors might have approached the project in a different manner, but we feel
confident that this encyclopedia will provide readers at all levels of expertise with the data being sought. A
point enhanced, perhaps, by the inclusion at the end of each article of a list for further reading, comprising a
selection of review articles and key research papers that should encourage further exploration of any selected
topic. If this confidence is borne out in practice, then the efforts of the contributors, the members of the
Editorial Board and the editorial team from Academic Press will be well rewarded, for raising the scientific
profile of food microbiology is long overdue.
VOLUME 1
A
ACCREDITATION SCHEMES see LABORATORY MANAGEMENT Accreditation Schemes
ACETOBACTER R K Hommel, P Ahnert 1
ACINETOBACTER P Kampfer 7
ADENYLATE KINASE M J Murphy, D J Squirrel1 16
AEROBIC METABOLISM see METABOLIC PATHWAYS: Release of Energy (Aerobic); Release of
Energy (Anaerobic)
AEROMONAS
Introduction IS Blair, M A S McMahon, D A McDowell 25
Detection by Cultural and Modern Techniques B Austin 30
AFLATOXIN see MYCOTOXlNS: Classification
ALCALIGENES T J Klem 38
ALE see LAGER
ALGAE see SINGLE-CELL PROTEIN: The Algae
ALTERNARIA S E Lopez, D Cabral 42
ANAEROBIC METABOLISMsee METABOLIC PATHWAYS: Release of Energy (Anaerobic)
ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING see CHILLED STORAGE OF FOODS: Packaging with Antimicrobial
Properties
ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS see NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS: Preservative Effects
During Storage; Antimicrobial Compounds in Plants; Lysozyme and Other Proteins in Eggs;
Lactoperoxidase and Lactoferrin
ARCOBACTER IV Wesley 50
ARTHROBACTER M Gobbetti, E Smacchi 54
ASPERGILLUS
Introduction P-K Chang, D Bhatnagar, T E Cleveland 62
Aspergillus oryzae K Gomi 66
Aspergillus flaws D Bhatnagar; T E Cleveland, G A Payne 72
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY see MICROSCOPY Atomic Force Microscopy
ATP BIOLUMINESCENCE
Application in Meat Industry D A Bautista 80
xliv Contents
B
BACILLUS
Introduction M K Dah/ 113
Bacillus cereus C A Batt 119
Bacillus stearothermophilus P Kotzekidou 124
Bacillus anthracis L Baillie 129
Bacillus subtilis M K Dah1 135
Detection of Toxins S H Beattie, A G Williams 141
Detection by Classical Cultural Techniques I Jenson 149
BACTERIA
The Bacterial Cell R W Lovitt, C J Wright 158
Bacterial Endospores G W Gould 168
Classification of the Bacteria - Traditional V M de Ambrosini, C H Gusils, S N Gonzalez, 173
G Oliver
Classification of the Bacteria - Phylogenetic Approach E Stackebrandt 178
BACTERIAL ADHESION see POLYMER TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTROL OF BACTERIAL
ADHESION
BACTERlOClNS
Potential in Food Preservation T O’Keeffe, C Hill 183
Nisin E A Davies, J Delves-Broughton 191
BACTEROIDES AND PREVOTELLA H J Flint, C S Stewart 198
BACTERIOPHAGE-BASED TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTION OF FOOD-BORNE PATHOGENS
R J Mole, V K Dhir, S P Denyer, G S A B Stewart (dec) 203
BEER see LAGER
BENZOIC ACID see PRESERVATIVES: Permitted Preservatives- Benzoic Acid
BEVERAGE MICROBIOLOGY see ATP BIOLUMINESCENCE:Application in Beverage
Microbiology
BIFIDOBACTERIUM D G Hoover 210
BIOCHEMICAL and MODERN IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Introduction D Y C Fung 218
Food Spoilage Flora (Le. Yeasts and Moulds) G G Khachatourians, D K Arora 228
Food-poisoning Organisms D Y C Fung 237
Enterobacteriaceae, Coliforms and E. coli R R Beumer, M C te Giffel, AGE 244
Microfloras of Fermented Foods J P Tamang, W H Holzapfel 249
BlOFlLMS B Carpentier, 0 Cerf 252
BIOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ENHANCING MICROBIOLOGICALANALYSIS A D Goater,
R Pethig 259
BIOSENSORS
Scope in Microbiological Analysis M C Goldschmidt 268
BIO-YOGHURTsee FERMENTED MILKS: Yoghurt
BOTRYTIS M D Alur 279
BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE) D M Taylor, R A Somerville 283
Contents xlv
BREAD
Bread from Wheat Flour R S Singhal, P R Kulkarni 288
Sourdough Bread B J B Wood 295
BRETANOMYCES J Jimenez, M Fidalgo, M Alguacil 302
BREVIBACTERIUM B Weimer 308
BREWER’S YEAST see SACCHAROMYCES: Brewer’s Yeast
BROCHOTHRIX R H Holley 31 4
BRUCELLA
Characteristics J Theron, T E Cloete 31 9
Problems with Dairy Products P Papademas 324
BURKHOLDERIA COCOVENENANSsee PSEUDOMONAS: Burkholderia cocovenenans
BUTTER see MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS: Microbiology of Cream and Butter
BYSSOCHLAMYS P Kotzekidou 328
C
CAKES see CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS: Cakes and Pastries
CAMPYLOBACTER
Introduction M T Rowe, R H Madden 335
Detection by Cultural and Modern Techniques J E L Corry 341
Detection by Latex Agglutination Techniques W C Hazeleger, R R Beumer 347
CANDIDA
Introduction R K Hommel 352
Yarrowia (Candida) lipolytica G M Heard, G H Fleet 360
CANNING see HEAT TREATMENT OF FOODS: Principle of Canning; Spoilage Problems
Associated with Canning
CATERING INDUSTRY see PROCESS HYGIENE: Hygiene in the Catering Industry
CELLULOMONAS M I Rajoka, K A Malik 365
CEREALS see SPOILAGE OF PLANT PRODUCTS: Cereals and Cereal Flours
CENTRIFUGATION see PHYSICAL REMOVAL OF MICROFLORAS: Centrifugation
CHEESE
In the Marketplace A Y Tamime 372
Microbiology of Cheese-making and Maturation N Y Farkye 381
Mould-ripened Varieties A W Nichol 387
Role of Specific Groups of Bacteria M El Soda 393
Microflora of White-brined Cheeses B H Ozer 397
CHEMILUMINESCENT DNA HYBRIDIZATION see LISTERIA: Listeria monocytogenes - Detection
by Chemiluminescent DNA Hybridization
CHILLED STORAGE OF FOODS
Principles B P F Day 403
Use of Modified-atmosphere Packaging R E O’Connor-Shaw, V G Reyes 41 0
Packaging with Antimicrobial Properties D Collins-Thompson, Cheng-An Hwang 41 6
CIDER (HARD CIDER) B Jarvis 421
CITRIC ACID see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Organic Acids
CITROBACTER see SALMONELLA: Detection by Enzyme Immunoassays
CLOSTRIDIUM
Introduction H P Blaschek 428
Clostridium perfringens H P Blaschek 433
xlvi Contents
D
DAIRY PRODUCTS see BRUCELLA: Problems with Dairy Products; CHEESE: In the Market
Place; Microbiology of Cheese-making and Maturation; Mould-ripened Varieties; Role of Specific
Groups of Bacteria; Microflora of White-brined Cheeses; FERMENTED MILKS: Yoghurt;
Products from Northern Europe; Products of Eastern Europe and Asia; PROBIOTIC BACTERIA:
Detection and Estimation in Fermented and Non-fermented Dairy Products
DEBARYOMYCES W Praphailong, G H Fleet 515
DESULFOVIBRIO M D Alur 520
DEUTEROMYCETES see FUNGI: Classification of the Deuteromycetes
DIRECT (AND INDIRECT) CON DUCT1M ETR IC/I M PEDI M ETRIC TECHNIQUES
Food-borne Pathogens D Blivet 524
DIRECT EPIFLUORESCENT FILTER TECHNIQUES (DEFT) 5 H Pyle 527
DISINFECTANTS see PROCESS HYGIENE: Testing of Disinfectants
DRIED FOODS M D Alur, V Venugopal 530
Contents xlvii
E
ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODS
Influence of Available Water K Krist, D S Nichols, T Ross 539
Influence of Temperature T Ross, D S Nichols 547
Influence of Redox Potential and pH A Rompf, D Jahn 556
EGGS
Microbiology of Fresh Eggs N H C Sparks 563
Microbiology of Egg Products J Delves-Broughton, R G Board 569
ELECTRICAL TECHNIQUES
Introduction D Blivet 573
Food Spoilage Flora and Total Viable Count (TVC) G Salvat, D Blivet 578
Lactics and other Bacteria L Curda 580
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY see MICROSCOPY: Scanning Electron Microscopy; Transmission
Electron Microscopy
ELECTROPORATIONsee MINIMAL METHODS OF PROCESSING: Electroporation - Pulsed
Electric Fields
ENDOSPORES see BACTERIA: Bacterial Endospores
ENRICHMENT SEROLOGY
An Enhanced Cultural Technique for Detection of Food-borne Pathogens C de W Blackburn 589
ENTAMOEBA see WATERBORNE PARASITES: Entamoeba
ENTEROBACTER T W Huber 598
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE, COLIFORMS AND E, COLI
Introduction A Pandey, V K Joshi, P Nigam, C R Soccol 604
Classical and Modern Methods for Detection/Enumeration E de Boer 610
ENTEROCOCCUS G Giraffa 617
ENTEROTOXINS see BAClLLUS: Detection of Enterotoxins; STAPHYLOCOCCUS: Detection of
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins
ENTEROVIRUSES see VIRUSES
ENZYME IMMUNOASSAYS: OVERVlEW A Sharma 625
ESCHERlCHlA COLI
Escherichia coli C A Batt 633
Detection of Enterotoxins of E. coli H - Y Tsen 640
ESCHERlCHlA COLI 0157
Escherichia coli 0 1 57:H7 M L Tortorello 646
Detection by Latex Agglutination Techniques E W Rice 652
Detection by Commercial lmmunomagnetic Particle-based Assays P M Fratamico, 654
C G Crawford
EUKARYOTIC ASCOMYCETES see FUNGI: Classification of the Eukaryotic Ascomycetes
(Ascomycotina)
VOLUME 2
F
FATTY ACIDS see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Oils and Fatty Acids
FERMENTATlON (I NDUSTR IAL)
Basic Considerations Y Chisti 663
Media for Industrial Fermentations G M Walker 674
xlviii Contents
G
GASTRIC ULCERS see HELICOBACTER
GENET1C ENGINEERING
Modification of Yeast and Moulds R Sandhir, S K Garg, D R Modi 907
Modification of Bacteria E Johansen 917
GENETICS OF MICROORGANISMS
Fungi R Sandhir, S K Garg, D R Modi 92 1
Bacteria S K Garg, R Sandhir 929
GEOTRICHUM A Botha 940
GIARDIA R W A Girdwood, H V Smith 946
GLUCONOBACTER R K Hommel. P Ahnert 955
GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE B Jarvis 961
GUIDELINES GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY see NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES &
STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY: Canada; European Union; Japan
H
HAFNIA ALVEI J Ridell 973
HANSENULA G Gellissen, C P Hollenberg 976
HARD CIDER see CIDER (HARD CIDER)
HAZARD APPRAISAL (HACCP)
The Overall Concept F Untermann 982
Critical Control Points S Leaper 990
Establishment of Performance Criteria T Mahmutoglu, f Bozoglu 992
Involvement of Regulatory Bodies 0 P Snyder, V K Juneja 1001
HEAT TREATMENT OF FOODS
Thermal Processing Required for Canning A Azizi 1008
Spoilage Problems Associated with Canning L Ababouch 1016
Ultra-high Temperature (UHT) Treatments M J Lewis 1023
Principles of Pasteurization R A Wilbey 1030
Action of Microwaves A Stolle, B Schalch 1036
Synergy Between Treatments E A Murano 1041
HELICOBACTER I V Wesley 1047
HELMINTHS AND NEMATODES K D Murre11 1052
HEMIASCOMYCETES- 1 AND 2 see FUNGI: Classification of the Hemiascomycetes
HEPATITIS VIRUSES see VIRUSES: Hepatitis Viruses
HIGH-PRESSURE TREATMENT OF FOODS M Patterson 1059
HISTORY OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY N D Cowell 1066
HURDLE TECHNOLOGY L G M Gorris 1071
HYDROPHOBIC GRID MEMBRANE FILTER TECHNIQUES (HGMF) P Entis 1076
HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID see PRESERVATIVES: Permitted Preservatives - Hydroxybenzoic Acid
HYGIENE MONITORING see ATP BIOLUMINESCENCE: Application in Hygiene Monitoring
HYGIENIC PROCESSING see PROCESS HYGIENE: Overall Approach to Hygienic Processing
I
ICE CREAM A Kambamanoli-Dimou 1083
IMMUNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES see MYCOTOXINS: Immunological Techniques for Detection
and Analysis
IMMUNOMAGNETIC PARTICLE-BASEDASSAYS see ESCHERICHIA COLI 0757: Detection by
I Contents
K
KLEBSIELLA P T Vanhooren, S De Baets, G Bruggeman, E J Vandamme 1107
KLUYVEROMYCES C A Batt 1115
L
LABORATORY DESIGN M Ahmed 1119
LABORATORY MANAGEMENT- ACCREDITATION SCHEMES C Bowles 1128
LACTIC ACID BACTERIA see LACTOBACILLUS: Introduction; Lactobacillus bulgaricus;
Lactobacillus brevis; Lactobacillus acidophilus; Lactobacillus casei; LACTOCOCCUS:
Introduction; Lactococcus lactis Sub-species lactis and cremoris; PEDIOCOCCUS
LACTOBACILLUS
Introduction C A Batt 1134
Lactobacillus bulgaricus P C M Teixeira 1136
Lactobacillus brevis P C M Teixeira 1144
Lactobacillus acidophilus T R Klaenhammer; W M Russell 1151
Lactobaciius casei M Gobbetti 1157
LACTOCOCCUS
Introduction C A Batt 1164
Lactococcus lactis Sub-species lactis and cremoris P D Courtney 1166
LACTOFERRIN see NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS: Lactoperoxidase and Lactoferrin
LACTOPEROXIDASE see NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS: Lactoperoxidase and
Lactoferrin
LAGER ICampbell 1172
LASERS: INACTIVATION TECHNIQUES IA Watson, D E S Stewart-Tu11 1177
LATEX AGGLUTINATION TECHNIQUES see CAMPYLOBACTER: Detection by Latex
Agglutination Techniques; ESCHERICHIA COLI 0 157: Detection by Latex Agglutination
Techniques; SALMONELLA: Detection by Latex Agglutination Techniques
LEGISLATION see NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES 8, STANDARDS GOVERNING
MICROBIOLOGY Canada; European Union; Japan
LEUCONOSTOC A Lonvaud-Funel 1183
LIGHT MICROSCOPYsee MICROSCOPY Light Microscopy
LIPID METABOLISM see METABOLIC PATHWAYS: Lipid Metabolism
Contents Ii
LlSTERlA
Introduction C A Batt 1195
Detection by Classical Cultural Techniques G D W Curtis 1199
Detection by Commercial Enzyme Immunoassays M Wagner, A Bubert 1207
Detection by Colorimetric DNA Hybridization A D Hitchins 1214
Detection by Commercial lmmunomagnetic Particle-based Assays B Kohn 1222
Listeria monocytogenes S E Martin, C W Fisher 1228
Listeria monocytogenes - Detection by Chemiluminescent DNA Hybridization A D Hitchins 1238
Listeria monocytogenes - Detection using NASBA (an Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification 1244
System) M R Uyttendaele, J M Debevere
LYSINS see MINIMAL METHODS OF PROCESSING: Potential use of Phages and/or Lysins
LYSOZYME see NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS: Lysozyme and other Proteins in Eggs
M
MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION see WINES: The Malolactic Fermentation
MANOTHERMOSONICATION see MINIMAL METHODS OF PROCESSING:
Manothermosonication
MANUFACTURING PRACTICE see GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING see PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY AND FOOD SAFETY
MEAT AND POULTRY
Spoilage of Meat G-J E Nychas, E H Drosinos 1253
Curing of Meat K Prabhakar 1260
Spoilage of Cooked Meats and Meat Products I Guerrero, L P Chabela 1266
METABOLIC ACTIVITY TESTS see TOTAL VIABLE COUNTS: Metabolic Activity Tests
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Release of Energy (Aerobic) A Brandis-Heep 1272
Release of Energy (Anaerobic) M D Alur 1279
Nitrogen Metabolism M D Alur 1288
Lipid Metabolism R Sandhir 1298
Metabolism of Minerals and Vitamins C Umezawa, M Shin 1313
Production of Secondary Metabolites - Fungi P Nigam, D Singh 1319
Production of Secondary Metabolites - Bacteria M D Alur 1328
METABOLITE RECOVERY see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Recovery of Metabolites
METHANOGENS W Kim, W B Whitman 1334
MICROBIOLOGY OF SOUS-VIDE PRODUCTS F Cadin 1338
MlCROCOCCUS M-L Garcia-Lopez, J-A Santos, A Otero 1344
MICROFLORA OF THE INTESTINE
The Natural Microflora of Humans C L Willis, G R Gibson 1351
Biology of Bifidobacteria A Y Tamime 1355
Biology of Lactobacillus acidophilus W R Aimutis 1361
Biology of the Enterococcus spp. N Tunail 1365
Detection and Enumeration of Probiotic Cultures G Kalantzopoulos 1373
MICROSCOPY
Light Microscopy R W Lovitt, C J Wright 1379
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy D F Lewis 1389
Scanning Electron Microscopy U J Potter, G Love 1397
Transmission Electron Microscopy U J Potter, G Love 1407
lii Contents
VOLUME 3
N
NASBA see LISTERIA: Listeria monocytogenes - Detection using NASBA (an Isothermal Nucleic
Acid Amplification System)
NATAMYCIN see PRESERVATIVES: Permitted Preservatives- Natamycin
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY
Canada B E Brown 1549
European Union B Schalch, H Beck 1561
Japan S Kumagai 1564
NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SYSTEMS
Preservative Effects During Storage V M Dillon 1570
Contents liii
0
OENOLOGY see WINES: Specific Aspects of Oenology
OILS see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Oils and Fatty Acids; PRESERVATIVES:
Traditional Preservatives - Oils and Spices
ORGANIC ACIDS see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Organic Acids, e.g. Citric,
Propionic; PRESERVATIVES:Traditional Preservatives - Organic Acids
P
PACKAGING OF FOODS A L Brody 1611
PANARY FERMENTATION see BREAD: Bread from Wheat Flour
PANTOEA A Morin, Z Parveen 1623
PARASITES see CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; CYCLOSPORA; GIARDIA; HELMINTHES AND
NEMATODES: TRICHINELLA: WATERBORNE PARASITES: Entamoeba; Detection by Classic
and Modern Techniques
PASTEURIZATIONsee HEAT TREATMENT OF FOODS: Principles of Pasteurization
PASTRY see CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS: Cakes and Pastries
PCR-BASED COMMERCIAL TESTS FOR PATHOGENS P A Bertram-Drogatz, F Wilborn,
P Scheu, A Pardigol, C Koob, C Gronewald, M Fandke, A Gasch, K Berghof 1630
PEDIOCOCCUS M Raccach 1641
PENlClLLIUM
Introduction J IPitt 1647
Penicillium in Food Production G Blank 1655
PERONOSPOROMYCETES see FUNGI: Classification of the Peronosporomycetes
PETRIFILM -AN ENHANCED CULTURAL TECHNIQUE R Jordano, L M Medina 1662
PHAGES see BACTERIOPHAGE-BASED TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTION OF FOOD-BORNE
PATHOGENS; MINIMAL METHODS OF PROCESSING: Potential Use of Phages and/or Lysins
PHYCOTOXINS A Sharma 1672
PHYLOGENETIC APPROACH TO BACTERIAL CLASSIFICATION see BACTERIA: Classification
of the Bacteria - Phylogenetic Approach
PHYSICAL REMOVAL OF MICROFLORAS
Filtration P Boyaval 1675
Centrifugation V V Mistry 1681
PlCHlA PASTORIS C Kalidas 1686
POLYMER TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTROL OF BACTERIAL ADHESION D Cunliffe,
C A Smart, C Alexander 1692
POLYSACCHARIDES see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Xanthan Gum
liv Contents
POULTRY see MEAT AND POULTRY: Spoilage of Meat; Curing of Meat; Spoilage of Cooked
Meats and Meat Products
POUR PLATE TECHNIQUE see TOTAL VIABLE COUNTS: Pour Plate Technique
PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY AND FOOD SAFETY T Ross, T A McMeekin,
J Baranyi 1699
PR ESERVATIVES
Classification and Properties M Surekha, S M Reddy 1710
Traditional Preservatives - Oils and Spices G-J E Nychas, C C Tassou 1717
Traditional Preservatives - Sodium Chloride M S Brewer 1723
Traditional Preservatives - Organic Acids M Stratford 1729
Traditional Preservatives - Wood Smoke L J Ogbadu 1737
Traditional Preservatives - Vegetable Oils V Venugopal 1743
Permitted Preservatives - Sulphur Dioxide K Prabhakar, K S Reddy 1750
Permitted Preservatives - Benzoic Acid L J Ogbadu 1754
Permitted Preservatives - Hydroxybenzoic Acid R S Singhal, P R Kulkarni 1757
Permitted Preservatives - Nitrate and Nitrite R S Singhal, P R Kulkarni 1762
Permitted Preservatives - Sorbic Acid L V Thomas 1769
Permitted Preservatives - Natamycin J Stark 1776
Permitted Preservatives - Propionic Acid R S Singhal, P R Kulkarni 1781
PROB IOTIC BACTERIA
Detection and Estimation in Fermented and Non-fermented Dairy Products W Kneifel, 1783
T Mattila-Sandholm, A von Wright
PROBlOTlCS see BIFIDOBACTERIUM; MICROFLORA OF THE INTESTINE: The Natural
Microflora of Humans
PROCESS HYGIENE
Designing for Hygienic Operation G C Gurakan, T F Bozoglu 1790
Types of Biocides J F Williams, S D Worley 1794
Overall Approach to Hygienic Processing M A Mostert, H L M Lelieveld 1802
Modern Systems of Plant Cleaning Y Chisti 1806
Risk and Control of Airborne Contamination G J Curie/, H M J van Eijk, H L M Lelieveld 1816
Testing of Disinfectants J F Williams, J R Bickert 1822
Involvement of Regulatory and Advisory Bodies R Cocker, H L M Lelieveld 1830
Hygiene in the Catering Industry.. N Johns 1845
PROPlONlBACTERlUM M Gautier 1850
PROPIONIC ACID see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL): Production of Organic Acids, e.g. Citric,
Propionic ; PRESERVATIVES : Permitted Preservatives - Propio nic Acid
PROTEUS B W Senior 1857
PSEUDOMONAS
Introduction M A Cousin 1864
Pseudomonas aeruginosa M H J Bennik 1867
Burkholderia cocovenenans J Cox, E Kartadarma, K Buckle 1871
PSYCHROBACTER M-L Garcia-Lopez, M P Maradona 1875
Q
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT see HAZARD APPRAISAL (HACCP): The Overall
Concept
QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS S H W Notermans 1883
Contents Iv
R
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION M Upmann, C Bonaparte 1887
REDOX POTENTIAL see ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODS: Influence of Redox
Potential and pH
REFERENCE MATERIALS P H In’t Veld 1895
REGULATORY BODIES see HAZARD APPRAISAL (HACCP): Involvement of Regulatory Bodies
[1340] RHODOTORULA Y Yeeh 1900
RISK ANALYSIS see QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS
S
SACCHAROMYCES
Introduction Y Oda, K Ouchi 1907
Saccharomyces sake Y limura 1913
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 5 C Viljoen, G M Heard 1918
Saccharomyces: Brewer’s Yeast G G Stewart 1925
SAKE see SACCHAROMYCES: Saccharomyces sake
SALMONELLA
Introduction J Cox 1928
Salmonella enteritidis T S Hammack, W H Andrews 1937
Salmonella typhi J Cox 1943
Detection by Classical Cultural Techniques R M ArnaguaAa, W H Andrews 1948
Detection by Latex Agglutination Techniques J Cox 1952
Detection by Enzyme Immunoassays P Patel 1956
Detection by Colorimetric DNA Hybridization H-Y Tsen 1964
Detection by lmmunomagnetic Particle-based Assay K S Cudjoe 1968
SALT see PRESERVATIVES: Traditional Preservatives - Sodium Chloride
SAMPLING REGIMES & STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL RESULTS
G Hildebrandt 1976
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY see MICROSCOPY: Scanning Electron Microscopy
SCHIZOSACCHAROMYCES G H Fleet 1984
SECONDARY METABOLITES see METABOLIC PATHWAYS: Production of Secondary
Metabolites - Fungi; Production of Secondary Metabolites - Bacteria
SENSING MICROSCOPY see MICROSCOPY: Sensing microscopy
SERRATIA F Rafii 1989
SHELLFISH (MOLLUSCSAND CRUSTACEA)
Characteristics of the Groups L Le Vay, B Egan 1993
Contamination and Spoilage C A Kaysner 2001
SHEWANELLA L Gram, B F Vogel 2008
SHIGELLA: Introduction and Detection by Classical Cultural Techniques K A Lampel,
R C Sandlin, S Formal 201 5
SINGLE-CELL PROTEIN
The Algae M Garcia-Garibay, L Gdmez-Ruiz, E Barzana 2021
Yeasts and Bacteria M Garcia-Garibay, L Gomez-Ruiz, E Barzana 2027
Mycelial Fungi P Nigam 2034
SODIUM CHLORIDE see PRESERVATIVES: Traditional Preservatives - Sodium Chloride
SORBIC ACID see PRESERVATIVES: Permitted Preservatives- Sorbic Acid
SORGHUM see FERMENTED FOODS: Beverages from Sorghum and Millet
Ivi Contents
T
THERMUS AQUATICUS C K K Nair 2139
TORULOPSIS R K Hommel, H-P Kleber 2142
TOTAL COUNTS
Microscopy S R Tatini, K L Kauppi 2149
TOTAL VIABLE COUNTS
Pour Plate Technique J W Messer, C H Johnson 2154
Spread Plate Technique J W MeSser, E W Rice, C H Johnson 2159
Specific Techniques M G Williams, F F Busta 2160
Most Probable Number (MPN) M G Williams, F F Busta 2166
Metabolic Activity Tests A F Mendonca, V K Juneja 2168
Microscopy C D Zook, F F Busta 2176
TOXICOLOGY see MYCOTOXINS: Toxicology
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY see MICROSCOPY: Transmission Electron
Microscopy
TRICHINELLA H R Gamble 2181
TRICHODERMA D E Eveleigh 2187
TRICHOTHECIUM A Sharma 2189
Contents lvii
U
UHT TREATMENTS see HEAT TREATMENT OF FOODS: Ultra-high Temperature (UHT) Treatments
ULTRASONIC IMAGING
Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of Aseptic Packages L Raaska, T Mattila- 2195
Sandholm
ULTRASONIC STANDING WAVES
Inactivation of Food-borne Microorganisms using Power Ultrasound G D Betts, A Williams,
R M Oakley 2202
ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT G Shama 2208
v
VAGOCOCCUS L M Teixeira, M da G S Carvalho, R R Facklam 2215
VEGETABLE OILS see PRESERVATIVES: Traditional Preservatives- Vegetable Oils
VEROTOXIGENIC E. COLl
Detection by Commercial Enzyme Immunoassays D W Pimbley 2221
VEROTOXIGENIC E. COLl AND SHlGELLA SPP.
Detection by Cultural Methods C Vernozy-Rozand 2232
VIBRIO
Introduction, Including Vibrio vulnificus, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus P M Desmarchelier 2237
Vibrio cholerae F Y K Wong, P M Desmarchelier 2242
Standard Cultural Methods and Molecular Detection Techniques in Foods K Venkateswaran 2248
VINEGAR M R Adams 2258
VIRUSES
Introduction D 0 Cliver 2264
EnvironmentallyTransmissible Enteric Hepatitis Viruses: A and E T L Crorneans, M D Sobsey 2267
Detection D 0 Cliver 2274
VITAMIN METABOLISM see METABOLIC PATHWAYS: Metabolism of Minerals and Vitamins
W
WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Routine Techniques for Monitoring Bacterial and Viral Contaminants J Watkins, L Straszynski, 2281
D Sartory, P Wyn-Jones
Modern Microbiological Techniques C Fricker 2287
WATERBORNE PARASITES
Entamoeba W A Petri Jc J M Schaenman 2292
Detection by Conventional and Developing Techniques H V Smith, R W A Girdwood 2295
WINES
Microbiology of Wine-making G M Walker 2306
Malolactic Fermentation T F Bozoglu, S Yurdugul 231 1
Specific Aspects of Oenology P Nigam 2316
WOOD SMOKE see PRESERVATIVES: Traditional Preservatives- Wood Smoke
X
XANTHAN GUM see FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL):Production of Xanthan Gum
XANTHOMONAS A Sharma 2323
XEROMYCES BlOSPORUS FRASER A D Hocking, J I Pitt 2329
Y
YEASTS: Production and Commercial Uses R Joseph 2335
lviii Contents
YERSlNlA
Introduction P Kampfer 2342
Yersinia enterocolitica S Bhaduri 2350
YOGHURT see FERMENTED MILKS: Yoghurt
z
ZYGOMYCETES see FUNGI: Classification of the Zygomycetes
ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES J P Erickson, D N McKenna 2359
ZYMOMONAS H Yanase 2365
APPENDICES:
Appendix 1: Bacteria and Fungi Ai
Appendix 2: List of Suppliers Aiii
INDEX li
ACETOBACTER 1
ACETOBACTER
Rolf K Hommel, Cell Technologie Leipzig, Germany
Peter Ahnert, Department of Biochemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Acetic acid bacteria have been used for making clature of the genus Acetobacter subdivides it into
vinegar, their best-known product, since Babylonian four species: A. aceti, A. liquefaciens, A. pasteurianus
times. For most of this time, vinegar was obtained by and A. hansenii. DNA-rRNA hybridization studies
fermentation from alcoholic solutions without under- indicate the presence of three additional species: A.
standing of the natural process. A number of research- diazotrophicus, A. methanolicus and A. xylinum.
ers established the microbial basis of this process Based on DNA-DNA hybridization a new species, A.
in the beginning of the nineteenth century, such as europaeus, has been proposed; strains of this species
Kiitzing, Lafare and Boerhaave. In 1822 Persoon per- show very low similarity to other species of the genus.
formed the first biological study of surface films of Acetobacter are Gram-negative rods. Old cells may
wine and beer and proposed the name Mycoderma. become Gram-variable. Cells appear singly, in pairs,
Later Kiitzing (1837) isolated bacteria from naturally or in chains and they are motile by peritrichous flagella
fermented vinegar for the first time. Considering them or non-motile. There is no endospore formation.
to be a kind of algae, he named them Ulvina aceti. Acetobacter spp. are obligate aerobes except for A.
Pasteur established the causal connection between the diaztrophicus and A. nitrocaptans which belong to the
presence of Mycoderma aceti and vinegar formation diverse group of free-living aerobic or microaerophilic
in the first systematic studies on acetic acid fer- diazotrophs.
mentation. These discoveries and following studies The metabolism is respiratory and never fer-
resulted in better understanding and new methods mentative. Single amino acids do not serve as sole
(Pasteur method) of vinegar formation. source of nitrogen and carbon. Essential amino acids
are not known. Depending on growth substrates,
Characteristics of the Genus Acetobacter some strains may require p-aminobenzoic acid, niacin,
The classification of protobacteria by DNA-rRNA thiamin, or pantothenic acid as growth factors. The
hybridization studies places acetic acid bacteria in the temperature range is 5-42°C with optima between 25
rRNA superfamily IV (synonymous: alpha group). and 30°C.
Acetic acid bacteria, formerly classified into the family Acetobacter strains show a moderate to high acid
Pseudomonadaceae, constitute the family Aceto- tolerance. The pH range is between pH 4 and pH 7,
bacteraceae consisting of only two closely related with optima between pH 5.4 and pH 6.3. Strains used
genera, Acetobacter and Gluconobacter, each of in making vinegar are more resistant toward acidic
which is a separate rRNA branch. The family Aceto- pH. The minimum accepted by A. acidophilus is
bacteraceae represents strictly aerobic chemo- pH2.6. The maximum is pH4.2. The internal pH
organotrophic bacteria, able to carry out a great closely follows the external (A. aceti). At or below
variety of incomplete oxidations and living in or on pH 5.0 the membrane potential of a cell is normally
plant materials, such as fruits and flowers. Some uncoupled, resulting in free proton exchange across
members of this family are plant pathogens. None the cytoplasmic membrane, thus depriving ATP syn-
display any pathogenic effect toward mammals, thesis of its driving force. However, the formation of
including humans. acetic acid (or other acids) proceeds via membrane-
Based on physiological criteria the present nomen- bound dehydrogenases. These processes are closely
2 ACETOBACTER
connected to irreversible ATP-yielding reactions, suf- c (subunit of some alcohol dehydrogenases) to the
ficient to keep the energy metabolism alive. In A. aceti, terminal ubiquinol oxidase which is either cyto-
a gene encoding citrate synthase is involved in acetic chrome al or cytochrome 0 . Energy is gained by these
acid tolerance. This enzyme is assumed to play a oxidations but they are not contributing to carbon
central role in supplying sufficient ATP to protect the metabolism. For instance, the oxidation of one mole
cell against accumulation of acetic acid. ethanol to one mole acetic acid yields six moles of
Ethanol concentrations higher than 8% and 10% ATP. It is assumed that these systems function as
inhibit strains A. aceti and A. xylinum, respectively. ancillary energy-generating pathways when the
Some strains, for example spoilers of sakC, tolerate a energy demand of the cell is high. Nz-fixing cells of
higher ethanol content. In general, the ethanol tol- A. diazotrophicus contain three-times higher enzyme
erance in Acetobacter is higher than in Gluconobacter. levels of quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase than
The high direct oxidative capacity for sugars, alco- under non-N2-fixing conditions. Flavin (FAD) is an
hols and steroids is a special feature of Acetobacter. additional covalently bound prosthetic group present
This ability is used in vinegar fermentation, food in the membrane-bound gluconate dehydrogenase. It
processing, chemical synthesis, and even in enantio- is also linked directly to the respiratory chain.
selective oxidations, for example with A. past- For intracellular sugar metabolism, Acetobacter
eurianus. Examples of other reactions are the possesses the hexose monophosphate pathway and a
formation of 2,5-dioxogluconic acid by A. mel- complete tricarboxylic acid cycle. Glycolysis is absent
anogenum and A. carinus, the oxidations of ethane- or rudimentary. In A. xylinum sugar metabolism pro-
diol to glycolic acid, of lactate to acetoin, of glycerol ceeds (asin Gluconobacter)via the Entner-Doudoroff
to dihydroxyacetone, for example polyols in which pathway.
two secondary cis-arranged hydroxyl groups in D- In addition to the typical growth substrates, such
configuration may be oxidized to ketoses. Two strains, as sugars or ethanol, A. methanolicus also accepts
A. rancens and A. peroxidans, are reported to oxidize methanol. The major assimilatory pathway of this
n-alkanes, mainly by monoterminal attack yielding facultative methylotrophic bacterium proceeds via the
the corresponding fatty alcohols and fatty acids. ribulose monophosphate cycle. In contrast, most of
Acetobacter are equipped with two sets of enzymes, the Gram-negative methanol-utilizing bacteria that
catalysing the same oxidation reactions. Enzymes in contain the ribulose monophosphate cycle are obli-
the first set are bound in the cytoplasmic membrane, gate methylotrophs.
the active site facing the periplasm. Enzymes in the Some Acetobacter species, e.g. A. xylinum, syn-
second set are located in the cytoplasm and are thesize bacterial cellulose. The fibres may be regarded
NADP-dependent. The latter enzymes display neutral as part of the glycocalyx and serve to maintain these
or alkaline pH optima. Membrane-bound enzymes highly aerobic organisms at the liquid-air interface.
show acidic optima. The high oxidative capacity of This exopolysaccharide, (f3-glul+4P-glu)n, is ex-
Acetobacter is attributed to membrane-bound pro- creted into the medium and then rapidly aggregates
teins such as alcohol dehydrogenase, aldehyde as microfibrils yielding a surface pellicle. Bacterial
dehydrogenase, glucose dehydrogenase and sorbitol cellulose is produced either in static cultures, or in
dehydrogenase. The specific activities of these submerged, fed-batch cultures with low share con-
enzymes are up to three orders of magnitude higher ditions. Yields up to 28 g 1-' of dry polysaccharide
than those of their cytoplasmic counterparts. Most may be obtained after selection of high yielding
membrane-bound enzymes share the prosthetic group strains. The product, cellulose I form, is very pure.
pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ; Fig. 1). The sub- It does not contain hemicelluloses, lignins or pectic
strates do not need to be transported into the cell for substances, and is therefore used mainly in medicine
oxidation. Electrons generated are transferred by the as wound dressings for patients with burns, extended
reduced form of PQQ either directly to a ubiquinone loss of tissue, etc.
( Q S ) of the respiratory chain or via a cytochrome The majority of Acetobacter species have 1-8 plas-
mids varying in size from 1.5 to 95 kb. Isolates from
I
COOH some German submerse vinegar processes have 3-1 1
plasmids, isolates from surface fermentation processes
3-7 plasmids (2-70 kb). Plasmid profile analysis has
become a powerful tool for controlling homogeneity,
stability, identity etc. of the microbial populations in
HOOC
production processes. However, many strains used
0 industrially are highly variable, changing their pheno-
Figure 1 Structure of pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ). typic and other properties in just a few generations.
ACETOBACTER 3
This phenomenon could not be correlated with is a prerequisite, because undiluted nectar is not a
plasmid profiles. Acetobacter contains four ribosomal growth substrate.
RNA operons on the chromosome.
Recombinant DNA techniques have been adapted
Methods of Detection
to Acetobacter. Host-vector systems and trans-
formation methods have been developed. Trans- Strains of both Acetobacter and Gluconobacter are
formation systems are available for A. aceti and A. present in the same habitat. Members of the latter
xylinum. For instance, bacteriophages specific for genus are normally co-isolated. For routine isolation
Acetobacter lead to a complete stop of submerged of Acetobacter from natural or artificial habitats,
fermentation. Morphologically different phage types culture media of low pH, containing 2-4% ethanol
are described which were isolated from vinegar fer- as energy source, are recommended. Aerobic growth
mentations in Europe. They belong to the Bradley's is optimal between 25°C and 30°C. As low cell counts
group A and to the Myoviridae. The high number of are expected, enrichment cultures become necessary.
phages in disturbed acetic acid fermentations suggests For such purposes beer has been recommended.
their responsibility for production problems. However, preservatives added to the beer may limit
The classical, well known and well-studied, niches success. Many specific enrichment cultures adapted
of Acetobacter are in making vinegar and spoilage of to individual sources are described in older literature.
beer and wine (see below). Acetobacter spp. were Yeast water-glucose medium is recommended for
originally associated with plants and soils. Preferred isolation and purification. It contains yeast water
habitats, such as fruits and flowers, are rich in sugars, (supernatant of autoclaved bakers' or brewers' yeast,
alcohols and/or acids. Fermenting fruits, in particular, 200 g I-'), and glucose (20 g I-'), p H 5.5-6.0. This
are excellent sources of sugar and ethanol. Various composition is also very useful for the enrichment of
Acetobacter spp. have been isolated from apricots, solid media (agar concentration: 15-30 g I-').
almonds, beets, bananas, figs, guavas, grapes, man- Wort medium comprises malt powder diluted with
darins, mangoes, oranges, pomegranates, pears, tap water to 8% soluble solids; for solid medium the
peaches, persimmons, pineapples, plums, strawberries pH should be 5.5-6.
Peptone glucose agar comprises bacto-peptone or
and tomatoes. A. aceti, A. xylinum and A. past-
bacto-tryptone ( 5 g I-'), glucose (20 g I-'), primary
eurianus were predominantly associated with ripe
potassium phosphate (1g I-') in tap water; agar con-
grapes. Local priorities have been found: A. past-
centration: 15-20 gl-'.
eurianus accounted for 75% of the strains in isolates
To enhance the growth of some strains, the addition
from Southern France. Especially high numbers were
of yeast extract (3-Sg1-') may be useful. Further
found on damaged grapes. Acetobacter spp. have been
enhancement may be achieved by the addition of
isolated from the immature spadix of the palm tree.
100ml of filtered and freshly prepared tomato juice
A. xylinum was present on the leaflets of the palm to 1 litre of culture medium.
tree and in the surrounding air. Acidic acid bacteria, An isolation procedure to differentiate between A.
such as A. aceti and A. pasteurianus, hibernate in pasteurianus, A. aceti and Gluconobacter oxydans
dried and injured apples and in spring they are able has been developed by Frateur, which uses three to
to spread to flowers. The nitrogen fixing A. diazo- five different culture media for each species. It includes
trophicus has settled the stem and roots of sugarcane enrichment in liquid media (30°C) and subsequent
in Brazil. Different Acetobacter spp. have been isol- agar plating.
ated from cocoa bean flora. Acetobacter is the causal Isolation of production strains from vinegar tends
agent of bacterial rot in pears and apples, resulting in to be difficult due to the strains being highly adapted
different shades of browning and tissue degradation. to the production conditions (see below). A mixture
Pears are more susceptible to bacterial brown rot. ( 4 ml) of vinegar to be tested and pasteurized vinegar
Acetobacter spp. have been isolated from decaying is added to tubes with 15ml of solid medium (yeast
apple tissue and from the larvae and adults of apple water, 100 g I-' glucose, 30 g I-' CaC03, 20 g IF' agar).
maggots. Artificial inoculation of 100 cells may Bacterial growth proceeds in the interphase. Alter-
induce apple brown rot. Although the optimum tem- natively, yeast extract-calcium lactate agar or wort
perature is about 25"C, rotting also proceeds at 4°C. agar containing 1.5% ethanol or 5gl-l yeast extract,
The pink disease of pineapple fruit is caused by A. and 25 g I-' agar may be used.
liquefaciens.Through the open flowers the bacterium Acetobacter settling on flowers or fruits may be
enters the internal nectary and placental regions, efficiently enriched in a broth containing 50 g I-'
invades the ovaries and starts to grow in the ripening glucose, 10 g IF' yeast extract, and 0.1 mg I-' cyclohe---
tissue. The dilution of nectar by rain during flowering imide at 30°C. The ring or pellicle formed after 2-8
4 ACETOBACTER
days is plated out on a solid medium which may Table 1 Common media for maintenance and cultivation of
Acetobacter
also servc for further purification of the acid-forming
colonies: 50 g I-'glucose, 10 g IF' yeast extract, 30 g I-' Medium Component Amount
C a C 0 3 and 25 g IF1 agar. Glucose-yeast extract agar Glucose
In cider making, various culture media are re- ('Acefobacter/G/uconobacter Yeast extract
commended for successful isolation of acetic acid bac- agar') CaCO,
teria from orchard soil, apples, pomace, juice, pH 7.5 f 0.2, 25°C Agar
Distilled/deionized
fermenting juice, cider or from the factory equipment. water
The media are based on apple juice-yeast extract
Glucose
made from apple juice with low tannin content, 'Acetobacter agar'
Yeast extract
pH4.8 and 3Ogl-l agar. The addition of 0.1 mgl-' CaCO,
actidione is recommended to suppress yeasts and Agar
moulds. Incubation is carried out at 28°C for 3-5 Tap water
days. Alternatively, a broth composed of 500ml of 'Acetobacter medium' Glucose
sweet cider, 500 ml deionized water, 12 g I-' yeast pH 7.0 f 0.2, 25°C Autolysed yeast
extract, and 2 g (NH4)#04( p H 5),yields good results. CaC03
Agar
Strains of A. diazotrophicus can be isolated by
Distilled/deionized
stepwise enrichment in different media, including water
semisolid ones. Acetobacter strains may be held in or
Mannitol agar Mannitol
on a variety of media, such as beer (without pre- (YPM agar: 12 g I-' agar) Yeast extract
servation agents) or wort. Recommended con- Peptone
servation media are summarized in Table 1. Optimum Agar
growth is obtained at 25-30°C. Agar cultures should DistiIled/deionized
be kept at 4°C and transferred monthly. Most strains water
stay alive lyophilized for several years and some for Yeast-glucose agar Glucose
longer than 10 years. pH 7.0 f 0.2, 25°C Yeast extract
Agar
Phenotypic identification of Acetobacteraceae is Distilled/deionized
based on general properties which are partially shared water
with Gluconobacter and some members of the genus
Potato glycerol agar Glycerol
Frateuria (superfamily I1 syn. gamma subclass). One 25°C Glucose
of the properties used to further identify Acetobacter Yeast extract
is the oxidation of acetate and lactate to COZ and Agar
H z O (overoxidation) at neutral and acidic pH. This Supernatant of
freshly sliced and
is detected on medium composed of ethanol ( 3 % ) ,
boiled potatoes
C a C 0 3 (20 g I-'),and agar (20 g I-'). The appearance (200 g 1-1)
of acetic acid reveals clear zones around the colonies
and overoxidation results in (re-)precipitation of
C a C 0 3 . Alternatively, bromcresol green (0.022 g I-') oxidation of acetic acid and lactic acid to C 0 2 and
may be added to a medium composed of yeast extract HZO
(30gl-'), ethanol (2%) and agar (2OgI-I). The colour n o H2S formation
shifts from green to yellow as acid is formed. Overox- growth factors may or may not be required
idation results in a change of the indicator to blue. specific ubiquinone types.
Bacteria belonging to Acetobacteraceae may be
Gram-negative or Gram-variable (namely older cells), The ubiquinones are Q9 and Q S with minor com-
are strictly aerobic and oxidize ethanol to acetic acid ponent of Q8( A . aceti, A. pasteurianus);some strains
have Qloor Qlowith minor component Q9 (A. meth-
in neutral or acidic media. Cells are ellipsoidal t o rod-
shaped (0.6-0.8 x 1-4 pm), have a respiratory type of
anolicus, A. diazotrophicus, A. xylinum, A.
metabolism, are oxidase negative and acidify glucose
liquefaciens). Acetobacter strains grow at p H 5 and
prefer ethanol or lactate over glucose for growth.
below p H 4.5. They d o not form endospores, liquefy
Further differentiation among Acetobacter species can
gelatin, reduce nitrate or form indole. The rapid
be achieved as shown in Table 2.
phenotypic idcntification of Acetobacter is based on
The phenotypic identification may be affected by
the following features:
spontaneously occurring mutations even in taxo-
nomically important properties. Mutants of A. aceti
0 peritrichous flagella exist that are unable to oxidize ethanol. In these cases
ACETOBACTER 5
Table 2 Phenotypical differences among Acetobacter species (Reproduced with permission from Swings 1992)
Feature A. A. A. A. A. A. A.
aceti lique- Pasteur- hansenii xylinum methano- diazo-
faciens ianus licus trophicus
Formation of
Water-soluble brown pigments on GYC" medium +
y-Pyrones from D-fructose +
5-Oxogluconic acid from o-glucose -
2, 5-Dioxogluconic acid from o-glucose +
Ketogenesis from glycerol d
Growth factor required -
Growth on carbon sources
Ethanol +
Methanol -
Sodium acetate +
Growth on L-amino acids in the presence
of D-mannitol as carbon source
L-Asparagine d + - + - - +
L-Glutamine d + - + - - -
Formation of H2S - - - - - - -
Growth in presence of 30% D-glucose - - - - - - +
Ubiqinone type Qg Qio Qs ND Qio Qio Qio
G+C content (mol%) 56-60 62-65 53-63 58-63 55-63 62 61-63
~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~
Symbols: +, 90% or more of the strains positive; (+), weakly positive reaction; d, 11-89% of the strains positive; -, 90% or more of
the strains negative; ND, not determined.
Glucose-yeast extract cycloheximide.
DNA-rRNA hybridization studies and polymerase Difficulties may arise during isolation, subsequent cul-
chain reaction (PCR) studies will be more useful for tivation under artificial conditions, and preservation
exact taxonomic classification. due to the high adaptation as demonstrated with A .
polyoxogenes isolated in Japan and with A . acid-
Importance to the Food Industry ophilus. Both could not be maintained in strain col-
lections and were lost. A . europaeus isolated from
production facilities in Switzerland requires acetic
Food Processes acid for growth on agar plates and tolerates 4-8'30.
Acetobacter spp. are used in different processes of Specialized industrial strains tolerate p H values down
making foods and food additives. Well established are to 2.6. DNA-DNA hybridization studies shows
the fermentations to produce one special product, nearly no difference between isolates from different
such as acetic acid or gluconic acid. These oxidation commercial processes (9O-lOO% hybridization).
reactions are backed by the high oxidative capacity However, a comparison of highly productive strains
of enzymes bound in the cytoplasmic membrane with from German plants and those from strain collections
the active centre directed into the periplasm. Other showed large differences. Values below 45% were
processes also use such enzymes but are more complex obtained with definite strains ( A . pasteurianus, A .
with regard to the microbial population and the sub- aceti, G . oxydans).The DNA-DNA similarities of A .
strates used. europaeus strains isolated from industrial processes
Vinegar is the most popular product of Acetobacter. versus strains from collections are below 22%.
This process is discussed in detail in a separate article. Membrane-bound quinoproteins, i.e. alcohol and
In acetic acid fermentation, mixtures of highly aldehyde dehydrogenases, are the enzymatic basis of
adapted predominantly Acetobactsr spp. are used, acetic acid formation (Fig. 2). These enzymes are
which are not derived from pure cultures. These more active and stable under acidic conditions than
strains display an extremely strong tolerance to acetic those of Gluconobacter. Prevention of overoxidation
acid. The most important detectable species are A . of acetic acid to COz and H20 requires a constant
pasteurianus, A . lovaniensis, A . ascendens, A. high concentration of ethanol. Lack of ethanol and
paradox, A . aceti, A . xylinum and A . orleanensis. oxygen damage acetic acid bacteria populations. Even
Next Page
6 ACETOBACTER
BACILLUS
Contents
Introduction
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus stearothermophilus
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus subtilis
Detection of Toxins
Detection by Classical Cultural Techniques
6. pantothenticus (37)
reorganized into several genera. There is no generally 6. lentus (36)
accepted definition of a prokaryote genus. Never- 6.badius (44)
6. smithii (39)
theless, it has been recommended that the maximum 6. azotoformans (39)
genetic diversity should not exceed a chromosomal 6. firmus (41)
6. circulans (39)
base composition range of 10-12% guaninekytosine 6. benzoevorans (41)
(G+C) content. Phylogenetically, Bacillus belongs to 6. simplex (41 )
(6. rnagaterium C)
the low G+C content group of bacteria, although, 6. maroccanus (ND)
6. psychosaccharolyticus(44)
depending on the species, the G+C content can vary 6. megaterium (37)
in the range from 33% ( B . anthracis) to 69% ( B . B. fastidiosus (35)
6. acidoterrestris (52)
tbermocatenulatus). Assuming the G+C content 6. coagulans (44)
definition is correct, the chromosomal base com- 6. mycoides (34)
6. medusa (ND)
position range in Bacillus would signify great phylo- 6. fhuringiensis (34)
genetic divergence, leading to the conclusion that 6. cereusB. anthracis (36)
6. pumilis (41)
Bacillus encompasses more than one genus. This 6. atrophaeus (42)
assumption is also supported by rRNA sequence 6. popilliae (41)
6. lentimorbus (38)
analysis, which reveals as much divergence as in the 6. amyloliquefaciens (43)
6. subtilis (43)
combined families of Enterobacteriaceae and Vib- 6. licheniformis (43)
rionaceae. In turn, the size of the genus Bacillus com- B. lautus (51)
B. sphaericus (37)
plicates the identification of new isolates. Therefore, B. fusiformis (36)
at least thirty phylogenetic tests must be carried out 6. insolitus (36)
6. globisporus (40)
before grouping an isolate in this genus, including 1 6 s 6. psychrophilus (42)
rRNA analysis (Fig. 1). 6. pasfeurii (38)
6. thermoglucosidasius(45)
6. stearothermophilus (52)
6. kaustophilus (53)
From Genomes to Proteomes 6. aicalophilus (37)
8.aneurinolyticus (42)
The composition and structural organization of
genomes are increasingly important in the clas-
. -. ..
c- - 6. brevis (47)
6. laterosporus (40)
6. cycloheptanicus (56)
sification and subdivision of bacteria into families and B. alvei (46)
6. gordonae (55)
genera. Owing to the rapid development of molecular 6. larvae (38)
methods and automatic DNA sequencing, a complete 6. pulvifaciens (44)
6.rnacerans (52)
genome can be determined within a short period. B. poiymyxa (44)
One of the most famous representatives of the genus 6. azotofixans (52)
6. pabuli (49)
Bacillus, B. subtilis, is used as a model organism in 6. macquariensis (40)
basic research and as a host for recombinant DNA in 6. amylolyficus (53)
applied research. In the early 1990s B. subtilis was Figure I Phylogenetic tree of Bacillus spp. according to
chosen for investigation of its complete genome 16s rRNA analysis. The G+C content is given in parentheses
in mole per cent. ND, not determined.
sequence. This collaborative project involved about
35 groups in Europe, the USA and Japan and was
completed in the autumn of 1997. The whole genome 15% with n o counterpart found in the protein
is composed of 4 214 814 base pairs (which may vary sequence data base.
slightly due to error corrections) harbouring about About half of the genes can be assigned to proteins
41 00 open reading frames, which reflect potential with a defined or probable function, and half have n o
protein-encoding genes. The genes present in the clear function. Based on these genome sequence data,
genome have been classified according to functional a systematic function search programme has been
features (Table I). At present, the assignmcnt of genes started. The analysis of the protein composition of B.
can be grouped into five categories based on sequence subtilis (the proteome) will provide further knowledge
homologies and functional analysis: of the organism and the genus Bacillus in general and
definite assignment of genes due to experimentally lead to the functional assignment of the proteins and
identified functions (about 10%) the corresponding genes.
probable assignments due to high sequence hom-
ologies (about 50%)
Cell Wall Composition
possible assignments due to low sequence hom-
ologies (about 1 5 % ) In contrast to the Gram-negative bacteria, the Gram-
putative assignments due to weak sequence hom- positive bacteria including Bacillus reveal a highly
ologies (about 10%) varied peptidoglycan composition and structure.
BAClLLUS/lntroduction 115
Table 1 Bacillus subtilis genome summary cascade, activates the transcriptional regulator
4099 ORFs are known at present protein SpoOA through phosphorylation. In contrast
3044 ORFs have homologues (73.3%) to vegetative growth, sporulation gives rise to an
1326 ORFs contain superfamily assignments (32.3%) asymmetrically positioned septum which partitions
1700 ORFs are assigned to functional categories (415%)
the developing cell into compartments of unequal
578 ORFs have known or homologous three-dimensional
structure (14.1 %) sizes. The smaller part is the forespore, which in
540 ORFs have signal peptides (13.2%) its subsequent development exhibits a biochemical
1140 ORFs have at least one transmembraneregion (27.8%) composition and structure completely different from
75 1 ORFs have at least two transmembrane regions the remaining mother cell. During the sporulation
(18.3%)
process several genes are sequentially activated; this
613 ORFs have at least three transmembrane regions
(15.0%) selected gene activation is induced by the com-
152 ORFs contain more then 20% of low-complexity munication of mother cell and forespore, by signals
sequence (3.7%) transferred across the septum. The subsequent specific
185 ORFs contain coiled-coil regions (4.5%) transcriptional regulation of spore genes is influenced
693 ORFs are all-alpha proteins (16.9%)
by the activation of different alternative sigma factors,
181 ORFs are all-beta proteins (4.4%)
1971 ORFs are alphdbeta proteins (48.1 %) which confer promoter specificity to the RNA poly-
114 ORFs are irregular proteins (2.8%) merase. In turn, the forespore transforms itself into
the endospore, and the mother cell dies by cell lysis.
ORF, open reading frame, including all putative, potential and
defined genes. The sporulation characteristics of various Bacillus
species are summarized in Table 2.
About a hundred different types have been described. Isolation of Sporulating Bacteria
Therefore, cell wall composition is often a useful
criterion in taxonomy. The murein sacculus of Bacil- Spore-formers can be selectively isolated from natural
lus consists of peptidoglycan and is composed of up samples after incubation at 80°C for 10min. This
to about thirty layers. The peptidoglycan is a hetero- treatment effectively destroys vegetative cells, whereas
polymer of glycan cross-linked by short peptides. spores remain viable. The heat-treated probes can be
Peptide chains are always composed of alternating L- streaked onto plates of medium and further incubated
and D-amino acids. In the genus Bacillus, the murein under aerobic conditions at their individual optimal
version of most species (with some few exceptions) is growing temperatures. The colonies obtained are
of the direct-linked meso-diaminopimelic acid type. almost exclusively made up of the genus Bacillus.
118 BACILLUWlntroduction
Contents
Introduction
Detection by Cultural and Modern Techniques
Detection by Latex Agglutination Techniques
thermophilic campylobacters. None of the genus arc If this proposal is adopted then this would require
however true thermophiles. the unification of biovars sputorum and bubulus into
biovar sputorum and the biovar name bubulus would
be discarded.
Ecology
The normal habitats of Campylobacter spp. are Campylobacter concisus
selected niches (intestinal tract, reproductive organs
and oral cavity) of warm-blooded animals. For those C. concisus has mainly been associated with peri-
organisms related to gastroenteritis the normal odontitis but has been isolated from stool samples of
habitat is the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract. children suffering from enteritis. However, in one
In this environment the organisms are exposed to study of children with and without enteritis there
controlled temperatures in the range 37-41 "C and was no significant difference in isolation rates of C.
hence the inability of campylobacters to grow below concisus between the groups. Specific primers based
30°C is of no consequence. The low oxygen tensions on 23s rDNA have been developed for this species.
found in the lumen of the gut mean that cam-
pylobacters do not require protective mechanisms to Campylobacter fetus
counter the toxic effects of atmospheric levels of
oxygen, whilst the high nutrient levels are conducive This species has two subspecies: fetus and venerealis.
to the proliferation of these highly fastidious Both are primarily associated with animals. Although
organisms. better known as a cause of sporadic abortion in cattle,
Campylobacters do not persist in the environment they are also a rare cause of human disease. The
due to their limited defences against oxygen, relatively presence in the blood stream of C. fetus subsp. fetus
high minimum growth temperature and complex may be associated with cancer. Primers common to
nutritional requirements. Their spread is therefore both subspecies have been identified.
most likely to be by oral-faecal contamination. In the
case of foodstuffs they are relatively sensitive to heat, Campylobacter gracilis
hence normal cooking will kill them and transmission
C. gracilis may be involved in periodontal disease and
will therefore be due to underprocessing or raw-
has been shown to cause infections in dental implants.
cooked contamination.
No conclusive evidence exists that it is a cause of
human enteritis.
Species Other than C. jejuni and C. coli
Campylobacter helveticus
Campylobacter upsaliensis
This species has been isolated from the faeces of
This species can be carried by healthy puppies and domestic cats and dogs. No conclusive evidence exists
kittens. In a survey of ribotypes isolated from humans that it is involved in human disease. A species-specific
and dogs, the human strains were found to possess recombinant DNA probe has been developed to help
a unique 16s ribotype and carried plasmids more determine its pathogenicity.
frequently than did canine strains. Besides human
enteritis, strains can cause abortion, bacteraemia and
Campylobacter hyointestinalis
haemolytic-uraemic syndrome. Transmission is much
more likely to be via contact with domestic pets rather Two subspecies exist for this species: hyointestinulis
than food-borne. and lawsonii. The subspecies may be differentiated by
phenotypic tests, whole-cell protein and macro-
Campylobacter sputorum restriction profiling. Although this species was first
C. sputorum has been isolated from dairy cows and considered to be a pathogen of pigs, it has now been
calves. Although this species has not been associated established as an occasional human pathogen.
with human enteritis, it has been implicated in peri-
odontitis. Three biovars have been proposed and their Campylobacter lari
characteristic biochemical tests are as follows:
This species has been isolated from mussels and
0 C. sputorum biovar sputorum: catalase-negative oysters. It is presumed that the shellfish become con-
C. sputorum biovar fueculis: catalase-positive taminated by the faeces of gulls feeding in the growing
0 C. sputorum biovar puruureolyticus: urease-posi- waters. In one survey relatively extensive DNA poly-
tive. morphisms were found within a single batch of shell-
338 CAMPYLOBACTERAntroduction
fish, indicating a high degree of genetic diversity patients. In addition to epithelial cell invasion the
within the species. It has only been infrequently asso- organism may overcome the gut barrier by trans-
ciated with human enteritis and bacteraemia but there location (passing between cells) possibly via M cells.
is one published case where it was deemed to have Certainly Campylobacter spp. have been observed to
caused chronic diarrhoea and bacteraemia in a associate preferentially to intercellular junctions. The
neonate. Reactive arthritis may be a complication ability to invade is strain-dependent. Using Hep-2
following enteritis. Unique polymerase chain reaction cells, n o correlation was found between invasiveness
(PCR) primers for C. lari have been identified based and the type of symptoms observed, showing that
on a 23s rDNA sequence. host factors such as immune status are important.
Campylobacter spp. d o not exhibit a positive Sereny
test and show variability in their ability to invade a
Pathogenicity range of tissue cell lines, although invasion has been
Campylobacter spp. can express virulence either dir- shown to be more efficient when cells of human origin
ectly, by invasion of the epithelial cells of the gut and are used.
releasing toxin or indirectly, by inducing an inflam- Campylobacter spp. require iron for normal cell
matory response. Like many pathogens, the patho- division since in the absence of the metal ion cells
logical changes can be multifactorial in nature, with elongate, lack septa and become filamentous. C. jejuni
a combination of determinants being involved. The and C. coli d o not produce siderophores (iron chel-
main factors described are motility, adhesion, inva- ating agents) but are capable of utilizing siderophores
sion, iron acquisition and toxin production. produced by other microorganisms, including entero-
C. jejuni has a polar flagellum (at one or both ends bactin and ferrichrome. A transport system encoded
of the cell) and is capable of rapid motility which, by the ceu operon may be involved in this process.
when combined with a spiral morphology, gives the Most strains of C. jejuni and C. coli produce a cell-
organism a selective advantage in penetrating and associated haemolysin and possess a mechanism to
colonizing the thick viscous mucus barrier of intes- transport haemolysis products into the cell and release
tinal cells. Campylobacter spp. also exhibit chemo- iron from the complexes. C. jejuni also elaborates the
taxis regulated by the cheY gene. The flagella are iron storage protein ferritin which helps protect the
highly immunogcnic and can undergo both phase and bacterium against iron overload which may result in
antigenic variations which help them to evadc the iron-catalysed damagc to cellular components. The
immune response of the host. Two flagella genes have organism also elaborates an iron-containing super-
been identified: flaA and flaB which are in a tandem oxide dismutase (SOD) which provides protection
chromosomal arrangement separated by a short inter- against oxidative stress during invasion. C. jejuni pos-
vening sequence. The flaA and flaB genes are of sesses a fur gene which, if similar to fur genes in other
approximately equal size (1.7kbp) with predicted bacteria, is involved in the synthesis of SODS and
molecular masses of 59 588 and 59 909 respectively. outer membrane siderophore receptors as well as
Flagella, in particular flagella with type A flagellin, do regulating other genes involved in pathogenesis.
appear to be necessary for invasion and intern- The reported frequency of enterotoxin elaboration
alization but flagella may or may not act as adhesion amongst isolates varies greatly (Table 1). Differences
factors. in methodology and in parameters, such as the
Carbohydrate moieties, probably a glycoprotein, number of passages, strain storage and culture con-
have been shown to be important for adhesion since ditions and polymyxin R treatment, probably
pre-treatment with L-fucose and D-mannose inhibits contribute towards this observed variation. Cam-
adherence to INT 4 0 7 epithelial monolayers. A variety pylobacter appear to produce several types of cyto-
of outer membrane proteins have also been described toxins, including a Shiga-like toxin (SLT), a cytolethal
that bind to eukaryotic cells. Campylohacter spp. distending toxin (CLDT), C. jejuni toxin (CJT; similar
may also possess fimbriae (4-7nm in width) whose to Vibrio cholerae toxin) and heat-labile toxin (similar
synthesis is enhanced by bile salts. Non-fimbriated to Escherichia coli LT toxin). Some of the cytotoxins
mutants, however, are still able to adhere to and which have a molecular weight range of 50000-
invade INT 407 cells and colonize ferrets but with 70000 are as yet poorly characterized but on tissue
ameliorated disease symptoms, which suggests some culture cell lines the effects include cell rounding with
role in virulence. nuclear condensation, loss of cell monolayer adhe-
Although evidence of epithelial cell invasion in vivo siveness and cell death within 24-48h. Cam-
is sparse host cell invasion, which occurs within a pylobacter produce a cytotoxin (SLT)similar to Shiga
very short time period, has been observed experi- toxin, as evidenced by its neutralization by Shiga toxin
mentally in macaque monkeys and in the colon of antibody and by a monoclonal antibody against the
CAMPYLOBACTERAntroduction 339
340 CAMPYLOBACTERAntroduction
RNA genes and also targeting the flagellin gene, of three-strain mixture comprising Klebsiella pnew
which there are two copies, pa A and pa B. Whilst moniae, Citrobacter diversus and Escherichia coli
individual groups report successes with this method, (013:H-) provided 43-100% (average 78%)
the long-term stability of flagellin types has been protection.
called into question.
An overview of some benefits and drawbacks of
the typing methods applied to Campylobacter spp. is
presented in Table 2. Viable but Nan-culturable Forms
Campylobacter cells, in common with other genera
Methods of Control such as Vibrio, Salmonella and Shigella, have been
shown to metamorphose into a viable but non-cul-
Pets, water and improperly handled and cooked foods turable (VNC) state when subjected to unfavourable
account for most cases of Campylobacter enteritis. conditions such as would be experienced in water,
Untreated water and unpasteurized milk have been which generally has a low nutrient status. With Cam-
responsible for those outbreaks with large numbers pylobacter the cells transform from a motile spiral
of associated cases. However, undercooked poultry form to a coccoid VNC form which is incapable of
products have mainly been responsible for the large cell division in normal media entirely suitable for the
numbers of sporadic cases of campylobacteriosis. It normal culturable form.
is probably in this latter area where adequate control If the VNC form of Campylobacter is capable of
strategies still require most research effort. Since C. initiating an infection in humans or colonizing the gut
jejuni is often found in high numbers (> 104cfu)per of domestic animals and poultry or indirectly via food
processed carcass, perhaps the best approach is to contact surfaces, then contaminated water must pose
concentrate on devising methods which will ensure a risk. There is still much controversy over the infect-
that the birds arrive at the processing plant with ivity of VNC Campylobacter cells. It must be stated
significantly reduced Campylobacter contamination. that such a phenomenon has been found with Vibrio
This focuses attention on the rearing conditions. Cam- cholerae and other related enteric water-borne
pylobacter is rarely found in poultry feed or the hatch- pathogenic bacteria. Such authors suggest that the
ery environment and generally colonizes the chicks VNC form is a degenerative state and that there
only after the second or third week. The most likely is a continuum of physiological states, with one
vectors are flies, wild birds, rodents or contaminated extreme being highly culturable and the other dead
water. Three main strategies are currently being cells. The VNC state is between these but tending
employed: drinking water quality, vaccination and towards the latter state. Certainly more research
competitive exclusion. Certainly some authors is needed to elucidate the role, if any, of the
contend that disinfection of drinking water is likely VNC formof Campylobacter in the transmission of
to have the greatest impact on the prevalence of Cam- disease and colonization of domestic animals and
pylobacter spp. Passive immunization of chicks has birds.
resulted in reduced colonization by the organism but
the cost-effectiveness of this approach still has to
be determined. Competitive exclusion involves the See also: Campylobacter: Detection by Cultural and
administration early in the chick’s life of a cocktail of Modern Techniques: Detection by Latex Agglutination
organisms that prevents subsequent colonization of Techniques. Food Poisoning Outbreaks. Milk and
the bird when challenged with Campylobacter spp. A Milk Products: Microbiology of Liquid Milk.
DEBARYOMYCES 515
D
Dairy Products see Brucella: Problems with Dairy Products; Cheese: In the Market Place; Microbiology
of Cheese-making and Maturation; Mould-ripened Varieties; Role of Specific Groups of Bacteria; Microflora of
White-brined Cheeses; Fermented Milks: Yoghurt; Products from Northern Europe; Products of Eastern Europe
and Asia; Probiotic Bacteria: Detection and estimation in fermented and non-fermented dairy products.
DEBARYOMYCES
W Praphailong, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Bangkok, Thailand
G H Fleet, Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Table adapted from Nakase et al(1998) with permission from Elsevier Science.
"Abbreviations: 37"C, growth at 37°C; NaCl (lo%), growth in 10% NaC1+5% glucose; Vit, growth in vitamin-free medium; G, glucose; Su, sucrose; Tr, trehalose; La, lactose; Me,
melibiose; Ra, raffinose; Xy, D-xylose; GI, gluconate; Er, erythritol; +, positive; s, positive but slow; x, positive or weak; w, weak; ws, weak and slow; wl-, weak or negative; v, variable;
-, negative.
bNumbersof ascospores per ascus; numbers in parentheses refer to the number of ascospores most frequently observed. (L) indicates ascospores with equatorial ledge.
"Ascospores liberated by lysis of asci.
DEBARYOMYCES 51 7
occidentalis within the genus Debaryomyces because membrane bound ATPase that accomplishes an effect-
it has some quite distinct phenotypic properties. Also ive extrusion of Na- ions.
K'ingea robertsii was described as D. robertsiae. With the exception of D.hansenii, little is known
Other changes were the description of two former about the environmental factors which limit the
species of Pichia as D. carsonii and D. etschellsii and growth of species listed in Table 1. Other than D .
the removal of D. tamarii. The key properties that occidentalis, all grow in the presence of 10% NaCI.
differentiate species within the genus are shown in D. hansenii and D. etchellsii, at least, are also tolerant
Table 1. of very high concentrations of sugars and grow in the
presence of 60% (wh) sucrose. Growth of D. hansenii
is very weak at p H 2 . 5 but strong in the p H range
3.0-8.0. Many authors have made the qualitative
Physiological and Biochemical Properties
observation that D. hansenii exhibits faster growth at
Of the 15 species in the genus, only Debaryomyces l-5OC compared with other yeast species, and there
hansenii and D. occidentalis have attracted significant is a report of growth at -12.5"C. D.hansenii is not
study of their physiological, biochemical and molecu- particularly tolerant of preservatives or heat treat-
lar properties. These studies reflect the substantial ment. It is inhibited at p H 5 . 5 by 250-500mg1-' of
diversity in growth and metabolic behaviour of yeasts benzoic or sorbic acids and has a D value of 1 2 m i n
within the genus. at 48". Some strains have a strong tendency to floc-
Debaryomyces hansenii is considered to be non- culate and this could be a potential survival mech-
fermentative. It metabolizes sugars to pyruvate by the anism in hostile environments.
Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway and then In contrast t o D. hansenii, D. occidentalis is a
oxidizes pyruvate through the tricarboxylic acid vigorous fermenter of sugars under non-aerated con-
(TCA) cycle. Organic acids such as citric, lactic and ditions. It is a Crabtree negative yeast and, under
succinic are assimilated through the TCA cycle. The aerated conditions, it channels the sugars into the
pentose phosphate pathway also operates in this TCA cycle. Unlike D.hansenii, this species is not
yeast. Contrary to the general view, there are reports particularly tolerant of high s;lt or high sugar envir-
of some strains of D . hansenii and C. famata that onments. The most distinctive property of D. occi-
ferment glucose and other hexoses. Extracellular pro- dentalis is its efficient degradation of starch by the
tease and lipase production have been reported in production of extracellular a-amylases and a gluco-
some but not all strains. These enzymes have not been amylase that can by-pass the a-(l+b)-linked branch
isolated and characterized. Amylolytic and pec- points in amylopectin. Because of this property, there
tinolytic activities are absent. The most distinguishing has been substantial scientific and industrial interest
feature of D. hansenii is its ability to grow in the in this yeast. The kinetics of production and properties
presence of extremely high concentrations of salt of these amylolytic enzymes have been well char-
(KaC1).Although the growth response to NaCl varies acterized and their genes have been cloned and
with the strain, most grow in the presence of 15% sequenced. Techniques for manipulating the expres-
(wiv) NaCl and there are some strains that grow at sion of these genes and for transferring them to other
20-24% (wiv) SaC1. High salt tolerance has also yeast species have been developed.
been reported for D. etchellsii. Salt tolerance of D.
hansenii is greatest at p H values near 5.0 and
Significance in Foods
decreases at p H 3.0 and p H 7.0. The molecular basis
of salt tolerance in D.hansenii has been extensively Literature on the occurrence of Debaryomyces species
studied and is related to the ability of this yeast to in foods is largely unfocused and scattered over many
accumulate high intracellular concentrations of gly- years. It is difficult to track because of the numerous
cerol as an osmo-protectant or compatible solute. changes of name of the species. Most studies concern
Substantial amounts of this glycerol are excreted into D . hansenii and there are only occasional reports on
the extracellular medium, especially during the sta- the occurrence and significance of other species, such
tionary phase, but it is re-utilized when glucose sub- as D. etschellsii, D. polymorphus, D . maramus and
strate is exhausted. The pathway of glycerol D. carsonii in foods (Table 2). There is no reason to
production has been studied and it originates from explain why the other species listed in Table 1 (e.g.
glucose by the EMP pathway. Intracellular arabitol is D. occidentalis) are not found in food ecosystems,
also accumulated and excreted, but its production (via but more systematic and focused study will probably
the pentose phosphate pathway) appears constitutive reveal their presence.
and occurs in the absence of salt stress. It has been The early literature reveals the frequent isolation of
suggested that D. hansenii also has an appropriate D. hansenii from meat products, especially processed
51 8 DEBARYOMYCES
products, such as frankfurters, bacon, hams and fer- higher. The yeast originates as a natural contaminant
mented and unfermented sausages. In some cases, of the cheese brine and grows at both the outer and
presence of the yeast was associated with the devel- inner parts of the cheese curd during the maturation
opment of a slimy surface layer on the product. stage. Again, the ability of the yeast to tolerate the
Recent, more extensive studies have confirmed the high salt environment of the cheese, utilization of
predominance of D. hansenii in meat products com- lactic acid, protease and lipase production, growth at
pared with other yeasts, and these conclusions have low temperature and, possibly, production of polyols
been extended to include seafoods such as fresh fish. such as glycerol are key factors that favour its growth
Populations in the range 104-10hcfu g-' (or even and contribution to the biochemistry of cheese mat-
higher in fermented salami) are often reported. D. uration. A clear link between such activity and a
etschellsii, D. polymorphus and D . maramus are also sensory outcome remains to be established, but the
found in these products, but less frequently. The relationship is assumed to be positive since com-
impact of this yeast growth on the flavour of meat mercial starter cultures of D . hansenii are available
products is not clear, but cannot be assumed to be for encouraging the maturation process. An important
negative. Indeed, there is a positive correlation property of these strains might be the ability of their
between the desired flavour of some Italian salami proteases and lipases to operate at high salt con-
sausages and the presence of D. hansenii. Some, but centrations and low temperatures.
not all, of the strains of D.hansenii isolated from Debaryomyces species, especially D. etschellsii, are
meat products produce extracellular proteases and frequently isolated from brines used to ferment prod-
lipases that could contribute to flavour development ucts such as olives and cucumbers, and they are also
by the breakdown of meat proteins and fats. The associated with traditional Japanese fermented prod-
ability of these enzymes to operate well at low p H ucts such as soy sauce and miso. Curiously, a high
may be an appealing property. Consequently, con- proportion of killer strains of D. hansenii with broad-
sideration has been given to the use of selected strains spectrum killer activity has been isolated from the
of D. hansenii as starter cultures in the production of latter ecosystems. Presumably, these yeasts grow on
fermented sausages. Factors thought to select for the the surface of brine solutions, utilizing lactic acid
growth of D. hansenii in meat products include its produced by the lactic acid bacteria involved in these
tolerance of salt, utilization of organic acids (e.g. fermentations. However, some strains of D . etschellsii
lactic), protease and lipase production, good growth also ferment sugars. This latter property may also
at low temperatures, and the ability of some strains explain the occasional association of D. etschellsii
to utilize sodium nitrite which is added as a curing with the spoilage of high sugar syrups. There are
agent in some products. occasional reports of the isolation of Debavyomyces
D. hanseniilC. famata have now emerged as the species from soft drinks, beer, wine and vegetable
most important yeasts in the dairy industry. Weakly salads but, generally they are not significant spoilers
fermenting species have been linked to the spoilage of of these products. An unusual but significant form of
yoghurts, but their greatest significance is in cheese spoilage has been reported for D . cavsonii, which
production, especially with the mould-ripened soft grew in a Japanese chickuwa fish paste, transforming
cheeses such as Camembert, Brie and blue-veined var- trans-cinnamic acid to styrene which gave the product
ieties. Many surveys of these and other types of an unacceptable petroleum-like aroma.
cheeses have revealed a consistently high incidence of 4 s noted already, the association of D. hansenii
D. hansenii, often at populations of 106-10'cfug~' or with foods does not necessarily have negative impli-
Next Page
DEBARYOMYCES 519
cations and there is significant interest in exploiting fore, it will be necessary to isolate and identify indi-
this species as a starter culture in meat and cheese vidual colonies. The identification of Debaryomyces
production. In the case of cheese production, it has spp. follows standard morphological biochemical and
been reported to have good biocontrol over spoilage physiological tests and keys as outlined in The Yeasts,
species of Clostridium. Also in the context of bio- a Taxonomic Study, 4th edition, edited by CP Kurtz-
control, several papers in the late 1980s suggested man and JW Fell, Elsevier Science (1998) (Table 1).
that D.hansenii was an effective natural antagonist D.hanseniilc. famata, a t least, identifies very well in
for controlling the fungal spoilage of various fruits by the rapid computer-based Biolog (Biolog Inc
species of Penicillium, Botrytis and Rhizopus. California) and ATB 32C (bioMtrieux) systems that
However, later study revealed that the yeast is an incorporate a range of these tests in kit form.
unusual strain of Candida guilliermondii and not D. To avoid potential osmotic shock and stress, it has
hansenii. Nevertheless, this work has stimulated inter- been suggested that 5-10% NaCl be included in the
est in the yeast as a potential novcl biocontrol agent. dilucnt and plating medium when isolating these
In another industrial application, D. hansenii has yeasts from high salt foods. However, wc and others
potential value in bioconversion of xylose into the have not found these steps to offer any benefit.
sweetener, xylitol. The enzymes, xylose reductase and No selective or differential media have been
xylitol dehydrogenase, associated with this process reported for these yeasts. However, inclusion of 10-
have been examined. 1 5 % (wlv) NaCl into the medium formulation could
The amylases of D . occidentalis have potential assist in selecting for the growth of these species,
application in the production of sugar syrups for food except D. occidentalis. A differential medium based
and beverage processing. The genes for these amylases on the hydrolysis of starch could be developed for the
have been incorporated into brewing strains of S. isolation of D. occidentalis.
cerevisiae for the purpose of using these strains in the A PCR method that differentiates D.hanseniilC.
production of low calorie or dextrin-free beers. D. famata from Candida guilliermondii has been
occidentalis could be used to process starchy waste reported and is based on amplification of the large
material into single-cell protein. subunit rDNA between base positions 402 and 669.
Debaryomyces spp. are not generally regarded as A D. hansenii nucleic acid probe based on sequences
pathogenic to humans and no food-borne disease out- in the 18s rRNA has been reported. As yet, neither
breaks have been attributed to these organisms. of those molecular methods has been developed for
However, D. hanseniilC. famata have been implicated routine use.
in isolated cases of septicaemia and skin and mucosal
surface infections where they are considered as weak See also: Fermented Foods: Fermentations of the Far
opportunistic pathogens, especially for immuno- East. Fermented Milks: Yoghurt. Meat and Poultry:
compromised patients. Spoilage of Cooked Meats and Meat Products.
Influence of Available Water This article considers the microbial ecology of bac-
teria and fungi in relation to a,. a, and related terms,
K Krist, Meat and Livestock Australia, Sydney, are defined. Methods for manipulating a,, in foods are
Australia
discussed, and the effects of a,, on growth rate, lag-
D S Nichols and T Ross, School of Agricultural phase duration, jield and death rate of micro-
Science, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia organisms described. The physiology of the response
Copyright C 1999 .Academic Press of microbial cells to a,, stress is also discussed.
organisms for metabolism. Solutes that alter a, are Increased osmotic pressure literally means that the
termed humectants. cell is subjected to an increased external pressure, or
alternatively, a decreased internal pressure. Increased
Water Activity extracellular osmotic pressure refers to a situation
A,%is a fundamental property of aqueous solutions. It where the availability of water to bacteria is
is defined as: decreased.
The term water potential, widely used by soil micro-
a ,---
P (Equation 1) biologists, also expresses the availability of water,
Po but is defined as the difference in free energy of the
environment being considered, and a pool of pure
where p = vapour pressure of the solution; po = vapour water at the same temperature: the terms water activ-
pressure of the pure water under the same conditions ity and water potential are measures of the energy of
of temperature, etc. And where: water. Water potential may be expressed in a number
-P = relative humidity of units, of which the most widely used is the bar
( IO6dyn cm-2). Water potential is always a negative
Po
value or zero.
The a,b of most solutions is temperature-dependent. As shown in Table 1, a,$ and water potential are
Equilibrium relative humidity, a measure widely used not directly proportional, however, a 0.01 decrease in
in meteorology and building environmental control, a , corresponds to a decrease of approximately 15 bar
is related to a, by the simple expression: water potential in the range of a , typical of foods.
Tables of a, for various solutes and solute mixtures
Equilibrium relative humidity ( % )
a, = (Equation 2) are available in the literature. The effect on a, of
100 solutions containing several solutes can be estimated
When solutes are dissolved in water, some of the from the concentration of each solute, using the fol-
water molecules become more ordered as they become lowing formula:
oriented on the surfaces of the solute molecule. This
reduces the vapour pressure of the solution, since on a,tota, = a , l x aw2x x ...............X awn (Equation 5 )
average the water molecules then have less entropy.
In turn, a,v is reduced. The a,v of a solution decreases where a,,l, a,$2,a,,3, a,,, are the a, calculated from the
with increasing solute concentration. The effect of concentration of each solute independently.
solute concentration on a., is expressed math- This equation can readily be applied to liquid foods,
ematically: e.g. broths, juices and syrups and can also be used
for solid foods by determining the concentration of
[Equation 3 ) solutes in the aqueous phase.
Water potential, y ~ ,is related to water activity by
where v = the number of ions generated by each mol- the equation:
ecule of solute (e.g. for non-electrolytes, v = l; for
NaC1, v = 2 ; for HzS04, v = 3 ) ; m=molaI con- (Equation 6 )
centration of the solute; cp = molal osmotic coefficient.
Equation 3 reveals that the a , at a given solute
concentration is dependent on the specific solute, where M = t h e molecular weight of water
because each solute has its own osmotic coefficient (0.018 kgmol-l) and all other terms are as previously
and will dissociate into a different number of ions. defined.
Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure of a solution is related to its a,
and includes this term in its definition: Factors Affecting Water Activity
-RT In a, Addition of water or removal of solutes can increase
Osmotic pressure = - [Equation 4) a, In food microbiology, however, one is usually
V
interested in reducing a,%, to improve the micro-
where R = the universal gas constant biological stability of the product. The a,$ of an envir-
(8.314Jk-lmol-'); T =absolute temperature (K); V = onment can be reduced by the addition of solutes, or
partial molar volume of water and all other terms are water binding substances that decrease matric water
as previously defined. potential, or by the removal of liquid water.
ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODS/Influence of Available Water 541
Table 1 Comparison of water activity (a,) and water potential ( y )values and concentration of solutes required to achieve them
a /: Water potential (bar)' NaCl concentration Sucrose concentration Other solutes (a,,/ at 25°C)
(g /-'I (9 i-') (9 I-')
0.995 -7 8.7 92
0.980 -28 35 342
0.850 -224 190 2050 (saturated)
0.843 -235 KCI (saturated. 357)
0.753 -390 260 (saturated)
0.577 -757 NaBr (saturated, 909)
0.328 -1534 MgClz (saturated,l667)
0.113 -3000 LiCl (saturated. 769)
0.1 00 -31 68
al bar = -1 00 J kg-'
Table 2 Representative water activity of foods inhibitory effect on microbial metabolism than non-
Food Typical water ionic solutes (e+ sugars).
activity
Range of Growth
Milk, fruit, vegetables 0.995-0.998
Fresh meat, fish 0.990-0.995 Each microorganism has a minimum and maximum
Cooked meat, cold smoked salmon 0.965-0.980 a, for growth. For many species, the maximum a, for
Liverwurst 0.96 growth is effectively 1.000. Although growth could
Cheese spread 0.95 not occur in pure water, some organisms are able to
Caviar 0.92
Bread 0.90-0.95
grow in the presence of very low levels of nutrients.
Salami (dry) 0.85-0.90 Pseudomonads, and even algae, are able to grow in
Soft, moist pet food; chocolate syrup 0.83 some types of bottled water, indicating the need for
Fruit cakes, preserves, soy sauce 0.80 techniques to eliminate viable organisms from these
Salted fish, honey 0.75 products during production. A range of terms used to
Dried fruit 0.60-0.75
describe the response and tolerance of micro-
Dried milk (8% moisture) 0.70
Cereals, confectionery,dried fruit, peanut butter 0.70-0.80 organisms to a, and specific solutes is shown in Table
Ice at -40°C 0.68 3.
Dried pasta, spices, milk powder 0.20-0.60
Table 3 Classification of microorganisms according to their
Freeze-dried foods 0.10-0.25
preferred water activity range for growth
Nomenclature Water activity range for growth
significantly lower surface water activity, e.g. on intact
Haloduric Able to withstand, but not grow at, high con-
fruits and vegetables due to the presence of the cuticle. centrations of salt
Meat carcass surfaces can also dry during processing, Halophile Requiring salt for growth
lowering the a, sufficiently to inhibit microbial activ- Extreme hal- Requiring 1 5 2 0 % salt for growth
ity greatly. Thus, it is important to know not only the ophile
type of food but also the form and packaging that it Osmotolerant Able to withstand, but not grow at, high con-
centrations of sugar
is in to understand the microbial ecology. Osmophile Organisms that grow best, or only, under
high osmotic pressure, due to sugars
General Reactions of Bacteria, Yeasts Xerophilic Requiring reduced water activity (as distinct
from requiring high osmotic pressure)
and Mycelial Fungi
Most microorganisms are active over only a relatively The a, range of growth is solute-dependent. Many
narrow range of a, and a," differences in the order of bacteria, for example, are more tolerant of reduced
0.001-2 are significant on the microbial ecology of a, if the solute is glycerol. This characteristic is not,
an environment. Thus, a, values in food microbiology however, universal. Tolerance to a, is greatest when
arc normally quoted to three significant figures. all other factors in the environment are optimal for
Gram-negative bacteria, typically, are only able to growth. As other environmental factors become less
grow in environments of a, greater than about 0.95. optimal the range of a, that supports growth is
Many Gram-positive bacteria can withstand a, as low reduced. Examples are presented in Figures 3 and 5
as about 0.9, but few can grow at a, lower than of the related entry 'Predictive microbiology'. The
0.8. Some, specifically adapted to life in hyper-saline effects, however, are not always intuitive.
environments, are active at a, as low as 0.75 and Representative tolerance ranges under otherwise
might be found, e.g. in dried salted fish. Fungi are optimal conditions for various microbial groups are
generally more tolerant of reduced a, than are bac- shown in Table 4.
teria. Some yeasts and moulds are able to withstand
Combinations of Factors
a, as low as 0.60. Growth rates of bacteria are typ-
ically faster than those of eukaryotes. Thus, despite It is common in some foods for a variety of factors to
the fact that many yeasts and moulds are able to grow be used to control microbial growth. This approach
on foods of high a, such foods are usually rapidly exploits the interaction of a, and other physico-
dominated and spoiled by bacterial contaminants. chemical parameters such as temperature and pH in
Fungi have a selective advantage at lower a, and are food environments. Such interactions form the basis
more usually associated with the spoilage of reduced of the hurdle concept.
a, products, e.g. bread, cheese, jams, syrups, fruit The physico-chemical factors of NaCl and tem-
juice concentrates, grains, etc. As indicated above, the perature have a close interaction, with the tem-
effect of a, depends on the major solutes responsible perature range for growth of most organisms
for the reduced a,. Ionic solutes (salts) have a greater displaying a dependence on salinity. In general,
ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODS/lnfluence of Available Water 543
Algae 0.75-0.90
Most groups
There is no specific correlation between a, tolerance
0.90-0.95 (NaCI)
Dunaliella 0.75 (NaCI) and tolerance to other environmental factors. Thus,
the manipulation of a, in a product could have dif-
ferent consequences for the microbial ecology of the
foods at different temperatures. An illustration of the
reduced a, confers enhanced heat resistance on micro- selective effect of temperature and a, on different
bial cells. The basis for this behaviour is perhaps due organisms is presented in Figure 2.
to the cross-protection that osmotic stress affords
against temperature stress, believed to be mediated by Lag, Germination and Sporulation, Toxin
Production
a general stress response under the control of the Rpos
gene. (Interestingly, if grown at suboptimal salinities, The lag time is generally considered to be a period
a number of marine bacteria exhibit a lowered of adjustment to a new environment, requiring the
maximal temperature for growth compared to growth synthesis of new enzymes and cell components to
at the optimal salinity.) The minimum temperature for enable the maximum rate of growth possible in that
growth for many food-borne organisms is, however, environment. As indicated above, the growth rate
increased by decreasing a,.,. This raises the intriguing and, by inference the metabolic rate, is a function of
possibility that the basis of these effects lies in the the environment. As such, the lag time observed upon
energy of the water itself, i.e. if the kinetic energy of transfer of a cell to a new environment could be
water molecules mediates the lethal effect of tem- expected to result from both the amount of adjust-
perature, then the reduction of water energy by solutes ment to that new environment and the rate at which
may have the same effect as reducing temperature. those adjustments could be made. In general, lag times
The growth rate response of microorganisms to are longer at a, that are less optimal for growth and
water activity is illustrated in Figure 1. Growth rate where the difference between the old and new growth
increases in proportion, approximately, with increas- environment is larger, especially when the new envir-
ing a,, above the minimum a, for growth, and up to onment is less favourable for growth than the old.
an optimum growth rate value. Beyond this value the Generally the limits for microbial sporulation are
growth rate declines, usually rapidly as a function of the same as the limits for growth, although spo-
increasing a, until the maximum a, is reached. rulation may occur at a, slightly lower than that
Growth rate is a characteristic of the environment, required for growth. Spores can sometimes also ger-
and is not affected by the previous history of the cell, minate at a, below those which permit growth. Toxin
unlike lag time. The effect of a, on growth rate is production does not occur at a, below those which
affected by the specific humectant. permit growth, and is often prevented at a, con-
544 ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODShfluence of Available Water
3r
,
h
...........S.aureus h
h
....
...........S.aureus .... ...:
h
f. 4 - //\ 5.
-_---L.monocytogenes ----- L. monocytogenes .....
.'
.
!i -Pseudomonads
--- E. coli
Temperature ("C)
Figure 2 Comparison of the combined effect of environmental factors on growth rate of psychrotrophic spoilage pseudomonads,
Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. (A) The predicted effect of temperature on rates of aerobic
growth at aw=0.990. (8)The predicted effect of temperature on rates of growth at aw=0.960.(C)Interactive effects of temperature
and water activity on the microbial ecology of foods. Dominance domains for selected microorganisms potentially present on raw
foods were estimated from predictive models for the aerobic growth of psychrotrophic spoilage pseudomonads, L. monocytogenes,
E. coli and S. aureus at many combinations of water activity and temperature. The shaded areas represent that combination of
factors in which the indicated organism would be expected to limit the acceptability of the product. The limits imposed for acceptability
were that the predicted increase in the pathogen should not exceed a factor of 10 after 7 days storage. The limits for pseudomonads
were that the increase in 7 days should be not more than 1000-fold, assuming an initial level of l000cfu cm-'. All organisms were
assumed to experience a lag time equivalent to one generation time at the nominated conditions. The part of the plot to the left of
the bold line shows those sets of conditions under which the required bacterial growth limits are exceeded. For all conditions the
organism closest to attaining the tolerance limit, and hence posing the greatest risk, is indicated. Note: The growth rate of
pseudomonadswas scaled to reflect the greater tolerance of this organism on the product, i.e. approx. 10 doublings of pseudomonads
but only approx. 3 doublings of pathogens are tolerable by the criteria described. After McMeekin and Ross (1996) with permission
from Elsevier Science.
siderably higher than those required to prevent as a function of a,,, until the lower a, limit for growth,
growth. approximately 0.95.5, is reached.
Yield
Inactivation
At a, less than the optimum, cell yield declines. The
decline is not always a direct function of the a,,,stress A t a, lower than the minimum for growth, the cell
applied and it appears that some bacteria, at least, either remains dormant or dies. Compounding this
can tolerate a range of a, without a change in yield. action, however, is the effect of a, on the cell and the
In E. coli, for example, in the a, range from approxi- environment itself. Reduced a, usually correlates with
mately 0.970 to 0.997 (using NaCl as the humectant), decreased chemical activity, with the result that the
yield declined slightly (620%) with decreasing a, preservative effect of low a, on foods may also pre-
compared to the optimum a, (ca. 0.995). At a, lower serve microorganisms present in the foods. This is
than approximately 0.970, yield declines dramatically particularly true for low a, (i.e. cO.7) products, in
ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOODS/lnfluence of Available Water 545
which microbial survival may be enhanced in com- induced proteins form the cellular machinery to facili-
parison to that at higher a , . tate a change in cytoplasmic a,".
Macromolecular conformation, and therefore func-
Mechanisms tion and activity, is affected by intracellular a, due,
While the changes in cell physiology that accompany in part, to the effects of humectants on the physical
osmotic stress are known in some detail, the physico- structure of water. Some changes to membrane struc-
chemical mechanisms that underlie the effects of those ture in response to a, stress appear to enable mem-
responses are not well understood. One interpretation brane-bound enzymes to retain the conformation
of the effects of a, on the ecology of microorganisms required for catalytic activity. The role of compatible
considers that a, creates a homeostatic burden. To solutes in optimizing molecular conformation is dis-
maintain homeostasis, the cell must expend energy, cussed below.
whether to import or synthesize compatible solutes,
Cell Membrane Composition
modify membrane components, etc. This energy is
unavailable for synthesis of new biomass and leads to The chemical composition of microbial cell mem-
reduced yield. This hypothesis further proposes that branes is described clsewhere in this volume. In
the cells' homeostatic demands ultimately consume response to high salinity there is an increase in the
all the available energy and the cell is able only to proportion of negatively charged phospholipids, often
survive. Extending this paradigm, cell death could be phosphatidylglycerol and/or glycolipids. This alter-
interpreted to result when the homeostatic demands ation is needed to maintain the membrane in the
are unable to be met and the cell is unable to maintain proper lipid bilayer phase for normal function.
the functional integrity of those enzymes and path- Apart from the extreme halophiles of the Archaea
ways necessary for continued viability. there does not appear to be a correlation between
microbial membrane composition and intrinsic a, tol-
erance. However, the effect of a, on a given membrane
Effect of Water Activity on Intracellular
composition does depend to a large extent on the
Structures and Chemical Composition of
type of membrane (correlated with chemotaxonomic
Cells grouping, e.g. Bacteria, Archaea, yeast, fungi) and to
To remain viable, microorganisms, like plant cells, a lesser extent, the nature of the humectant.
need to maintain a positive turgor pressure, possibly There are several elements common to cell mem-
to provide a stimulus for cell elongation and growth. brane responses to changing a,. The first of these is
When a cell experiences an osmotic 'upshock' (i.e. membrane surface charge. The head groups of the
transfer to lower a,), the cell loses water due to major microbial membrane lipids (phospholipids and
osmosis because the microbial cell membrane is per- phosphoglycolipids) are negatively charged from the
meable to water and relatively impermeable to solutes. associated phosphate residue. Certain phospholipid
Water moves out of the cell to restore osmotic equi- classes also contain positively charged head-group
librium, resulting in shrinkage of the cells. In extreme moieties, resulting in all polar lipid classes being either
cases the cell membrane shrinks away from the cell anionic or zwitterionic. The membrane surface of
wall, a process termed plasmolysis. Microbial cells all microbes therefore possesses a net surface charge
must counteract the osmotic stress to restore the dependent on the phospholipid classes present. Ionic
turgid, pre-stress state and have evolved a number humectants may disrupt the membrane surface charge
of physiological responses to reduced a, including by interaction with phospholipid groups, requiring a n
changes in: alteration in membrane composition. Many halo-
tolerant and modcrately halophilic bacteria respond
cell membrane composition to reduced a , by increasing the proportion of anionic
protein synthesis
phospholipids in the membrane at the expense of
adjustment of cytoplasmic a,,,. zwitterionic components, believed to aid the mem-
The cell membrane is the main barrier to water brane in maintaining a functional bilayer phase.
and solute exchange between the cytoplasm and the The fatty acid composition of the cellular mem-
external environment. It plays an important role in the brane also influences functionality and is actively
physiological response to osmotic stress, responding modified in response to changing environmental
with changes to both its lipid and protein components. factors. In general, in response to decreasing a, most
The synthesis of some proteins is induced by hacteria increase fatty acid chain length and/or
osmotic stress. Increased levels of solute transport decrease fatty acid unsaturation. Again, this is thought
proteins (porins) are likely during the osmoregulatory to maintain the membrane in a functional bilayer
response. Like porins, many other osmotically phase. In certain cases, the mechanism may involve
Next Page
direct inhibition of fatty acid biosynthetic enzymes by make additional physiological adjustments, especially
increased levels of NaCl. in regard to enzyme function. The enzymes of pro-
Archaeal membranes possess phosphorus-con- karyotes that use the salt-in-cytoplasm strategy have
taining lipid species as in other microorganisms but additional negative charge that makes them stable
consisting of a glycerol backbone with two ether- at high solute concentrations but unstable at low
linked C2"prenyl chains. This Domain contains all the concentrations.
extremely halophilic bacteria, with their membranes
characterized by diphytanylglycerol diethers. De-
Compatible Solutes
phosphorylated derivatives may be present with a
significant proportion of glycolipids. Extreme halo- The activity of water is significantly influenced by the
philes are characterized (but not exclusively) by the molecular structure of the solution. Water as a liquid
presence of neutral lipid Components, mostly iso- is characterized by a (relatively) high degree of
prenoid hydrocarbons, such as squalene. The resulting molecular motion resulting in a dynamic random dis-
membrane bilayer is more ordered and less flexible tribution of molecular orientation. The potential
than those formed from other lipid types. The C20 degree of hydrogen bonding between water molecules
phytanyl residues may be present as branched or ring- is therefore not fully realized, allowing water mol-
containing structures which act as similar adaptive ecules to pack together in a relatively tight manner or
responses to fatty acid structure within other micro- higher density. As the degree of molecular motion
organisms. It is believed that the close packing decreases (e.g. with lower temperature), a higher
exhibited by phytanyl residues in Archaeal mem- degree of hydrogen bonding between water molecules
branes is the basis for their resistance to extreme becomes possible and molecules adopt a more ordered
environmental conditions. array with a decreased density. With decreased tem-
While yeasts and fungi, as eukaryotes, contain perature this process continues until the ordered
many additional lipid types as storage and intra- molecular array of ice is achieved. Solute molecules
cellular membrane components, their cellular mem- decrease the activity of water by the same process.
brane is dominated by phospholipid species as for the The organic compounds synthesized or accu-
Bacteria. Thus, the common changes in fungal cell mulated by microorganisms to balance their intra-
membrane composition to changing a, are similar to cellular osmotic potential to that of their cnvironmcnt
those of the Bacteria, both in terms of polar lipid classshare the property that they do not affect the function
manipulation and adaptation of fatty acid of normal salt-sensitive enzymes. The use of com-
composition. patible solutes to counter osmotic stress is not limited
to microorganisms. Plants and animals also use the
Cytoplasmic Water Activity
organic-solute-in-cytoplasm strategy and employ the
Moulds and yeasts accomplish the restoration and same compounds as compatible solutes, suggesting
maintenance of turgor pressure by accumulation from that these compounds share fundamental properties
the environment, or by de novo synthesis, of intra- that make them suitable for this role.
cellular polyols to establish equivalent osmotic pres- The compatible solutes have low molecular weights
sure intracellularly as exists extracellularly. Bacteria and polar functional groups, properties which make
also accumulate or synthesize a range of compounds them highly soluble and facilitate their accumulation
for the same purpose. Compounds used in this way to high intracellular concentration. They are
share the property that they do not interfere with uncharged at normal cytoplasmic pH - an important
metabolic processes. As such, they have been termed property because high cytoplasmic ionic strength
compatible solutes. would be detrimental to enzyme function. These
Microorganisms adjust their cytoplasmic a, using requirements limit the range of compounds that can
one of two strategies: the salt-in-cytoplasm type and be utilized as compatible solutes. Classes of com-
the organic-osmolyte-in-cytoplasm type. Most, like pounds that are known to perform this function and
the yeasts and moulds, use the organic-osmolyte-in- specific examples are presented in Table 5.
cytoplasm strategy for osmoadaptation. In this strat- Compatible solutes do not hinder the function of
egy salts are excluded, while organic solutes are syn- normal (salt-sensitive)enzymes and, in fact, protect
thesized or accumulated from the environment. Some proteins from the denaturation that would otherwise
bacteria can also adjust their cytoplasmic water by occur in solutions of high ionic strength. That pro-
accumulating KC1 to high intracellular concentration. tection also extends to the denaturing effects of freez-
This is considered a primitive strategy because it does ing, heating and drying.
not provide a normal cytoplasmic environment. This The mechanism of this protective effect is unknown.
salt-in-cytoplasmstrategy requires that the cell should One observation, fundamental to attempts to resolve
FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations 663
1 Fatty Acids see Fermentation (Industrial): Production of Oils and Fatty Acids. 1
FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)
Contents
Basic Considerations
Media for Industrial Fermentations
Control of Fermentation Conditions
Recovery of Metabolites
Production of Xanthan Gum
Production of Organic Acids
Production of Oils and Fatty Acids
Colours/Flavours Derived by Fermentation
may be tailored specifically to favour the desired fermentation batch. The volume of the fermenting
microorganisms. For example, the salt content may broth increases with each addition of the medium, and
be high, the pH may be low, or the water activity may the fermenter is harvested after the batch time.
be reduced by additives such as salt or sugar. In continuous fermentations, sterile medium is fed
continuously into a fermenter and the fermented
Factors Influencing Fermentations product is continuously withdrawn, so the fer-
A fermentation is influenced by numerous factors, mentation volume remains unchanged. Typically, con-
including temperature, pH, nature and composition tinuous fermentations are started as batch cultures
of the medium, dissolved 0 2 , dissolved COZ, oper- and feeding begins after the microbial population has
ational system (e.g. batch, fed-batch, continuous), reached a certain concentration. In some continuous
feeding with precursors, mixing (cycling through fermentations, a small part of the harvested culture
varying environments), and shear rates in the fer- may be recycled, to continuously inoculate the sterile
menter. Variations in these factors may affect: the rate feed medium entering the fermenter (Fig. l ( D ) ) .
of fermentation; the product spectrum and yield; the Whether continuous inoculation is necessary depends
organoleptic properties of the product (appearance, on the type of mixing in the fermenter. ‘Plug flow’
taste, smell and texture); the generation of toxins; fermentation devices (Fig. l ( D ) ) ,such as long tubes
nutritional quality; and other physico-chemical that do not allow back mixing, must be inoculated
properties. continuously. Elements of fluid moving along in a
The formulation of the fermentation medium plug flow device behave like tiny batch fermenters.
affects the yield, rate and product profile. The medium Hence, true batch fermentation processes are rela-
must provide the necessary amounts of carbon, nitro- tively easily transformed into continuous operations
gen, trace elements and micronutrients (e.g. vitamins). in plug flow fermenters, especially if pH control and
Specific types of carbon and nitrogen sources may be aeration are not required. Continuous cultures are
required, and the carbon : nitrogen ratio may have particularly susceptible to microbial contamination,
to be controlled. An understanding of fermentation but in some cases the fermentation conditions may be
biochemistry is essential for developing a medium selected (e.g. low pH, high alcohol or salt content)
with an appropriate formulation. Concentrations of to favour the desired microorganisms compared to
certain nutrients may have to be varied in a specific potential contaminants.
way during a fermentation to achieve the desired In a ‘well-mixed’ continuous fermenter (Fig. 1(C)),
result. Some trace elements may have to be avoided - the feed rate of the medium should be such that the
for example, minute amounts of iron reduce yields in dilution rate, i.e. the ratio of the volumetric feed rate
citric acid production by Aspergillus niger. Additional to the constant culture volume, remains less than the
factors, such as cost, availability, and batch-to-batch maximum specific growth rate of the microorganism
variability also affect the choice of medium.
in the particular medium and at the particular fer-
mentation conditions. If the dilution rate exceeds the
Submerged Fermentations maximum specific growth rate, the microorganism
will be washed out of the fermenter.
Fermentation Systems Industrial fermentations are mostly batch oper-
Industrial fermentations may be carried out either ations. Typically, a pure starter culture (or seed),main-
batchwise, as fed-batch operations, or as continuous tained under carefully controlled conditions, is used
cultures (Fig. 1). Batch and fed-batch operations are to inoculate sterile Petri dishes or liquid medium in the
quite common, continuous fermentations being rela- shake flasks. After sufficient growth, the pre-culture is
tively rare. For example, continuous brewing is used used to inoculate the ‘seed’ fermenter. Because indus-
commercially, but most beer breweries use batch trial fermentations tend to be large (typically 150-
processes. 250m3), the inoculum is built up through several
In batch processing, a batch of culture medium in successively larger stages, to 5-10% of the working
a fermenter is inoculated with a microorganism (the volume of the production fermenter. A culture in rapid
‘starter culture’). The fermentation proceeds for a exponential growth is normally used for inoculation.
certain duration (the ‘fermentation time’ or ‘batch Slower-growing microorganisms require larger
time’), and the product is harvested. Batch fer- inocula, to reduce the total duration of the fer-
mentations typically extend over 4-5 days, but some mentation. An excessively long fermentation time (or
traditional food fermentations may last months. In fed- batch time) reduces productivity (amount of product
batch fermentations, sterile culture medium is added produced per unit time per unit volume of fermenter),
either continuously or periodically to the inoculated and increases costs. Sometimes inoculation spores,
FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations 665
-
Feed
- Final volume
- Initial volume
(6)
Feed
Feed Harvest
Recycle inocuium
(C)
- Harvest
Feed
Inoculum from
separate source
(D)
Harvest
Figure 1 Fermentation methodologies. (A) Batch fermentation. (B) Fed-batch culture. (C) Continuous-flow well-mixed fermentation.
(D) Continuous plug flow fermentation, with and without recycling of inoculum.
produced as seeds, are blown directly into large fer- nutrients are exhausted and inhibitory products of
mentation vessels with the ingoing air. metabolism build up, the culture enters a stationary
phase. Ultimately, starvation causes cell death and
Microbial Growth lysis, and hence the biomass concentration declines.
Microbial growth in a newly inoculated batch fer- Exponential growth can be described by Equation
menter typically follows the pattern shown in Figure 1:
2. Initially, in the lag phase, the cell concentration dX
does not increase very much. The length of the lag -= ,Ux- k d x (Equation 1)
dt
phase depends on the growth history of the inoculum,
where: X is the biomass concentration at time t; p is
the composition of the medium, and the amount of
the specific growth rate (i.e. growth rate per unit
culture used for inoculation. An excessively long lag
cell mass); and k d is the specific death rate. During
phase ties up the fermenter unproductively - hence
exponential growth, the specific death rate is neg-
the duration of the lag phase should be minimized.
ligible and Equation 1 reduces to Equation 2:
Short lag phases occur when: the composition of the
medium and the environmental conditions in the seed dX
-=px (Equation 2)
culture and the production vessel are identical (hence dt
less time is needed for adaptation); the dilution shock For a cell mass concentration Xo at the beginning
is small (i.e. a large amount of inoculum is used); and of the exponential growth ( X , usually equalling the
the cells in the inoculum are in the late exponential concentration of inoculum in the fermenter), and
phase of growth. The lag phase is essentially an adap- taking the time at which exponential growth com-
tation period in a new environment. The lag phase is mences as zero, Equation 2 can be integrated to
followed by exponential growth, during which the produce Equation 3:
cell mass increases exponentially. Eventually, as the
X
In- = p t (Equation 3)
XO
~ / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Stationary
n t i a l
~ ~ Death Using Equation 3 , the biomass doubling time, t d , can
' qrowth Phase phase
~ ~
the concentration is increased to a non-limiting level O2 demand, or the fermentation will be 02-limited.
and p attains its maximum value pmax.The dependence O2 demand is especially difficult to meet in viscous
of the growth rate on substrate concentration typ- fermentation broths and in broths containing a large
ically follows Monod kinetics. Thus the specific concentration of 02-consuming cells. As a general
growth rate is given as Equation 5: guide, the capability of a fermenter in terms of 0 2
S supply depends on the aeration rate, the agitation
P = Pmax - (Equation 5 ) intensity and the properties of the culture broth. In
k, + S large fermenters, supplying 0 2 becomes difficult when
where k, is the saturation constant. Numerically, k, is demand exceeds 4-5 kg m-3h-’.
the concentration of the growth-limiting substrate At concentrations of dissolved 0 2 below a critical
when the specific growth rate is half its maximum level, the amount of O2 limits microbial growth. The
value. critical dissolved 0 2 level depends on the micro-
An excessively high substrate concentration may organism, the culture temperature and the substrate
also limit growth, for instance by lowering water being oxidized. The higher the critical dissolved 0 2
activity. Moreover, certain substrates inhibit product value, the greater the likelihood that 0 2 transfer will
formation, and in yet other cases, a fermentation become limiting. Under typical culture conditions,
product may inhibit biomass growth. For example, fungi such as Penicillium chrysogenum and Asper-
ethanol produced in the fermentation of sugar by gillus oryzae have a critical dissolved 0 2 value of
yeast can be inhibitory to cells. Multiple lag phases about 3.2 x kgm-3. For bakers’ yeast and Esch-
(or diauxic growth) are sometimes seen when two or erichia coli, the critical dissolved 0 2 values are
more growth-supporting substrates are available. As 6.4 x 10-’ kgm-3 and 12.8 x 10-jkg m-3 respectively.
the preferentially-utilized substrate is exhausted, the The aeration of fermentation broths generates
cells enter a lag phase while the biochemical machin- foam. Typically, 20-30% of the fermenter volume
ery needed for metabolizing the second substrate is must be left empty to accommodate the foam and
developed. Growth then resumes. Details of the kin- allow for gas disengagement. In addition, mechanical
etics of continuous culture, fed-batch fermentation, ‘foam breakers’ and chemical antifoaming agents are
product formation and more complex phenomena, commonly used. Typical antifoams are silicone oils,
such as the inhibition of growth by substrates and vegetable oils and substances based on low-molecular-
products, are given in the references listed under weight polypropylene glycol or polyethylene glycol.
Further Reading. Emulsified antifoams are more effective, because they
disperse better in the fermenter. Antifoams are added
Aeration and Oxygen Demand in response to signals from a foam sensor. The exces-
Submerged cultures are most commonly aerated by sive use of antifoams may interfere with some down-
bubbling with sterile air. Typically, in small fer- stream separations, such as membrane filtrations -
menters, the maximum aeration rate does not exceed hydrophobic silicone antifoams are particularly
1 volume of air per unit volume of culture broth. In troublesome.
large bubble columns and stirred vessels, the
Heat Generation and Removal
maximum superficial aeration velocity tends to be
c 0.1 m s-’. Superficial aeration velocity is the volume All fermentations generate heat. In submerged cul-
flow rate of air divided by the cross-sectional area tures, typically 3-15 kW m-3 comes from microbial
of fermenter. Significantly higher aeration rates are activity. In addition, mechanical agitation of the broth
achievable in airlift fermenters. In these, aeration gas produces up to 15 kW m-3. Consequently, a fermenter
is forced through perforated plates, perforated pipes must be cooled to prevent a rise in temperature and
or single-hole spargers located near the bottom of damage to the culture. Heat removal tends to be
the fermenter. Because 0 2 is only slightly soluble in difficult, because typically the temperature of the
aqueous culture broths, even a short interruption of cooling water is only a few degrees lower than that
aeration results in the available 0 2 becoming quickly of the fermentation broth. Therefore industrial fer-
exhausted, causing irreversible damage to the culture. mentations are commonly limited by their heat-trans-
Thus uninterrupted aeration is necessary. Prior to use fer capability. The ability to remove heat depends
for aeration, any suspended particles, microorganisms on: the surface area available for heat exchange; the
and spores in the gas are removed by filtering through temperature difference between the broth and the
microporous membrane filters. cooling water; the properties of the broth and the
The 0 2 requirements of a fermentation depend on coolant; and the turbulence in these fluids. The geom-
the microbial species, the concentration of cells, and etry of the fermenter determines the surface area that
the type of substrate. 0 2 supply must at least equal can be provided for heat exchange. Heat generation
FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations 667
due to metabolism depends on the rate of 0 2 con- tubular photobioreactors, bubble columns and airlift
sumption, and heat removal in large vessels becomes systems. Tubular bioreactors use a 'solar receiver',
difficult as the rate of 0 2 consumption approaches consisting of either a continuous tube looped into
5 kg m-3h-'. several U-shapes to fit a compact area, or several
A fermenter must provide for heat transfer during parallel tubes connected to common headers at either
sterilization and subsequent cooling, as well as remov- end. The continuous looped-tube arrangement is less
ing metabolic heat. Liquid medium, or a slurry, for a adaptable, because the length of the tube cannot
batch fermentation may be sterilized using batch or exceed a certain value: photosynthetically-produced
continuous processes. In batch processes, the medium 0 2 builds up along the tube, and high levels of dis-
or some of its components and the fermenter itself solved 0 2 inhibit photosynthesis. The parallel-tube
are commonly sterilized together in a single step, by arrangement can be readily scaled up by increasing
heating the medium inside the fermenter. Steam may the number of tubes. Typically, the tubes are 0.05-
be injected directly into the medium, or heating may 0.08 m in diameter and the continuous-run length of
take place through the fermenter wall. any tube does not exceed 5 0 m . However, greater
Heating to high temperatures (typically 121°C) lengths may be feasible, depending on the flow vel-
during sterilization often leads to undesirable reac- ocity in the tube. The tubular solar receivers may be
tions between components of the medium. Such reac- mounted horizontally, or horizontal tubes may be
tions reduce the yield, by destroying nutrients or by stacked in a ladder configuration, forming the rungs
generating compounds which inhibit growth. This of the ladder. The latter arrangement reduces the area
thermal damage can be prevented or reduced by ster- of land required.
ilizing only certain components of the medium in The culture is circulated through the tubes by an
the fermenter and adding other, separately-sterilized airlift pump or other suitable low-shear mechanism.
components, later. Sugars and nitrogen-containing The maximum flow rate is limited by the tolerance of
components are often sterilized separately. Dissolved the algae to hydrodynamic stress. The flow velocity is
nutrients that are especially susceptible to thermal usually 0.3-0.5 m c'.The tube diameter is limited by
degradation may be sterilized by passage through the need to achieve adequate penetration of light. This
hydrophilic polymer filters, which retain particles of declines as the cell concentration increases, due to
0.45pm or more. Even finer filters (e.g. retaining self-shading. Closed, temperature-controlled outdoor
particles of 0.2 pm) are also available. tubular systems attain significantly higher prod-
The heating and cooling of a large fermentation uctivity than open channels. The protein content of
batch takes time, and ties up a fermenter unpro- the algal biomass, and the adequacy of the devel-
ductively. In addition, the longer a medium remains opment of colour (chlorophyll)affect the acceptability
at a high temperature, the greater the thermal deg- of the product.
radation or loss of nutrients. Therefore, continuous Among other types of culture system, airlift devices
sterilization of the culture medium en route to a pre- tend to perform better than bubble columns because
sterilized fermenter is preferable, even for batch fer- only part of the airlift system is aerated and hence the
mentations. Continuous sterilization is rapid and it penetration of light is less affected by air bubbles.
limits nutrient loss - however, the initial capital Conventional external-loop airlift devices may not be
expense is greater, because a separate sterilizer is suitable because of the relatively high hydrodynamic
necessary. shear rates they generate. However, concentric-tube
airlift devices, with gas forced into the draft tube
Photosynthetic Microorganisms (zone of poor light penetration), are likely to perform
Photosynthetic cultures of microalgae and cyano- well. Also, split-cylinder types of airlift system may
bacteria require light and COZ as nutrients. Micro- be suitable. However, the volume of the aerated zone
algae such as Chlorella and the cyanobacterium in any airlift device for microalgal culture should not
Spirulina are produced commercially as health foods exceed approximately 40% of the total volume of the
in Asia. Algae are also cultivated as aquaculture feeds circulating zones. This way the light blocking effect
for shellfish. of bubbles remains confined to a small zone.
Typically, open ponds or shallow channels are used Submerged-culture Fermenters
for the outdoor photosynthetic culture of microalgae.
Culture may be limited by the availability of light, Types The major types of submerged-culture bio-
but under intense sunlight, photoinhibition limits reactor are:
productivity. Temperature variations also affect 0 stirred-tank fermenter
performance. bubble column
More controlled production is achieved in outdoor 0 airlift fermenter
668 FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations
Liquid
- Liquid
overflow
Recycle
Product
(F)
Figure 3 Types of submerged-culture fermenter. (A) Stirred-tank fermenter. (B) Bubble column. (C) Internal-loop airlift fermenter.
(D) External-loop airlift fermenter. (E) Fluidized-bed fermenter. (F) Trickle-bed fermenter.
Figure 4 Impellers for stirred-tank fermenters. (A) Rushton disc turbine (radial flow). (B) Marine propeller (axial flow). (C)Lightnin’
hydrofoil (axial flow). (D)Prochem hydrofoil (axial flow). (E)lntermig (axial flow). (F)Chemineer hydrofoil (axial flow).
similar to bubble columns with an expanded cross preferred, but the less expensive Type 304L (or 304)
section near the top. Fresh or recirculated liquid is may be used in less corrosive situations. Fermenters
continuously pumped into the bottom of the vessel, are typically designed with clean-in-place capability.
at a velocity that is sufficient to fluidize the solids or A typical submerged-culture vessel has the features
maintain them in suspension. These fermenters need shown in Figure 5. Sight glasses in the side and top of
an external pump. The expanded top section slows the vessel allow for easy viewing. The top sight glass
the local velocity of the upward flow, such that the can be cleaned during fermentation, using a short-dur-
solids are not washed out of the bioreactor. ation spray of sterile water derived from condensed
steam. An external lamp is provided, to light the vessel
Trickle-bed Fermenter (See Fig. 3(F).)These consist through the sight glass or a separate window. The vessel
of a cylindrical vessel packed with support material has ports for sensors of pH, temperature and dissolved
(e.g. woodchips, rocks, plastic structures). The sup- 0 2 . A steam-sterilizable sampling valve is provided.
port has large open spaces, for the flow of liquid and
Connections for the introduction of acid and alkali (for
gas and the growth of microorganisms on the solid
p H control), antifoam agents, substrate and inoculum
support. A liquid nutrient broth is sprayed onto the top
are located above the liquid level in the bioreactor
of the support material, and trickles down the bed. Air
vessel. Additional ports on the top support a foam-
may flow up the bed, countercurrent to the liquid flow.
sensing electrode, a pressure sensor and sometimes
These fermenters are used in vinegar production, as
other instruments. Filter-sterilized gas for aeration is
well as in other processes. They are suitable for liquids
supplied through a submerged sparger. Sometimes COZ
with low viscosity and few suspended solids.
or ammonia may be added to the aeration gas, for p H
Design Irrespective of their configuration, industrial control.
bioreactors for sterile operations are designed as pres- A harvest valve is located at the lowest point on the
sure vessels, capable of being sterilized in situ with fermenter. A mechanical agitator, entering from either
saturated steam at a minimum guage pressure of the top or the bottom, may be used. The agitator shaft
0.11 MPa. Typically, the bioreactor is designed for a supports one or more impellers, of various designs
maximum allowable working pressure of 0.28- (Fig. 4). A high-speed mechanical foam breaker may
0.31 MPa (guage) and a temperature of 150-180°C. be provided at the top of the vessel, and waste gas
The vessels are designed to withstand a full vacuum. may exit through the foam breaker. Commonly, the
Modern commercial fermenters are predominantly exhaust gas line also has a heat exchanger, to condense
made of stainless steel. Type 316L stainless steel is and return water in the gas to the fermenter. The top
670 FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations
Solid-state Fermentations
Figure 4 A typical submerged-culture fermenter. (1) Reactor
vessel. (2) Jacket. (3) Insulation. (4) Protective shroud. (5) Inoc-
ulum connection. (6) Ports for sensors of pH, temperature and
Substrate Characteristics
dissolved 02.(7) Agitator. (8) Gas sparger. (9) Mechanical seal.
(10) Reducing gearbox. (11) Motor. (12) Harvest nozzle. (13)
Water Activity Typically, solid-state fermentations
Jacket connections. (14) Sample valve with steam connection.
(15)Sight glass. (16)Connections for acids, alkalis and antifoam
are carried out with little or no free water. Excessive
agents. (17) Air inlet. (18) Removable top. (19) Medium feed moisture tends to aggregate the substrate particles,
nozzle. (20) Air exhaust nozzle (connects to condenser, not and hence aeration is made difficult. For example
shown). (21) Instrumentation ports for foam sensor, pressure steamed rice, a common substrate, becomes sticky
gauge and other devices. (22) Centrifugal foam breaker. (23)
when the moisture level exceeds 30-35%w/w. Per-
Sight glass with light (not shown) and steam connection. (24)
Rupture disc nozzle. Vertical baffles are not shown. Baffles are centage moisture by itself is unreliable for predicting
mounted on brackets attached to the wall. A small clearance growth: for a given microorganism growing on dif-
remains between the wall and the closest vertical edge of the ferent substrates, the optimum moisture level may
baffle. differ widely. This water activity correlates with
microbial growth. The water activity of the substrate
is the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the
of the fermenter is either removable or provided with substrate to the saturated vapour pressure of pure
a manhole. A port on the top supports a ‘rupture disc’ water at the temperature of the substrate. Water activ-
that is piped to a drain. The disc is intended to protect ity equals 1/100th of the relative humidity (RH%) of
the vessel in the event of a pressure build-up. The the air in equilibrium with the substrate. Typically,
fermentation vessel is jacketed for heat exchange, and water activities of <0.9 do not support bacterial
the jacket may be covered with fibreglass insulation growth, but yeasts and fungi can grow at water activ-
and a protective metal shroud. Additional surfaces ities as low as 0.7. Thus the low-moisture environment
for heat exchange, typically coils, may be located of many solid-state fermentations favours yeasts and
fungi.
inside the vessel.
The water activity depends on the concentrations
The equipment for fermenting slurries containing
of dissolved solutes, and so sometimes salts, sugars or
undissolved solid substrates is identical to that used in other solutes are added to alter the water activity.
submerged-culture processes. Commonly-used slurry Different additives may influence the fermentation
fermenters include stirred tanks, bubble columns, and differently, even though the change in water activity
airlift vessels. produced may be the same. Furthermore, the
FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations 671
at about 170°C) in continuous pressure cookers. The wood, metal or plastic, and often have a perforated
cooked beans are mixed with roasted, cracked wheat, or wire-mesh base to achieve improved aeration. The
the ratio of wheat to beans varying with the variety substrate is fermented in shallow (60.15m deep)
of shoyu. The mixed substrate is inoculated with a layers. The trays may be covered with cheesecloth to
pure culture of Aspergillus oryzae (or A. sojue), the reduce contamination, but processing is non-sterile.
fungal spore density at inoculation being about Single or stacked trays may be located in chambers in
2.5 x 10' spores per kilogram of wet solids. After a 3- which the temperature and humidity are controlled,
day fermentation, the substrate mass becomes green- or simply in ventilated areas. Inoculation and occa-
yellow because of sporulation. The koji is then har- sional mixing are done manually, although the hand-
vested, for use in a second submerged fermentation ling, filling, emptying and washing of trays may be
step. Koji production is highly automated and con- automated. Despite some automation, tray fermenters
tinuous - processes producing up to 4150 kg h-' of are labour-intensive, and require a large production
koji have been described. Similar large-scale oper- area. Hence the potential for scaling up production is
ations are used to produce koji for miso and saki. in limited.
Japan.
Static-bed Fermenter This is an adaptation of the
Solid-state Fermenters tray fermenter (Fig. 7). It employs a single, larger and
Solid-state fermentation devices vary in technical deeper, static bed of substrate located in an insulated
sophistication, from very primitive banana-leaf wrap- chamber. 0 2 is supplied by forced aeration through
pings, bamboo baskets and substrate heaps to the the bed of substrate.
highly automated machines used mainly in Japan.
Some 'less sophisticated' fermentation systems, e.g. Tunnel Fermenter This is an adaptation of the static-
the fermentation of cocoa beans in heaps, are quite bed device (Fig. 8).Typically, the bed of solids is quite
effective at large-scale processing. Also, some of the long but no deeper than 0.5m. Fermentation using
continuous, highly mechanized processes for the fer- this equipment may be highly automated, by way
mentation of soy sauce, that are successful in Japan, of mechanisms for mixing, inoculation, continuous
are not suitable for less highly developed locations in feeding and harvest of the substrate.
Asia. Thus, fermentation practice must be tailored to
local conditions. Rotary Disc Fermenter The rotary disc fermenter
The use of pressure vessels is not the norm for solid- consists of upper and lower chambers, each with a
state fermentation. The commonly used devices are: circular perforated disc to support the bed of substrate
tray fermenter
static-bed fermenter
tunnel fermenter
0 rotary disc fermenter
0 rotary drum fermenter
agitated-tank fermenter
continuous screw fermenter.
These are described below. Large concrete or brick
fermentation chambers, or koji rooms, may be lined
with steel, typically Type 304 stainless steel. For more
corrosion-resistant construction, Type 304L and
316L stainless steels are used.
Tray Fevmenter This is a simple type of fermenter,
widely used in small- and medium-scale koji oper-
ations in Asia (see Fig. 6). The trays are made of
Exhaust t f Conditioned
-f Exhaust
, t
Air
+
Filling port Motor
Motor
Figure 10 Rotary drum fermenter.
(Fig. 9). A common central shaft rotates the discs. Figure 11 Agitated-tank fermenter.
Inoculated substrate is introduced into the upper
chamber, and slowly moved to the transfer screw.
The upper screw transfers the partly fermented solids mounted in cylindrical or rectangular tanks, to agitate
through a mixer to the lower chamber, where further the fermented substrate (Fig. 11). Sometimes, the
fermentation occurs. The fermented substrate is har- screws extend into the tank from mobile trolleys,
vested using the lower transfer screw. Both chambers that ride on horizontal rails located above the tank.
are aerated with humidified, temperature-controlled Another stirred-tank configuration is the paddle fer-
air. Rotary disc fermenters are used in large-scale koji menter. This is similar to the rotary drum device, but
production in Japan. the drum is stationary and periodic mixing is achieved
by motor-driven paddles supported on a concentric
Rotary Drum Fermenter The cylindrical drum of shaft.
the rotary drum fermenter is supported on rollers,
and rotated at 1-5r.p.m. around the long axis (Fig.
10).Rotation may be intermittent, and the speed may
vary with the fermentation stage. Straight or curved
Continuous Screw Fermenter In this type of
baffles inside the drum aid in the tumbling of the
fermenter, sterilized, cooled and inoculated sub-
substrate, hence improving aeration and temperature
control. Sometimes the drum can be inclined, causing strate is fed in through the inlet of the non-aerated
the substrate to move from the higher inlet end to the chamber (Fig. 12). The solids are moved towards
lower outlet during rotation. Aeration occurs through the harvest port by the screw, and the speed of
coaxial inlet and exhaust nozzles. rotation and the length of the screw control the
fermentation time. This type of fermenter is suit-
Agitated-tank Fermenter In this type of fermenter, able for continuous anaerobic or microaerophilic
either one or more helical-screw agitators are fermentations.
GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds 907
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Contents
Modification of Yeasts and Moulds
Modification of Bacteria
cellulase and protease that degrade other macro- fungi and their effects on the DNA molecule are sum-
molecules have been detected and isolated by similar marized in Table 1.
methods. Production of organic acids by micro- The primary effect of a mutagen is to induce a
organisms, such as citric acid, can be detected by lesion or modification of the base sequence of the
including calcium carbonate in the medium, which DNA molecule. A mutation arises if the alteration
must not, however, contain salts such as ammonium to the molecule is not repaired by the host repair
chloride, where the uptake of cation causes the pro- mechanisms. Our understanding of these repair pro-
duction of mineral acid. Organisms producing an cesses is based on studies in Escherichza colt and
excess of a vitamin can be detected through stimu- Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In the former case, it is
lation of growth of an auxotroph (tester organism) apparent that the repair of damaged DNA is import-
which is unable to synthesize the vitamin; the test ant in the maintenance of viability because more than
organism is seeded into or on to a layer of agar added 1% of the genome is composed of genes concerned
after the growth of the organism being screened. The with the function. The mutations that constitute the
production of an antibiotic by a microorganism can steps in strain improvement programmes commonly
be recognized by the presence of a clear zone around do not affect the morphology, and increase the
the colony, thereby indicating its inhibitory effect. The product yield by not more than 10-15%. Sometimes
colony can then be isolated and its ability to inhibit a mutation may result in a much larger increase in
the growth of selected pathogens determined. yield, but such a mutation is often accompanied by
Although, in the past, this procedure has yielded many changes in morphology and behaviour that require
useful antibiotics, it now tends to result only in the extensive modification of the medium and fer-
rediscovery of antibiotics that are already known. mentation process. Such infrequent major mutations
tend to be less useful than minor mutations, the cumu-
lative effect of which may be more impressive. Inter-
Methods of Genetic Improvement estingly, the haploid status of most fungi ensures that
In biotechnology, as soon as a microorganism is avail- mutations are expressed soon after they are produced.
The synthesis of primary metabolites (such as an
able that forms a certain useful product, the aim exists
amino acid) is controlled in such a way that it is
to increase its yield. This can be achieved, on the one
hand, by changing or improving the growth con- produced in an amount required by the organism.
ditions (process optimization) and/or, on the other This is because of the inhibition of the enzyme activity
hand, by genetic manipulation. and repression of the enzyme synthesis by the end
product and such a control is referred to as feedback
Mutagenesis and Selection
Table 1 Mutagens effective against fungi and their mode of
Mutagenesis and selection of improved strains have action
been the most extensively used methods for intro- Mutagen Action responsible for mutagenesis
ducing beneficial changes into industrially important
Physical mutagens
fungi. Mutations are heritable changes which occur X-rays Single- and double-strand breaks in
in the genome as a result of one or many types of the phosphodiester backbone.
events and may involve individual nucleotide bases or Point mutations because of
large regions of chromosomes. For a specific gene, the deamination and dehydroxylation
frequency of spontaneous mutation is very low and of bases
Ultraviolet light Pyrimidine dimer formation
would be expected to occur 1 in 10’-106 nuclei. Con-
sidering the whole genome, such spontaneous muta- Chemical mutagens
tions are much less rare and provide the basis for the Nitrous acid Reacts with primary amino group to
form hydroxyl group (adenine to
overall genetic variation found in different isolates or hypoxanthine, guanine to xanthine
strains of fungus. The low frequency of spontaneous and cytosine to uracil, causing
mutations of individual genes is clearly not adequate alterations in subsequent
to meet the constant demands of improved strains replication)
for a fermentation process. To meet this need, it is Alkylating agents Causes alkylation of N and 0 atoms
(dimethylsulphonate, of bases. Alkylation leads to
necessary to induce mutations using a mutagenic etc.) mispairing of alkylated bases
agent which can be either a physical or chemical agent. Acridines Acridine mustard is comprised of an
Under optimal conditions, a mutagen will increase (acridine mustard) acridine ring and alkylating moiety.
the mutation frequency of a particular gene by at least The former intercalates in base
one order of magnitude. The physical and chemical pairs, causing disruption of base
pairing
mutagens used frequently for strain improvement in
GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds 909
control. It is obvious that a good commercial mutant Sexual Hybridization Fungi exhibit a true sexual
should lack the control system and lead to over- process of fusion of two parental cells to form a
production of the product. Mutagenesis has been suc- heterokaryon, containing nuclei of both parental
cessful in improving the yield of most of the types in a common cytoplasm. These nuclei exist
antibiotics, including penicillin. Mutation frequency separately, so recombination does not occur at this
has been enhanced in microorganisms by inducing stage; complementation can, however, be demon-
mutations in DNA repair mechanisms. strated at this stage. The duration of the hetero-
Strains giving improved performance have to be karyotic stage varies from ephemeral to indefinite
selected following mutagenesis and this is governed (depending on the species) and is succeeded by fusion
by the type of mutation desired. A variety of selection of two nuclei to give a true diploid cell, usually within
methods are available for nutritionally defective a specialized structure. In yeasts the diploid stage may
mutants, resistant mutants, temperature-sensitive and persist, but in filamentous fungi the formation of
similar types of mutations. The original approach was diploid nucleus is followed by meiosis with the pro-
random screening. Samples of the cells that had been duction of haploid spores. The four products of
treated by the mutagen were spread on the agar meiosis are retained in a structure called a tetrad.
medium and the colonies arising from the single cells Most fungi of industrial importance reproduce only
were isolated. The isolates were then grown in liquid by asexual sporulation. However, the notable excep-
medium and the culture filtrate assayed for the tions to the rule are S. cerevisiae and Agaricus bi-
required product. Such a procedure is tedious and sporus, the common white mushroom. Other sexually
labour-intensive, since only a small percentage will reproducing fungi of industrial interest are Claviceps
show improvement in yield. A reduction in labour purpurea and Mucor species. In both of them, the
can be achieved where it is possible to detect improved reproductive process cannot be easily manipulated
performance on agar media, employing methods in the laboratory. Spore germination is poor in A.
similar to those employed for initial detection of prod- S , about 70% of the spores are self-fertile,
~ Z S ~ O Y Uand
ucts of interest. Alternatively, indirect screening due to the presence of nuclei of both the mating
methods are sometimes possible, where what is esti- types in a usually binucleate spore. In spite of this,
mated is not the amount of desired product, but some homokaryons of both mating types can be obtained,
readily determined attribute likely to be correlated and mated to yield new dikaryotic strains that give
with the amount of desired product. For example, fruiting bodies. However, strains employed in brewing
sensitivity to sodium monofluoroacetate is correlated often sporulate poorly or not at all; spores, if
with accumulation of citric acid. This is because the obtained, may be difficult to germinate, and mating
compound inhibits the enzyme aconitate hydratase of the resultant haploids may not be easy. Despite all
which converts citric acid to isocitric acid prior to this, mating has been used in strain improvement. For
its further metabolism. Hence, a mutant with a low example, mating among haploids obtained from a
amount of this enzyme will be more sensitive to the diploid lager yeast gives some diploids with better
sodium monofluoroacetate and will also be one in flocculation and lower diacetyl production, both
which citric acid tends to accumulate. desirable features that occur with the parent strain.
Here the beneficial results have been obtained through
the elimination of undesirable dominant genes in the
original diploid; the introduction of new genetic
Recombination material requires mating with the haploid progeny of
Recombination offers an alternative approach for a diploid strain.
genetic modification and is achieved through either
sexual or asexual reproductive processes. Employing Parasexual Hybridization Many species of Asper-
genetic recombination, one can obtain the desirable gillus, Penicillium and other fungi of genetic import-
features of two different strains involved in recom- ance lack a sexual cycle. They are, however, able to
bination. Recombination between whole genomes or undergo a parasexual cycle. The first step in this
involving small fragments of DNA provides add- cycle is the formation of a heterokaryon which is
itional approaches to the generation of strains with accomplished by fusion of protoplasts of the two
novel phenotypes that can be included in the strain strains. The next step, vegetative diploidization, is
improvement programmes. Whole genome recom- normally a rare event, but the frequency can be greatly
bination occurs as a result of sexual and parasexual increased by exposing to camphor or ultraviolet radi-
processes, and recombination involving small frag- ation. Other treatments can be used to increase both
ments is achieved through transformation methods in the frequency of recombination between homologous
vivo. chromosomes and of haploidization, the return to
910 GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds
haploid strain. The strains are selected by growing Recombinant DNA Technology
the protoplasts in the presence of required nutrients
The more recent technology of DNA recombination
and forcing them to grow under conditions which in vitro provides a new and more direct method for
support the development and growth of the hetero- manipulating the fungal genome. The methods of
karyon and selection against the two parental strains. strain improvement discussed in previous sections are
Nutritionally complementing auxotrophic strains are uncertain in their effects. A mutation that has brought
generally used and a minimal medium provides the about the desired genetic change in a strain may at
required selective conditions to promote hetero- the same time cause other mutations that are dis-
karyosis. The parasexual cycle has proved useful in advantageous. Although gene cloning is more time-
bringing about genetic recombination between closely consuming as well as labour-intensive, its value has
related industrial strains, for example strains of Pen- been recognized, and now figures in the strategies of
icillium chrysogenum with high yields of penicillin strain improvement adopted for many products by
and ancestral strains with lower yields but superior most major companies involved in fungal fer-
mentation technology. The various steps involved in
growth and sporulation have been obtained. Vege-
recombinant DNA technology are described and illus-
tative compatibility hinders heterokaryon formation trated in Figure 1.
between distantly related strains; although protoplast
fusion can to some extent by-pass the barrier, there has Obtaining DNA SequencedGene of Interest The
been rather little success in obtaining recombinants first step in gene cloning is isolation of the desired
between such strains. gene. This involves extraction of DNA from the donor
The major differences between the sexual and para- animal, plant or microbe, and treatment in various
sexual processes are summarized in Table 2. The in ways with restriction enzymes to obtain the fragment
vivo gene manipulations have been successfully used of DNA or the desired gene. If the gene to be cloned
to increase enzyme production, for overproduction of in fungi is of mammalian or eukaryotic origin, it may
primary and secondary metabolites. contain one or more introns (non-coding intervening
sequences). The nucleotide sequence of such a gene is
transcribed into RNA molecules that need to be edited
Table 2 Comparison of sexual and parasexual mechanisms of
recombination
Sexual Parasexual
Specialized cells are involved Vegetative cells are involved in
in hyphal anastomosis hyphal anastomosis
(plasmogamy), rarely
vegetative cells
Heterokaryon formation
controlled by compati bility
genes in vegetative
(plasmogamy)
Heterokaryon formation
controlled by
incompatibility genes
Reverse
transcription
\
i r
Restriction
endonuclease
I Restriction
endonuclease
a pair of chromosomes
{Transformation
Haploidization is achieved by Mitotic non-disjunction results
meiosis, the meiotic in aneuploidy, ultimately
products being yielding haploid status
incorporated into spores ~ ~~
before being passed from nucleus to cytoplasm for enzyme of uracil biosynthesis. Acquisition of a func-
synthesis of protein. Prokaryotes do not have the tional URA3 gene by the cells that were previously
necessary mechanisms for processing eukaryotic RNA mutant at this locus allows them to grow in the
and therefore have to be provided with DNA absence of exogenous uracil. Examples of other fre-
sequences complementary with mRNA. Fungi, being quently used selectable markers in S. cerevisiae that
eukaryotes, have the mechanisms required for RNA can be selected in a similar way are given in Table 3.
processing and production of heterologous TUN@ confers resistance to the antibiotic tun-
(mammalian) proteins. Therefore, a gene having icamycin, an inhibitor of glycosylation. Lack of SUP4
introns can be cloned in fungi. However, the fungal (an ochre chain termination suppressor) can be
genome, having few introns, does not have identical selected in suitable host backgrounds. One such host
mechanisms for processing DNA as mammals or other has an ochre chain termination mutation in the CAN1
eukaryotes and hence complementary DNA (cDNA) gene. The wild-type gene encodes a permease that
is still a better choice. This involves isolation of causes the uptake of the toxic arginine analogue cana-
mRNA for the desired gene and copying to double- vanine and, consequently, causes cell death in the
stranded cDNA using the enzyme reverse tran- presence of canavanine. So CAN1 mutant cells are
scriptase. The amount of DNA obtained for cloning resistant to canavanine, as they are unable to take it
can be amplified using the technique of polymerase up. However, the chain termination suppressor SUP4
chain reaction. causes the production of functional permease in the
CAN1 background (because it suppresses the CAN1
Introduction of DNA into Fungal Vectors A pre-
mutation) and, therefore, causes the death of CAN1
requisite for gene cloning is the availability of a suit-
cells in the presence of canavanine. Loss of SUP4
able vector - a DNA molecule that will survive and
abolishes canavanine uptake and canavanine resist-
replicate in the selected host and into which the gene
ance, which can be readily selected. Cells containing
to be cloned can be inserted. Numerous plasmids for
SUP4 can also be identified by the use of hosts with
fungal transformation have been constructed. The
a chain termination mutation in the ADE2 gene for
basic components of these plasmids are first, a gene
that can be used for selection of fungal trans- phosphoribosyl amino-imidazole carboxylase, a com-
formations, and second, bacterial plasmid sequences ponent of the arginine biosynthesis pathway. The
that can be used for selection and propagation of the mutation causes the cells to accumulate a red pigment,
plasmid in E. coli. The number of different selectable whereas colonies are of the usual colour if they are
markers available for fungi is now fairly large and wild-type or if the ochre mutation is suppressed by
these selective genes can be used in many species, thus SUP4. Cells that have lost SUP4 therefore acquire the
providing substantial flexibility in designing plasmids red pigment and are visibly distinguishable from the
for specific purposes. Selective markers can be divided others. If host strain without LEU2 is chosen, and a
into at least three functional groups: genes that com- medium lacking leucine is employed, only cells trans-
plement pre-existing mutations and lead to pro- formed by the vector having LEU2 marker will grow.
totrophic growth (auxotrophic markers); genes that Several selectable markers are available for fila-
provide a new functian and lead to drug resistance or mentous fungi and the common examples are given
growth on previously non-utilizable nutrient source in Table 4. The argB marker is involved in arginine
(drug-resistant or added-function markers) and DNA biosynthesis and needs a host deficient in arginine
fragments that give rise to selectable mutations when biosynthesis. The other markers are responsible for
integrated into the genome of the recipient strain at conferring resistance to variety of antibiotics.
specific locations (mutagenic markers). Each type of The yeast S. cerevcsiae has been extensively used
marker has specific uses. One of the most commonly for gene cloning, and a variety of vectors have been
used marker in S. cerevisiae is the URA3 gene which employed. Most vectors used in yeast are shuttle
encodes orotidine-5’-phosphate decarboxylase, an vectors as they are able to replicate in a second species,
Table 4 Selectable markers used in filamentous fungi presence of a centromeric sequence allows the plasmid
Marker Function Pathwaylphenotype to be partitioned by the spindle apparatus of the cell,
in the same way that the endogenous chromosomes
argB Ornithine Synthesis of arginine
transcarbamylase
are partitioned. This also results in the reduction of
(from Aspergillus copy number per cell, but confers a much greater
nidulans) stability during cell division, allowing the plasmid to
hph Hygromycin Hygromycin resistance be maintained in the absence of selection.
phosphotransferase An example of YEP plasmid is shown in Figure 3.
(from Escherichia col/J
Resistance to fungicide
An episomal plasmid is a plasmid that can replicate
benA p-Tubulin (from A.
nidulans) benomyl independently but can also be integrated into the
amdS Acetamidase (from A. Growth on acetamide as chromosome. YEps may do this as a result of sequence
nidulans) sole carbon or nitrogen homologies between the selectable marker gene of
source the vector and mutant allele of the host, allowing
ble Bleomycin-binding Bleomycin resistance
protein (from (binds to bleomycin and
recombination. Most of the features of YEp are
Sfreptoalloteichus inhibits its DNA- similar to those of YCp plasmids, except for the
hindustanus) damaging activity) absence of the centromeric sequence and its replace-
ment with a different origin of replication. YEp has
been constructed from a naturally occurring episomal
E. coli. Initial cloning is done in E . coli and then the plasmid, 2 p plasmid of S. cerevisiae using restriction
recombinant DNA is transformed into yeast cells. The enzyme and DNA ligase. YEps are very effective in
plasmid vectors most commonly used in yeast can be bringing out transformation and occur in high copy
divided into two categories: yeast centromeric plasmid numbers. Hence, these can have high rates of mRNA
(YCp) and yeast episomal plasmid (YEp) vectors. An transcription and a high output of protein specified
example of a YCp plasmid is given in Figure 2. It by the cloned gene. Apart from a naturally occurring
contains prokaryotic ampicillin and tetracycline origin of replication, YEps also have a naturally
resistance genes, and an origin of replication from E. occurring cis-acting sequence, REP3, which is the site
coli, all in a region of the plasmid derived from of action of proteins that help in partitioning the
pBR322. These will allow it to function as a shuttle plasmid during cell division. This gives YEp plasmids
vector. Many of these vectors are based on pBR322 a mitotic stability similar to YCp vector, but with a
in this way, but other plasmids have also been used, somewhat high copy number. The 2p plasmid has the
including pUC and bluescript species. YCp vectors genes essential for DNA replication and maintenance
also have a selectable marker and an origin of rep- of numerous copies - up to about 100 - in the yeast
lication for yeast, ARSI. ARS, autonomously rep- cell. About half of the plasmid, however, is not con-
licating sequences, are the sequences that confer on cerned with these functions and can be dispensed
the plasmid the ability to replicate without integration within vector construction. In the yeast Kluy-
into another replicon. The distinguishing feature of veromyces lactis, vectors equivalent to S. cerevisiae
YCp plasmids is the presence of a chromosomal cen-
tromeric sequence, CEN4 in the present example. The Te1
Tet
EC Or LEU2
EC Or1 URA3
REP3
Figure 3 Structure of yeast episomal plasmid, YEpl3 (10.8 kb).
CEN
The YEp is derived from 2 pm plasmid of Saccharomyces cer-
Figure 2 Yeast centromeric plasmid, YCp50 (7.9kb). The evisiae and Escherichia coli plasmid pBR322. The vector has E.
vector has a suitable origin (Escherichia coli origin: EC Ori) and coli origin of replication (EC Ori) and selectable markers (Amp
selectable markers (Amp and Jet) that allow it to be used as a and Jet) that allow it to be used as a shuttle vector in E. coli. The
shuttle vector in E. coli. The vector also contains a yeast select- vector contains a yeast selectable marker (LEU2), partitioning
able marker (URA3), a centromeric sequence (CEN) and an sequence (REP3) and an autonomously replicating sequence
autonomously replicating sequence (ARS7). (ARS).
Amo -
GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds 913
Chromosomal DNA
Mutated gene
Figure 5 Gene inactivation by homologous plasmid integration.
The constructed plasmid contains a DNA fragment from within
the gene, shown as a filled rectangle; the deleted regions of the
gene are shown by the open area within the rectangle. Chromo-
somal recombination by a single homologous recombination
YEP have been obtained from 1 . 6 circular
~ plasmid, event (X) leads to duplication of two partially deleted copies of
and also from linear killer plasmids. the genes separated by plasmid DNA sequence, leading to gene
inactivation.
Another vector used is yeast artificial chromosomes
(YAC), which resemble chromosomes in that they are
linear DNA with a centromere and a telomere at each
end - a sequence that prevents attack by endo- orotidine-5’-phosphate decarboxylase, which can be
nuclease. An example of YAC is shown in Figure 4. selected by resistance to 5’-fluoroorotic acid.
The vector contains HIS3, URA3, TRPl and SUP4 The transforming DNA is integrated into the
markers. CEN4 is a centromeric sequence and TEL chromosomes by the process of homologous and het-
is a telomeric sequence derived from the ends of erologous integration during vegetative growth.
ribosomal RNA encoding molecules from the mac- Homologous integration of chromosomal DNA
ronucleus of Tetruhymena. In addition, there is a resembles that of yeast. The relative frequencies with
yeast origin of replication, a prokaryotic origin of which homologous and non-homologous recom-
replication, and an ampicillin resistance gene. The bination events occur depend on the species and the
cloning strategy involves cutting the YAC DNA with length of the DNA molecule. In A. nidulans and P.
the restriction enzyme, BamH1, in the present chrysogenum, over half of the integration events are
example, to generate linear DNA with telomeres at homologous, while in Neurospora cvassa such events
the two ends, followed by treatment with another can be less than 5%. Homologous integration is
restriction enzyme (Smal) to accommodate the important for manipulation involving gene disruption
foreign DNA. YACs are large, stable and ideal for and deletion. Multiple transformation events are quite
cloning large DNA sequences. YACs are around 20 kb common in filamentous fungi and can be a way of
in size and can carry inserts up to 500 kb. increasing gene dosage in commercial applications.
Another type of vector used in fungi are integvating Since the integrating vectors give low-frequency trans-
vectors, which do not have their own origin of rep- formants, by analogy with yeasts, replicating plasmids
lication but rather become integrated into the nuclear are expected to give better results. Naturally rep-
DNA by homologous recombination and replicate licating vectors are rare in fungi; some species of
along with the nuclear genome. As illustrated in Neurospora contain mitochondrial plasmids of
Figure 5, homologous integration of a circular unknown function, but these have not proved useful
plasmid carrying an intergenic DNA fragment leads in the construction of autonomously replicating
to duplication in which the two partially deleted vectors, A plasmid of Phanerochaete chrysosporium,
copies of the genes are obtained separated by plasmid pME, has recently been detected and has been incorp-
DNA sequences. Such an event most often leads to a orated into a stable, replicating vector with kan-
loss of gene function that, in some cases, can be used amycin resistance marker which is maintained
for selection of the integration event and thus for extrachromosomally in the absence of selection. The
transformation. For example, integration of an native circular plasmid exists in low copy number,
internal fragment of Aspergillus nidulans pyrG gene, and is relatively difficult to detect.
as shown in Figure 5, is expected to lead to loss of In the absence of natural plasmids, and by analogy
914 GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds
with yeasts, it has been possible to construct rep- by digestion of cell wall with appropriate enzymes, in
licating vectors using chromosomal sequences, carry- the presence of a suitable osmotic buffer to prevent
ing putative origins of replication, autonomously lysis. Calcium chloride and PEG facilitate uptake of
replicating sequences. A replicating vector of Podo- transforming DNA by the protoplasts. However, the
spora anserina was constructed by adding telomeric use of PEG for transformation is disadvantageous as
sequences from Tetrahymena thermophila ribosomal it causes cell fusion and so diploids and polyploids
DNA (a self-replicating element in protozoans). This may result. Interestingly, it has been found that
plasmid becomes linearized in Podospora following lithium ions render fungal walls permeable to DNA,
transfer, and replicates at low copy number without so the use of protoplasts is not always necessary.
integration. More recently, a sequence isolated from Recently, electroporation (entry of DNA under the
A. nidulans, AMAl, confers the ability to replicate influence of electric charge) has also been used for
autonomously to the plasmids that carry this gene, successful transfer of DNA to protoplasts. A yet more
and this leads to an increase in transformation fre- efficient method, the Shotgun approach, involves
quency 100-fold or more compared to integrating bombardment of DNA-coated tungsten particles dir-
vectors. Although present in 10-30 copies per cell, ectly into the mycelium.
these vectors are unstable and are rapidly lost without The filamentous fungi, such as A. nidulans, N .
selection. An ARS-based vector that replicates crassa and P. chrysogenum, are also of considerable
autonomously has been reported for corn smut patho- interest. Transformation can be carried out with
gen Ustilago maydis. protoplasts made from spores or hyphae, by digestion
After a suitable vector is decided, the vector is of the cell wall/coat with suitable enzymes. DNA is
opened with the help of restriction enzyme, an enzyme added in the presence of calcium ions and PEG. The
that recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence and cuts latter causes protoplast fusion and the DNA is taken
the molecule at that point and no other. A vector has up at the same time. However, electroporation can
to have a cloning site containing sequences that can also be used for transformation. The protoplasts are
be cut with the restriction enzymes to permit insertion then regenerated. Ensuring the stable maintenance of
of DNA to be cloned. Usually a polylinker cloning extrachromosomal DNA is difficult, because of the
site is employed: this is a short synthetic double- filamentous nature of the fungi. As a result of this
stranded sequence that consists of a number of sites filamentous habit, cells that have lost the selectable
on which different restriction sites can act, giving marker can be maintained by those cells that have
experimental versatility. A portion of opened vector retained it. Thus using the system that results in inte-
is mixed with mammalian DNA or the gene of interest gration of incoming DNA may be more convenient.
that has to be inserted, and allowed to anneal, fol- After transformation, the cells carrying the desired
lowed by treatment with DNA ligase which rejoins plasmids are selectedhcreened using the suitable
the cut DNA vector. markers and looked-for expression. The fate of the
incoming DNA depends upon whether or not a suit-
Entry and Expression of Recombinant DNA in Fungal able origin of replication is present. ARS elements
Cells Once the recombinant DNA is constructed, it have been isolated, such as UARSZ from U. maydis,
has to be transformed into a suitable host. The thick which allows maintenance as a plasmid.
cell walls of yeasts and other fungi are a major obs- When plasmid has to be inserted, a plasmid-free
tacle to the entry of DNA into the cell. There are a host has to be employed, so that the plasmids do not
number of ways available for introducing exogenous compete with the vector. The clones containing the
DNA into fungi. One of the easiest ways is simple desired vector are selected using markers, since all the
treatment of the cells with lithium acetate and poly- treated host cells may not acquire plasmid. LEU2 and
ethylene glycol (PEG), together with transforming HIS are selectable markers and code for enzymes that
DNA and extra nonspecific carrier DNA (for example, are essential for leucine and histidine biosynthesis,
from calf thymus) to.increase the total amount of respectively. In some cases, antibiotic resistance
DNA present. Although this method is relatively markers have also been used.
straightforward, the efficiency of transfer can be Various factors determine the effectiveness with
rather low - approximately IO3 colonies per micro- which a gene is expressed, but of special importance
gram of plasmid - although higher frequencies have is the nature of the promoter. Controlled expression
been claimed and may represent differences between can be directed conveniently from the alcA promoter,
strains. for alcohol dehydrogenase, in response to carbon sub-
A second and often more efficient approach of strate. There are several controllable promoters avail-
introducing exogenous DNA into S. cerevisiae is the able for expression in yeast. In order to have good
transformation of spheroplasts, which are obtained expression, the vectors generally have promoter from
GENETIC ENGINEERING/Modification of Yeasts and Moulds 915
host cell, e.g. promoters for galactose epimerase, acid attempts at expression in bacterial and yeast systems,
phosphatase from S. cerevisiae, lactase from K. lactis. A . awamori has been successfully developed as a host,
Secretion of overexpressed proteins by fusion with using a wide range of genetic manipulation tech-
a secretion signal may be more useful as it facilitates niques. The preprochymosin gene is expressed using
purification and the proteins produced will be min- transcription signals derived from host glucoamylase
imally exposed to host proteases. In addition, it may gene to produce recombinant chymosin.
help to bring about correct glycosylation and may
also enhance protein folding. A number of secretion Fungal Enzymes A wide-range of fungal ( A . niger,
signals from yeast and fungi can be used; the most A . oryzae) enzymes like amylases and cellulases are
commonly used are those for the mating pheromone used in food industry. Most of these are secreted
alpha-peptide and for invertase. Aspergillus spp. have enzymes of low value, made in large quantities by
been used to secrete proteins/enzymes into the strains already improved by conventional procedures.
medium and hence downstream processing is eco- Nevertheless, many of the genes encoding for these
nomical in such cases. enzymes have been isolated, and attempts have been
made to improve their yield by transformation. Many
Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology oversecreting recombinant strains of fungi have been
Production of Mammalian Proteins by Fungi The produced using recombinant DNA technology, secret-
bacterium E . coli was not only the first host for gene ing high amounts of enzymes with applications espe-
cloning, but also the first microbe to be used for cially in food biotechnology (Table 5).
commercial production of mammalian proteins. In Some of the genes encoding useful enzymes, such
spite of these successes, E. coli is not ideal for pro- as the a-amylase (taka-amylase) of A. oryzae and the
duction of heterologous proteins (production that glucoamylase of A. nzgerlA. awamori, already possess
would not be made by the species in question), espe- some of the strongest fungal promoters known, par-
cially of mammalian origin. As a polypeptide is syn- ticularly when they are derived from commercially
thesized it folds and disulphide bridges are formed improved strains, and these promoters have been
to give a protein-precise three-dimensional structure. exploited for construction of hybrid expression
The folding and disulphide bridge formation can systems. Fungal lipases such as those from Humicola
occur in prokaryotic cells giving a protein with the and Rhizopus species are now used in detergents.
same amino acid sequence, but different properties. Their production has been enhanced by expression
In mammalian cells a peptide can be modified in a in A. oryzae, using the a-amylase promoter of this
variety of different ways following its synthesis. Hence organism.
the active protein is sometimes a protein in which part Strain Improvement Recombinant DNA technology
of the original polypeptide chain has been removed by has been widely used to improve strains. For example,
proteolytic cleavage. Alternatively, the active product in brewing yeast, it has been advantageous in the
may result from enzymatic addition of groups such as improvement of fermentation and post-fermentation
oligosaccharides, phosphates or sulphates to specific stages in beer production. Some of the strain improve-
amino acids. Bacterial cells are incapable of these ments achieved in brewing yeasts are shown in Table
post-translational modifications. Furthermore, E. coli 6. The process can be made more efficient by reducing
usually retains the proteins it makes within the cell
instead of exporting them into the culture medium. Table 5 Enzymes produced by fungi having applications in
This means that the downstream processing is more food biotechnology
difficult, especially since E . coli produces endotoxins Enzyme Source Applications
(toxins associated with the cell) and pyrogens (fever-
a-Amylase Aspergillus niger, Starch conversions
inducing agents) which must be completely eliminated
A. oryzae
during purification. These shortcomings have lead to Glucose oxidase A. niger Food processing
research aimed at finding ways of using other species Rennet Mucor spp. Milk coagulation
as hosts for gene cloning. Lipases M u c o ~Aspergillus, Dairy industry
The first fungus with which success was achieved Penicillium spp.
Hemicellulase A. niger Bakery; gum
was S. cerevisiae. Another yeast, K. lactis, has been
Pectinases Aspergillus, Clarifying fruit juices
found to be an efficient host for synthesizing and Rhizopus spp.
exporting mammalian protein chymosin. Bovine chy- Invertase Yeasts Confectionery
mosin or rennin is used in the cheese industry, and Proteases (acid, Aspergillus sp. Breakdown of
because of its high value and supply problems, it has neutral, alkaline) proteins (baking,
brewing and
been the target for microbial expression for some dairy)
time. As a result of difficulties encountered in earlier
Next Page
the residence time in beer vessels. Product quality treatment of streptococcal infections much more dif-
can be improved by inactivating the genes which are ficult.
responsible for production of off-flavours or reducing It has been observed that single-cell protein con-
susceptibility to contaminants. Yeast capable of sumption caused ill health in consumers. Physical
secreting enzymes that would otherwise be added to contamination or escape from the laboratory of
fermentation medium will make the process more recombinant organisms may pose a health hazard. Let
efficient and economical. The yield of a particular us take a hypothetical situation; if an interleukin-2-
product can also be improved using in vitro gene producing microorganism escapes from a laboratory
manipulation techniques. Employing such it may produce an immunological imbalance in the
approaches, the yield of antibiotic production can be host it enters. The modified organisms released should
greatly improved by recombinant DNA technology. also have no adverse effect on the environment. The
The commercial p-lactam antibiotic producers P. growth of a microorganism depends on the substrate
chrysogenum and Cephalosporium acremonium have present in a particular ecological niche. If the organ-
been the main targets for this work. This is achieved ism shows change in the substrate utilization, it will
by inserting additional copies of such genes. grow in a different ecological niche from its natural
Table 6 Strain improvement of brewing yeast
niche and may have a deleterious effect on a given
habitat. If an antibiotic-resistant microorganism is
Properties Effed used, there is a risk that it may transfer antibiotic
Amylosis Low-carbohydrate beer resistance genes to other organisms by the processes
Proteolytic yeast Aids colloidal stability of conjugation, transformation and transduction.
Reduced phenolic compounds Reduced off-flavours Therefore, a genetically engineered organism should
Reduced diacetyl production Reduces fermentation time
Catabolite derepression Improved fermentation only be released after thorough assessment of the
Zymocin production Protection against risks.
contamination
See also: Aspergillus: Introduction. Ecology of Bac-
teria and Fungi in Foods: Influence of Available Water;
Therapeutics A number of therapeutic products Influence of Temperature; Influence of Redox Potential
have been produced in fungal systems, such as cyto- and pH. Escherichia coli: Escherichia coli. Fusarium.
kines (interleukin-2). Genetic Engineering: Modification of Bacteria. Gen-
et ics of Microorganisms: Fungi. Kluyveromyces.
Nucleic Acid-based Assays: Overview. Penicillium:
Risks to Consumers and/or Ecology of Introduction. Yeasts: Production and Commercial Uses.
Non-target Species
Considering the benefits of recombinant DNA tech-
nology, any preconceived hazard cannot be ignored. Further Reading
The introduction of modern biotechnology involving
genetic manipulation in the last two decades has gen- Arora DK, Elander RP and Mukherji I<G (1989) In: Hand-
erated some concern. This highlights the need to book of Applied Mycology. Vol. 4. New York: Marcel
Dekker.
ensure that what sometimes seem to be specific Bennett J W and Lasure LL (1991) In: Gene Manipulations
hazards from an organism used in biotechnology are in Fungi. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
adequately assumed and the risks are controlled. The Berry DR (1988)In: Physiology oflndustrialFungi. Oxford:
public perception of microorganisms is that they cause Blackwell Scientific.
disease. The impact of a laboratory infection can Hambleton P, Melling J and Salusbury TT (1994) In: Bio-
stretch beyond the immediate surroundings where safety in Industrial Biotechnology. London: Blackie Aca-
industrial processes are employed, and it can have a demic & Professional.
serious impact on the whole plant, on the marketing Moo-Young M (1985) In: Comprehensive Biotechnology:
of the products, on innocent bystanders, and on the The Principles of Biotechnology: Fundamentals. Vol. 1.
environment. Therefore, a microorganism used in bio- Oxford: Pergamon Press.
technology should be safe and cause no mortality. A Peberdy JF, Caten CE, Ogden JE and Bennett JW (1991) In:
Applied Molecular Genetics of Fungi. Oxford: Cam-
pathogenic organism should not produce an allergic
bridge University Press.
response or endotoxin or a toxic reaction. For Puhler A (1993) In: Genetic Engineering of Micro-organ-
example, an E. coli strain producing botulism toxin isms. Germany: VCH.
could conceivably be very dangerous; insertion of the Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA and Stewart DE (1988)
penicillinase gene into Streptococcus pyogenes (still The release of genetically engineered microorganisms In:
universally sensitive to penicillin) could make the Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the
HAFNIA ALVEI 973
HAFNIA ALVEI
Jouko Ridell, Department of Food and Environmental Hygiene, University of Helsinki, Finland
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Test %+ Sign
No specific selective agars are available commercially
Indole 0 for the isolation of H. alvei. H. alvei grows readily on
Methyl red (35°C) 40
Voges-Proskauer (35°C) 59
the nonselective and selective isolation media used for
Citrate (35°C) 6 enteric bacteria, such as violet red bile (VRB), eosin
Hydrogen sulphide (Triple Sugar Iron) 0 methylene blue (EMB), MacConkey and xylose-
Urea hydrolysis 2
lysine-deoxycholate (XLD) agars. Most of the strains
Phenylalanine deaminase 0
Lysine decarboxylase 100 grow even on the highly selective isolation media such
Arginine dihydrolase 7 as Salmonella-Shigella agar. Most of the H. alvei
Ornithine decarboxylase 100 strains are lactose-negative and on the above-men-
Motility 94
Gelatin hydrolysis 0
tioned isolation media they produce colourless col-
Growth in KCN 97 onies. O n less inhibitory agars, such as VRB, the
Malonate utilization 83 colonies are usually relatively large, translucent, cir-
D-Glucose acid 100
cular, and low convex, with a smooth surface.
D-Glucose gas 98
For isolation purposes, MacConkey or VRB agar
Acid from: containing sucrose and sorbitol may be used. The
Lactose 3"
Sucrose 12 colourless colonies may be further tested with bio-
D-Mannitol 100 chemical tests. The L-prolineaminopeptidase test is
Dulcitol 2 useful to screen the colonies; H. alvei and Serratia
Salicin 16
Adonitol 0
spp. are the only Enterobacteriaceae species to give a
myo-Inositol 0 positive reaction.
D-Sorbitol 0 Reliable differentiation of H. alvei and most other
L-Arabinose 95 enteric bacteria can usually be made by routine bio-
Raffinose 4
L-Rhamnose 92 chemical tests performed either separately or included
Maltose 100 in the commercial identification systems. It is note-
D-Xylose 99 worthy that the incubation temperature affects the
Trehalose 99
results of some biochemical tests (methyl red, Voges-
Cellobiose 67
a-Methyl-d-glucoside 0 Proskauer and citrate). H. alvei can be differentiated
Melibiose 0 from species of Enterobacter and Serratia based on
D-Arabitol 0 positive reaction in lysine, arginine and ornithine
Mucate 0
Esculin hydrolysis 5 decarboxylase tests and a negative reaction in sorbitol
Tartrate (Jordan) 58 and inositol fermentation tests. However, the limited
Acetate utilization 90 set of tests - 10-20 - which are used in routine
Lipase (corn oil) 0
clinical laboratories or included in the commercial
DNAse 0
Oxidase 0 biochemical panels may not always be sufficient. In
ONPG test (O-Nitrophenyl- 67 particular, the differentiation of H . alvei and diar-
galactoside) rhoeagenic ' H . alvei' possessing the attachment efface-
Nitrate to nitrite 100
2-Ketogluconate util. 100
ment gene (eaeA+ 'H.alvei') as well as H. alvei
3-Hydroxybenzoate util. 0 biogroup 1 and true 0. proteus (genetic group 2 ) is
Minimum growth temperature 2.6"C difficult. Other species difficult to distinguish from
Maximum growth temperature 42°C
H. alvei include k: regensburgei and inactive (non-
+ = 90-1 00% positive; [+I = 75-89% positive; v = 26-74% lactose-fermenting) Escherichia coli ( E . coli 2). From
positive: [-I = 11-25% positive; - = 0-1 0% positive.
the diagnostic standpoint, reliable identification of
a 10-15% of the strains ferment lactose slowly.
the diarrhoeagenic eaeA+ 'H. alvei' strains is essential.
This is not achieved by API20E alone or by the trad-
itional set of biochemical tests. Additional tests such
competing microflora which is usually composed of as growth at 4"C, 2-ketogluconate and 3-hydroxy-
lactobacilli. The effect is mediated by low pH, bac- benzoate assimilation tests are needed. DNA-based
teriosins and other antagonistic effects of the lacto- methods such as polymerase chain reaction detection
bacilli population which gradually overwhelm the of the eaeA gene offer a reliable alternative for
meat surface inside the vacuum package. detection.
Next Page
ICE CREAM
A Kambamanoli-Dimou, Department of Animal Production, Technological Education Institute, Larissa, Greece
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Ice cream is made from a liquid mix which is based hazard of staphylococcal enterotoxin in ice cream
on milk, cream, water, milk solids-not-fat, milk fat or may be present if whey powder is used as a source
other fat as may be legally required, sugar, emulsifyingof milk solids. Careful control and storage of these
and stabilizing agents, flavours and colours. This wide powders under dry and cool conditions are necessary.
variety of ingredients, the possible variations in their Dry sugars used as ingredients should be almost
microbiological standard and quality, as well as the sterile if properly prepared, processed and stored.
conditions and methods used to prepare the final Sugar syrups also are used as sweetening ingredients.
product, greatly affect the quality of the ice cream. The contamination of sugars or sugar syrups is
Consequently, the microbiological quality of ice limited, mainly consisting of small numbers of osmo-
cream depends on many factors, the most important philic microorganisms. Certain yeasts and moulds
of which are described here. would be the principal flora. Some species of bacteria
have also been suggested as possible spoilage prob-
Raw Materials (Major Components and lems, including species of Bacillus and Leuconostoc.
Osmophilic yeasts may be able to grow in these syrups
Additives)
and moulds may grow on the surface if contamination
Any of the wide variety of ingredients that may be should occur, so it is suggested that tests for yeasts
used to produce ice cream may contribute micro- should be carried out on sugars and sugar syrups.
organisms to the product and affect its quality. The Butter and butter oil (anhydrous milk fat) are made
heat treatment process gives only an adequate reduc- from pasteurized cream, in which pathogenic and
tion in bacterial numbers as well as the destruction of most spoilage organisms have been destroyed. Rela-
pathogenic organisms. It cannot entirely correct the tively small numbers of mesophilic bacteria, coliforms
hygienic quality of poor ingredients. So carefully and lipolytic organisms, particularly the Pseudo-
selected ingredients are essential for the manufacture monas sp. responsible for butter spoilage, as well as
of ice cream of the highest quality. moulds and yeasts, can be found. Butter commonly is
Liquid milk, cream, skimmed milk and con- kept refrigerated, and during commercial storage is
centrated skimmed milk may contain appreciable kept at about -20°C at which temperature no micro-
numbers of bacteria, including some that are patho- bial growth can take place. For these reasons bacteria
genic (e.g. Mycobacterium spp., Streptococcus spp.). usually do not grow in butter, and when they do, their
Adequate heat treatment by the supplier, together growth is not extensive. The flavour of good butter is
with handling and storage under sanitary conditions so delicate, however, that small amounts of growth
(kept under refrigeration and used promptly) leads may cause appreciable damage to the flavour. When
to raw materials of a satisfactory quality. The main satisfactory hygienic conditions are applied during
organisms present in these dairy materials are a few the production of the above ingredients and they are
spore-forming bacilli, micrococci, and psychrotrophic properly handled (storage temperatures of no more
and thermoduric microorganisms, which may some- than -20°C for butter, and dry, refrigerated conditions
times spoil the mix but are not a major health hazard. for butter oil), combined with tests for the above-
Milk powders may contain large numbers of spore- mentioned microorganisms, a high microbiological
forming bacilli or may be contaminated by sal- quality will be ensured.
monellae. Numerous outbreaks of food poisoning Fats other than milk - commonly vegetable fats -
attributed to salmonellae or staphylococci from milk may also be used. The high temperature used during
powder provide evidence that these pathogens do on their processing and their low moisture content give
occasions survive in the final product. A special raw materials containing very few microorganisms.
1084 ICE CREAM
Dry, refrigerated conditions should be used for their produce a product that will safeguard the consumer's
storage. health.
Stabilizers do not constitute an important source of After the ingredients have been weighed or meas-
bacteria if they have been packaged under hygienic ured, they are blended to make a liquid mix. This
conditions, as they are usually produced by methods mixture is then subjected to a heat treatment process,
involving high temperatures. Gelatin as an animal which is specified by legal requirements in most coun-
product may be a hazard if produced under insanitary tries. This pasteurization renders the mix substantially
conditions, so it should be obtained from a reputable free of vegetative microorganisms, killing all of the
supplier and kept under cool and dry conditions. pathogens likely to be present. The ice cream mix is
Emulsifiers should not present any problem except always homogenized, often as a step in the pas-
for eggs, which may be contaminated by Salmonella teurization process. The homogenizer is a complex
spp., and pasteurization is required to avoid any piece of equipment and must be carefully cleaned and
hazard arising from their use. disinfected each time it is used, or the mix may be
Many other foodstuffs are added to ice cream, seriously contaminated. It is therefore suggested that
either mixed with it or as coatings. These may be homogenization of the ice cream mix is carried out
flavouring materials such as vanilla, chocolate and before it is finally heat-treated, where this is possible.
cocoa, fruit (canned, fresh or frozen) and nuts, as well Cooling of the mix to about 4°C is followed by an
as colours. All of them are potential sources of hazard, ageing period; then the mix is passed to the freezer
particularly if they are added after the heat treatment where it is subjected to considerable agitation and
of the mix. Yeasts and moulds will predominate in reduction in temperature, as well as incorporation of
fresh fruits, while canned fruits, because of their heat air. On leaving the freezer the ice cream will normally
treatment, should be of a satisfactory microbiological be packaged (in family packs, individual retail packs,
standard. Nuts may be contaminated by moulds and or any other forms), frozen hard in wind tunnels at
may possibly contain mycotoxins. Coconuts can also -40°C or in hardening rooms, and then kept at a
contain salmonellae. For these reasons, it is much temperature of about -30°C until and during dis-
better for all these materials to be used after their heat tribution. Some ice cream is sold direct from a dis-
treatment (roasted nuts, for example, or pasteurized pensing freezer as 'soft-serve' ice cream in cones, or
chocolate), especially if they are added to the mix in various types of made-up desserts in restaurants
after its pasteurization. Also, they should be stored and cafks, or from vehicles complete with their own
in cool, dry conditions. The examination of these electricity generation equipment.
materials should include a visual inspection and the Ice cream mixtures must not be kept for more than
enumeration of mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, yeasts 1h at a high temperature (more than 7.2"C) before
and moulds. Colours manufactured and handled care- being pasteurized, in order to avoid the proliferation
lessly may cause microbiological problems, but this of organisms in the ingredients. During pas-
can be avoided if they are obtained from a good teurization, time as well as temperatures should be
supplier and stored properly. strictly observed in order to avoid on the one hand
All these potential hazards highlight the necessity excessive heat treatment, which may lead to undesir-
of using high-quality raw materials, purchased from able flavour changes, and on the other hand, to ensure
a reputable supplier, and carefully stored under con- the destruction of pathogenic organisms and the
ditions that will not allow the proliferation of micro- adequate reduction in bacterial numbers. The cooling
organisms. In addition, it is suggested that of the ice cream mix to about 4°C must be rapid and
appropriate microbiological tests should be carried the mix must be kept at that low temperature until it
out on raw materials, and the use of strict stock is frozen, otherwise the proliferation of any viable
rotation is essential. organisms may occur. This can lead to a product
with a high microbial count and possibly to a disease
outbreak. The same danger exists if the cooling system
Hygiene During Production
stops during the ageing of the mix. In this case, the
After the high-quality raw materials have been chosen, mix must be discarded because, although a new pas-
the mix is ready for processing. This begins with teurization will kill the organisms, it will not destroy
combining the ingredients into a homogeneous sus- possible toxins already present. Normally the mix
pension that can be pasteurized, homogenized, should be frozen within 24 h of heat treatment, as
cooled, aged, flavoured and frozen. This is a complex undue prolongation of storage may lead to pro-
operation comprising a series of steps which all have liferation of psychrotrophic organisms, with a serious
some effect on the microbiological quality of the final risk of spoilage of the mix.
product, so they must be carefully controlled to The incorporation of air into the ice cream mix
ICE CREAM 1085
~~~
during the freezing process may cause air-borne con- cessing room, to the freezing operation and to the
tamination, so air filters are required to prevent the packaging operation. Thus, the flow of air will be
ingress of organisms. For some products the ice cream away from the most critical area, the packaging room.
is blended with water ice on leaving the freezer, and The supply of hot and cold water must be unrestricted
may be frozen on a stick or in a cone (single portions) and facilities for disposal of both liquid and solid
and covered with a chocolate or flavoured couverture, wastes must be adequate. All water that is used in
together with broken biscuits or nuts. All this hand- food formulation, or will be used on (or could gain
ling has to be done under sanitary conditions in order access to) food contact surfaces, should be of potable
to minimize the microbiological contamination of ice quality and be stored in enclosed tanks and distributed
cream. in piping that is completely segregated from other
In addition to the careful operation of the equip- pipe systems. Potable water may be derived from
ment, the proper cleaning and sanitizing of the plant public mains supplies or other sources such as bore-
and equipment is of great importance. Any equipment holes which must be protected against contamination
that comes into contact with the ice cream or ice by surface water or underground contamination from
cream ingredients must be carefully and effectively drains, seeping from farm or industrial tips and
cleaned and sanitized immediately after use. This is similar potentially hazardous areas. Whatever the
usually done at the end of each day’s operation; origin of water it should be routinely examined micro-
however, if scale builds up during the operation, it biologically at the point of entry to the site and at the
may be necessary to clean the plant thoroughly before point of use, particularly if there is on-site storage.
further processing the same day. Not only is the pro- The hygienic standards of the workforce are crucial
cessing equipment important, but ancillary equip- to the ice cream manufacturer. No worker should be
ment, in particular at the final sales point, must be allowed to perform tasks in the plant who has not
kept in a satisfactory hygienic condition. Poor clean- been adequately taught the necessities of personal
ing and sanitizing of the plant and equipment may hygiene and approved practices within the plant.
lead to pockets of ice cream residues where intense Every employee must dress in a clean uniform, wear
proliferation occurs, which results in recontamination a hair restraint, wash and sanitize hands, disinfect
of the pasteurized mix with a large number of bac- footwear on entry to the process area, and refrain
teria. For soft-serve freezers manufacturers typically from touching any product contact surface without
provide specific instructions for cleaning and sani- properly sanitizing the hands, or gloves if worn.
tizing, and these should be followed closely. Proper sanitary practices are essential to the ice cream
Clean surroundings are essential if equipment is to plant. No one should be allowed to enter the pro-
be kept in hygienic condition. All rooms, especially cessing environment who is not familiar with the
toilets and locker rooms, must be kept as clean and required sanitary procedures or who does not
sanitary as the area immediately surrounding the conform to the required dress and personal hygiene
packaging equipment. Surrounding activities (e.g. measures. Freedom from chronic contagious diseases
sewerage plants, rubbish tips) often represent poten- should be confirmed yearly by medical examination.
tial sources of contamination, and birds, rodents and Provided that preparation of ice cream is conducted
insects are all important vectors of such con- in a closed processing cycle with modern industrial
tamination. In addition to preventing access of pests equipment of high hygiene standards, the oppor-
to the process area, it is important that the factory tunities for contamination by human contact are few.
yard is kept free of food waste, rubbish and spilled The packaging materials may occasionally cause
material that might attract birds, rodents and insects. trouble, but there should be no problem if they have
All such material should be kept in lidded containers been handled and stored under hygienic conditions.
and removed on a daily basis. Pet animals such as dogs Tests carried out during the production process
and cats similarly have no place in a food production should be indicative of the standard of hygiene.
factory.
Operations must be segregated to minimize the
Microbial Changes During Storage
chances of pathogenic microorganisms being carried
from raw materials to finished products. Persons Ice cream is a perfect substratum for the proliferation
handling raw milk or cream must not be allowed of microorganisms because of its composition. It con-
access to rooms where pasteurized products are tains sugar, proteins and oxygen, all the essential
exposed unless those persons have first changed their components that microbes need, as well as a suitably
clothes completely and have disinfected themselves. high pH. The only factor not available is high tem-
Room air pressures should be maintained at suc- perature. If a rise in temperature does occur, all the
cessively higher levels from the mix room to the pro- conditions are in place for the development and
1086 ICE CREAM
proliferation of microbes that may have survived the mercial establishments but at home, where a com-
heat treatment, or come from post-pasteurization con- bination of faulty practices may occur. The use of raw
tamination or insanitary processing and packaging. milk or cream, the addition of raw eggs containing
Ice cream may be sold direct from the freezer as a Salmonella to the mix and the use of contaminated
‘soft-serve’ product, or it may be further reduced in equipment, in addition to inadequate heat treatment
temperature and frozen in wind tunnels at -40°C or and contamination from infected persons, give rise
in hardening rooms, to produce ‘hard’ ice cream, to products with high microbial loads, especially of
which will be stored at a temperature of about -30°C pathogenic bacteria, which, if they are present, may
until it is sold. Deep-freezing stabilizes the microbial survive for many months in ice cream.
content of ice cream: microorganisms found in it no
longer proliferate. Some sensitive species (Gram-
Problems at Point of Sale
negative) die and their populations reduce. Even if
the period between freezing and final sale is several Even when the greatest care has been taken to produce
months, there will be little change, if any, in the an ice cream of the highest quality, it is still liable
microbial content of the ice cream. Extensive research to contamination at the point of sale. The largest
has shown that both Mycobacterium and Salmonella, proportion of microbiological problems, in general,
as well as many other less harmful but often more are due to poor techniques of selling and serving at
resistant types, can survive at the low temperature of the final point of distribution.
storage for very long periods. They do not multiply, Although much ice cream is retailed in its final
provided that the temperature is low enough for the packaging, a significant quantity is portioned from
ice cream to remain hard; in effect, the microbial bulk packs at point of sale. The method of sale has a
quality of ice cream is ‘locked in’ by the hardening major bearing on the amount of contamination to
process. It is, therefore, essential that the bac- which the product is subjected. Ice cream sold pre-
teriological content of the ice cream from the freezer packed as a single retail portion, and which has only
is as low as possible, as neither the final hardening to be handled by the consumer in its wrapping, should
process nor the low temperature storage can be relied have the least contamination of all. Greater degrees
upon to reduce the numbers appreciably, and patho- of contamination may occur in ice creams served in
genic organisms should be absent. cones or other individual portions scooped from bulk
If the mix is frozen promptly spoilage is impossible, ice cream in restaurants or coffee shops, or from
for microorganisms cannot grow in the frozen vehicles complete with their own electricity generation
product. However, if there is a delay between pas- equipment. Here there is a possibility of considerable
teurizing and freezing, spoilage can occur, as well as contamination, unless all the equipment used (servers,
in cases of melting and refreezing of the product etc.), the method of dispensing and the personal
resulting from temperature variations or failure of hygiene of the operator are all of a very high standard.
the freezing systems. Such delays are unusual in the The equipment (servers, wafer holders and so on) has
manufacture of hardened ice cream. Special care is to be kept free of all residues of ice cream, which
needed for mix with soft-serve ice cream that has to might otherwise melt and allow the growth of bacteria
be transported, often for long distances, by trucks to to recommence. Wherever possible these items of
retail soft-serve stores or stands where it is kept soft- equipment should be kept in running cold water. If
frozen and dispensed to consumers. Both con- they have to be kept in a jug of water, this water must
tamination and temperature abuse of the mix may be regularly changed to avoid it becoming a source of
easily occur. Furthermore, refrigeration space is contaminating bacteria. The personal hygiene of the
usually limited, and adequate facilities for cleaning server is also of the utmost importance. This applies
and sanitizing the freezer and the associated equip- even if pre-wrapped ice cream is being sold. Clean-
ment are often lacking or are, at best, marginal. liness of hands, clothing and habits must be above
Under these conditions, especially if wrong prac- reproach, and the operators must be trained in the
tices had occurred previously, the ice cream is over- best ways of maintaining this, and in the distribution
loaded with microbes which can lead to quality of the individual portions of ice cream.
deterioration or even to cases of food poisoning. Food Soft-serve ice cream sold directly from a dispensing
poisoning is known to have followed the consumption freezer can become contaminated very easily unless
of ice cream contaminated by microbes, such as stringent precautions are taken. The product is usually
Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria and manufactured at the point of sale, which may be a
Streptococcus group A organisms. With few excep- specialist outlet or cafi., a non-food outlet such as a
tions, outbreaks that have occurred in recent years filling station, or a mobile outlet or kiosk. Soft-serve
have been caused by ice cream made not in com- ice cream may be manufactured from a conventional
Next Page
mix produced on the premises, from an ultra-high cream contaminated by the manufacturer who was a
temperature processed, aseptically packaged mix, or urinary excretor of Salmonella typhi. There has been
from a spray-dried powder mix. Powder mixes may a case of Shigella dysentery caused by an ice cream
be formulated for reconstitution in either hot or cold that was accidentally touched by a monkey. Also,
water. Hot-water mixes are preferable with respect to outbreaks involving salmonellae and staphylococci
hygiene, but cold-water mixes are often considered have been reported. The personal hygiene and habits
more convenient. Attention must be paid to the recon- of vendors at sale points are important. Education, in
stitution of the mixes; this must be done under sat- addition to medical inspection, is absolutely necessary
isfactory hygienic conditions to prohibit the and no employee must be allowed to work without
proliferation of Salmonella, which may survive if full medical clearance.
mixes are not prepared with care. Finally, birds, rodents, insects and pet animals have
Generally, special dispensing freezers should be no place at the retail selling point.
To some extent ice cream retains a reputation as a
kept in constant operation and placed inside the shop
high-risk food. This is unjustified for commercially
with the taps facing the interior; they must not be
produced ice cream in developed countries which
directly exposed to the sun, dust or flies. A strict
have legislated microbiological standards for ice
cleaning and disinfecting regimen for the freezer must
cream, as well as for the conditions and methods to
be instituted, adhered to and performed thoroughly be used for heat treatment and subsequent storage
on a daily basis. In particular, ice cream must not be and sale.
allowed to remain in the freezer overnight, and the
personal hygiene of the operator must be of a very
high standard. It must be recognized that maintenance See also: Eggs: Microbiology of Fresh Eggs. Food
of the necessary hygiene standards can be more dif- Poisoning Outbreaks. Freezing of Foods:Growth and
ficult in an environment primarily concerned with Survival of Microorganisms. Heat Treatment of Foods:
retailing than in one wholly concerned with manu- Principles of Pasteurization. Milk and Milk Products:
facturing. Particular difficulties may be encountered Microbiology of Liquid Milk; Microbiology of Cream and
in outlets that are predominantly non-food, such as Butter. Salmonella: Introduction. Process Hygiene:
filling stations, and those with inherently limited facil- Overall Approach to Hygienic Processing; Hygiene in the
ities, such as kiosks. Catering Industry.
Special self-pasteurizing dispensing freezers are
now available which have a heat treatment process as
part of their operation, and provided the process is
used each and every day, they do not normally need
daily cleaning. At the end of each day’s operation (or Further Reading
other convenient time) the freezer is switched to the
Frazier W C and Westhoff D C (1988) Food Microbiology,
‘self-pasteurize’ mode, and all the mix, and every part 4th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.
of the freezer that can come into contact with ice International Commission on Microbiological Spe-
cream or mix, are raised to a temperature above that cifications for Food (1980) Microbial Ecology ofFoods.
required for pasteurization of the mix, and held at Vol. 2. Food Commodities. London: ICMSF/Academic
that temperature for the legally required time. The Press.
freezer and its contents are then cooled rapidly to Jervis DI (1992) Hygiene in milk product manufacture. In:
about 4°C and held at that temperature. Tests have Early R (ed.) The Technology of Dairy Products. P. 272.
Chichester: John Wiley.
shown that there is little or no increase in the bacterial
Mantis AI (1993) Hygiene and the Technology of Milk and
content of the product over a period of more than a its Products. Thessaloniki: Kiriakidis.
week. It is to be recommended, however, that these Marshall R and Arbuckle WS (1996) Ice Cream, 5th edn.
freezers are cleaned out and disinfected at regular New York: Chapman & Hall.
intervals of, say, a week. It must be emphasized that Rothwell J (1985) Microbiology of frozen dairy products.
self-pasteurizing freezers are not intended to process In: Robinson RK (ed.) Microbiology of Frozen Foods.
unpasteurized mix. P. 209. London: Elsevier.
Rothwell J (1990)Microbiology of the icecream and related
Probably the most serious and dangerous sources
products. In: Robinson RK (ed.) Dairy Microbiology.
of contamination are operation and serving. Many Vol. 2, p. 1. London: Elsevier.
major food poisoning outbreaks have been caused by Varnam A and Sutherland J (1993)Milk and Milk Products.
human contamination. Cases of typhoid fever, includ- Food and Commodities Series no. 1. London:
ing deaths, have been reported to be caused by ice Chapman & Hall.
KLEBSIELLA 1107
KLEBSIELLA
P T Vanhooren, S De Baets, G Bruggeman and E! J Vandamme, Department of Biochemical and Microbial
Technology, University of Gent, Belgium
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Introduction
In the ninth edition of Bergey’s Manual of De- Klebsiella sp. are chemoorganotrophic, having both
terminative Bacteriology, the genus Klebsie1lL;l is a respiratory and a fermentative type of metabolism.
taxonomically classified in subgroup 1:family Entero- Glucose is fermented with the production of acid and
bacteriaceae, which belongs to group 5, describing gas (more COZ is produced than H2).Most strains
the facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rods. Kleb- produce 2,3-butanediol as a major end product of
siella bacteria occur worldwide and are commonly glucose fermentation, whereas lactic acid, acetic acid
found in soil, carbohydrate-rich waste water, effluents and formic acid are formed in smaller amounts
from paper, pulp and textile mills, cooling water, and ethanol in larger amounts than in typical mixed
aerosols, woodland, on fruits, sugar cane, grains and acid bacterial fermentations. No special growth
on vegetables such as radish, lettuce, carrots and factor requirements are known. Some strains have
tomatoes. Drinking water reservoirs, made from the ability to fix molecular nitrogen under anaerobic
redwood (Californian sequoia), also harbour Kleb- conditions.
siella sp. and it is a frequent contaminant of water Klebsiella strains may be lysogenic, but phages have
supplies in general. These bacteria also occur in the been isolated from stools and sewage and used in
human respiratory tract, in faeces and in clinical spe- phage typing. Many Klebsiella strains produce bac-
cimens. As such, they can contaminate food and con- teriocins, klebecin being an example.
tribute to disease and spoilage. Certain species ( K . Klebsiella species are cytochrome oxidase negative
pneumoniae, K. oxytoca and occasionally others) are and catalase positive. Other typical Entero-
opportunistic pathogens. They are frequently the bacteriaceae taxonomical tests vary among the
cause of hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections species: indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer and
in urological, neonatal, intensive care and geriatric Simmons citrate. They are usually lysine decarb-
patients. Often, they display multiple antibiotic resist- oxylase positive and ornithine decarboxylase nega-
ance and resistance to biocides. Some strains could be tive. Several species hydrolyse urea and most reduce
exploited in industrial fermentation processes for the nitrates (except K . pneumoniae subsp. o z a e m e . ) They
synthesis of (fine) chemicals. are arginine dihydrolase negative and H2S is not pro-
duced. Most species ferment all commonly tested
Characteristics of the Genus K/ebsie//a carbohydrates, except dulcitol and erythritol; they
also grow in the presence of KCN. The mol% G+C
and Relevant Species
of the DNA is 53-58 ( T J .
Successful genetic recombinations have been
General Physiological Properties of Klebsiella reported in Klebsiella and K. pneumoniae has been
Strains
used by several workers for detailed genetic analysis
Klebsiella is a non-spore-forming, non-motile, fac- of the genes involved in N2-fixation (the Nif-genes).
ultative anaerobic Gram-negative straight rod, 3.3- These genes are clustered near the His-region in the
1.0pm in diameter and 0.6-6.0pm in length. The genome, but can be mobilized and transferred to other
rods are arranged singly, in pairs or in short chains. Gram-negative bacteria. Strains from clinical origin
The cells are capsulated. The optimal temperature for or those from nosocomial infections harbour R-
growth is 37°C. plasmids, which determine resistance to a variety of
1108 KLEBSlELLA
Serotype Structure
/\
CH3 COOH
a
l,6 -13) Gal ( 1 3
a a
3 -3) Man ( 1 3 3 ) Man (1-2) Man ( 1 2 2 ) Man (122) Man (13
a Q a
5 -3) Man (1-2) Man (1-3) Man (1-2) Man (122) Man (13
4 -2) Rib (1-4)
P a
Gai ( 1 3
- 54 +4)-a-~-GlcAp~(l+3)-a-~-Fucp-(l-+3)-P-~-Glcp-(l~
a P a a 4
7 -12) L-Rha (1-12) Rib (1-3) i-Rha (1-3) L-Rha (1- t
1
216OAc 2 OAc 216OAc P-D-GICP
I I Acetyl residue at 0-2of L-fucosyl on every other repeating unit
l a l a l a
6 -3) Gal (1-3) Gal (1-3) Gal ( I +
56 +3)-a-~-Glcp-(l-,4)-P-~-GlcAp-(l i 4 ) - a - ~ - F u c p - ( l +
214 OAc 214 OAc 214 OAc 214 OAc 3 2 3
\/ T
9 '3)
I
Gal (1-3)
I
Gal (1-3)
I
culture and identify Klebsiella to the species and sub- Serological tests based on the K-antigen can be used
species level remains a goal to be achieved. to confirm the identification results. A total of 62
Within the genus Klebsiella, the following species serotypes among 72 different serological Klebsiella
are currently distinguished: K. oxytoca; K. planticola; strains could be distinguished, based on a unique
K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae; K. pneumoniae agglutination pattern with plant lectins.
subsp. ozaenae; K. pneumoniae subsp. rhino- Based on an extensive survey of about 160 strains
scleromatis; K. terrigena. of Bacillus, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae
K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae is considered as and Staphylococcus, it can be concluded that gas
the type species. As to the differentiation of the family
chromatographic analysis of cellular fatty acid com-
Enterobacteriaceae from other families and genera, position was not sufficiently specific to the species
classified in Bergey’s group 5, the reader is referred to
level in several cases; characterization of food-borne
the ninth edition of Bergey’s Manual. bacteria, including Klebsiella sp. by the analysis of
As to the differentiation of about 30 genera (> 115 their cellular fatty acids should thus only be used to
species and subspecies) in the family Entero- complement other taxonomical methods.
bacteriaceae, about 50 differential biochemical char- Recently, several molecular identification tech-
acteristics can be verified; these can also be found in niques have been proposed for a wide range of med-
Bergey’s Manual. Due to the large number of data to ically and food-related bacteria, including Klebsiella
be compared in such an identification attempt, one SP.
tries to identify members of this family directly to the A fluorescence-based polymerase chain reaction-
genus or species level using the above battery of about single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-
50 tests. Additional tests are then available to dif- SSCP) analysis of the 16s rRNA gene has been
ferentiate between certain species and subspecies; for described to identify a broad range of Gram-positive
Klebsiella specieshbspecies, these are summarized in and Gram-negative bacteria: 178 bacterial strains,
Table 1. representing 51 species in 21 genera were examined.
The usefulness of the pyrrolidonyl-arylamidase All strains gave species-specific patterns, except Shi-
activity test to differentiate among Enterobacteriaceae gella which resembled E . coli. This sensitive technique
and non-fermentative Gram-negative rods has also can be applied on very low numbers of bacteria, i.e.
been studied. Positive results were uniformly obtained IO colony forming units (cfu).
with Citrobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobacter and Ser- Two 16s DNA targeted oligonucleotides were used
ratia species. Negative results were displayed by as PCR primers for the specific detection of Salmonella
Escherichia coli, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella, serotypes in food. Some of the primers (16s 111) also
Pseudomonas and Flavobacterium species, indicating hybridized with Klebsiella and Serratia sp., however.
its value as a complementary differentiation test.
The Biolog System has been evaluated for the idem- Recommended Methods for Detection
tification of 55 Gram-negative taxa (789 strains), and Enumeration of Klebsiella
likely to be encountered commonly in clinical labora-
tories. It performed best with oxidase-positive fer-
Detection and Enumeration
menters, but although for 39 of the 55 taxa an
identification rate of 70 % was achieved, problems Conventionally, eventual resuscitation (2 h at 17-
were encountered, particularly with the identification 25°C) in tryptic soy broth and (subsequent) plating
of capsulated strains of Klebsiella. on violet red bile glucose agar (VRBG) allows an
The new BBL CrystalEnterichIon Fermenter efficient presumptive enumeration of Entero-
(Crystal, Becton Dickinson Microbiology Systems) bacteriaceae, in foods or in other substrates. Other
identification system for Gram-negative rods has been isolation media commonly used in this respect are:
compared with the well-known API 20 E or API 20 NE Simmons citrate agar, MacConkey agar and eosin
(Bio-Merieux) system. More than 100 clinical isolates methylene blue agar. Incubation is at 35°C (clinical
were studied, including six K . oxytoca strains and ’12 samples) and 10°C (environmental samples) for 24-
K. pneumoniae strains; it was concluded that the 48 h. Raised mucoid colonies are selected and further
Becton Dickinson Crystal test allowed a quicker, differentiation and confirmation of Klebsiella is then
easier and more accurate identification of Gram-nega- based on the battery of tests mentioned above.
tive clinical isolates compared to the API system. The detection and isolation from sources such as
A remaining problem is to distinguish K. pneu- faeces, soil, water and food can be facilitated by use
moniae strains from non-motile Enterobacter aero- of the standard selective media (see Table 2). Specific
genes strains; however, the latter liquefy gelatin very Klebsiella enumeration is also of great importance
slowly and are urease negative. to environmental microbiologists investigating the
1110 KLEBSIELLA
Table 1 contd
Test Klebsiella Klebsiella Klebsiella Klebsiella Klebsiella Klebsiella
oxytoca planticola pneumoniae pneumoniae pneumoniae subsp. terrigena
subsp. ozaenae subsp. rhinoscleromatis
pneumoniae
Flagella arrangementb P - - - - -
Catalase production (24 h) + + + + + +
Oxidation-fermentationc F F F F F F
-, 0-10% positive; [-I, 11-25% positive; d, 26-75% positive; [+I, 76-89% positive: +, 90-100% positive. Results are for 48 h
incubation.
“ONPG, 0-nitrophenyl-p-D-galactopyranoside.
bP, peritrichous.
‘F, fermentative.
effects of pulp and paper mill and cannery effluents presumptive identification of urinary tract bacterial
in receiving waters. isolates, including Klebsiella, in specimens from a
The search for improved selective media and diag- rehabilitation centre. Recently, a new chromogenic
nostic tests goes on and is outlined below. A synthetic plate medium (CHROMagar Orientation) for the
medium, based on myo-inositol as the sole carbon visual differentiation and presumptive identification
source has also been proposed for selection of Kleb- of Gram-negative bacterial species and enterococcal
siella (and Serratia). As a further elaboration, a Mac- isolates was evaluated. Similarity in colour resulted
Conkey-inositol-carbenicillin agar medium (MCIC) in failure to discriminate between Klebsiella, Entero-
was proposed, the selectivity of this medium being bacter and Citrobacter species, but these species could
based on the high resistance of the capsulated Kleb- be readily differentiated from other members of the
siella cells towards carbenicillin. Based on its oligo- Enterobacteriaceae. These data indicate an urgent
trophic characteristics, the development of a synthetic need for the development of a simple, reliable and
medium was claimed for the detection of K . pneu- specific detection and enumeration methodology for
moniae; it only contains, apart from agar, I g l - l Klebsiella sp.
KN03,2 g I-’ KH2P04, 20 g 1-l sucrose, but it is sup-
Media Composition Suited for Cultivation of
plemented with 1 0 pg I-’ carbenicillin.
Klebsiella Strains
A highly selective, differential medium for the enu-
meration and isolation of Klebsiella species has been The composition of media suitable for cultivation of
devised: MacConkey-inositol-potassium tellurite Klebsiella strains is listed in Table 2.
(MCIK) agar. With pure cultures, 100% recovery The media are routinely sterilized by autoclaving
of Klebsiella was observed, and with environmental (20min at 121°C and 2.1 atm). The carbon source is
samples recovery of Klebsiella was as good as or better
than on MCIC agar. MCIK agar was subsequently Table 2 Composition of media for cultivation of Klebsiella
field tested for its ability to selectively enumerate strains
Klebsiella species from the cold waters (1-6°C) of the Concn. (g 1”)
Saint John River Basin (New Brunswick, Canada) Nutrient broth (Oxoid) - pH 7.4
which include fresh and marine waters. Results of this ‘Lab-Lemco’ beef broth 1.o
study indicate that 77% of the typical colonies on Yeast extract 2.0
MCIK agar were Klebsiella species, but the total Kleb- Peptone 5.0
siella population enumerated was greatly under- NaCl 5.0
thereby separated from the nitrogen source to prevent Environmental Relevance of Klebsiella
Maillard reactions. Solidified media are obtained by Bacteria
adding 20 g 1-1 of agar before sterilization.
Since Klebsiella species are widely distributed in the
environment and in water systems, and since often
Culture Maintenance little or no differences can be detected between envir-
Klebsiella strains can be easily maintained in meat onmental and clinical strains, there is increasing
extract agar stabs at room temperature. They can also concern about the potential health hazard related
be preserved either by storage in broth, containing to Klebsiella. There is, therefore, a growing need to
10% glycerol at -80°C or by lyophilization. monitor these organisms in the environment, espe-
cially in (drinking) water systems, soils, aerosols,
cooling waters, biofilms and industrial effluents.
Procedures Specified in
National/lnternational Regulations or Relevance of Klebsiella in the Food
Guidelines Sector
the presence of Enterobacteriaceae are tested. It is The drinking water quality in a major South African
assumed that K. terrigena, isolated mainly from metropolitan area, in collecting water samples from
aquatic and soil environments, and K. planticola, private houses, apartments and public places was
mainly isolated from botanical, aquatic and soil envir- assessed over a period of two years. Entero-
onments, are saprophytic strains, that are easily trans- bacteriaceae bacteria were found in 33% of the
mitted to food. K. oxytoca is present in the intestinal samples, as well as Bacillus sp. Klebsiella was also
tract of humans and animals, and has also been isol- frequently found. The age of the plumbing system
ated from botanical and aquatic environments and as was clearly correlated with poorer microbiological
such it can also contaminate food and infect humans, quality of the potable water. Among 62 trademarks
indicating again an urgent need for specific Klebsiella of bottled drinking water, a sampling of 158 bottles
detection. In this respect, a bioluminescence-based revealed the presence of K . oxytoca, along with other
detection of lux’ K. oxytoca strains was developed coliforms, in three bottles.
and their survival in the barley rhizosphere was The quality of packaged ice, sold in retail estab-
studied; it was found that K. oxytoca specifically lishments in Iowa, USA has also been studied. A total
survived on the plant roots during the whole vege- of 18 samples were analysed in relation to the drinking
tative period and that it could not be isolated from water standards of the US-EPA. Only one sample
the soil. exceeded the health standard and contained K. pneu-
moniae. Several samples had heterotrophic plate
Drinking Water Quality
counts, which exceeded the recommendation
Although it has been claimed that the attachment of (< 500 cfu ml-l) of the Packed Ice Association.
bacteria, i.e. Klebsiella sp., to surfaces via capsule Although such ice consumption does not represent an
formation is a cause of increased bacterial disinfection immediate threat to personal or public health, the
resistance (for instance survival in chlorinated water potential for disease transmission exists in a sector,
supplies), it has also been found that resistance to which is in this respect self-regulated.
chlorine was not related to the presence of poly- It is clear that Klebsiella species comprise a large
saccharide, but to the formation of cell aggregates. part of the coliforms, usually detected as indicators
Indeed, K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca grown in low- of water quality; in most instances however, they are
nutrient media were found to be more resistant to not differentiated.
chloramine than cells grown in rich media, and to
Food Quality
form large aggregates/flocs of 10-io3 cells per milli-
litre. This formation of flocs and aggregates allows As to their occurrence in foods, the microbiology of
the cells to survive chlorination and to enter the water contaminated foods in health-care facilities in the
distribution system. Indeed, Klebsiella sp. is one of USA was surveyed and the importance of microbial
the principal microorganisms involved in bacterial surveillance, quality assurance and employee edu-
regrowth within chlorinated drinking water systems. cation was stressed. K. pneumoniae is mentioned as
The regrowth of this organism is of particular import- one of the encountered contaminants, together with
ance since, as a coliform, it will make compliance E. coli, Yersinia intermedia, Aeromonas hydrophila,
to water quality guidelines difficult, and it may be Enterobacter agglomerans, E. cloaca, Campylobacter
involved in opportunistic infections. jejuni, Acinetobacter anitraturn, Streptococcus vir-
The growth kinetics of coliform bacteria, including idans, Serratia liquefaciens, Staphylococcus sp., Sal-
K. pneumoniae, have been studied under conditions monella sp., Corynebacterium sp., Lactobacillus s ~ . ,
relevant to drinking water distribution systems. It Listeria sp. and others.
was found that most of them - and Klebsiella in High numbers of Klebsiella species were found in
particular - could develop in unsupplemented mineral samples of the local food, pap ‘akamu’, prepared in
salts medium and in the unsupplemented distribution Nigeria from cereals (maize, guinea corn and millet);
water. This proves that environmental coliforms, and Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp. and Staphylococcus
equally K. pneumoniae, can develop under the con- sp. were the most common bacteria found. These data
ditions found in operating municipal drinking water indicate the widespread occurrence of Klebsiella sp.
systems. In this context, the ability of K. pneumoniae, in these indigenous foods, in combination with other
Entero bacter aerogenes, Agro bacterium tumefaciens, opportunistic pathogens.
Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas strains to grow K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (using the API
and maintain motility and viability in drinking water 20 E system) was also found to be present in the
has been studied. Plate counts dropped below the industrial fermentation process of ‘Saccharina’ pro-
detection limit within 7 days for all strains mentioned, duction (fermented fodder) from sugar cane.
except for Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains. ‘Coliforms’ were enumerated in fresh and processed
Next Page
1114 KLEBSIELLA
mangoes (puree and cheeks) in order to establish the Industrial Aspects of Klebsiella Bacteria
source of the organisms in the production chain, to
determine whether they have any public health sig- Production of 2J-butanediol
nificance, and to devise methods for their control.
Most Klebsiella species are saprophytic, some are
Products from four processors were tested on two pathogenic and only a few are of industrial use. Under
occasions, The retail packs of cheeks-in-puree having controlled fermentation conditions, K. oxytoca
the highest coliform counts were those in which raw strains produce high levels of 2,3-butanediol, an inter-
puree was added to the cheeks. Coliform counts in esting chemical feedstock or liquid fuel, from sugary
these samples ranged between 1.4 x 1O3 and substrates such as glucose, xylose and whey permeate.
5.4 x IO4cfu g-'. Pasteurization reduced the coliform Due to its toxicity to the producer cells, only moderate
count of raw puree to 5 cfug-'. Around 47% of the concentrations (approximately 100 g 1-I) can be
73 colonies, isolated as coliforms on the basis of obtained in even optimized fermentation processes.
their colony morphology on violet red bile agar, were This, together with the high boiling point and hygro-
identified as K. pneumoniae, using the ATB 23 E Iden- scopicity of 2,3-butanediol, makes recovery costs
tification System. Klebsiella strains were tested for high. 2,3-Butanediol can be chemically converted into
butadiene, the raw feedstock for synthetic rubber, or
growth at 10°C, faecal coliform response and fer-
into other derivatives such as ethylmethylketone (used
mentation of D-melezitose; these tests are used com-
as a solvent, fuel additive) and tetramethylether
monly to differentiate the three phenotypically similar (antifreeze) or into polyester plastics.
strains K. pneumoniae, K. terrigena and K. planticola.
Results indicated that 41% of the isolates gave reac- Biofilm Formation by Klebsiella sp.
tions typical of K. pneumoniae. A further 44% of As a result of its capacity to form capsules, Klebsiella
strains gave an atypical reaction pattern and were species are often a main cause of (undesirable)
designated 'psychrotrophic' K. pneumoniae. K. pne- biofilm formation and fouling in cooling water
umoniae counts of 2.1 x lo3-4.9 x lo4cfu g-' were systems, piping and other industrial equipment.
predicted to occur in the retail packs of mango cheeks- The biofilm-forming capacity of several Klebsiella
in-puree produced by the processors, who constituted species, isolated from pulp and paper mill water,
this product with raw puree. In view of the oppor- and of Klebsiella terrigena BCCM strains has been
tunistic pathogenic nature of K. pneumoniae, its pres- studied in vitro by the authors in 2 litre lab
ence in these products is considered undesirable and fermenters. The capsular polysaccharide from one
steps, such as pasteurization of puree, should be taken isolate was recovered (up to 4.6gl-'), its rheological
properties were identified as pseudoplastic and its
in order to inactivate it.
sugar composition was identified as: L-fucose, L-
Recently attempts have been made to correlate the
rhamnose, D-galactose, D-glucose, D-mannose and
presence of selected pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni, D-glucuronic acid. Enzymes which can efficiently
C. coli, Salmonella, K. pneumoniae and E. coli hydrolyse and remove biofilm have been looked for.
0157:H7) in fresh hand-picked blue crab meat and
general microbial quality to sanitation practices by The Klebsiella Capsule as a Source of Unusual
the processors (Chesapeake Bay region, USA). K. Sugars
pneumoniae was isolated from 51 samples out of The Klebsiella capsule, as described above, often con-
the 240 (21%) (0.3-4.3 most probable number tains unusual sugar moieties such as L-fucose and
(MPN)g-I), followed by C. jejuni (36 out of 240), C. L-rhamnose, and the authors have cultivated such
coli (14 out of 240). Salmonella and E . coli 0157:H7 capsular bacteria on a large scale, as a source of
were not detected in any of the 240 samples analysed. these specialty sugars, which are otherwise difficult to
The foregoing data indicate again that Klebsiella obtain.
sp. is frequently present as a contaminant in water Klebsiella as a Vitamin Producer in Fermented
and food, often in high numbers. They are commonly Foods
lumped within the group of the Enterobacteriaceae or
Recently, the formation of vitamin B12 was dem-
coliforms, with most attention always focused on the onstrated by strains of K. pneumoniae, isolated from
well known food pathogen members of the group. It Indonesian tempeh samples, during controlled solid-
is only recently that Klebsiella is being selectively state tempeh fermentation. The absence of entero-
searched for and 'looked after' as a genushpecies, toxins in these strains was confirmed by using PCR
relevant to food microbiologists too. techniques, and it was even suggested that these safe
LABORATORY DESIGN 1119
LABORATORY DESIGN
M Ahmed, Food Control Laboratory, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
LABORATORY
DISCIPLINES
(Head of Laboratory)
'if-
Research and Training
Management
Calibration and
Maintenance
Sample
Management
I I
Techniques Techniques
(In-Charge) (in-Charge)
Isolation and Media preparation
identification and sterilization
lmpedimetry
I
Food poisoning
1analysis preparation
DNA hybridization Turbidimetry
I Certification and Sterilization of
monitoring glasswareiutensils
Bioluminescence
- Standardization
Decontamination
of materials
Polymerase chain
Other techniques reaction
‘ 8 ’
28 29 5 6 - 9 10 11 12
2
L 7 ’
7
A n M /I/I M M f- As, M
3 E
4 7 d w W w
26 24
20 3 16L 3 15
27
u U
22 - 19 ia 14 13
25 23 21 17
3
The Building Programme appropriate places in each room (Figs 3, 4). Cen-
The building programme is a written document that tralized services for gases, deionized or distilled water,
describes and quantifies the design goals for a build- etc., are preferred.
ing. The goal of a good programme is to define a Electrical Connections
building that will have ample space, meet the technical
requirements of the user, function safely and meet the It is essential to determine the total electrical load of
owners’ budget. The design team with the assistance each room. In order to achieve this, the equipment to
of the laboratory management and technical staff will be placed in each room must be decided upon and
develop the building programme from the analysis of its power requirements (voltage, current rating, etc.)
data collected on the following: listed and supplied to the consultant or contractor.
Equipment such as autoclaves and washing machines
0 the range of analyses to be carried out may require three-phase connections. These have to
0 the number and types of personnel who will occupy be identified and separated from equipment of low-
the building energy consumption. It is recommended that items of
the interrelationships of functions and personnel high electrical rating are placed in different rooms
0 the expected workload. to balance the power consumption. Proper earth
--
The programme should describe the architectural, --
mechanical, electrical, plumbing and fire protection
criteria for the functions to be accommodated. It
should also identify areas of special concern for safety
such as high hazard areas containing flammable, toxic
or pathogenic materials, and should also address the 1
problem of waste removal.
The main tasks and sequence of a building pro-
gramme are as follows:
r
0 interview management, technical staff and other
users
0 establish space standards
list various activities and room types required for
such activities
draw a layout diagram for different room types 3
determine the number and area of each room type
develop room data sheets specifying details of
functions
establish building net and gross areas
describe basic mechanical, electrical, electro-
m Bench
-
-it
0- G
Medical mixing tap
Demineralizedidistilled water
LPG
working pressure of 3 bar. Vacuum may be supplied
through a central system if it is required in many
rooms; otherwise, small vacuum pumps may be used.
0- CA Compressed air
Hot and Cold Water
3- N Nitrogen
The building should be provided with a supply of
Figure 4 Room data sheet - instrumental techniques. General
laboratory furniture: 1, window bench, 75 cm high; 2, wall bench,
process water and also drinking water if necessary.
90cm high; 3, wall bench with sink, 90cm high; 4, island bench, The process water should be equipped, downstream
90cm high; 5, stool; 6, slab sink; 7, safety storage cabinet; 8, of the meter, with a break installation. The pressure
adjustable chair. measured at the highest tap should be 2.5 bar. The
pipes should be laid in such a way that water nowhere
connections must be provided with bonding resistance becomes stagnant. Wherever necessary, hot water
per earth of less than 1ohm. The minimum resistance should be provided from closed-in boilers. The
of the earthing net should be 1.2 ohm. Circuit break- minimum temperature of the water should be 60°C.
ers must be installed at each workbench. Medical mixing taps with a lever should be provided
for mixing cold and hot water, in order to avoid
Gases contamination from the hands of the microbiologist.
Most microbiological laboratories require the fol-
Demineralized and Distilled Water
lowing gases:
A supply of demineralized or distilled water should
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
be available in all the laboratories. Demineralized
nitrogen
water can be prepared with the aid of an automatic
carbon dioxide double-column demineralization system housed in a
0 oxygen.
centrally located room. Distilled water can be pre-
The rooms and the locations in each room requiring pared with the aid of electrically operated distillation
supply of different gases should be identified and equipment. In both cases, the water should be trans-
listed. It is possible to provide all laboratory rooms ported through plastic tubing to the laboratories. The
with a supply of piped gases; the gases are supplied demineralized water should have specific conductance
in bulk cylinders and stored in an outhouse built less than 5 pa cm-'.
1124 LABORATORY DESIGN
samples. Stainless steel tops must be provided on the units and have appropriate air circulation. They
benches in the washing room. should be installed by specialist suppliers. The rooms
should be supplied with stainless steel shelves suitable
Sinks for holding Petri dishes, flasks, etc. Wooden shelves
At either end of the benches (apart from benches are not recommended because of the problem of
meant for installing instruments) stainless steel sinks mould growth in a humid atmosphere. The recom-
should be mounted with 60 cm side adjoining them, mended temperatures for incubators in food labora-
a 50 cm side jutting out, and a depth of 25 cm. Medical tories are 15-20°C, 30-37°C and 55°C. Cooled
mixing taps (cold and hot water) and a deionized or incubators must be fitted with a refrigeration system
distilled water tap should be mounted above the sinks, and heating and cooling controls, which must be
as required. correctly balanced.
Incubators should be kept in rooms where tem-
Seating peratures are within the range 16-27°C. The incu-
Laboratory stools and chairs of adjustable or fixed bator temperature must not vary by more than 2 1°C.
heights should be provided. Stools should be used at Chamber temperature must be checked twice daily
the workbenches, and chairs may be used at computer (morning and afternoon). The thermometer bulbs and
desks. stem must be submerged in water or glycerol to the
stem mark. For best results use a recording thermo-
Wall-mounted Cupboards meter.
Cupboards with sliding glass doors may be mounted Water Baths
on the walls for storing reagents, media, etc. Other Water baths should be of an appropriate size for
cupboards may be used for books, catalogues and the required workload with a suitable water level
instrument files. maintained. When the level of water in the bath is at
half to two-thirds the level of the column of liquid in
Laminar Flow and Biohazard Safety Cabinets
the tube, convection currents keep the constituents of
Safety cabinets should comply with standards set by the tube well mixed and hasten reactions such as
organizations such as the British Standards Insti- agglutination. Water baths should be equipped with
tution, the Standards Association of Australia and the electrical stirrers to prevent temperature stratification.
National Sanitation Foundation of the USA. Care They must also be lagged to prevent heat loss,
must be taken in siting equipment that might generate although the walls are fitted with sloping lids to
air currents, e.g. fans and heaters. The safety cabinets prevent heat loss and dripping of condensed water
should be installed in proper sites in the laboratory. on materials. To avoid choke deposits on tubes and
Safety cabinets are intended to protect the worker internal surfaces, distilled or deionized water should
from airborne infection. Work should be done in the be used. Only racks made with stainless steel, heat-
middle to the rear of the cabinet, not near the front resistant rubber, plastic, plastic-coated substances or
and workers should not remove their arms from the corrosion-proof materials should be used. The tem-
cabinet until the procedure is completed. After each perature of the water bath must be monitored and
set of manipulations, aerosols should be swept into recorded daily using a certified thermometer.
the filters. The operator’s hands and arms may be
contaminated and should be washed immediately Refrigerators
after ceasing work. Bunsen burners and micro-incin- A refrigerator maintained at 0-4°C for storing
erators should not be used as they disturb airflow. untested food samples is required. Another refriger-
ator to cool and maintain the temperature of media
Facilities for Incubation and Refrigeration and reagents may also be used. The temperature of
the refrigerator should be checked and recorded daily,
and it should be cleaned monthly or more often when
lncubators required. Refrigerated rooms, if used, must be well
Incubators and incubator rooms must be properly insulated and equipped with a distributed cooling
constructed and controlled. It is best to obtain the system. A continuous temperature monitoring and
largest possible models to prevent crowding of the recording system equipped with an alarm must be
interior. Small incubators suffer wider temperature used. The temperature at different points should be
fluctuations when their doors are open than do larger recorded daily. Stainless steel shelves should be
models. Incubator rooms, if used, must be well insu- installed for storing samples. Stored materials should
lated, equipped with properly distributed heating be identified and dated, and stored in such a way that
1126 LABORATORY DESIGN
cross contamination does not occur. Expired materials The performance of a hot-air oven should be tested
should be discarded at regular intervals, e.g. quarterly. quarterly with commercially available spore strips or
spore suspension. The temperature should be moni-
Freezers
tored with a certified thermometer, accurate in the
A freezer or a freezer room to maintain the tem- temperature range of 160-180°C.
perature of frozen food items at - 18°C is required.
The temperature should be recorded daily. A record- Autoclaves
ing thermometer with an alarm system is highly desir- The minimum recommended standard for ster-
able. The freezer should be defrosted and cleaned ilization by autoclaves is the exposure to steam at
twice a year. Materials should be identified and dated, approximately 1 bar pressure, equivalent to 121"C,
and outdated materials should be discarded quarterly. for 15 min. Saturated steam is a much more efficient
A separate freezing space should be identified for means of destroying microorganisms than either
storing freeze-dried bacterial cultures. boiling water or dry heat. Air has an important influ-
ence on the efficiency of autoclaving. If about 50%
Clean/Dirty Sterilization Facilities of the air remains in the autoclave, the temperature
Sterilization facilities are required for sterilizing pre- of the steam-air mixture at 1 bar is only 112°C. As
pared media, diluents, etc., and used glassware, Petri successful autoclaving depends on the removal of all
dishes, flasks, tubes, etc. prior to washing or disposal. the air from the chamber, the materials to be sterilized
The use of heat, particularly moist heat, is the most should be packed loosely. There are two types of
desirable and widely used method of sterilization in laboratory autoclaves:
the microbiology laboratory. When using heat ster- pressure cooker models
ilizing techniques, it is necessary to know the dif- 0 gravity displacement models.
ference between dry and moist heat and the limitations
of each. Moist heat leads to the destruction of micro- The pressure cooker is a simple benchtop autoclave
organisms through the irreversible denaturation of consisting of a vertical metal chamber with a strong
enzymes and structured proteins. The temperature at metal lid which can be fastened down and sealed with
which denaturation occurs varies with the latent heat a suitable gasket. The lid is fitted with an aidsteam
of steam. With dry heating, the primary lethal process discharge trap, a pressure gauge and a safety valve
is considered to be oxidation of cell constituents. (Fig. 5). Steam is generated from the water in the
Thus, sterilization methods involving dry heat require bottom of the autoclave by an external immersion
higher temperatures and longer exposure time than heater or a steam coil.
are required with moist heat. The gravity displacement autoclave, widely used in
microbiological laboratories, consists of a chamber
Hot-air Oven surrounded with a jacket containing steam under
Sterilization by hot-air oven is achieved by the slow pressure, which heats the chamber wall. The steam
penetration of heat into the materials. The efficiency enters the jacket from the main supply which is at
of this process can be increased by the use of cir- high pressure, thus forcing the air and condensate to
culating fans. Modern equipment has electronic con- flow out of the drain by gravity displacement (Fig. 6).
trols which can be set to raise the temperature to the In modern autoclaves, air and steam are removed by
*
required level, heat for a specified time and switch off
Safety valve
automatically. These ovens are fitted with solenoid
~ iPressure /gauge
locks to prevent the oven being opened before the
cycle is completed. This protects the staff from acci- Airisteam discharge valve
dental burns and safeguards the sterility of the mater-
ials. The load should be packed in the oven chamber
in such a way that sufficient space remains between
the articles for circulation of hot air. The high tem-
perature needed to achieve dry heat sterilization has Chamber
a damaging effect on many materials. This method
should therefore be used only for thermostable mater-
ials that cannot be sterilized by steam owing to dele-
terious effects or failure to penetrate. Materials that
can be sterilized by this method include heat-resistant
articles such as glass Petri dishes, flasks, pipettes,
metallic objects and coated materials. Figure 5 Pressure cooker autoclave.
Next Page
Combined pressure
and vacuum gauge Valve
Pressure
gauge Safety
valve Cotton-wool
Jacket
\
Q 1 , ,
filter
f
.-2 3 Tochamber
Chamber Door
Vave Strainers I I /’
or steam ejector
11 7Nr-;-ptee
,, ,/
Thermometer
lire- Valve
vacuum pumps and flexible thermocouple probes are Safety Glasses or Goggles
fitted in the chamber so that the temperatures at Safety goggles are essential for viewing ultraviolet
various parts of the load may be recorded. cabinets and other equipment that may emit UV
The performance of the autoclave should be radiation.
checked monthly using spore strips or suspension.
Log books and other records should be maintained Masks
for each run, listing the items sterilized, temperature,
Face masks with various filters are available for use
pressure and time.
in laboratories. Appropriate filters are required for
Washing Machines working with pathogenic microorganisms and spores,
acid fumes, solvent vapours, etc.
A washing machine may be used for cleaning and
drying glassware and other heat-resistant articles. The Clothing for Entering Freezers or Cold Rooms
machine should be capable of washing, rinsing and
drying cycles. A log book should be maintained with Special clothing is available to protect staff entering
the details of the programmes used and the materials freezers or cold rooms, and must be worn if staff
washed. intend to work for long periods in such rooms.
Gloves
Personnel Requirements
Latex, rubber, leather and heat-resistant gloves are
available for use. Gloves, Hot Hand@ Protector pads
Lockers must be used when handling hot beakers, conical
Lockers are needed to hold the personal belongings flasks, etc.
of the staff. They should be spacious enough to hold
laboratory coats, etc. They may be kept in a staff First Aid
room. A first-aid box and fireproof blankets must be kept
in a conspicuous place near the door for use in an
Laboratory Coats
emergency.
Laboratory coats must be composed of 100% cotton
materials. Polyester or polyester blends must not be See also: Good Manufacturing Practice. Laboratory
used as they easily catch fire. Coats should be long- Management: Accreditation Schemes. Process
sleeved and knee-length. They should be washed and Hygiene: Designing for Hygienic Operation.
decontaminated at least once a week.
MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat 1253
M
I Malolactic Fermentation see Wines: The Malolactic Fermentation. I
I Spoilage of Meat These are (1)the intrinsic factors associated with the
physico-chemical attributes and structure of meat (e.g.
George-John E Nychas and Eleftherios H
pH, water activity, buffering power, the presence of
Drosinos, Department of Food Science and
Technology, Laboratory of Microbiology and naturally occurring or added antimicrobial com-
Biotechnology of Foods, Agricultural University of ponents, Eh and redox poising capacity, and nutrient
Athens, Greece composition - carbohydrate content and, in par-
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press ticular, the concentration of glucose); (2) the pro-
cessing factors; ( 3 ) extrinsic parameters that have
Introduction selective influences, such as temperature, relative
humidity and the composition of the gaseous atmos-
Spoilage of meat is an ecological phenomenon, phere obtaining during distribution and storage; (4)
encompassing the changes of the meat ecosystem the implicit factors (intrinsic biotic parameters) that
during the development of its microbial association.
play an important role in the genesis of spoilage asso-
The establishment of a particular microbial asso-
ciations; and ( 5 ) the emergent effects due to those
ciation of meat depends on the ecological factors that
persist during processing, storage, transportation and factors that interact to produce effects greater than
in the market. In meat, five categories of ecological would be expected from their action in isolation. In
determinants influence the development of the initial essence all of the above determinants constitute the
and transient microbial associations and determine dimensions of a particular ecological niche - an n-
the rate of attainment of a climax population by the dimensional hypervolume. Indeed, the ecosystem
ephemeral spoilage microorganisms (those that fill the approach is pertinent to an analysis of changes occur-
niche available by adopting R-ecological strategy as ring in meat or meat products. In practice, therefore,
a result of enrichment disturbance of an ecosystem). meat technologists attempt to modify some or all of
1254 MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat
the dimensions noted above in order to extend the Table 1. The genera of bacteria and yeasts most frequently
found on meats and poultry
shelf life of meat or to create new products. ~~
Arthrobacter X X X X
ent on the conditions under which animals are reared, Bacillus X X X
slaughtered and processed. Thus the physiological Bacteroides X
Chromobacterium X
distribution are the most important factors that deter- Citrobacter X X
mine the microbiological quality of meat. The char- Clostridium X X X
acteristic microbial associations developing on meat Corynebacterium X X X X
Neisseria X X X
intestinal tract, and others from the environment with Pantoea X
which the animal had contact at some time before or Pediococcus X X X
during slaughter. Studies on the origin of the con- Planococcus X
Proteus X X
and not with direct faecal contamination. Moreover,
Pseudomonas xx X X xx
psychrotrophic bacteria are recovered from hides and Psychrobacter X
work surfaces within an abattoir as well as from Serratia X X X X
cessing. Streptococcus X xx X X
Streptomyces X
Vibrio X
Rhodotorula X xx
and the gaseous composition around meat packed Saccharomyces X
in vacuum or in modified atmospheres exert strong Torulaspora xx
selectivity on its microflora. Selective factors favour Trichosporon X X
the growth of particular organisms and, as a con- Key: x, known to occur; xx, most frequently reported.
sequence, a characteristic microbial association is VP/MAP, meat stored under vacuum or modified-atmosphere
present at the time of spoilage and it will manifest packaging.
characteristic spoilage features. For example, with the
advent of supermarkets in the late 1950s, storage of
meat aerobically at chill temperatures and high rela-
tive humidity became a major selective factor and
MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat 1255
Table 2 Psychrotrophic bacteria associated with chilled meats Table 3 Specific spoilage flora on fresh meat stored at 0-4°C
and meat products in different gas atmospheres
Gram-negative bacteria Gram-positive bacteria Gas composition Specific spoilage flora
Aerobes Catalase reaction weak Air Pseudomonas spp.
Pseudomonas spp. Brochothrix > 50% C02 mixed with O2 Brochothrix thermosphacta
rRNA homology, group I: thermosphacta > 50% COP Enterobacteriaceae
P fluorescens < 50% C o n mixed with O2 Brochothrix thermosphacta, lactic
biovars I, (I, 111, IV, V acid bacteria
(includes 7 clusters) > 50% CO? Lactic acid bacteria
I? lundensis, I? fragi 100% con Lactic acid bacteria
Shewanella putrefaciens Vacuum pack Lactic acid bacteria, Brochothrix
Alteromonas spp. thermosphacta
Alcaligenes spp., ~~
Achromobacter spp.
Flavobacterium spp. Under Aerobic Conditions Although the Gram-
Moraxella spp. negative aerobic psychrotrophic bacteria of meat
Psychrobacter spp.
include a number of well-defined species (see Table
I? immobilis,
P phenylpyruvica 2), it is now well established that under aerobic
Acinetobacter spp. storage three species of Pseudomonas - P. fragi, P.
A. lwoffi, A. johnsonii fluorescens and P. lundensis - are the most important.
Facultative anaerobes Catalase reaction Off odours are present when the population of
Photobacterium spp. negative pseudomonads is of the order of l o 7per square centi-
Vibrio spp. Lactobacillus spp. metre and slime when these organisms reach 10' per
Aeromonas spp. L. sake square centimetre. In practice off odours become
Plesiomonas spp. L. curvatus
Serratia spp. L. bavaricus evident when the pseudomonads have exhausted the
S. liquefaciens Carnobacterium spp. glucose and lactate present in meat and begin to
S. marcescens C. divergens metabolize the amino acids.
Citrobacter spp. C. piscicola Although rarely, if ever, contributing significantly
C. freundii, C. koseri Leuconostoc spp. to the spoilage flora on meat and meat products, the
Providencia spp. L. carnosum
I? alcalifaciens, F! stuarti/, L. gelidum
Enterobacteriaceae have been considered as indicators
P rettgeri L. amelibiosum of food safety. With ground beef, Pantoea agglo-
Hafnia spp. L. mesenteroides subsp merans, Escherichia coli and Serratia liquefaciens
Hafnia alvei mesenteroides were the major representatives of this family (see
Pantoea agglomerans Weissella spp. Table 2).
Enterobacter spp. W. hellenica
W paramesenteroides
Brochothrix thermosphacta has been detected in
E. cloacae,
E. aerogenes Lactococcus raffinolactis the aerobic spoilage flora of chilled meat but it is not
E. agglomeransl Clostridium estertheticum considered to be important in spoilage except possibly
Erwinia herbicola of lamb. This organism has been isolated from beef
complex carcasses during boning, dressing and chilling. More-
Klebsiella spp.
over, lairage slurry, cattle hair, rumen contents, soil
K. pneumoniae
Kluyvera spp. from the walls of slaughterhouses, the hands of
Proteus spp. workers, the air in the chill room, the neck and skin
I? vulgaris, I? mirabilis of the animal as well as the cut muscle surfaces have
been shown to be contaminated with this organism.
Brochothrix thermosphacta is one of the main - if not
the most important - cause of spoilage which can be
Pseudomonas spp. are considered to be the main
spoilage organisms. Gram-positive bacteria (lactic recognized as souring rather than putrefaction. This
type of spoilage is commonly associated with meat
acid bacteria and Brochothrix thermosphacta) are the
packed under modified atmospheres.
main spoilage organisms in chill meat stored in a
modified atmosphere. To date studies on the con- Under Vacuum or Modified-atmosphere Packaging
tribution of yeasts to the spoilage of meat, whole or Conditions The atmosphere may be modified by
minced, has attracted little attention even though they vacuum packaging or storage of meat in atmospheres
are common contaminants. Yeasts do not outgrow containing a mixture of gases (Nz, COz and 0 2 ) . Meat
bacteria on meat or meat products unless a bac- in a vacuum pack or modified atmosphere (protective
teriostatic agent is included, such as sulphite in British atmosphere) has an extensive shelf life when com-
fresh sausages, or the water activity is reduced. pared with meat stored aerobically. Shelf life is
1256 MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat
determined by the choice of atmosphere, storage longed lag phase - are less noticeable when the meat
temperature and meat type. As the bacterial popu- ecosystem is refrozen and analysed again after a short
lation of meat (particularly the aerobes, e.g. period of storage. The appropriate resuscitation of
pseudomonads) is restricted by the relative high con- frozen meat flora prior to its enumeration is crucial;
centration of COZ and the oxygen limitation, the resuscitation of the injured flora may take place in the
spoilage of meat stored under vacuum or modified meat ecosystem during thawing, or in nonselective
atmosphere occurs later than that of meat stored aer- culture media. Studies on the effect of different envir-
obically. In meat samples stored under vacuum or onmental stresses on the enumeration and the recov-
modified-atmosphere packaging lactic acid bacteria ery of microorganisms are focused on pathogenic
are recognized as important members of the spoilage microorganisms; in which case the important feature
association (Table 3). Many of the isolates could not is to ascertain the presence or absence of the patho-
be identified with existing species of Lactobacillus genic bacterium. The results obtained have a cardinal
(see Table 2 ) . It is now recognized that many of role in the evaluation of microbiological hazards.
these isolates belong to a recently defined genus,
Carnobacterium. Roles of Microbes and Enzymes in
It needs to be stressed that each of the atmospheres Spoilage
in Table 3 selects a microbial flora dominated by
Gram-positive bacteria (principally Brochothrix ther- The role of the microbial flora is cardinal for the
mosphacta and lactic acid bacteria) rather than the spoilage of meat. The metabolic activity of the organ-
Gram-negative ones that develop on meat stored aer- isms selected in a meat ecosystem leads to the mani-
obically at chill temperatures. As the former grow festation of changes or spoilage of meat. This
much more slowly than the latter, the shelf life of meat manifestation is related to the level of (1)the popu-
is extended. It needs to be stressed also that there are lation and (2) the substrates in meat. Under both
differences in the metabolic attributes of these two aerobic and vacuum or modified-atmosphere pack-
groups of spoilage organisms. These are manifested aging the corresponding flora catabolize glucose for
at different times and in different ways as judged by growth. By the end of this phase changes and sub-
odours coming from the meat. sequently overt spoilage are due to catabolism of
Another cold-tolerant microorganism, Clostridium nitrogenous compounds and amino acids as well as
estertheticum, causes distension or explosion of packs secondary metabolic reactions. The contribution of
of vacuum-packaged meat. The optimum growth tem- indigenous meat enzymes to spoilage is negligible
perature of these organisms is 20°C. It is tempting to compared with the action of the microbial flora. Post-
speculate that the production of a spore protects this mortem glycolysis ceases after the death of the animal
organism from those factors in meat processing that when ultimate p H reaches a value of 5.4-5.5. During
kills psychrophiles lacking this means of protection. storage, however, there is a proteolytic activity by
indigenous enzymes. The activity of these enzymes
Spoilage in Frozen Meat Studies of microbial has a role in the conditioning (ageing) of meat. Added
growth at subfreezing temperatures clearly indicate enzymes in meat may be used to artificially ameliorate
that microbial growth does not occur in meat eco- its organoleptic properties. Enzymes used for their
systems with a temperature below -8°C. Thus, the tenderizing effects are proteolytic and of bacterial,
main determinant for the storage period of a properly fungal or plant origin.
frozen meat ecosystem is the physical, chemical or
biochemical changes which are unrelated to micro- Chemistry of Spoilage
biological proliferation. Therefore, frozen storage life The critical physico-chemical changes occurring
is limited by changes in other qualities such as appear- during spoilage take place in the aqueous phase of
ance or taste which are unrelated to microbiological meat. This phase contains glucose, lactic acid, certain
activity. amino acids, nucleotides, urea and water-soluble pro-
The key problem with frozen meat is the enu- teins which are utilized by most of the bacteria of
meration of the microbial populations of such eco- the meat microflora. The concentration of these low-
systems. Microorganisms are injured by exposure to molecular-mass compounds is sufficient to support
reduced temperatures leading to sublethal damage, massive microbial growth. Glucose is the prime nutri-
the effects of which in microbial populations include ent in a meat ecosystem and it is catabolized initially
(1)increased lag times and (2)the inability to develop during microbial growth. This substrate is attacked
quantitatively on selective media that do not exert by almost all groups of spoilage bacteria, under aerobic
any inhibitory effect on undamaged populations of and anaerobic conditions (Table 4). Until spoil-
the same taxon. These effects - especially the pro- age is evident organoleptically, the major detectable
MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat 1257
effect of bacterial growth is a reduction of the glucose conate and an increase in the concentration of 6-
concentration. This does not alter the organoleptic phosphogluconate. The increase in the concentration
properties of meat. When glucose or its oxidative of D-gluconate led investigators to propose a method
products are reduced to non-substrate levels, lactic for controlling the microbial activity in meat by the
acid is catabolized. It needs to be stressed that when addition of glucose to meat and its transformation to
this second major carbon and energy source is gluconate. The rationale for this suggestion is the fall
exhausted the microbial association is at its climax in pH due to the accumulation of oxidative products.
stage. The transient pool of gluconate and its inability to be
catabolized by all the taxa of the association may
Under Aerobic Conditions The relative potential of
bacteria depends upon which species predominate, offer a selective determinant on the meat ecosystem.
and upon their ability to form malodorous com- Another important feature is the catabolism of
pounds such as H2S, volatile amines, esters and creatine and creatinine by Pseudomonas fragi under
acetoin. Pseudomonas spp. are important because of aerobic conditions. The phenomenal release of
their dominance in the aerobic climax associations at ammonia and the increase in pH are inextricably
chill temperatures. The key chemical changes asso- linked with the catabolism of these substrates.
ciated with the metabolic attributes of pseudomonads Ammonia, which is the major cause of the increase of
have been studied extensively in broth and in model pH, can be produced by many microbes, including
systems such as meat juice (Table 5). Among these pseudomonads during their amino acid metabolism.
major attributes are (1)the sequential catabolism of A list of other volatile compounds found in spoiled
D-glucose and L- and D-lactic acid with D-glucose meat is given in Table 6. Pseudomonad species
used in preference to lactate, and (2)the oxidization of growing on the surface of meat will preferentially
glucose and glucose 6-phosphate via the extracellular consume glucose until the rate of diffusion of glucose
pathway causing a transient accumulation of D-glu- from underlying tissues becomes inadequate to meet
D-Glucose C C C
D-Glucose 6-phosphate C C -
D-Gluconate f f f
6-Phospho-~-gluconate f f
L-lactic acid C C C
D-lactic acid C C C
Pyruvate flc flc flc
Acetic acid C nd nd
Amino acids C C C
Creatine C
Creatinine C -
Proteolysis + nd +
Ammonia f f f
Key: The substrate was catabolized (c) or formed (f) during growth; - neither catabolized nor formed; +, positive; nd, no available
data.
1258 MEAT AND POULTRY/Spoilage of Meat
Table 6 End product formation of Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. thermosphacta) usually occurs in meat during its
Pseudomonas spp., Shewanella putrefaciens, Moraxella etc) storage under modified atmosphere packaging.
when grown in broth, sterile meat model system and in naturally
spoiled meat
Among these, the physiological attributes of the lactic
acid bacteria and B. thermosphacta have been studied
Sulphur compounds: extensively. Environmental determinants such as the
sulphides, dimethylsulphide, dimethyldisulphite,
methylmercaptan, methanethiol, hydrogen sulphide,
oxygen tension, glucose concentration and the initial
dimethyltrisulphide pH have a major influence on the physiology of these
Esters: organisms, and hence on the end products formed.
methyl esters (acetate), ethyl esters (acetate) Brochothrix thermosphacta has a much greater spoil-
Ketones: age potential than the lactobacilli and can be import-
acetone, 2-butanone, acetoin/diacetyl
Aromatic hydrocarbons:
ant in both aerobic and anaerobic spoilage of meat.
diethylbenzene, trimethylbenzene, toluene This organism utilizes glucose and glutamate but no
Aliphatic hydrocarbons: other amino acid during aerobic incubation. It pro-
hexane, 2,4-dimethylhexane, methyl heptone duces a mixture of end products including acetoin,
Aldehydes: acetic, iso-butyric and iso-valeric acids, 2,3-but-
2-methyl butanal
Alcohols:
anediol, diacetyl, 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanol
methanol, ethanol, 2-methylpropanol, 2-methylbutanol, and 3-methylbutanol during its aerobic metabolism
3-methylbutanol in media containing glucose, ribose or glycerol as the
Biogenic amines - other compounds: main carbon and energy source (Table 7). The precise
cadaverine, ammonia, putrescine, methylamine, proportion of these end products is affected by the
trimethylamine
concentration of glucose, pH and temperature.
Lactobacillus spp. constitute only a small pro-
their demand; when high numbers ( l o 8 per cm2) are portion of the initial spoilage bacterial population of
reached and glucose becomes depleted at the meat meat. When oxygen is in low concentration, as in
surface, pseudomonads start proteolysis and use vacuum-packed meats, the developing microflora is
nitrogenous compounds and free amino acids as their usually dominated by Lactobacillus spp. These fer-
growth substrate with production of malodorous sul- mentative organisms probably grow faster than
phides and esters (Table 6). would-be competitors because they are unaffected by
The Enterobacteriaceae can be important in spoil- p H and antimicrobial products such as lactic acid,
age if the meat ecosystem favours their growth. This Hz02 and antibiotics. These organisms utilize glucose
group utilize mainly glucose and glucose 6-phosphate for growth and produce lactic acid. When carbo-
as the main carbon sources; the exhaustion of these hydrates are exhausted, amino acids are utilized with
substances allows amino acid degradation. Moreover,
some members of this family produce ammonia, vola- Table 7 End products of homofermentative lactic acid bacteria
tile sulphides including H2S and malodorous amines (HO), heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (HT) and
from amino acid metabolism (Table 6). Brochothrix thermosphacta (BT) when grown in broth, sterile
Acinetobacter and Moraxella constitute a major meat model system and in naturally spoiled meat
part of the aerobic spoilage population. These organ- Aerobic In different gaseous
isms are of low spoilage potential. They utilize amino atmospheres
acids as their growth substrate but do not form mal- Acetoin - HO, HT, BT Acetoin - HO
odorous by-products from amino acid degradation; Acetic acid - HO, HT, BT Acetic acid - HO, HT, BT
they rather enhance the spoilage activities of pseudo- L-Lactic acid - HO, HT, BT L-Lactic acid - HO, HT, BT
monads and Shewanella putrefaciens by restricting D-Lactic acid - HO, HT D-Lactic acid - HO, HT
the availability of 0 2 to these organisms. When O2 Formic acid - HO, HT, BT Formic acid - HO, HT, BT
Ethanol - HO, HT, BT Ethanol - HO, HT, BT
limits growth, pseudomonads attack amino acids, COP - HO, HT, BT
even when glucose is present, with the subsequent HzOZ - HO, HT
production of malodorous substances. Under anaer- iso-Butyric acid - BT
obic conditions S. putrefaciens will generate H2S, iso-Valeric acid - BT
resulting in the greening of meat due to sulph- 2-Methylbutyric acid - BT
3-Methylbutanol - BT
myoglobin formation. 2-Methylbutanol - BT
2,3-Butanediol- BT
Under Vacuum or Modified-atmosphere Packaging Diacetyl - HO, HT, BT
Conditions A shift from a diverse initial flora to one 2-Methylpropanol - BT
dominated by Gram-positive facultative anaerobic 2-Methylpropanal -BT
Free fatty acids - BT
microflora (lactic acid bacteria and Brochothrix
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the consequent production of volatile fatty acids given metabolites with the microbial spoilage of meat.
which impart a ‘dairy’ or ‘cheesy’ odour to the The idea for these methods is that as the bacteria
vacuum-packaged meat. Because with meat stored grow on meat they utilize nutrients and create by-
under modified atmosphere increased concentration products. The quantitative determination of these
of COz inhibits growth of aerobic flora - and glucose metabolites could provide information about the
assimilation by pseudomonads - the cheesy odours degree of spoilage. The identification of the ideal
are found mainly in samples stored in gas mixtures metabolite, fulfilling the criteria noted above, has
containing COZ,where they are probably produced by proved a difficult task for the following reasons:
Brochothrix thermosphacta and lactic acid bacteria.
1. Most metabolites are specific to certain organisms
These also form diacetyl, acetoin and alcohols from
(e.g. gluconate to pseudomonads).
glucose under aerobic conditions or low partial pres-
2. Although the metabolites are the product of the
sure of oxygen (Poz).In addition, alcohols (ethanol
metabolism of a specific substrate, the absence of
and propanol) are present at only trace levels at the
the given substrate or its presence in low quantities
beginning of storage but their concentrations increase
does not preclude spoilage.
significantly before the onset of spoilage, making them
3. The rate of microbial metabolite production and
promising compounds as indicators of spoilage (Table
the metabolic pathways of spoilage bacteria are
7). affected by the environmental conditions (e.g. pH,
Evaluation of Spoilage oxygen tension, temperature).
4. The accurate detection and measurement of meta-
Enumeration of bacterial population by culture tech-
bolites require sophisticated procedures.
niques (agar media) and rapid methods (malthusian)
5 . Many of them provide retrospective information.
in food is used as indicator of its hygiene. As the
spoilage of meat is caused by specific spoilage bac-
teria, different selective media should be applied.
Role of Cooking in Susceptibility to
Because the correlation between the population of
specific spoilage bacteria and the sensorial mani- Spoilage
festation of spoilage is imprecise, it is difficult to use Cooking raw meat results in the death of its microbial
bacterial levels as an estimate of spoilage. association. Subsequent recontamination of the
The time-consuming microbiological analyses can cooked meat and temperature abuse lead to the devel-
be replaced by assessment of the chemical, enzymatic opment of a new spoilage association. As the antag-
and physico-chemical changes associated with micro- onists belonging to the initial microflora of raw meat
bial growth on meat. For this reason a number of are absent, pathogens that contaminate cooked meat
chemical and physical methods have been proposed have a rich substratum for their proliferation. The
for the estimation of bacterial spoilage in meats. microbiological stability of cooked meat products
However, there is as yet no single test available to depends on extrinsic factors, mainly the packaging
assess meat quality. Spoilage is a subjective evaluation method and storage temperature, as well as on intrin-
and therefore a sound definition is required to develop sic ones, e.g. product composition.
a suitable method. The lack of a general agreement
on the signs of incipient spoilage in meat and the
Special Problems Associated with Meat
changes in the technology of meat preservation (e.g.
vacuum or modified-atmosphere packaging) make it Production of biogenic amines by microbial flora is a
difficult to identify spoilage indicators. problem in stored meat. Amines have been detected in
The spoilage indicators or microbial metabolite fresh meat stored under aerobic or vacuum/modified-
should meet the following criteria: atmosphere packaging conditions. Among them,
1. The indicator should be absent or initially at low putrescine and cadaverine show a constant increase
levels in meat. during storage. Concentrations of spermine, sperm-
2. It should increase proportionally with the storage idine and tryptamine remain steady, and a small
period. increase in tyramine concentration is usually observed
3. It should be produced by the dominant flora and after long storage periods. As lactic acid bacteria and
have a good correlation with sensory evaluation. Brochothrix thermosphacta do not produce amines,
the formation of these compounds has been attributed
As noted earlier, physico-chemical analyses of meat to Enterobacteriaceae. However, tyramine could also
can be used instead of microbiological ones for the be formed by some strains of the genus Lactobacillus.
evaluation of spoilage. For this reason, numerous The limiting factors of meat stored under modified-
attempts have been made since the 1970s to associate atmosphere packaging is another issue. Concerns have
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada 1549
NASBA see Listeria: Listeria monocytogenes - Detection using NASBA (an Isothermal Nucleic Acid
Amplification System).
of premises where food is manufactured, prepared, 30,198 1. The official method is part of the regulation
preserved, packaged or stored. Subsection 6.1 permits and specifies the method that must be used to establish
the establishment of regulatory microbiological stand- compliance with the regulation, the sampling plan and
ards as being necessary to prevent injury to the health compliance criteria (Table 1). Regulation B.08.016
of the consumer or purchaser of the food. The term which states that flavoured milks may contain not
‘sell’ is defined to include offer for sale, expose for sale, more than 50000 total aerobic bacteria per cubic
have in possession for sale and distribute, whether centimetre, is determined by official method MFO-7,
or not the distribution is made for consideration. Microbiological Examination of Milk, November 30,
‘Unsanitary conditions’ means such conditions or cir- 1981 is an example of a standard in which an accept-
cumstances as might contaminate with dirt or filth, able level is permitted.
or render injurious to health, a food, drug or cosmetic. The standards are classified with respect to three
The Act also permits the establishment of regu- degrees of risk, referred to as Health 1, 2 and Sani-
lations for carrying out the purposes and provisions tation. The degree of risk is reflected in the sampling
of the Act, and examples of subject matter for regu- plan and compliance criteria part of the official
lations include: method. Two-class plans are used where there is a
Health 1 risk (Table 1) and three-class plans for
setting the sale or conditions of any food, drug, Health 2 and Sanitation risks (Tables 2 and 3). The
cosmetic or device sample size ( n )designates the number of sample units
prescribing standards of composition, strength, to be taken and examined from a lot. The acceptance
potency, purity, quality or other property of any number (c) is the maximum allowable number of
article of food, drug, cosmetic or device sample units that may exceed the level or con-
respecting the importation of foods, drugs, cos- centration designated as acceptable, the m value. The
metics and devices in order to ensure compliance lot is unacceptable and can be considered to be in
with the Act and regulations violation of the respective regulatory standard when
respecting the method of manufacture, preparation, this number is exceeded. The acceptable con-
preserving, packing, storing and testing of any centration of microorganisms ( m ) expressed
, per gram
food, drug, cosmetic or device in the interest of, or or millilitre in a three-class plan separates sample
for the prevention of injury to, the health of the units of acceptable microbiological quality from those
purchaser or consumer classed as marginally acceptable, and in a two-class
the keeping of books and records by persons who plan separates acceptable sample units from unaccept-
sell food, drugs, cosmetics or devices that are con- able. In a three-class plan unacceptable concentrations
sidered necessary for the proper enforcement and of microorganisms are represented by M which sep-
administration of the Act and regulations. arates sample units of marginally acceptable quality
from those of defective quality. The lot is unacceptable
Microbiological Standards
and in violation of the regulatory standard if one or
The Food and Drug Regulations currently contain a more sample units exceed the M value.
number of regulatory microbiological standards. The Health 1 indicates that there is a direct risk to
standards have been developed on the basis of data human health and appropriate action, for example a
gathered over the years as an aid to the administration product recall, should be taken to limit exposure in
of Sections 4 to 7 (inclusive) of the Act and relate to the population. Follow-up action should ensure that
the microbiological safety and general cleanliness of the cause has been determined and appropriate cor-
food. rective action has been taken. For Health 2 the hazard
Most of the standards are specific to a micro-
organism or a group of microorganisms, while in Table 1 Microbiological standards for Salmonella considered
as a Health 1 risk
others the organism is not specified but implied. There
are two types of standards specific to microorganisms. Product Regulation Method Criteria”
One requires prohibition, that is zero tolerance, while n c m
the other permits some acceptable level. An example
of a prohibition standard can be found in regulation Chocolate 8.04.010 MFO-11 10 0 0
Cocoa 8.04.01 1 MFO-11 10 0 0
B.08.014A which states that no person shall sell milk Milk powder B.08.014 MFO-12 20 0 0
powder, whole milk powder, dry whole milk, pow- Egg products 8.22.033 MFO-6 6 0 0
dered whole milk, skim milk powder or dry skim milk Frog legsb 6.22.033 MFO-10 10 0 0
unless it is free from bacteria of the genus Salmonella, a n , sample size; c, acceptance number; m, acceptable
as determined by official method MFO-121, Micro- concentration of microorganisms per gram.
biological Examination of Milk Powder, November This regulation and hence standard is due to be repealed.
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada 1551
identified represents a risk to human health only if during distribution or storage'. Under the regulation,
present in sufficient numbers and appropriate action, a hermetically sealed container means a container
such as product recall, should be taken to limit expos- designed and intended to be secure against the entry
ure in the population to the product if the unaccept- of microorganisms, including spores. A low-acid food
able level (M value) is exceeded. If the acceptance is a food, other than an alcoholic beverage, where any
number ( c )for levels between the acceptable level ( m ) component of the food has a p H greater than 4.6 and
and the unacceptable level ( M )is exceeded, corrective a water activity greater than 0.85.
action should be taken to bring about compliance. In Brucella and Mycobacterium bovis, and more
Sanitation the hazard identified is an indication of recently Salmonella and Listeria are the organisms of
a breakdown in hygienic practice. A review of the concern in B.08.002.2. This regulation requires the
manufacturer's good hygienic practices (GHP) and/or normal lacteal secretion obtained from the mammary
the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) gland of the cow, genus Bos, or of any other animal,
system is appropriate where M or c/m values are or a dairy product made with any such secretion, to
exceeded. be pasteurized by being held at a temperature and for
The sampling plans for Salmonella in Table 1, con- a period that ensure the reduction of the alkaline
sidered a Health 1 risk, are two-class plans. The lot phosphatase activity so as to meet the tolerances spe-
from which the sample units were drawn to be classed cified in official method MFO-3, Determination of
is judged not to be in compliance with the specific Phosphatase Activity in Dairy Products, dated
regulation if Salmonella is found in any of the sample November 30, 1981.
unit. Lots in violation of Health 1 risk standards are Regulation B.21.025 deals with marine and fresh-
generally ordered to be destroyed and the legal owner water animals, or marine and freshwater animal prod-
could be prosecuted. Salvage operations may be per- ucts, that are packed in a container that has been
mitted if it can be established that the treatment would sealed to exclude air and that are smoked or to which
decrease the hazard to acceptable levels. In such cases, liquid smoke flavour or liquid smoke flavour con-
the verification sampling and acceptance criteria may centrate has been added. Under the regulation these
well exceed that of the particular regulation. In an products must be heat processed after sealing at a
investigation of a suspected outbreak of a food-borne temperature and for a time sufficient to destroy all
illness, for example salmonellosis, sample numbers spores of the species Clostridium botulinum (i.e. com-
may well exceed the values designated in the mercially sterile). The only exception to the heat pro-
regulation. cessing requirements are where the contents of the
There are regulatory standards in which the micro- container comprise not less than 9% salt, the contents
organisms of concern are implied rather than stated. of the container are customarily cooked before eating,
Clostridium botulinum is the microorganism of or the contents of the container are frozen and the
concern in regulation B.27.002 which requires a low- product so labelled. The specific organism of concern
acid food packaged in a hermetically sealed container is C. botulinum type E, which can grow - albeit
to be commercially sterile, unless it is kept refrigerated slowly - at normal refrigeration temperatures.
at a temperature not exceeding 4°C or frozen and is so
Microbiological Guidelines
labelled. Commercial sterility is defined in regulation
B.27.001 as 'the condition obtained in a food that has Guidelines take three forms - microbiological guide-
been processed by the application of heat, alone or in lines, codes of hygienic practice and field compliance
combination with other treatments, to render the food guides. These have been developed after consultation
free from viable forms of microorganisms, including with the Canadian food industry, are published and
spores, capable of growing in the food at temperatures copies are available upon request. Microbiological
at which the food is designed normally to be held guidelines were developed from surveys conducted
1552 NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada
on specific products or groups of products across Volume 1 of the compendium is devoted to the
Canada. While guidelines are not regulatory stand- official microbiological methods (MFO). These are
ards, they are used in judging compliance with Sec- cited in the respective Food and Drug Regulations,
tions 4 and 7 of the Act. Even though a given guidelineare an integral part of the standard and must be used
may embody the same limiting criteria that would be by the regulatory agencies to determine compliance.
employed in a standard, it is generally based on fewer Health Protection Branch methods (MFHPB),used in
data than are used in developing a standard. However, the guidelines, are found in volume 2 of the com-
guidelines serve as useful indicators of levels that pendium. Both the official and HPB methods have
should be achievable using GHP. Guidelines can be been fully validated by interlaboratory studies.
readily modified, if necessary, as additional data Laboratory procedures (MFLP) are given in volume
become available. 3 . These have been validated in at least one HPB
The microbiological guidelines that are currently inlaboratory, apart from the laboratory that originated
force are given in Table 4. The same three levels of the method. These methods include those undergoing
concern or risk (Health 1, 2 and Sanitation) are development, newly developed rapid methods or
applied in the guidelines. methods for newly emerging pathogens. As for a regu-
In addition to Salmonella, the microorganisms con- latory standard, the sampling plans and compliance
sidered to be a Health 1 risk are Campylobacter coli, criteria are an integral part of each method and form
C. jejuni, Yersinia enterocolitica, Pseudomonas aeyu- part of the respective guideline.
ginosa, and Aeromonas hydrophila. The micro- The Code of Practice for the General Principles of
organisms considered to be a Health 2 risk are Food Hygiene developed by the Codex Alimentarius
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus Commission has been modified to reflect current Can-
cereus, and Clostvidium pevfringens. Aerobic colony adian good hygienic practices. The Canadian version
count, coliforms and yeast and mould counts form of this code of practice is intended to provide guidance
the basis for a sanitation or hygiene hazard. to the Canadian food industry on hygienic food hand-
All the methods cited in the standards and ling practices in order to comply with Sections 4 and
guidelines are contained in the Compendium of 7 of the Food and Drugs Act. The Code provides to
Analytical Methods, published by Polyscience Pub- both the regulatory inspector and the food industry a
lications for Health Canada. The compendium pro- template for the sanitary or hygienic inspection of
vides a ready reference of the food microbiological food processing and manufacturing premises.
methods used by the Health Protection Branch (HPB) The recommended Canadian Code of Hygienic
of Health Canada to determine compliance of the Practice for Low-acid and Acidified Low-acid Foods
food industry with standards and guidelines, to assess in Hermetically Sealed Containers (Canned Foods)
the quality of foods with respect to their micro- was adapted directly from the Codex Alirnentarius
biological content, and to support investigations of Recommended International Code of Hygienic Prac-
food-borne diseases and consumer complaints. tice for Low-acid and Acidified Low-acid Canned
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada 1553
Foods. The Canadian Code is a guideline for com- foods is included as an appendix to the Field Com-
mercial processors who thermally process these prod- pliance Guide.
ucts for compliance with the regulations B.27.001 to The definition for recall under the Food and Drugs
B.27.006, inclusively. While Clostridium botulinum Act with respect to a product, other than a medical
is the primary microorganism of concern, the code device, means a firm’s removal from further sale or
also addresses microbiological spoilage. use, or correction, of a marketed product that violates
A good example of a field compliance guide is legislation administered by the Health Protection
that for ready-to-eat (RTE) foods contaminated with Branch. Three types or classes of recalls are des-
Listeria monocytogenes. An RTE food is defined as ignated. Class I is a situation in which there is a
one requiring no further processing before con- reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to,
sumption. Of primary concern are RTE foods that a non-compliant product will cause serious adverse
have been subjected to some form of processing not health consequences or death. Class I1 is a situation
only to render them ready-to-eat but also to extend in which the use of, or exposure to, such a product
their shelf life. Such RTE foods can support the may cause temporary adverse health consequences
growth of L. monocytogenes even when maintained or where the probability of serious adverse health
under conditions of commercial refrigeration. The consequences is remote. Class I11 is a situation in
field compliance guide combines inspection, envir- which the use of, or exposure to, a product is not
onmental sampling and end product testing. The likely to cause any adverse health consequences.
results of the inspection should show the inspector
whether or not GHPs in place are adequate to control Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
the potential for contamination of the product with
L. monocytogenes. However, if the inspector does not This department administers a number of acts and
consider them to be adequate, environmental sam- associated regulations. Only the Canadian Agri-
pling should be conducted. If the environmental sam- cultural Products Act, Health of Animals Act and the
pling indicates that there is a probability of finished Meat Inspection Act and their associated regulations
product becoming contaminated with pathogenic have microbiological standards or specifications dir-
microorganisms, then the finished product should be ectly applicable to foods. It should be noted that the
sampled in accordance with Table 5 and analysed. administration of many of the Acts by this department
The results of that analysis will determine the choice is limited to foods that are imported, exported or
of enforcement action as set out in Table 6. If envir- traded interprovincially. The Food and Drugs Act and
onmental sampling indicates little or no probability regulations have no such limitation.
for product contamination no further action is taken Canadian Agricultural Products Act
by the inspector other than to encourage strict imple-
mentation of GHPs, i.e. compliance with the Code of The relevant regulations under the Canadian Agri-
Practice for the General Principles of Food Hygiene. cultural Products Act are:
For the purposes of this guide, an RTE food is Livestock and Poultry Carcass Grading Regulations
considered capable of supporting growth of L. mono- 0 Egg Regulations (upgraded 18/03/98)
cytogenes if, in a naturally contaminated lot of the 0 Processed Egg Regulations
RTE food under consideration, L. monocytogenes can 0 Dairy Regulations (upgraded 15/04/98)
be detected by direct plating after the food has been 0 Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Regulations (updated
stored at 4°C or less until the end of its stated shelf 0 1/04/98)
life; OY if, in an inoculated batch representative of the 0 Honey Regulations (updated 01/04/98)
RTE food, L. monocytogenes increases in number by 0 Maple Products Regulations (updated 01/04/98)
at least 1 log after it has been stored at 4°C or less 0 Processed Products Regulations (updated
until the end of its stated shelf life, as determined 15/04/98)
by the direct plating method. The guide encourages 0 Licensing and Arbitration Regulations (updated
manufacturers to consider performing challenge tests 04/03/9 8).
not only under normal conditions of storage and
distribution, but also under conditions of mild tem- The Act stipulates that no person shall market a food
perature abuse (e.g. 7-10°C). A challenge test involves product in import, export or interprovincial trade as
the incubation of samples of the RTE food inoculated food unless the food product, including every sub-
with a known concentration of a cocktail of at least stance used as a component or ingredient thereof,
five strains of L. monocytogenes for periods of time ( a ) is not adulterated
to reflect the desired product shelf life. A guide for the (b) is not contaminated
challenge testing of L. monocytogenes on refrigerated (c) is sound, wholesome and edible
1554 NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada
(d) is prepared in a sanitary manner may contain microbiological standards as well as dir-
(e) where irradiated, is irradiated in accordance with ections with respect to sanitary preparation.
Division 26 of Part B of the Food and Drugs Act
and the Food and Drug Regulations Processed Eggs Regulations The regulations contain
(f) meets all other requirements of the Food and a general stipulation that no processed egg shall be
Drugs Act and the Food and Drug Regulations. marked with a departmental inspection legend unless
the processed egg tests negative for salmonellae and
For the purposes of this Act, the term 'contaminated' other pathogenic organisms of human health sig-
means containing a chemical, drug, food additive, nificance as determined by a method approved by the
heavy metal, industrial pollutant, ingredient, med- Minister. All establishments involved in the handling
icament, microbe, pesticide, poison, toxin or any and processing of eggs and egg product for import,
other substance not permitted by, or in an amount export or interprovincial trade are subject to inspec-
in excess of limits prescribed under, the Canadian tion by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and the
Environmental Protection Act, the Food and Drugs product packaging must bear the inspection legend.
Act or the Pest Control Products Act, or containing Unlike the microbiological standards under the Food
any substance that renders the food inedible. Para- and Drug Regulations the specifics of the method and
graphs (b),(c), (d) and (f) address the microbiological sampling plan to be used are not given. In addition
safety and quality of foods. These general provisions to this general stipulation, there are a number of
are repeated in the regulations for each specific food microbiological standards for specific product types.
group. The regulations for the various food groups Frozen egg, frozen egg mix, liquid egg, liquid egg
1556 NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES 81STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada
Table 5 Sampling plans for analysing ready-to-eat (RTE) foods for Listeria monocytogenes (LM)
Food product category Sampling Analysis Type of analysis
1. RTE foods causally linked to listeriosis Five sample units (100 g or ml 5 x 10 g or 2 x 25 g analytical ENRICHMENT
(this list includes soft cheese, liver each) taken at random from unitsa are either analysed ONLY
pate, coleslaw mix with shelf life > 10 each lot separately or composited
days, jellied pork tongue)
2. All other RTE foods supporting growth Five sample units (100 g or ml 5 x 5 analytical unitsa are either ENRICHMENT
of LM with refrigerated shelf life > 10 each) taken at random from analysed separately or ONLY
days (e.g. vacuum-packaged meats, each lot cornposited
modified atmosphere-packaged
sandwiches, cooked seafood,
packaged salads, refrigerated sauces)
3. RTE foods supporting growth of LM Five sample units (100 g or ml 5 x 10 g analytical unitsaare DIRECT
with refrigerated shelf-life 610 days each) taken at random from analysed separately PLATING
and all foods not supporting growthb each lot Where enrichment is necessary‘ ENRICHMENT
(e.g. cooked seafood, packaged 5 x 5 g analytical unitsa are
salads, ice cream, hard cheese, dry analysed separately or
salami, salted fish, breakfast and composited
other cereal products)
aThe designated analytical unit is taken from each sample unit.
Foods not supporting growth of LM include the following:
pH 5.0-5.5 and a, < 0.95
pH < 5.0 regardless of a,
a, 60.92 regardless of pH
frozen foods
The pH and a, determinations should be done on three out of five analytical units. The food is presumed to support the growth of
L. monocytogenes if any one of the analytical units falls into the range of pH and a, values which are thought to support the
growth of the organism.
For the last category, if GMP is inadequate and L. monocytogenes has been found in the environment of the finished product area,
or where examination of GMP status is not possible, the method to isolate L. monocytogenes from foods and environmental samples
(MFHPB-30) and the method for enumeration of L. monocytogenes (MFLP-74) may be used as appropriate.
mix, frozen egg product or liquid egg product that is Dairy Products Regulations In addition to the
marked with an inspection legend shall, in addition general requirement as stipulated in the Act, the regu-
to meeting the general requirements for salmonellae, lations specify the compositional standards (e.g. per-
have a coliform count of no more than 1 0 per gram, centage of butterfat in various milk categories). The
and a total viable bacteria count of no more than regulations reference the microbiological standards in
50 000 per gram. the Food and Drug Regulations. As the production,
Dried egg, dried egg mix or dried egg product that processing, sale and distribution of milk and asso-
ciated products for the most part are intraprovincial,
is marked with an inspection legend shall, in addition
they are also subject to regulation by each province.
to meeting the requirements for salmonellae, have a
Each province has specific pasteurization require-
coliform count of no more than 1 0 per gram, and a ments with respect to time and temperatures.
total viable bacteria count of no more than 50000
per gram in the case of whole egg, whole egg mix and
yolk mix. In the case of albumen, the total viable Processed Products Regulations The regulations
bacteria count standard is reduced to 100000 per require that a low-acid food product packed in a
gram. hermetically sealed container be thermally processed,
The pasteurization of liquid egg products, while until at least commercial sterility is achieved. A low-
acid food product packed in a hermetically sealed
initially directed to reduce salmonellae to levels that
container is exempt, if it is stored continuously under
do not represent a health hazard, will also have the
refrigeration and if the container in which it is packed,
same beneficial effect for other pathogens having the as well as the shipping container, is marked ‘Keep
same or lower thermal resistance that may be present. Refrigerated’, or kept continuously frozen and the
The heating requirements are given in Table 7. Spray- container in which it is packed, as well as the shipping
dried albumen shall be pasteurized at 54°C (130°F) container, is marked ‘Keep Frozen’. This duplicates
for 7 days, and pan-dried albumen at 52°C (125°F) the same requirement under B.27.002 of the Food
for 5 days. and Drug Regulations.
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada 1557
There is also a requirement that the water used to Registered establishments have resident federal
cool the containers after thermal processing shall be of inspectors to ensure compliance with the regulations
an acceptable microbiological quality. The regulation and to conduct product inspection sampling when
does not specify what is an acceptable quality. Water required. All processes must meet departmental
used in a cooling canal system must contain a residual requirements. Premortem and postmortem inspec-
amount of a bactericide at the discharge end of the tions are carried out routinely in all registered slaugh-
canal and records must be kept of all bactericidal tering plants.
treatments. The requirements for low-acid meat products pack-
The specific hygiene requirements detailed in the aged in hermetically sealed containers duplicates the
regulations generally follow those in the Canadian requirements found in Section B.27.002 of the Food
Code of Practice for the General Principles of Food and Drug Regulations The container cooling water
Hygiene for use by the food industry in Canada. must be of an acceptable microbiological quality and,
in the case of water used in a cooling canal system,
Meat Inspection Regulations All establishments contains a residual amount of a bactericide at the
involved in the slaughter, preparation, manufacture, discharge end of the canal, and the container be
storage, distribution and sale of meat and meat prod- handled in a manner that ensures that the container
ucts in import, export and interprovincial trade must remains hermetically sealed.
be registered by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.
The regulations contain specific requirements: Fisheries and Oceans Canada
governing the design, construction and main- The microbial safety and quality of fish and fish prod-
tenance of registered establishments and of the ucts for export, import or interprovincial trade are
equipment and facilities therein regulated under the Fish Inspection Act and the Fish
0 prescribing the equipment and facilities to be used, Inspection Regulations. The regulations:
the procedures to be followed and the standards to prescribe grades, quality and standards
be maintained in registered establishments to 0 set the quality and specifications for containers and
ensure humane treatment and slaughter of animals the marking and inspection of containers
and hygienic processing and handling of meat 0 require the registration of establishments and the
products licensing of persons engaged as principals or agents
0 prescribing standards for meat products that are in the export or import of fish or containers
prepared or stored in registered establishments, for 0 prescribe the requirements for the equipment and
meat products that enter into interprovincial or sanitary operation of establishments, of premises
international trade and for meat products in operated by an importer for the purpose of import-
connection with which the meat inspection legend ing fish, and of any boats, vehicles or other equip-
is applied or used. ment used in connection with an establishment or
1558 NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada
Table 7 Pasteurization of liquid processed egg (see Processed Eggs Regulations - Schedule, Part I)
Liquid processed egg product Minimum temperature of Minimum
the processed egg at the heating time
automatic diversion valve (mins)
"C "F
Whole egg with less than 24% milk solids 60 140 3.5
Whole egg with no less than 24% and no more than 38% egg 61 142 3.5
solids 60 140 6.2
Whole egg mix with less than 2% added salt or sweetening 61 142 3.5
agent, or both 60 140 6.2
Whole egg mix with no less than 2% and no more than 12% 61 142 3.5
added sweetening agent 60 140 6.2
Whole egg mix with no less than 2% and more than 12% added 63 146 3.5
salt 62 144 6.2
Yolk 61 142 3.5
60 140 6.2
Yolk mix with less than 2 % added salt or sweetening agent, or 61 142 3.5
both 60 140 6.2
Yolk mix with no less than 2% and no more than 12% added 63 146 3.5
sweetening agent 62 144 6.2
Yolk mix with no less than 2% and no more than 12% added 63 146 3.5
salt 62 144 6.2
Ova 63 146 3.5
62 144 6.2
Egg product with less than 24% total solids" 61 142 3.5
60 140 6.2
Egg product with no less than 24% and no more than 38% total 62 144 3.5
solids" 61 142 6.2
Egg products with more than 38% solids" 63 146 3.5
62 144 6.2
a Regardless of the total solids content, egg product must be heated to 63°C (146°F) for 3.5 min or to 62°C (144°F) for 6.2 min if
there is no less than 2% and no more than 12% added sweetening agent or salt, or both. The director, at the request of an
operator, may designate a lower minimum temperature depending on the composition of the egg product.
in connection with fishing or the import or export Table 8 Bacteriological guidelines for fish and fish products
of fish Product Microorganism Criteria"
prescribe the manner in which samples of any fish
may be taken.
The general requirement that no person shall import, Cooked or RTE Escherichia coli 5 2 4 40
export, sell for export or have in his or her possession products
for export any fish intended for human consumption All other types E. coli 5 2 4 4
that is tainted, decomposed or unwholesome has All types Staphylococcus 5 1 lo3 lo4
aureus
microbiological significance: 'decomposed' means fish All types Salmonella 5b 0 0
that has an offensive or objectionable odour, flavour, Cooked or RTE Vibrio cholerae 5b 0 0
colour, texture or contains a substance associated with products
spoilage; 'tainted' means fish that is rancid or has an a n , sample size; c, acceptance number; m, acceptable
abnormal odour or flavour; 'unwholesome' means concentration of microorganisms; M, unacceptable
fish that has in or upon it bacteria of public health concentration of microorganisms.
significance or substances toxic or aesthetically offen- The analytical unit is 25 g. Each analytical unit must be negative
sive to humans. Any of these conditions can be the for the microorganism. The analytical units may be pooled.
RTE, ready-to-eat.
result of microbial growth, i.e. spoilage.
There are a number of regulations that are specific
to the requirements for the equipment and sanitary designed to meet specific product risks (Table 8).The
operation of the fish processing establishments, for interpretation of the sampling plans and acceptance
vessels used for fishing or transporting fish for pro- criteria is the same as that described for the micro-
cessing, and for the storage of frozen fish. biological standards and guidelines under the Food
Some microbiological guidelines have been and Drug Regulations.
NATIONAL LEGISLATION, GUIDELINES & STANDARDS GOVERNING MICROBIOLOGY/Canada 1559
The Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program Canada are the basis for the classification of coastal
The Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program (CCSP) harvesting areas for clams, oysters, mussels and whole
was developed in 1925 under the Fish Inspection Act scallops. Classifications are based on the sanitary con-
as a result of a typhoid fever outbreak in the USA in ditions of the area as defined by the shoreline survey
1924-25 involving 1500 cases and 150 deaths as a with supporting information from the microbiological
result of consuming contaminated oysters. The CSSP evaluation of the area.
is jointly administered by the Canadian Food Inspec- 1. Approved: the area is not contaminated with faecal
tion Agency (CFIA), Department of Fisheries and material, poisonous or deleterious substances or
Oceans (DFO) and Environment Canada (EC) in marine biotoxins to the extent that consumption
cooperation with Health Canada. The parameters of of the shellfish might be hazardous. In these areas
interdepartmental cooperation between EC and DFO the median or geometric mean faecal coliform level
are established by a Memorandum of Understanding must be less than 1 4 Most Probable Number
which is under revision to reflect the responsibilities (MPN) per 100ml with no more than 10% of the
of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. samples in excess of 43 MPN per 100 ml.
Environment Canada is responsible for carrying out 2. Conditionally approved: this area must meet the
shoreline sanitary and bacteriological water quality same sanitary quality criteria as an approved area.
surveys of the shellfish growing areas according to the However, under certain conditions which are pre-
procedures, standards and protocols of the Canadian dictable and verifiable, water quality can exceed
Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations. approved area criteria. The quality can vary with:
This includes the continuing evaluation of the level of (a) the effectiveness of sewage treatment at a com-
faecal contamination in the water overlying shellfish munity, (b) rainfall or river flow, (c) seasonal
growing areas, the identification of point and non- changes in sanitary conditions (i.e. tourist or
point pollution sources that have a negative impact summer cottage activity, vessel traffic, seasonal
on these areas, and classification of these areas based industrial operation). Management plans which
on sanitary quality and general sanitary conditions. detail the criteria for opening and closing such
In order for a shellfish area to be recommended for areas, and the responsibilities of all parties are
approval, the overlying waters must be free from required for conditionally approved classifications.
hazardous concentrations of pathogenic micro- 3 . Closed: direct harvesting from this area is pro-
organisms, poisonous or deleterious substances (or hibited owing to chemical or bacteriological con-
marine biotoxins and monitored by the CFIA) as tamination. Shellfish can be used only under
outlined in the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program specified permit conditions for depuration, relay-
Manual of Operations. ing, experimental purposes or other approved pro-
The 1948 Canada-United States Bilateral Agree- cessing. Depending on the level of contamination,
ment on Shellfish governing trade in shellfish between harvesting may be prohibited for any purpose. The
the two countries required agreement on practices for Closed classification includes the subclassifications
sanitary control of the shellfish industry. The Can- of Restricted for Controlled Purification,
adian Manual of Operations is based on the protocols Restricted for Relaying and Prohibited Area.
and procedures of the American National Shellfish
Regional Shellfish Classification Committees, com-
Sanitation Program Manual of Operations, now
posed of DFO, EC and provincial government rep-
called the NSSP Guide. The Agreement also required
resentatives, are responsible for:
each country to facilitate inspections of each other’s
shellfish handling facilities and shellfish growing areas 0 the technical reviews of the sanitary and bac-
if requested. The United States Food and Drug Admin- teriological surveys and evaluation of growing area
istration (USFDA) has routinely audited the CSSP classification recommendations
(about every 2 years - most recently in 1996 on both 0 reviewing the policies, procedures, criteria and
Atlantic and Pacific coasts). Growing area clas- regulations affecting the implementation and appli-
sification based on water quality is the basis of the cation of shellfish growing area classification
NSSP as it is for the CSSP. According to the NSSP ‘the 0 recommendations to DFO (for closures under the
first critical control point in the sanitary control of Management of Contaminated Fisheries Regu-
shellfish is identifying harvesting areas of acceptable lations under the Fisheries Act) and CFIA (as
sanitary quality’. Water quality requirements in both required for approved areas under the Fish Inspec-
programmes are the same for shellfish aquaculture as tion Regulations under the Fish Inspection Act
they are for wild harvest. 0 implementation of the classification decisions, and
The sanitary surveys completed by Environment recommending survey priorities.
Next Page
oils see Fermentation (Industrial): Production of Oils and Fatty Acids; Preservatives: Traditional Pre-
servatives - Oils and Spices.
Organic Acids see Fermentation (Industrial): Production of Organic Acids, e.g. Citric, Propionic;
Preservatives: Traditional Preservatives - Organic Acids
PACKAGING OF FOODS 1611
PACKAGING OF FOODS
Aaron L Brody Rubbright Brody Inc., Duluth, Georgia, USA
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Packaging is intended to protect foods against ponents that constitute the structures usually known
environmental invasion. Among the many external as packages or containers. Package materials are no
variables that may adversely affect foods are an excess longer single elements but rather composites of several
or deficiency of moisture, oxygen, dirt, humans different materials. In addition, new forms of pack-
(through tampering), dust, animals, insects and micro- aging are increasingly replacing the traditional cans,
organisms. Packaging and processing are increasingly bottles, jars, cartons and cases.
becoming integrated with each other; an example is
canning, which is really a packaging and thermal Preservation Requirements of Common
preservation operation in which the can, its product Food Categories
contents, the filling temperature, air removal, closure,
Meats
heating, cooling and distribution must be an uninter-
rupted continuum or else preservation is not effected. Fresh Meat Most meat offered to consumers is
More traditional preservation processes such as freshly cut, with little further processing to suppress
drying and freezing do not necessarily require close the normal microbiological flora present from the
relationships between the product, process and pack- contamination received during the killing and break-
aging; the process and the packaging may be separate ing operations required to reduce carcass meat to
and the preservation effect will still be achieved. In edible cuts. Fresh meat is highly vulnerable to
contrast, in preservation processes such as thermal microbiological deterioration from indigenous
pasteurization, modified-atmosphere packaging, microorganisms. These microorganisms can range
aseptic packaging, retort pouch and tray packaging, from benign forms such as lactic acid bacteria or
it is necessary to integrate all the elements to ensure slime-formers, to proteolytic producers of undesirable
the optimum preservation of the contained foods. odours and pathogens such as Escherichia coli
For example, in aseptic packaging, preservation is 0157:H7. The major mechanisms that retard fresh
achieved by sterilization of the product independently meat spoilage are temperature reduction to (or near)
of the package, and the packaging equipment and the freezing point and a reduced oxygen atmosphere
assembly environment must therefore be sterile to during distribution to retard microbial growth.
exclude microorganisms from the ultimately her- Reduced oxygen levels could provide conditions for
metically sealed package. It is essential that the oper- the expression of pathogenic anaerobic micro-
ations be connected by sterile linkages and that no organisms, a situation usually obviated by the pres-
microorganisms are permitted to contaminate any ence of competitive spoilage organisms. Reduced
element. oxygen levels also lead to the colour of fresh meat
For these reasons it has become increasingly being the purple of myoglobin; exposure to air con-
important that the packaging be incorporated into verts the natural meat pigment to the bright cherry-
the system if the objectives of delivering safe and high- red oxymyoglobin characteristic of most fresh meat
quality food are to be achieved. offered to and accepted by consumers in industrialized
To understand fully the role of packaging in food societies. Reduced oxygen packaging is achieved
preservation it is perhaps instructive to offer a few through the mechanical removal of air from the inter-
definitions. ‘Packaging’ is a term describing the total- iors of gas-impermeable multilayer flexible material
ity of containment for the purpose of protecting the pouches closed by heat-sealing the end after filling.
food contents and includes the package material, its
structure and the equipment that marries the package Ground Meat About 40% of fresh beef is offered in
structure to the food. Package materials are the com- ground or minced form to enable the preparation of
1612 PACKAGING OF FOODS
hamburger sandwiches and related foods. Ground indigenous microflora. Packaging is usually in a gas
beef was originally a by-product, that is, the trim- barrier structure, typically gas/moisture barrier foam
mings from reducing muscle to edible portion size. polystyrene trays heat-sealed with polyester gas
The demand for ground beef is now so great that barrier film. The internal gas composition is altered
some muscle cuts are specifically ground to meet the to a high content of O2 (up to 80%) and of CO2 (up
demand. Grinding the beef further distributes the to 3 0 % ) , with the remainder (if any) being nitrogen
surface and below-surface microflora and thus pro- as a filler gas to ensure against package collapse
vides a rich substrate for microbial growth even under arising from internal vacuum formation. The high 0 2
refrigerated conditions. Relatively little pork is concentration fosters the retention of the oxy-
reduced to ground fresh form; however, increasing myoglobin red colour preferred by consumers, while
quantities of poultry meat are being comminuted and the elevated CO, level suppresses the growth of
offered fresh to consumers, both on its own and as a aerobic spoilage microorganisms. Using this or similar
cheaper substitute for ground beef. The major portion technologies, refrigerated microbiological shelf lives
of ground beef is coarsely ground at abattoir level and of retail cuts may be extended from a few days to
packaged under reduced 0 2 levels for distribution at as much as a few weeks, permitting long-distance
refrigeration temperatures to help retard micro- distribution, e.g. from a central factory to a multi-
biological growth. The most common packaging tech- plicity of retail establishments. One thesis favouring
nique is pressure-stuffing into chubs, which are tubes the centralized packaging of ground beef is that the
of flexible gas-impermeable materials closed at each probability of the presence of E . coli 0157:H7 is
end by tight-fitting metal clips. Pressure-stuffing the reduced. On the other hand, if the pathogen is present
pliable contents forces most of the air out of the at the central location, the probability of its being
ground beef, and since there is no head-space within spread among a number of retailers is greatly
the package, little air is present to support the growth increased. Nevertheless, the use of central factories,
of aerobic spoilage microorganisms such as Lacto- which would probably be under federal government
bacillus and Leuconostoc spp. At retail level the supervision in the USA, and certainly under technical
coarsely ground beef is finely ground to restore the supervision, would increases the probability of the
desirable oxymyoglobin red colour and to provide the emerging packaged meat being microbiologically safe.
consumer with the desired product. Alternative packaging systems for case-ready beef
In almost all instances, the retail cuts and portions and pork include the ‘master bag’ system used widely
are placed in expanded polystyrene (EPS) trays which for freshly cut poultry (see below) in which retail cuts
are overwrapped with plasticized polyvinyl chloride are placed in conventional PVC film overwrapped
(PVC) film. The tray materials are resistant to fat and EPS trays and the trays are multipacked in gas barrier
moisture to the extent that many trays are internally pouches whose internal atmospheres are enhanced
lined with absorbent pads to absorb the purge from with COZ to retard the growth of aerobic spoilage
the meat as it ages and/or deteriorates in the retail microorganisms. Another popular system involves the
packages. Because of the prognosis the PVC materials use of gas barrier trays with heat-seal closure using
are not sealed but rather tacked so that the somewhat flexible gas and moisture barrier materials. Con-
water vapour-impermeable structure does not permit ventional non-gas-barrier trays such as EPS may be
loss of significant moisture during short refrigerated overwrapped with gadmoisture barrier flexible films
distribution. Being a poor gas barrier, PVC film subsequently shrunk tightly around the tray to impart
permits the access of air and hence the oxymyoglobin an attractive appearance. Other systems, all of which
red colour is retained for the short duration of retail involve removal of 0 2 , include vacuum skin pack-
distribution. aging in which a film is heated and draped over the
meat on a gas/moisture barrier tray. The film clings
Case-ready Meat For many years, attempts have to the meat so that no head-space remains, with the
been made to shift the retail cutting of beef and pork result that the meat retains the purple colour of myo-
away from the retailer’s back room and into cen- globin. In one such system the drape film is a multi-
tralized factories. This movement has been stronger layer whose outer gas barrier layer may be removed
in Europe than in the USA, but some action has been by the retailer, exposing a gas-permeable film that
detected in the latter country in the wake of the E. permits the entry of air, which reblooms the pigment
coli 0157:H7 incidents. Case-ready retail packaging and restores the desired colour. Variations on this
in the UK where the practice is relatively common, double film system include packaging systems in
involves cutting and packaging meat under extremely which the film is not multilayer but is composed
hygienic conditions to reduce the probability of of two independent flexible layers, the outer being
microbiological contamination beyond that of the impermeable to gas and moisture and the inner gas-
PACKAGING OF FOODS 1613
permeable to permit air entry to restore the red colour. almost entirely automated killing and dressing oper-
In all instances the microbiological shelf life is ations. In such facilities the dressed birds are chilled
extended by reduced temperature plus reduced O2 in water to near the freezing point after which they
levels, which may incidentally or intentionally be are usually cut into retail parts and packaged in case-
enhanced by elevated CO1 concentration. ready form: expanded polystyrene trays overwrapped
with printed PVC or polyethylene film. The package
Processed Meat Longer-term preservation of meats is intended to appear as if it has been prepared in the
may be achieved by curing, using agents such as salt, retailer’s back room, but in reality it is only a moisture
sodium nitrite, sugar, seasonings, spices and smoke, and microorganism barrier. Individual retail pack-
and by processing methods such as cooking and ages, however, may be multipacked in gas-imper-
drying; these treatments alter the water activity, add meable flexible materials to permit gas flush
antimicrobial agents, provide a more stable red packaging, thus extending the refrigerated shelf life
colour, and generally enhance the flavour and mouth of the fresh poultry products.
feel of the cured meats. Cured meats are often offered Poultry is especially susceptible to infection with
in tubular or sausage form which means that the shape Salmonella spp., which are pathogenic in large quan-
is dictated by the traditional process and consumer tities. Such organisms are not removed or destroyed
demand. Because of the added preservatives, the by the extensive washing and chemical sanitation of
refrigerated shelf life of processed meat is generally current poultry processing plants, merely reduced in
several times longer than that of the fresh meat. numbers. Modified-atmosphere packaging has rela-
Because cured meats are not nearly so sensitive to tively little effect on Salmonella and so refrigeration
oxygen variations as fresh meat, the use of reduced during distribution is critical in the drive to avoid
0 2 atmospheres to enhance the refrigerated shelf life increasing populations of this bacterium.
is quite common. The O2 reduction may be achieved All meat products may be preserved by thermal
by mechanical vacuum, inert gas flushing or a com- sterilization in metal cans or, less frequently, glass
bination of methods. Since the conditions have been jars. The product is filled into the container which is
changed to obviate the growth of anaerobic patho- hermetically sealed, usually by double-seam metal end
genic microorganisms, reduced oxygen conditions are closure (see Fig. 2). After sealing, the cans are retorted
generally effective in retarding the growth of aerobic to destroy all microorganisms present and cooled to
spoilage microorganisms. arrest further cooking. The metal (or glass) serves as
The containers for reduced O2 packaging of cured a barrier to gas, moisture, microbes etc. to ensure
meats are selected from a multiplicity of materials and indefinite microbiological preservation. Cans or jars
structures depending on the protection required and do not, however, ensure against further biochemical
the marketing needs: frankfurters are generally sold deterioration of the contents.
in twin web vacuum packages in which the base tray
Fish
is an in-line thermoformed nylon/polyvinylidene
chloride (PVDCj web and the closure is a heat-sealed Fish is among the most difficult of all foods to preserve
polyester (PET)/PVDCflexible material. Sliced lunch- in its fresh state because of its inherent micro-
eon meats and similar products are packed in ther- biological population, many organisms of which are
moformed unplasticized PVC or polyacrylonitrile psychrophilic, i.e. capable of growth at refrigerated
(PAN) trays, heat-seal closed with PET/PVDC. Sliced temperatures. Further, seafoods may harbour a non-
bacon packaging employs one of several variations of proteolytic, quasi-psychrophilic anaerobic pathogen,
PVDC skin packaging (in contact with the surface of Clostridium botulinum type E. The need to prolong
the product) to achieve the oxygen barrier. Ham may the refrigerated shelf life of fresh fish suggests the
be fresh, cured or cooked, with the cooking often application of modified-atmosphere packaging in
performed in the package. The oxygen barrier mater- which reduced 0 2 levels and elevated C02 levels are
ials employed are usually a variation of nylon/PVDC present (Table 1j. However, a reduced 0 2 atmosphere
in pouch form. can permit the expression of type E . botulinum, and
for this reason reduced O2 packaging for seafood is
Poultry Poultry meat is most commonly chicken, discouraged in the USA. This is not the situation in
but turkey is becoming an increasingly significant Europe, where gas barrier flexible and semirigid
category of protein. Further, chicken is increasingly plastic packaging similar to that described above for
penetrating the cured meat market as a less expensive case-ready fresh beef is often applied.
but nutritionally and functionally similar substitute Packaging for fresh seafood is generally moisture-
for beef or pork. Since the 1970s poultry processing resistant but not necessarily proof against microbial
in westernized societies has shifted into large-scale, contamination. Simple polyethylene film is employed
1614 PACKAGING OF FOODS
Table 1 Pathogens of concern in modified atmosphere- Table 2 Ranges for bacterial growth
packaged andvacuum-packagedfoods
Organism pH range
-
Psychrotrophs growth at 3-4°C
Gram-negative bacteria
Listeria monocytogenes
Escherichia coli 4.4-9.0
Yersinia enterocolitica
Pseudomonas fluorescens 6.0-8.5
Bacillus cereus
Salmonella typhimurium 5.6-8.0
Non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum
-
Pseudopsychrotrophs growth at 7-8°C
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacillus subtilis 4.5-8.5
Escherichia coli 0157:H7
Clostridium botulinum 4.7-8.5
Salmonella sp.
Lactobacillus sp. 3.8-7.2
-
Mesophiles growth at ~ 1 0 ° C Staphylococcus aureus 4.3-9.2
Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum
rudimentary moisture loss and dust protectors, but retarded by packaging under reduced O2 atmospheres
are adequate because the distribution time is so short. which may or may not be complemented by the add-
Enhancement of refrigerated shelf life may be achieved ition of C02. To retain the internal environmental
by clean filling and/or the use of a low 0 2 , high CO2 condition, the use of gas barrier package materials
atmosphere, all of which retard the growth of lactic is commercial. Generally, flexible barrier materials
acid spoilage microorganisms. such as nylon plus PVDC are employed on hori-
zontal flow wrapping machines or on twin web
Fermented Milks Fermented milks such as yoghurts thermoform/vacuum/seal machines. On twin web
fall into the category of fresh cheeses from a packaging machines, the flat sealing web is usually a variant of
perspective, i.e. they are packaged in polystyrene or polyester plus PVDC. One problem is that some cured
polypropylene cups or tubs to contain and to protect cheeses continue to produce COz as a result of fer-
minimally against moisture loss and microbial recon- mentation, and so the excess gas must be able to
tamination. Their closures are not hermetic and so escape from the package or else the package might
gas passes through both the closures and the plastic bulge or even burst. Somewhat less gas-impermeable
walls, and microorganisms could enter after the materials are suggested for such cheeses.
package is opened. Because the refrigerated shelf life In recent years, shredded cheeses have been popu-
is short, however, few measures are taken from a larized. Shredded cheeses have increased surface areas
packaging standpoint to lengthen the shelf life. Clean which increase the probability of microbiological
packaging is often used to achieve several weeks of growth. Gas packaging under C 0 2 in gas-imper-
refrigerated shelf life. Aseptic packaging is occa- meable pouches is mandatory. One feature of all
sionally used to extend the ambient temperature shelf shredded cheese packages today is the zipper reclosure
life of these products. Two basic systems are which does not represent an outstanding micro-
employed; one uses preformed cups, and the other biological barrier after the package has first been
is thermoform/fill/seal. In the former, the cups are opened.
sterilized by spraying with H20z and heating to
remove the residue prior to filling and heat-sealing a Ice Cream Ice cream and similar frozen desserts are
flexible closure to the flanges of the cups, which are distributed under frozen conditions and so are not
impermeable to gas and water vapour. In the subject to microbiological deterioration, but the
thermoform/fill/seal method, a sheet of multilayer product must be pasteurized prior to freezing and
barrier plastic sheet (usually polystyrene plus PVDC) packaging. The packaging needs to be moisture resist-
is immersed in HL02 to sterilize it, air-knifed to ant because of the presence of liquid water prior to
remove the residual sterilant, heated to softening, and freezing and sometimes during removal from refriger-
formed into cups by pressure. The web containing the ation for consumption. Water-resistant paperboard,
connected cups is within a sterile environment under polyethylene-coated paperboard and polyethylene
positive pressure of sterile air. The cavities are filled structures are usually sufficient for containment of
with sterile product and a flexible barrier material other frozen desserts.
web, usually an aluminium foil lamination (also ster-
Fruit and Vegetables
ilized by H2O2immersion), is heat-sealed to the cup
flanges. Filled and sealed cups then pass through a In the commercial context, fruits are generally high-
sterile air lock. These aseptic dairy packaging systems acid foods and vegetables are generally low-acid.
may also be employed for juices and soft cheeses. Major exceptions are tomatoes, which commercially
Recently, aseptic packaging of dairy products has (not botanically) are regarded as vegetables, and
been complemented by ultra-clean packaging on both melons and avocados, which are low-acid.
preformed cup deposit/fill/seal and thermoform/ The most popular produce form is fresh, and
fillheal systems. In these systems, intended to offer increasingly fresh cut or minimally processed. Fresh
extended refrigerated shelf life for low-acid dairy produce is a living, ‘breathing’ entity with active
products, the microbicidal treatment is with hot water enzyme systems fostering the physiological con-
to achieve a 4D kill (i.e. four times the decimal reduc- sumption of O2 and production of COz and water
tion time) on the package material surfaces. The same vapour. From a spoilage standpoint, fresh produce is
systems may be employed to achieve ambient tem- more subject to physiological than to microbiological
perature shelf stability for high-acid products such as spoilage, and measures to extend the shelf life are
juices and related beverages. designed to retard enzyme-driven reactions and water
Cured cheeses are subject to surface mould spoilage loss.
as well as to further fermentation by the natural The simplest means of retarding fresh produce
microflora. These microbiological growths may be deterioration is temperature reduction, ideally to near
1616 PACKAGING OF FOODS
freezing point but more commonly to about 4 4 ° C . reducing the rate of respiration and the growth of
Temperature reduction also reduces the rate of micro- microorganisms.
biological growth, which is usually secondary to Since the late 1980s, fresh cut vegetables, especially
physiological deterioration. lettuce, cabbage, carrots, etc., have been a major
Since the 1960s, alteration of the atmospheric product in both the retail trade and the hotel, res-
environment in the form of modified or controlled taurant and institutional markets. Cleaning, trimming
atmosphere preservation and packaging has been used and size reduction lead to a greater surface area to
commercially to extend the refrigerated shelf life of volume ratio and expression of fluids from the inter-
fresh produce items, such as apples, pears, straw- ior, increasing the respiration rate and offering a better
berries, lettuce and now fresh cut vegetables. Con- substrate for microbiological growth than the whole
trolled atmosphere preservation has been largely fruit or vegetable. On the other hand, commercial
confined to warehouses and transportation vehicles fresh cutting operations generally are far superior
such as trucks and seaboard containers. In this form to mainstream fresh produce handling in cleanliness,
of preservation, the 0 2 , CO2, ethylene and water speed through the operations, temperature reduction
vapour levels are under constant control to optimize and application of microbicides such as chlorine.
refrigerated shelf life. For each class of produce a Although some would argue, on the basis of microbial
separate set of environmental conditions is required counts found in fresh cut produce in distribution
for optimum preservation effect. In modified-atmos- channels, that uncut produce is safer, the paucity of its
phere packaging, the produce is placed in a package cleaning coupled with the rarity of adverse incidents
structure and an initial atmosphere is introduced. The related to fresh cut produce lead to the opposite con-
normal produce respiration plus the permeation of clusion - that fresh cut is significantly safer micro-
gas and water vapour through the package material biologically. Another argument is that the low O2
and structure drive the interior environment towards environment within most fresh cut produce packages
an equilibrium gas environment that extends the plus the risk of soil contamination lead to ideal con-
produce quality retention under refrigeration. In some ditions for the proliferation of Clostvidium bot-
instances the initial gas may be air (passive atmos- ulinum. Further, distribution temperatures are often
phere establishment). Produce respiration rapidly in excess of 1O"C, well within the range of growth
consumes most of the oxygen within the package and production of spores. However, extensive testing
and produces CO2 and water vapour to replace it, has demonstrated that after responsible fresh cut pro-
generating the desired modified atmosphere. cessing, pathogenic spores are present in relatively
The target internal atmosphere is to retard res- small numbers, distribution temperatures prior to
piration rate and microbiological growth. Reduced O2 retail level are significantly lower than for uncut
and elevated C 0 2 levels independently or in concert produce, and times are too short for pathogenic
retard the usual microbiological growth on fruit and expression. These data indicate that while anaerobic
vegetable surfaces. pathogenic problems may occur, they are significantly
One major problem is that produce may enter into less likely in fresh cut than in uncut fruit and
respiratory anaerobiosis if the O2 concentration is vegetables.
reduced to near extinction. In respiratory anaero- Uncut produce packaging comprises a multitude of
biosis, the pathways produce undesirable compounds materials, structures and forms, ranging from trad-
such as alcohols, aldehydes and ketones instead of the itional containers such as wooden crates, to inex-
aerobic end products such as C 0 2 . To minimize the pensive ones such as injection-moulded polypropylene
production of these undesirable end products, elab- baskets, to polyethylene liners within waxed, cor-
orate packaging systems are being developed. Most rugated fibreboard cases. Much of the packaging is
of these involve mechanisms to permit air into the designed to help retard moisture loss from the fresh
package to compensate for the oxygen consumed by produce or to resist the moisture evaporating or drip-
the respiring produce. High-gas-permeability plastic ping from the produce (or occasionally its associated
films, microperforated plastic films, plastic films dis- ice), to ensure the maintenance of the structure
rupted with mineral fill, and films fabricated from throughout distribution. Some packaging designs rec-
polymers with temperature-sensitive side chains have ognize the issue of anaerobic respiration and incorp-
all been proposed or used commercially. orate openings to allow passage of air into the
The need for reduced temperature is emphasized in package, for example perforated polyethylene
modified-atmosphere packaging because the dis- pouches for apples or potatoes. Almost none of the
solution rate of CO2 in water is greater at lower contemporary packaging for fresh uncut produce
temperatures than at higher temperatures. Carbon encompasses any specific microbiological barriers or
dioxide is one of the two major gases involved in countermeasures. That result is a direct extension of
PACKAGING OF FOODS 1617
the observation that uncut produce ‘processing’ is Juices and Juice Drinks Juices and fruit beverages
virtually nonexistent. Packing house operations may be hot-filled or aseptically packaged. Traditional
include collection and the removal of debris and gross packaging has been hot-filling into steel cans and glass
dirt, and packaging is usually the least expensive bottles and jars. Aseptic packaging, described above
structure that will contain the contents during dis- for paperboard composite cartons, is being applied
tribution, often at sub-optimum temperatures. for polyester bottles using various chemical sterilants
For freezing, vegetables are cleaned, trimmed, cut to effect the sterility of the package and closure inter-
and blanched, prior to freezing and then packaging iors. Much fruit beverage is currently hot-filled into
(or packaging and then freezing). Blanching and the heat-set polyester bottles capable of resisting tem-
other processing operations reduce the numbers of peratures of up to 80°C without distortion. Hermetic
microorganisms. Fruit may be treated with sugar to sealing of the bottles provides a microbiological
help retard enzymatic browning and other undesirable barrier, but the polyester is a modest oxygen barrier
oxidations. Produce may be individually quick frozen and so the ambient temperature shelf life from a
(IQF) using cold air or cryogenic liquids prior to biochemical perspective is somewhat limited.
packaging, or frozen after packaging as in folding Since the 1970s high-acid fluid foods such as
paperboard cartons. Frozen food packages are gen- tomato pastes and non-meat-containing sauces have
erally relatively simple monolayer polyethylene been hot-filled into flexible pouches, usually on ver-
pouches or polyethylene-coated paperboard to retard tical form/fill/seal machines. The hot filling generates
moisture loss. No special effort is engineered to an internal vacuum within the pouch after cooling so
obviate further microbiological contamination after that the contents are generally shelf-stable at ambient
freezing, although the polyethylene pouches are gen- temperature. Package materials are usually lamin-
erally heat-sealed. ations of polyester and aluminium foil with linear
Canning of low-acid vegetables to achieve long- low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) internal sealant;
term ambient temperature microbiological stability is this resists the relatively lengthy exposure to the high
the same as for other low-acid foods, with blanching heat of the contents during and immediately following
prior to placement in steel cans (today all welded side filling. The heat seal is hermetic. Some efforts have
seam tin-free steel, with some two-piece cans replacing been made to employ transparent gadwater vapour
the traditional three-piece type), hermetic sealing by barrier films in the structures: polyester/ethylene vinyl
double seaming, and retorting and cooling. Canned alcohol laminations with the same LLDPE sealant.
fruit is generally placed into lined three-piece steel Transparent flexible pouches offer the opportunity
cans using hot filling coupled with post-fill thermal for the consumer to see the contents, and for the hotel,
treatment. Increasingly, one end is ‘easy open’ for restaurant or institutional worker to identify the con-
consumer convenience. Newer techniques involve tents without needing to read the label.
placing fruit hot into multilayer gas- and moisture-
Other Products
impermeable tubs and cups prior to heat-sealing with
flexible barrier materials and subsequent thermal pro- A variety of food products that do not fall clearly into
cessing to achieve ambient temperature shelf-stability the meat, dairy, fruit or vegetable categories may be
or extended refrigerated temperature shelf life. These described as ‘prepared foods’, a rapidly increasing
plastic packages are intended to provide greater con- segment of the industrialized society food market
venience for the consumer as well as to communicate during the 1990s. Prepared foods are those that
that the contained product is not ‘overprocessed’ like combine several different ingredient components into
canned food. dishes that are ready to eat, or simply require heating.
If the food is canned, the thermal process must be
suitable for the slowest heating component, meaning
that much of the product is overcooked to ensure
Tomato Products The highly popular tomato-based microbiological stability. If it is frozen, the com-
sauces and pizza toppings must be treated as low- ponents are separate but the freezing process reduces
acid foods if they contain meat, as so many do. For the eating quality. The preferred preservation tech-
marketing purposes, tomato-based products for retail nology from a quality retention or consumer pref-
sale are commonly packed in glass jars with reclosable erence perspective is refrigeration.
metal lids. The glass jars are often retorted after filling Incorporation of several ingredients from a variety
and hermetic sealing; major differences from the tech- of sources correctly implies many sources for micro-
nique using metal cans include counterpressured organisms - aerobic, anaerobic, spoilage, benign and
retorting and longer times for heating and cooling, pathogenic. Where refrigeration is the sole barrier,
since the thick-walled glass is a thermal insulator. microbial problems are minimized by reducing the
1618 PACKAGING OF FOODS
time between preparation and consumption to less package to virtually eliminate the growth of any spoil-
than 1 day (under refrigeration at temperatures above age microorganisms that might be present.
freezing) plus a nodding acknowledgment of clean- This listing is only a sampling of the many alter-
liness during preparation. As commercial operations native packaging forms offered and employed com-
attempt to prolong the quality retention periods mercially for foods subject to immediate micro-
beyond same-day or next-day consumption, enhanced biological deterioration. An entire encyclopedia
preservation ‘hurdles’ have been introduced. These would be required to enumerate all of the known
microbiological growth retardant factors include ele- options available to the food packaging technologist
vated salt or sugar concentrations, reduced water with the advantages and issues associated with each.
activity, reduced pH to minimize the probability of
pathogenic microbiological growth, selection of ingre- Package Materials and Structures
dients from reduced microbial count sources, and
modified-atmosphere packaging. The last is often sug-
Package Materials
gested as a potential stimulus for the growth of patho-
genic anaerobic microorganisms, since the multiple In describing package materials, different conventions
ingredient sources can almost assure the presence of are employed depending on the materials and their
Clostridium spores, and the reduced 0 2 low-acid con- origins. The commercial conventions are used with
ditions are common to the types of products such as some common indicator of quantitative meaning to
potato salad, pasta dishes, etc. Further, distribution establish relative values.
temperatures may often be in the 5°C range or higher.
Packaging for air-packaged prepared dish products Paper The most widely used package material in the
is generally oriented thermoformed polystyrene trays world is paper and paperboard derived from cellulose
with oriented polystyrene dome closures snap-locked sources such as trees. Paper is used less in packaging
into position i.e. no gas, moisture or microbiological because its protective properties are almost non-exist-
barriers of consequence. Refrigerated shelf life is ent and its usefulness is almost solely as decoration
measured in days. When the product is intended to and dust cover. Paper is cellulose fibre mat in gauges
be heated for consumption, the base tray packaging of less than 250 microns. When the gauge is 250
may be thermoformed polypropylene or crystallized microns to perhaps as much as 1000 microns the
polyester with no particular barrier closure. For modi- material is known as paperboard, which in various
forms can be an effective structural material to protect
fied-atmosphere packaging the tray material is a ther-
contents against impact, compression and vibration.
moformed, coextruded polypropylene/ethylene vinyl
Only when coated with plastic is paper or paperboard
alcohol with a flexible gas/moisture barrier lamination
any sort of protection against other environmental
closure heat-sealed to the tray flanges. Refrigerated
variables such as moisture. For this reason, despite
shelf life for such products may be measured in weeks.
their long history as packaging materials, paper and
For several years, the concept of pasteurizing the
paperboard are only infrequently used as protective
contents, vacuum packaging and distribution under
packaging against moisture, gas, odours or micro-
refrigeration has been debated and commercially organisms.
developed in both the USA and Europe. The ‘sous Paper and paperboard may be manufactured from
vide’ technique is the most publicized process of this trees or from recycled paper and paperboard. Virgin
type. In sous vide processing the product is packaged paper and paperboard, derived from trees, has greater
under vacuum and heat-sealed in an appropriate strength than recycled materials whose fibres have
gadwater vapour barrier flexible package structure been reduced in length by multiple processing. There-
such as aluminium foil lamination. The packaged fore, increased gauges or calipers of recycled paper or
product is thermally processed at less than 100°C to paperboard are required to achieve the same struc-
destroy spoilage microorganisms and then chilled for tural properties. On the other hand, because of the
distribution under refrigerated or (in the USA) frozen short fibre lengths, the printing and coating surfaces
conditions. The US option is to ensure against the are smoother. Paper and paperboard are moisture-
growth of pathogenic anaerobic microorganisms. A sensitive, changing their properties significantly and
similar technology is cook-chill in which pumpable thus often requiring internal and external treatments
products such as chili, chicken a la King and cheese to ensure suitability.
sauce are hot-filled at 80°C or more into nylon
pouches which are immediately chilled (in cold water) Metals Two metals are commonly employed for
to 2°C and then distributed at temperatures of 1°C. package materials: steel and aluminium. The former
The hot filling generates a partial vacuum within the is traditional for cans and glass bottle closures, but is
PACKAGING OF FOODS 1619
Bod
component Seaming panel radius
,component
/
Body hookradius /
Lining compound
Canner’s
end seam Seaming wall
-Chuck wall
End hook
Chuck wall radius
\
Maker’s end
(4 component (6) Figure 3 Double-seam closure on a metal can. From Soroka
(1995) with permission.
Figure 1 Metal can construction. (A) Three-piece steel can.
(6)Two-piece steel or aluminium can. From Soroka (1995) with
permission. minium must be coated with plastic to protect it from
corrosion. It is the most commonly used material for
Lining compound can-making in the USA. However, aluminium cans
must have internal pressure from COz or Nz to main-
tain their structure, and so aluminium is not widely
used for food canning applications in which internal
vacuums and pressures change as a result of retorting.
Aluminium may be rolled to very thin gauges (8-
Can body 7: I!
Can end resting First curl Finished
25 microns) to produce foil, a flexible material with
excellent microbial, gas and water vapour barrier
properties when it is protected by plastic film. Alu-
minium foil is generally regarded as the only ‘perfect’
on body double seam
barrier flexible package material. Its deficiencies
Figure 2 Operation of affixing or double-seaming a metal
closure to a metal can body. From Soroka (1995) with per-
include a tendency to pinholing, especially in thinner
mission. gauges, and to cracking when flexed.
In recent years, some applications of aluminium
foil have been replaced by vacuum metallization of
subject to corrosion in the presence of air and mois-
plastic films such as polyester or polypropylene.
ture and so is almost always protected by other mater-
ials. Until the 1980s, the most widely used steel Glass The oldest and least expensive package mater-
protection was tin, which also acted as a base for lead ial is glass, derived from sand. Furthermore, glass is
soldering of the side seams of ‘tin’ cans. When lead a perfect barrier material against gas, water vapour,
was declared toxic and removed from cans during the microorganisms, odours, etc. The transparency of
1980s in the USA, tin was also found to be superfluous glass is often regarded by marketers and consumers
and its use as a steel can liner declined. The tin in as a desirable property. Technologists may view the
‘tin-free’ cans was chrome and chrome oxide. The transparency as less than desirable because visible
construction and closure techniques of metal cans are and ultraviolet radiation accelerates biochemical
shown in Figures 1-3. (particularly oxidative) reactions.
In almost every instance the coated steel is further Glass is energy-intensive to produce; it is heavy and
protected by organic coatings such as vinyls and vulnerable to impact and vibration even though it
epoxies which are really the principal protection. has excellent vertical compressive strength. For these
Steel is rigid, a perfect microbial, gas and water reasons, glass is being displaced by plastic materials
vapour barrier, and resistant to every temperature to in industrialized societies.
whicha food may be subjected. Because steel-steel or
steel-glass interfaces are not necessarily perfect, the Plastics The term ‘plastics’ describes a number of
metal is often complemented by resilient plastic to families of polymeric materials (Table 3), each with
compensate for the minute irregularities. different properties. Most plastics are not suitable as
Aluminium is lighter in weight than steel and easier package materials because they are too expensive or
to fabricate; it has therefore become the metal of toxic in contact with food, or do not possess prop-
choice for beverage containers in the USA and is erties desired in packaging applications. The most
favoured in other countries. As with steel, the alu- commonly used plastic package materials are poly-
1620 PACKAGING OF FOODS
Polyethylene
high density 0.941-0.965 Semi-opaque Low High Excellent
medium density 0.926-0.940 Hazy to clear Medium High Good
low density 0.910-0.926 Hazy to clear Good High Good
Polypropylene 0.900-0.91 5 Transparent Good High Excellent
Polystyrene 1.04-1.08 Clear High High Fair to good
Plasticized vinyl chloride 1.16-1.35 Clear to hazy High to low High Good
Nylon 1.13-1.1 6 Clear to translucent Varies Low Excellent
aWatervapour transmission rate is measured in gm-’ for 24h at 38°C and 90% relative humidity.
bGas transmission is measured in crn3ml-’m-*for 24h at latmosphere, 30°C and 0% relative humidity.
ethylene, polypropylene, polyester, polystyrene and reducing microbiological counts or destroying heat-
nylon. Each has quite different properties (Table 4). labile microbial toxins in foods.
Plastics may be combined with each other and with
other materials to deliver the desired properties. Polyester A cyclical polymer that is relatively dif-
ficult to fabricate, polyethylene terephthalate poly-
Polyethylene Polyethylene is the most used plastic ester is increasingly the plastic of choice as a glass
in the world for both packaging and non-packaging replacement in making food and beverage bottles.
applications. It is manufactured in a variety of dens- Polyester plastic is a fairly good gas and moisture
ities ranging from 0.89 g cm-3 (very low density) to barrier ;in bottle, tray or film form it is dimensionally
0.96 g ~ m (high
- ~ density), and is lightweight, inex- quite stable and strong. Its heat resistance in amorph-
pensive, impact-resistant, relatively easily fabricated, ous form is sufficient to permit its use in hot-fillable
and forgiving. Polyethylene is not a good gas barrier bottles. When polyester is partially crystallized the
and is generally not transparent, but rather trans- heat resistance increases to the level of being able to
lucent. It may be extruded into film with excellent resist conventional oven heating temperatures. For
water vapour and liquid containment properties. this reason crystallized polyester is employed to manu-
Low-density polyethylene film is more commonly facture ‘dual ovenable’ trays for heat-and-eat foods
used as a flexible package material. Low-density poly- (‘dual ovenable’ means that the plastic is capable of
ethylene is also extrusion-coated onto other substrates being heated in either conventional or microwave
such as paper, paperboard, plastic or even metal to ovens).
impart water and water vapour resistance or heat The transparency of polyester makes it highly desir-
sealability. able from a marketing standpoint for foods that are
Although used for flexible packaging, high-density not light sensitive.
polyethylene is more often seen in the form of extru-
sion blow-moulded bottles with impact resistance, Nylon Polyamide or nylon is a family of nitrogen-
good water and water vapour barrier, but poor gas containing polymers noted for their excellent gas
barrier properties. Any of the polyethylenes in proper barrier properties. Moisture permeability tends to be
structure functions as an effective microbial barrier. less than in the polyolefin polymers and nylon is
somewhat hygroscopic, meaning that the gas barrier
Polypropylene Like polyethylene, polypropylene is may be reduced in the presence of moisture. Gas and
a polyolefin, but it has better water vapour barrier water vapour barriers are enhanced by multilayering
properties and greater transparency and stiffness. with polyolefins and high-gas-barrier polymers.
Although more difficult to fabricate, polypropylene Nylons are thermoformable and both soft and tough,
may be extruded into films that are widely used for and so are often used for thermoformed processed
making pouches particularly on vertical form/fill/seal meat package structures in which the oxygen within
machines. In cast film form, polypropylene is the heat the package is reduced to extend the refrigerated shelf
sealant of choice on retort pouches because of its life.
fusion sealing properties, and because in this form it
is a good microbial barrier. Polystyrene Polystyrene is a poor barrier to moisture
Polypropylene’s heat resistance up to about 133°C or gas. It is, however, very machinable and usually
permits it to be employed for microwave-only heating highly transparent. Its structural strength is not good
trays. Unfortunately microwave heating alone is unless the plastic is oriented or admixed with a rubber
insufficiently uniform to be a reliable mechanism for modifier which reduces the transparency. Polystyrene
Next Page
1 Quality Assurance and Management see Hazard Appraisal (HACCP): The Overall Concept 1
I-I
The concept of risk analysis as adopted by F A O N H O
Food safety policy
and several Codex Committees is primarily aimed at
: Quantitative
risk analvsis consumer protection, and involves the establishment
I
1
I
I Food safeti objectives I
I I
I
of safety objectives for foods that are based on science.
Risk analysis may also be used in selecting the most
I appropriate food processing and preservation
I I
I Food producers
Good Manut;ng Practices
the factors contributing to a risk and their quantitative Risk assessment in relation to additives and con-
effect, and also a cost-benefit analysis of options. taminants is carried out by the Joint FAOPWHO
The outcome of risk management is the derivation Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The
of food safety objectives, for example banning addi- outcome of its risk assessment, i.e. the risk char-
tives or reducing their usage; setting maximum levels acterization, is the starting point for the Codex Ali-
for contaminants and pathogenic microorganisms; mentarius Committee on Food Additives and
and the obligatory use of Good Manufacturing Prac- Contaminants (CCFAC). This Committee, in which
tices (GMP) and controls at national level. In setting all member states are represented, is responsible for
food safety objectives, risk managers should take into risk management and sets standards which are sub-
account the difficulties of control, the feasibility of sequently adopted by CAC.
monitoring, the availability of suitable methods of Risk assessment in the context of additives and
analysis and the economic importance of the food. contaminants is a well-established activity. It involves,
The F A O N H O document on risk management firstly, the determination of dose-response rela-
formulates some general principles covering a struc- tionships for additives and contaminants which can
tured approach embracing risk evaluation, the assess- cause an adverse health effect. This involves experi-
ment of risk management options, decision ments on animals and the use of a data package
implementation and monitoring and review. The obtained by testing several health parameters. From
document also emphasizes that the primary con- the dose-response relationship, the so-called ‘no
sideration in risk management should be the pro- observed effect’ level is estimated. This is used as
tection of human health, and that the decisions and the basis for determining acceptable daily intakes for
practices associated with risk management should be additives, and provisional tolerable daily/weekly
clear. intakes for contaminants, through the application of
uncertainty factors.
Risk Communication Risk analysis in relation to food-borne pathogens
Risk communication is defined as an interactive is a newly emerging activity. Criteria and guidelines
process of exchange of information and opinion are set by the Committee for Food Hygiene (CCFH),
between risk assessors, risk managers, and other inter- and are based on results obtained from the analysis
ested parties. communication starts with the pro- of outbreaks of food-borne disease. At present, CCFH
vision of information about food safety policy to all lacks the assistance of a JECFA-like body for risk
parties involved in the process of risk analysis, as the assessment studies. WHO/FAO have recommended
basis for the purpose and scope of risk assessment and that such a body be established, because it is unaccept-
risk management. Clear, interactive communication is able that a single body should carry responsibility
necessary between all involved, including consumers, for both risk assessment and risk management. Both
and at all stages of the processes, and is likely to CCFH and the JECFA equivalent should then elab-
assume increasing importance. orate the criteria and guidelines regarding the risk
assessment of food-borne pathogens. In addition,
CCFH should clarify the criteria for the selection of
Framework for the Establishment of Food
pathogens for referral to the JECFA equivalent and
Safety Objectives should clearly identify the factors to be taken into
Food safety objectives reflect the food safety policy, account in its decision making, particularly in relation
which should present a general outline of what is to the evaluation of risk management options.
acceptable or not acceptable, and quantitative risk
analysis is used in the derivation process. There is The Use of Quantitative Risk Analysis in
increasing consensus that food safety policy is an
Food Production
international issue, and F A 0 and W H O are the inter-
national bodies responsible for setting this policy. The principles of quantitative risk analysis can also
They have delegated this task to the F A O N H O be applied to food production. Internationally estab-
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). This was lished legal food safety objectives, together with safety
established in 1962 as an intergovernmental organ- objectives set by individual food production com-
ization for developing food-related standards, guide- panies, focus on safe food production. In adhering to
lines and recommendations in order to protect the these objectives, food producers make use of general
health of consumers and facilitate international trade. guidelines such as GMP. In addition, the use of hazard
These standards are recognized by WTO, and provide analysis critical control points (HACCP)is mandatory
a reference point for the safety of foodstuffs traded in most countries. The use of HACCP entails a sys-
internationally. tematic approach to the identification, assessment and
1886 QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS
control of hazards in a particular food operation. This combination of several factors. A knowledge of the
approach aims to identify problems before they occur, effect of each individual factor enables optimization
and to establish measures for the control of stages in of the process, taking into account economic factors.
production that are critical in terms of food safety. This can be illustrated with a simple example
The controls are thus preventive, remedial action described by Notermans, Zwietering and Mead in
being taken in advance of problems developing. The 1994. One of the legal standards for pasteurized milk
critical control points are defined as steps, points and is that Bacillus cereus must number < l o 4 organisms
procedures where control can be exercised. In relation per millilitre at the time of consumption. The factors
to each point, criteria are specified such that if met, which determine the B. cereus count at the time of
the food produced will be safe. The traditional, largely consumption are the spore load of B. cereus after
qualitative HACCP system can be converted into a pasteurization and the storage time and temperature.
quantitative system using elements of quantitative risk The effect of each factor can be calculated, as can the
analysis, as indicated in Figure 2. In HACCP, a hazard cost of control of each factor. Clearly, the wishes of the
is defined as it is in risk analysis: an agent with the consumer, especially in relation to storage conditions,
potential to cause an adverse health effect. Inter- must be taken into consideration in reaching a final
national standards have been established for most managerial decision.
agents, which means that a risk assessment is not
necessary. Critical control points may be defined as See also: Bacillus: Bacillus cereus. Good Manu-
factors that contribute to the risk that a standard is facturing Practice. Hazard Appraisal (HACCP): The
not met. The effect of such a factor should preferably Overall Concept; Critical Control Points; Involvement of
be quantified. In relation to each critical control point, Regulatory Bodies; Establishment of Performance Cri-
risk managers set criteria, based on this quantification. teria. International Control of Microbiology. National
In most cases, the actual risk is the result of a Legislation, Guidelines 81 Standards Governing
Microbiology: Canada; European Union; Japan. Pre-
dictive Microbiology 81 Food Safety. Process
I Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system I Hygiene: Involvement of Regulatory Bodies
I
I Determination of
critical control points ~
identification and quantification
of factors contributing to the risk
Further Reading
Codex Alimentarius Commission (1996) Terms and Defin-
itions used in Risk Analysis. Doc. CXIEXEC 9614316.
Risk management: setting of Annex 1.
criteria matching food safety objectives FAOAVHO (1995) Applications of Risk Analysis to Food
Y
Standavd Issues. Repovt of a Joint FAOIVIIHO Con-
I System for monitoring sultation.
FAOAVHO (1997) Risk Management and Food Safety.
Corrective actions Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Consultation.
Notermans S , Zwietering MH and Mead GC (1994) The
HACCP concept: identification of potentially hazardous
micro-organisms. Food Microbiology 11: 203-214.
World Trade Organization (1994) The Results of the
Documentation
Uruguay Round of Multilateval Trade Negotiations: the
Figure 2 The hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) Legal Texts. Agveement on the Application of Sanitary
concept and the possible use of elements of risk analysis. and Phytosanitary Measures. MTN/FA 11-A1A-4.
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION 1887
R
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION
Matthias Upmann, Institute of Meat Hygiene, Veterinary University of Vienna, Austria
Christine Bonaparte, Department of Dairy Research and Bacteriology, Agricultural University, Vienna, Austria
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
above, rapidity is another important factor. Under nomenon. The utmost caution is advised with such
practical conditions economic considerations favour instruments; reliable results are only feasible when
the use of simple, inexpensive, universally applicable they are properly maintained and calibrated. Test
and less laborious methods. Furthermore, the testing results must never be accepted in an uncritical manner.
system must operate at a high level of hygienic safety, Therefore, incorporation of accelerated methods
as for instance provided by self-contained units, espe- into the microbiological analytical repertoire must be
cially if the user group consists of non-specialists. accompanied by training of the inspection staff. By
Unfortunately, an optimum technique covering all following the literature or attending occasional meet-
requirements does not exist. In particular, the accur- ings, one is not likely to be able to keep abreast of the
acy of different analytical techniques is quite different, rapidly changing and developing field of inspection
hence validations by in-laboratory and/or inter- techniques.
laboratory comparisons against commonly agreed
standard methods are necessary. European standards Methods with Improved Rapidity
for validation and official acknowledgement of alter-
Sampling
native microbiological methods are now dealt with at
the technical committee of the European Committee The sampling method depends on the material
for Standardization (CEN/TC) in Brussels. (processing environment, solid, semisolid or liquid
foods), the surface structure (smooth/rough, hori-
Improving Methodological Rapidity zontal/vertical, fladcurved), and the expected micro-
Ideally, rapid methods should enable such a quick bial contamination level. Additionally, the prac-
estimation of microbiological parameters that food ticability on the spot should be considered: the use of
manufacturers are able to take corrective actions electrical sampling devices, for example in the pro-
immediately in the course of the manufacturing cessing areas, may be a problem due to lacking plug
process. However, the majority of methods char- sockets.
acterized as ‘rapid’ do not meet this demand. Never- With a few exceptions, such as ultrasonic sterility
theless, they offer a more or less pronounced testing of heat-treated milk, food samples are taken
advantage in analytical time compared to their con- destructively (excision, scraping) which destroys the
ventional equivalent by eliminating laborious and/or integrity of the food. Sampling of foods is almost
subjective elements through mechanization and exclusively performed manually.
automation. On the other hand, surfaces of the food processing
Improved rapidity can be applied at each step of environment are sampled by non-destructive
the analysis, i.e. the sampling process, sample treat- methods. Mostly, contact slides or swabbing tech-
ment and detection/enumeration procedure. Although niques are employed. The former is often regarded as
labour-saving and automated methods speed up the ‘rapid’ as there is no necessity for further sample
processes of sampling and sample treatment, thus treatment and its simple application, although the
improving the laboratory’s output, the influence on incubation time remains unchanged. Other methods,
the total analysis time is usually negligible due to the such as manual or mechanical rinsing, do not have
incubation time required for traditional culture-based any practical importance.
methods. A real shortening of the analytical time
Sample Treatment
can only be obtained if alternatives to the traditional
incubation methods are developed. During sample treatment, the sample is comminuted,
liquefied and homogenized. Subsequently either
dilution or enrichment steps may be necessary accord-
Training of Inspection Staff
ing to the expected level of microorganisms. Several
New inspection techniques make great demands on semi- or fully automated dilution procedures which
the qualifications of the inspection staff. The numer- reduce the laboratory work have been developed
ous analytical options can be confusing and over- (e.g. stomacher, pipetting instruments, gravimetric
whelming to the user. It is the user who decides diluters).
whether a microbiological test is reasonable -the fact Substituting for microbial enrichment procedures
that it is applicable does not mean that it is necessary and enabling quantitative results at low microbial
or useful - and which technique should be applied. concentrations, several physical techniques for extrac-
Because new analytical procedures are based on tion and concentration of microorganisms are
various technologies and designs, their performances employed. Techniques such as filtration,
are highly variable. Moreover, many automated centrifugation, ion exchange resins and the very
instruments exhibit a so-called ‘black-box’ phe- promising area of magnetic separations are men-
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION 1889
tioned. Furthermore, the polymerase chain reaction Table 1 Rapid methods for microbial detection, enumeration
(PCR), has become more applicable as a non-cultural and characterization in food microbiology: overview
means of target amplification for food analysis now- Direct methods
adays. Microcolony and single cell detection
Conventional microscopy
Microbial Detection, Enumeration and Epifluorescent techniques
Characterization Direct epifluorescent filter technique (DEFT)
Antibody direct epifluorescent filter technique (Ab-DEFT)
New time-saving detection methods utilize principles Membrane filter microcolony fluorescence technique
originally belonging to disciplines such as chemistry, (MMCF)
Flow cytometry
biochemistry, physics or immunology. This devel-
opment was rendered possible because of major tech- Indirect methods
nological advances in data-processors, which allow Methods based on growth and metabolic activity
Optical methods
rapid collection and interpretation of vast amounts of Colorimetry and fluorometry
data. Since these methods often measure parameters Turbidimetry
which are different from the traditional ones, the Pyruvate determination
correlation with traditional methods may be Thermal methods
problematic. Microcalorimetry
Electrical methods
The methods can be placed in two categories: (1) Direct conductimetry/impedimetry
direct methods based on the detection of whole cells Indirect conductimetry/impedimetry
(single cells or colonies), and (2) indirect methods Radiometry
which measure cell components, metabolites, meta- Immunological methods
bolic activities or changes caused by cell growth. Table Agglutination tests
1 gives a survey of rapid methods used for microbial lmmunodiffusion tests
detection, enumeration and characterization. Immunoassays based on labelled antibodies
Immunofluorescent assays (IF)
Direct Methods Radioimmunoassays (RIA)
Enzyme immunoassays (EIA)
Usually, colony-based techniques cannot be char- Immunomagnetic separation
acterized as rapid due to the continuing necessity Methods based on microbial cell components
for incubation, although several devices (dehydrated Luminometry
nutrient pads, spiralplater, laser or image analyser ATP-bioluminescence
etc.) can help to reduce the total laboratory work. Bacterial bioluminescence ('in-vivo bioluminescence')
Therefore, rapid direct methods are microcolony or Limulus amoebocyte lysate test
Ergosterol de termination
single-cell based.
Nucleic acid-based methods
Microcolony and Single-cell Detection DNA probe hybridization
Microscopical Techniques In order to visualize Polymerase chain reaction
Fingerprinting-like methods
objects for microscopical examination, colouring
agents are used to provide information on the total Combined methods
levels of microorganisms (e.g. methylene blue, acri- Biosensors
dine orange staining), special bacterial groups (e.g.
Gram stains) or specific types of microorganisms (e.g.
fluorescently labelled antibodies). In combination through membrane filters and are stained, most com-
with different pre-treatments (e.g. membrane monly with acridine orange which binds to nucleic
filtration, pre-incubation) and detecting principles acids. O n epifluorescence-microscopical examination,
(microscope, image analyser), microscopy has devel- aggregates of orange fluorescing cells are counted.
oped into a commonly used technique. Another technique uses tetrazolium chloride, which
Epifluorescent techniques The direct epifluorescent is reduced to purple-coloured formazan by an active
filter technique (DEFT) was originally developed for cellular respiration apparatus.
rapid assessment of bacterial numbers in raw milk. By using fluorescently labelled antibodies, specific
However, the introduction of several pre-treatment types of microorganisms can be detected. This anti-
techniques has considerably enlarged the range of body-direct epifluorescent filter technique ( Ab-DEFT)
successful applications. is especially useful in detecting pathogens. Since
Homogenized, prefiltered and subsequently pathogens usually occur in foods at low numbers and
enzyme-surfactant-treated food samples are passed microbial cell surface antigenicity has to be preserved,
1890 RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION
special product preparation steps (enrichment, im- chromogenic and fluorogenic dyes are used depending
munocapture, pre-incubation) are necessary. on the metabolic change to be shown. A multitude of
Short-term incubation of the membrane filters miniaturized and computer-aided or even fully auto-
before the staining process, results in the growth of mated identification systems for pure cultures are
microcolonies. Hence, only viable microorganisms are based on this principle.
detected by this ‘membrane filter microcolony fluor- Colorimetry and fluorometry can also be used for
escence (MMCF)’technique. quantitative purposes by measuring the required incu-
DEFT and related techniques have been used for bation time in order to produce a colour reaction or
counting bacteria in milk, milk products, water, fluorochrome formation. Broadly known indicators
beverages, raw meat, fish, poultry and food contact are litmus and bromocresol purple for detecting pH
surfaces. If large numbers of samples have to be ana- shifts or resazurin, methylene blue, and tri-
lysed daily, an automated counting procedure linking phenyltetrazolium chloride as oxidation/reduction
the microscope to an image-analysing system is advis- indicators.
able. Due to its rapidity and broad applicability DEFT Fully automated procedures are now available
is recommended for quality control, shelf-life pre- which use reflectance colorimeters or fluorometers.
diction, irradiation control, as well as hygiene moni- These techniques are applicable for rapid estimation
toring. Further details are given in Table 2. of total microbial numbers or specific micro-
organisms, for product shelf-life stability, starter
Flow Cytometry Flow cytometry enables both quali- culture activity, and antibiotic testing. Fur further
tative and quantitative analysis of microbial cells in details see Table 2.
liquids. The sample is injected in a thin, rapidly
moving carrier fluid which passes through a light Turbidimetry: Increasing cell numbers lead to an
beam. The previously fluorescently labelled cells are increase in optical density of liquid growth media.
detected one by one with a photoelectric unit. By Therefore, a light beam will increasingly we weakened
using nonspecific and specific fluorochromes, different on transillumination when a liquid sample is incu-
wavelengths and measuring at different angles, it is bated. By varying the sample dilution, the growth
feasible to discriminate between bacteria in mixed medium and the incubation temperature the result can
populations. be narrowed to specific bacterial species or numbers.
The practical use of flow cytometry is still limited Some methodological properties are given in Table 2.
to few examples. However, since the possible appli- Turbidimetry is widely applied in vitamin bioassays
cations are numerous, it should be considered as a and disinfectant testing. It has been used for sterility
promising technology in the future. Some method- testing in food quality control. Its application may be
ological properties are given in Table 2. limited by background turbidity of foods (fat glob-
ules, blood cells, food particles).
Indirect Methods Pyruvate determination: Pyruvate is a key compound
Methods Based on Growth and Metabolic Activ- in bacterial lactose metabolism and can serve as an
ity Several promising analytical procedures are indicator for milk quality monitoring. Pyruvate is
based on the detection of microbial growth during measured indirectly by spectrophotometric detection
incubation. Detection times ranging from a few of reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide
minutes to 30 h depend on many factors, including (NADH) which is a cofactor in the enzymatic break-
inoculum density, microbial growth rate and type of down of pyruvate. Since somatic cells contribute to
metabolic activity. Generally, detection time is related the pyruvate content of milk and not all bacteria
inversely to the bacterial number: the lower the initial produce pyruvate, the relation between this meta-
bacterial content, the longer the detection time. bolite and total microbial count is limited (see
According to the physico-chemical properties con- Table 2).
sidered, optical, thermal, electrical, and radiometric
methods are distinguished. Thermal Methods Bacterial growth is accompanied
by heat production, which can be used for micro-
Optical Methods calorimetric estimation of the bacterial content.
Colorimetry and fluorometry: Specific physical or Highly sensitive calorimeters are necessary to detect
chemical changes (pH, oxidation/reduction potential, the heat generated. Due to multiple interfering factors,
enzymatic transformations) associated with microbial microcalorimetry has thus far not assumed any prac-
metabolic activity can be indicated by changes in tical importance.
colour, fluorescence or colour intensity of an added
reagent dye during sample incubation. Many Electrical Methods Measurement of electrical con-
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION 1891
Indirect methods
Methods based on growth and metabolic activity
Colorimetry, Fluorimetry + + - ca. 10’ 0.5-30 h Omnispec (Wescor, USA),
Fluoroskan (Labsystems Oy, Finland)
Turbidometry + + - ca. lo2 0.5-30 h Bioscreen analysing system
(Labsystems Oy, Finland),
AutoMicrobic System (Vitek
Systems, USA),
Cobas Bact Centrifugal Analyzer
(Roche Diagnostica, Switzerland)
Pyruvate determination (+) (+) - ca. 10’
Conductimetry/impedimetry
Direct +a + - ca. 10’ 0.5-30 h Bactometer (Bio Merieux, Germany),
BacTrac (Sy-lab, Austria),
Malthus (Malthus Instruments, UK),
RABIT (Don Whitley Scientific, UK)
Indirect + + - ca. lo-’ 0.5-30 h Malthus (Malthus Instruments, UK),
RABIT (Don Whitley Scientific, UK)
Radiometry + + - ca. lo2 1-18 h Bactec (Johnston Laboratories, USA)
Methods based on microbial cell components
ATP bioluminescence - + - ca. IO4 30 s-2 h BactoFoss (Foss Electric, Denmark),
Biocounter (LumadPerstorp
Analytical, Netherlands),
Luminometry System (Bio-Orbit Oy,
Finland),
AutoPlCOLlTE (Packard Instrument
Company, USA),
Biotrace Luminometer (Biotrace, UK)
ATP bioluminescence in - (+) - < 2 min HY-LITE (Merck, Germany),
hygiene monitoring Uni-Lite (Biotrace, UK)
Checkmate (Lumac/Perstorp
Analytical, Netherlands),
Lightning (Idexx, USA),
Systemsure (Celsis, USA)
Bacterial bioluminescence + + + ca. IO3 <lh
Nucleic acid-based methods
PCR + (+) + ca. l o o < 3 days
direct in food:
ca. i o 4
Dot Blot + (+I + ca. lo4 < 3 days
Colony hybridization + + + ca. 10’ < 3 days
qual., qualitative result (presence/absence); quant., quantitative result (enumeration); char., microbiological characterization.
+, applicable; (+), applicability restricted; -, not applicable.
alf special selective media are available.
1892 RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION
ductivity changes have been applied quite successfully particles show a macroscopically visible agglutination
for microbial growth detection. Direct and indirect if the antigen is present.
methods have been developed depending on the Immunodiffusion has also been applied for a long
medium in which the changes are monitored. Using time. A semisolid medium is inoculated at one spot
electrodes, impedance, conductance and/or cap- with the sample and at another spot with a specific
acitance on an alternating current, are measured antibody. If the corresponding antigen is present, line-
continuously. shaped immunoprecipitates will develop at the place
Conductimetric methods are well established in the where diffusing antibodies and antigeils meet. Several
dairy industry for monitoring total viable flora, indi- test kits based on this technique are available.
cator organisms and pathogens. Application to other
foods is possible. Furthermore, conductimetry can be Immunoassays Based on Labelled Antibodies In
useful for producing data for predictive microbiology.
most immunoassays the primary antigen-antibody
Some further details are summarized in Table 2.
reaction is made detectable by means of labelling the
Direct conductimetry: Direct methods detect con- antibodies with marker substances. Immuno-
ductivity changes in specific growth media. Nutrient fluorescent (IF) assays, making use of antibodies
macromolecules are broken down to mostly charged labelled with fluorescent reporter molecules, do not
particles, thus increasing the conductivity of the enjoy widespread use. Equally, radioimmunoassays
medium with incubation time. (RIA) are not used frequently, due to the inherent
disadvantages of handling radioisotopes. Probably the
Indirect conductimetry: Indirect conductimetry meas-
fastest growing and most widely used formats are
ures the conductivity reduction in a detection medium,
enzyme immunoassays (EIA) which employ enzyme
which is caused by absorption of COZ produced
markers in conjunction with a colorimetric or
during microbial metabolism. This method is suitable
fluorometric substrate system. By immobilizing the
for food products with low contamination levels,
capturing antibody on a solid matrix (microtitre trays,
since C 0 2 formation can be detected much earlier.
polystyrene or ferro-metal beads, dip-sticks) enzyme-
Specific growth media are not necessary.
linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were created.
Other assay formats are conceivable depending on
Radiometry Radiometric measurement is also based
the number of antibodies involved.
on the detection of COZ release during microbial
Immunoassays are promising because of their sen-
metabolism. However, in this case isotopically
sitivity and rapidity. However, they normally require
labelled carbon sources in the growth medium are
enrichment of the target bacterium to the level of the
converted into 14C02,the amount of which is meas-
assay’s detection limit. Disadvantageous false-positive
ured in a ionization chamber. Table 2 contains more
or false-negative results have been significantly
methodological information.
reduced by advances in antibody preparation.
The major drawback of this technique is the use
of radioactive material. Therefore, it has not been
frequently used in Europe. Alternatively, COZ pro- Immunomagnetic Separation Immunomagnetic
duction may also be monitored by infrared spec- separation (IMS) has proved to be a very efficient
trophotometry or volumetry. Both principles have method for separating target organisms from food
been suggested for sterility testing of liquid samples. materials and background flora. Antibody-coated
paramagnetic particles are mixed with the sample. By
Immunological Methods exposure to a magnetic field, bound target cells are
Today, reactions between inducible animal-derived separated while the sample suspension is removed. A
proteins (antibodies) and specific target molecules number of procedures may be used for subsequent
(antigens) are widely applied for rapid separation, final detection, such as conventional culturing, micro-
identification, differentiation and quantification of scopy, impedance technology, ELISA, latex agglu-
microorganisms and their toxins. tination or DNA hybridization, partly involving
amplification techniques. In addition to the short sep-
Agglutination and Immunodiffusion Tests Bacterial aration and concentration time, IMS technology also
agglutination (‘clumping’) due to the formation of overcomes the problem associated with unwanted
antigen-antibody complexes are well introduced in inhibition due to selective media components. Since
microbiology. For example, the Salmonella dif- IMS can be used in conjunction with many final detec-
ferentiation scheme of Kauffmann and White is based tion technologies, it is expected that several auto-
on this technique. Similarly, it is used in several com- mated analytical procedures will make use of this
mercial latex agglutination kits; antibody coated latex potent technique in the near future.
RAPID METHODS FOR FOOD HYGIENE INSPECTION 1893
with that at the detection limit (for example Dot Blot, analysis or random amplification of polymorphic
see Table 2). Quantitative results can be obtained by DNA (RAPD), can be used for high-resolution char-
colony hybridization. acterization of microorganisms from pure cultures.
They may gradually replace traditional serotyping
systems. Such techniques may be useful for elucidating
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) In PCR tech-
the contamination routes of pathogens in the food
nology specific DNA sequences are detected and
chain.
multiplied in vitro. Small but specific DNA primers
are added to the sample’s liberated and denatured
target DNA. If these primers meet a complementary Combined Methods
nucleic acid base sequence, they will hybridize. Sub- Undoubtedly, the next major step will be the com-
sequently, a thermostable DNA polymerase will bination of advances from different technologies. One
elongate the primers according to the complementary very promising example of combined methods is dis-
base sequence given by the target DNA. This cyclic cussed here.
process is usually repeated about 30 times, amplifying
the target DNA by 1O5-10--fold.
The primers can be designed for different purposes. Biosensors Biosensors are a relatively new area in
Specific primers are targeted to a known virulence the automated food microbiology. They consist of
factor of a single species and allow simultaneous immobilized, biologically sensitive material (e.g.
detection and identification, whereas multiple primers enzymes, antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids) coupled
with a broader spectrum are suitable for several with or in close proximity to a receiving transducer
species. Theoretically, several microorganisms in a unit which gives an electrical, optical or thermal signal
sample can be detected at the same time with so-called when the sensor reacts with its target. The intensity
multiplex PCR. of the signal is proportional to the concentration of
PCR is a sensitive, specific and rapid microbial the target.
detection (presence/absence testing) method, which Due to problems with long-term stability, reus-
provides qualitative results. Theoretically, a single ability and sterilizability, biosensors have so far been
molecule of target DNA can be detected within one mostly used for detecting chemical substances. Never-
working day. However, the PCR can be inhibited or theless, their future potential is enormous, since they
its sensitivity severely reduced when applied to food can offer a very sensitive and accurate ‘on-line’ control
samples (see Table 2). High amounts of fat and pro- system for food manufacturing processes.
teins in complex foods as well as certain components
of selective culture media inhibit the enzymatic DNA
See also: ATP Bioluminescence: Application in Meat
amplification reaction. Additionally, the small PCR
Industry; Application in Dairy Industry; Application in
reaction volumes usually cannot be accommodated to
Hygiene Monitoring; Application in Beverage Micro-
large sample sizes dictated by low contamina-
biology. Biochemical and Modern Identification
tion levels (e.g. 2 5 g of product for Salmonella
Techniques: Introduction; Food Spoilage Flora (i.e.
presence/absence testing).
Yeasts and Moulds): Food-poisoning Organisms;
Another problem in common with other rapid
Enterobacteriaceae, Coliforms and E. coli; Microfloras
methods is the fact that PCR technology cannot dis-
of Fermented Foods. Direct (and Indirect)
tinguish between genetic material from dead and
ConductimetricAmpedimetric Techniques: Food-
living cells. Therefore an mRNA-based modification
borne Pathogens. Direct Epifluorescent Filter Tech-
of PCR (NASBA, nucleic acid sequence based
niques (DEFT). Electrical Techniques: Introduction;
amplification) has been developed which is indicative
Food Spoilage Flora and Total Viable Count (TVC); Lactics
for living cells in the sample.
and other Bacteria. Enzyme Immunoassays: Overview.
Routine application of PCR technology in food
Flow Cytometry. Hazard Appraisal (HACCP): The
microbiology usually requires special sample pre-
Overall Concept; Critical Control Points; Involvement of
treatment (e.g. purification, cell concentration, cul-
Regulatory Bodies; Establishment of Performance Cri-
turing or selective enrichment, immunomagnetic
teria. lmmunomagnetic Particle-based Techniques:
separation) adapted to each specific sample matrix.
Overview. Molecular Biology - in Microbiological
Analysis. Nucleic Acid-based Assays: Overview.
Fingerpyinting-like Methods Another group of PCR-based Commercial Tests for Pathogens. Pre-
DNA assays result in the determination of DNA pat- dictive Microbiology & Food Safety. Total Counts:
terns. These fingerprinting-like methods, for example Microscopy. Total Viable Counts: Metabolic Activity
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) Tests; Microscopy.
SACCHAROMYCESIlntroduction 1907
Contents
Introduction
Saccharomyces sake
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces: Brewers’ Yeast
S. cerevisiae
S. bayanus
S. paradoxus
S. pastorianus
S. barnettii
S. castellii
S. dairenensis
S. exiguus
S. kunashirensis
S. martiniae
S. rosinii
S. servazzii
S. spencerorum
S. transvaalensis
S. unisporus
S. kluyveri
Reactions: +, positive; -, negative; v, variable
suggesting an intermediate position between two Saccharomyces kunashirensis and S. martiniae are
unrelated species, S. cerevisiae and S. bayanus. recently defined from the analysis of 18s ribosomal
Since species division within Saccharomyces sensu RNA (rRNA) gene sequences.
stricto group were clarified on the molecular level,
it became possible to determine those physiological Saccharomyces kluyveri
responses necessary for the separation of the four Saccharomyces kluyveri is easily distinguishable from
taxa. Saccharomyces bayanus is the only species of other species of the genus since it is characterized by
the genus that can grow in the absence of vitamins. a wide assimilative and fermentative profile including
Maximum growth temperature immediately dis- the ability to utilize ethylamine-HC1, cadaverine and
tinguishes S. bayanus and S. pastorianus, which never lysine as sole nitrogen sources for growth as well as
grow at above 35"C, from S. cerevisiae and S. para- the ability to both assimilate and ferment melibiose.
doxus, which grow at 37°C and often at up to 40- The distinct character was already anticipated by
42°C. An active fructose transport system is present molecular taxonomic studies which showed no nucle-
in the group of S. bayanus and S. pastorianus, while otide homology between S. k l u y e r i with either Sac-
absent in S. cerevisiae and S. paradoxus. Sac- charomyces sensu stricto or sensu lato strains, where
charomyces cerevisiae is distinguished from s. para- DNA homology values were never above 22%.
doxus with respect to assimilation of D-mannitol and
fermentation of maltose. Molecular Methods to Differentiate
Saccharomyces sensu lato Species
Saccharomyces servazzii and S. unisporus are unusual The conventional taxonomic tests to assess physio-
members of the genus as judged from narrow fer- logical features are fundamental for identification, but
mentative profiles and ability to grow in the presence the results have shown to be insufficient for species
of 0.1 % cycloheximide. Assimilation of ethylamine, delimitation and discrimination of interstrain vari-
cadaverine and lysine can differentiate S. unisporus ability. The genetic basis behind many of these char-
from S. servazzii. acteristics is often either poorly understood or
Saccharomyces exiguus together with S. servazzii unknown. In the past DNA reassociation study has
and S. unisporus is characterized by much lower G+C significantly contributed to molecular taxonomy of
values (34.7-36.6%) than other Saccharomyces the genus Saccharomyces: this method was used to
species (39.3-41.9%0), but do not grow in the presence reestablish several species names, reduce other names
of 0.1 Y
' O cycloheximide. Saccharomyces barnettii and to synonyms, describe new species, and raise the like-
S. spencerorum have been separated from S. exiguus lihood of the existence of additional species. However,
and its anamorph, Candida holmii, on the basis of the equipment used to measure DNA association is
DNA relatedness. Separation of these three taxa is highly specialized and expensive and the amount of
confirmed by conventional taxonomic tests. Sac- data obtainable in an average week's work is relatively
charomyces spencerorum obviously differs from S. small. Discrimination of the closely related species
exiguus in the assimilation of glycerol as a sole carbon has been confirmed by other molecular techniques,
source and ethylamine, cadaverine and lysine as sole such as whole-cell protein patterns, multilocus
nitrogen sources. enzyme electrophoresis, fructose transport system,
Saccharomyces castellii, S. dairenensis and S. rosinii mitochondrial DNA restriction analysis, electro-
have not been distinguished by conventional physio- phoretic karyotypes, random amplified polymorphic
logical criteria although they represent separate taxa DNA polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) and
based on DNA relatedness. Physiological profiles of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
S. dairenensis and S. transvaalensis are similar, but S. patterns, and rRNA gene sequencing. These methods
transvaalensis has characteristics of larger vegetative are valid additions to the conventional taxonomic
cells and large refringent ascospores. The latter species tests, and those applicable to the food industry are
shows intermediate levels of DNA homology to the described below.
type strains of S. dairenensis and S. castellii. Com-
Electrophoretic Karyotypes
bination of physiological patterns and electrophoretic
karyotypes permits with some difficulty the separation Chromosomal patterns resolved by pulse field gel elec-
of most of these four species. Saccharomyces dai- trophoresis are called electrophoretic karyotypes. By
renensis is still a heterogenous taxon including at least comparing the results from this method and DNA
two unrelated groups since three strains show less reassociation, it has been demonstrated that elec-
than 32% homology to the type strain of S. dai- trophoretic karyotypes of the two strains are identical
renensis. when DNA sequence homology is over 85%, while
1910 SACCHAROMYC€S/Introduction
Figure 3 Size of ITS regions amplified from the type strains of Saccharomyces species. Each lane number corresponds to thatof
the strain in Figure 2.
Detection, Isolation and Cultivation laid on the agar plate and incubated for 2-3 h a t 30"C,
the colour of the colony changes to pink or red.
Composition of media for yeasts is shown in Table 3. Selective isolation of yeasts and estimation of viable
The presence of yeasts in food is usually investigated cell number require special techniques to repress the
using nutrient media such as YM agar which is prin- growth of bacteria and fungi. The use of acidified
cipally composed of yeast extract and malt extract. agar (< pH 5.0) is adequate for isolation of yeasts from
Potato-dextrose agar is suitable for storage of cul- samples containing bacteria. When acidified medium
tures, but not satisfactory for detection because each alone is inadequate to eliminate bacterial growth,
species develops a less characteristic colony on this chloramphenicol dissolved in ethanol (20 mg m1-I) is
medium. Colonies of Saccharomyces and some species added at a final concentration of 50 pgml-l. Unlike
of Hansenula and Pichia, which ferment glucose vig- other antibiotics that depress bacterial growth, chlor-
orously, are simply discriminated on the agar plate: amphenicol can be added to the medium before auto-
when medium containing 0.5% glucose, 0.05% 2,3,5- claving. Addition of either 0.2% sodium propionate
triphenyltetrazolium chloride and 1.5% agar is over- or 2-3 YOethanol to an acidic medium has only limited
effect on prolonging the growth of fungi. However, it
Table 3 Composition of culture media
is possible to isolate yeasts selectively by the difference
in growth rates in the presence of sodium propionate.
Medium Contents Percentage Saccharomyces sensu stricto species frequently
WIV
appear after enrichment in YM broth in which glucose
YM Yeast extract 0.3 was added at 10-20%. The addition of a suitable
Malt extract 0.3 indicator such as bromphenol blue permits the moni-
Peptone 0.5
Glucose 1
toring of changes in p H and periodic adjustments if
Agar (if required) 2 desired. Glucose and other components should be
YPD Yeast extract 1 autoclaved separately to avoid browning. Less than
Peptone 2 0.1 g of sample is added to 10 ml of the modified
Glucose 2 YM broth containing chloramphenicol and sodium
Agar (if required) 2
Potato-dextrose agar Potato extracta 23 (volume)
propionate in a test tube. After static incubation for
Glucose 2 the desired period, about 0.1 ml obtained from near
Agar 2 the bottom is transferred to another medium. The
YNB glucose Yeast nitrogen base 0.67 fermentation rate can be followed by recording the
without amino acidsb weight loss of the medium. This procedure is repeated
Glucoseb 2
Agar (if required) 2
several times to enrich yeasts fermenting glucose vig-
Fowell's acetate agar Sodium acetate 0.5 orously. The culture broth is successively diluted and
Agar 2 spread on a plate of acidified YM agar.
McClary's acetate agar Glucose 0.1 For cultivation, Saccharomyces yeasts are generally
Potassium chloride 0.18 grown on YPD medium (see Table 3) rather than YM
Yeast extract 0.25
Sodium acetate 0.82
medium, at 25-30°C. The most common system for
Agar I .5 aerobic growth uses liquid medium in an Ehlenmeyer
Gorodkowa agar Glucose 0.1 flask on an orbital shaker. Shaking at 150-200 r.p.m.
(modified) Peptone 1 provides efficient aeration for 100 ml volume of
Sodium chloride 0.5 medium in a 300ml flask. The growth rate varies
Agar 2
Malt extract agar Malt extract 5
depending on strain, medium and incubation tem-
Agar 3 perature, typically within the range of 90 min to 3 h
per doubling time. The cell concentration can be
a The filtrate autoclaved for 1 h at 120°C after washed, peeled
1912 SACCHAROMYCESllntroduction
at 600 nm. Typically, a yeast culture in a logarithmic rate and diminish the quality of final products in
phase of growth of 0.1 will contain about 2 x l o 6 the brewing process. Killer wild yeasts will dominate
cells. within a short period when inoculated strains are
Ascospores are induced on the sporulation media, killer-sensitive. In saki. brewing, killer sake strains
most of which have been developed for Sac- were constructed by the methods of back-crossing
charomyces species. Young cells grown on YM agar and cytoduction to overcome these problems.
for 2-3 days are spread on Fowell’s or McClary’s agar Most species of the genus Saccharomyces have ‘gen-
based on sodium acetate, Gorodkowa agar or malt erally recognized as safe’ (GRAS) status from the
extract agar, and incubated at least 4-6 weeks. Freshly fact that many strains have been applied to the food
isolated cells sporulate on the isolation medium and industry. There is no report of disease in healthy
ascospores can be observed after cultivation for about humans and other warm-blooded animals caused by
1 month, while the cells cultured on the nutrient Saccharomyces sensu stricto species.
medium many times require certain sporulation media
See color Plates 28 and 30.
to convert asci.
See also: Saccharomyces: Saccharomyces sake: Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae; Saccharomyces carlsbergensis
Importance to the Food Industry (Brewer’s Yeast).
The genus Saccharomyces is the most extensively util-
ized group of yeasts for the benefit of humans. Sac- Further Reading
charomyces cerevisiae and related species are Barnett JA (1992) The taxonomy of the genus Sac-
employed in three main processes of the food industry charomyces Meyen ex Reess: a short review for non-
(Table 4). The first is the production of industrial taxonomists. Yeast 8: 1-23.
alcohol and alcoholic beverages, including wine, beer, Barnett JA, Payne RW and Yarrow D (1990) Yeasts: Char-
saki. and potable spirits. Saccharomyces pastorianus acterization and Identification, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
including S. carlsbergensis was initially recognized as Cambridge University Press.
a lager strain. Saccharomyces bayanus has been Benitez T, Gasent-Ramirez JM, Castrejon F and Codon AC
mostly associated with the wine industry. Second is (1996)Development of new strains for the food industry.
the baking industry; originally, spent yeasts from the Biotechnol. Prog. 12: 149-163.
Evans IH (1996) Yeast Protocols. Methods in Molecular
brewing and distilling industries were used for baking,
Biology 52. Ottawa: Humana Press.
but became insufficient as the baking industry
James SA, Cai J, Roberts IN and Collins MD (1997) A
expanded. Yeasts for dough leavening are now propa- phylogenetic analysis of the genus Saccharomyces based
gated to meet these growing needs. The third process on 18s rRNA gene sequences: description of Sac-
includes the production of biomass, extracts, auto- charomyces kunashirensis sp. nov. and Saccharomyces
lysates and flavouring compounds. The yeast used in martiniae sp. nov. International Journal of Systematic
such processes can be either purpose-grown or a by- Bacteriology 47: 453-460.
product. Kurtzman CP (1994) Molecular taxonomy of the yeasts.
Saccharomyces exiguus and its anamorph, Candida Yeast 10: 1727-1740.
holmii, are the predominant yeasts responsible for the Kurtzman CP and Fell J W (1997) The Yeast - a Taxonomic
leavening of sourdough which is usually prepared by Study, 4th edn. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Panchal CJ (1990) Yeast Strain Selection. New York: Marcel
adding a commercially produced culture containing
Dekker.
lactic acid bacteria.
Reed G and Nagodawithana T W (1991) Yeast Technology,
No other species of Saccharomyces is of commercial 2nd edn. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
importance, although some strains of Torulaspora Rose AH and Harrison JS (1987) The Yeast, 2nd edn. Vol.
and Zygosaccharomyces spp., formerly accepted in 1, Biology of Yeasts. London: Academic Press.
the genus Saccharomyces, are used for baking and Rose AH and Harrison JS (1993) The Yeasts, 2nd edn. Vol.
production of miso and shoyu, respectively. 5, Yeast Technology. London: Academic Press.
Saccharomyces species are found in many foods Russell I, Jones R and Stewart GG (1987) Yeast - the
and sometimes cause spoilage. Wild strains which primary industrial microorganism. In: Stewart GG,
contaminate the pure culture reduce the fermentation Russell I, Klein RD and Hiebsch RR (eds) Biological
Research on Industrial Yeasts. Vol. 1 , p. 1. Boca Raton:
Table 4 Application of Saccharomyces species in the food CRC Press.
industry Spencer JFT and Spencer D M (1990) Yeast Technology.
Berlin: Springer.
1. Industrial alcohol and alcohol beverages
Spencer JFT and Spencer D M (1997) Yeast - in Natural
2. Bakery products
3. Biomass, extracts, autolysates and flavouring compounds
and Artificial Habitats. Berlin: Springer.
Vaughan-Martini A and Barcaccia S (1996) A recon-
THERMUS AQUATICUS 2139
THERMUS AQUATICUS
C K K Nair, Radiation Biology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
The bacteria belonging to the genus Thermus are (T. filiformis). However, the classification of the
aerobic, thermophilic, Gram-negative and rod- various species of the genus Thermus has been pri-
shaped, and have attracted considerable attention marily based on whole genome DNA : DNA hybrid-
because of the biotechnological potential of their ther- ization, as most biochemical and taxonomic
mostable enzymes, particularly their DNA poly- parameters were found unsuitable. Recently, molecu-
merases which constitute the most important lar biology techniques involving characterization of
component of the polymerase chain reaction. These genomic macro-restriction fragment length poly-
bacteria are isolated from neutral to alkaline hot morphism (RFLP) using pulsed-field gel electro-
springs of various geographical locations in the world. phoresis (PFGE)and characterization of rDNA genes,
Thermus aquaticus was first discovered by Thomas ribotyping by restriction fragment length poly-
D. Brock in the 1960s during a long-term study of morphism, have been used in taxonomic studies and
microbial life in hot springs of Yellowstone National classification. Among the various species, Thermus
Park in Wyoming, USA, as a pigmented rod-shaped aquaticus is the most widely studied and well
Gram-negative bacteria capable of growing at tem- characterized.
peratures as high as 79°C. After the discovery of this
extremophile, search for microbes in hot springs and
Characterization of Thermus aquaticus
in environments around deep sea hydrothermal vents
(called smokers, which are natural undersea chimneys A number of strains of T. aquaticus have been isolated
through which super-heated mineral-rich fluid as hot from different thermal springs. This organism has also
as 350°C escapes) led to the isolation of a number of been isolated from artificial environments such as hot
species belonging to the genus Thermus. Some of these tap water in geographical locations quite distant from
hyperthermophiles are listed in Table I.The cell walls thermal springs.
of the genus Thermus has a characteristic peptide- T aquaticus is a Gram-negative, non-sporulating,
glycan composition. and non-motile rod of 0.5-0.8 pm diameter and 5.0-
Some of the species have distinct features such as 10.0 pm length. It forms long filaments of 20.0 pm
halotolerance (e.g. T.thermophilus),non-pigment for- or greater in stationary phase or at supra-optimal
mation (e.g. T. scotoductus), and filamentous nature temperatures. The rods occur singly or in aggregates,
by individual rods joining end to end or side to side.
Large spheres of 10-20pm in diameter are often
Table 1 Different species of hyperthermophiles belonging to formed in old cultures. Deoxyribonucleic acid base
the genus Therrnus and their site of isolation
composition of T. aquaticus is 65.4-67.4 mol% G+C.
/solate Site of isolation The growth of this bacteria is inhibited by fairly low
Thermus aquaticus Yellowstone National Park, USA concentrations of cycloserine, streptomycin, peni-
T: brockianus Yellowstone National Park, USA cillin, novobiocin, tetracycline and chloramphenicol.
T filiformis Rotorea, New Zealand; Takaanu, New The growth of this organism is also inhibited by
Zealand 100 pg ml-' sodium lauryl sulphate, 500 pg ml-'
T: thermophilus Mine, Japan: Izu-Atagawa, Japan; Hruni,
Iceland; Savusavu beach, Fiji; Stream
sodium azide, 200 pg ml-' oxgall or 2 % NaCI. Nutri-
Is S. Miguel, Azores tional studies show that T aquaticus does not require
T: scotoductus Selfoss, Iceland: Bloomington, USA; vitamins or amino acids although the growth is con-
London, UK: Calasde Vizele, Portugal siderably faster in enriched medium than in synthetic
T: oshimai S. Pedrodosal, Portugal: Hveresarli basal salts medium (Table 2). With 0.1-0.33% tryp-
Hengill, Iceland
tone and yeast extract in basal medium, the organism
21 40 THERMUS AQUATICUS
grows well but at 1% tryptone and yeast extract there microscope the organism appears as rods, large fila-
was inhibition of growth. The bacterial growth was ments and/or large spheres. As this organism is a non-
good in 1%vitamin-free casein hydrolysate and 0.5% spore-former, cultures with spores are discarded. Pure
glutamic acid, as sole source of nitrogen and carbon. cultures can be isolated by streaking on enrichment
Ammonium as source of nitrogen and with acetate, plates containing the same medium solidified with 3%
succinate, sucrose, glucose or fructose as source of agar. The plates are sealed with Saran Wraps and
carbon supports the growth of this bacterium. T. incubated for 1-2 days at 70°C to obtain yellow-
aquaticus is an obligate aerobe; it has a p H optimum orange colonies. These colonies are re-streaked and
of 7.5-7.8 and does not grow below p H 6.0 and above stock cultures are prepared as agar slants from the
pH9.5. The optimum temperature for growth is isolated colonies of the second plate. For longer
70"C, with a maximum at 79°C and minimum at storage the isolates are preserved by freeze-drying.
40°C. The generation time of this organism under
optimum conditions is about 50 min. At temperatures Biochemical Tests
75°C and above the organism exhibits filamentous
growth. Filamentous forms are also observed in sta- Acid without gas is produced when T. aquaticus is
tionary cultures after growth at 65-70°C. In older grown on rich media with glucose, fructose, mannose,
cultures large spherical bodies are often formed due sucrose or maltose. Xylose is not utilized by the organ-
to extrusion of the protoplasts or long rods or fila- ism. T. aquaticus coagulates Brom Cresol Purple
ments from one of the poles, and also filaments with (BCP)-containing milk with slight acid formation and
swollen ends can be seen frequently in these cultures. liquifies gelatin. Potassium nitrate is weakly reduced
The rod-shaped forms have a tendency to aggregate to nitrite and formation of ammonia is weakly
either as linear arrays or as rosettes. The aggregation positive.
phenomenon is due to the presence of a slime on the
surface of the organism. Biotechnological Value of Thermus
aquaticus
Isolation and Enrichment
In the past 15-20 years the considerable value of
Thermus aquaticus can be isolated from soil or water enzymes produced by thermophilic organisms includ-
from hyperthermal environments. Basal salts medium ing T. aquaticus has been realized. Although their
(Table 2) with 0.1% tryptone and 0.1% yeast extract ability to survive and moreover flourish in envir-
in cap tubes is inoculated with the samples and incu- onments that can exceed 95°C suggests a robust set
bated unshaken at 75°C for 1-2 days. of enzymes, not all of them are thermostable. Likewise
The growth of the bacterium is indicated by visible not all enzymes recovered from mesophiles are ther-
turbidity. When the turbidity is heavy the colour of molabile. The intrinsic properties that make a given
the bacterial mass turns yellow or orange. Under the enzyme thermostable are not fully understood. Efforts
Next Page
to classify enzymes based on structural motifs as well stability is valuable. Other thermostable catalytic
as other features including numbers of salt bridges, enzymes of potential value from T. aquaticus are
surface-to-volume ratio and disulphide linkages have superoxide dismutase and fumarase. Finally, a P-gal-
had only limited success. Given the evolutionary actosidase has been isolated which may have value to
diversity between enzymes isolated from thermophiles hydrolyse lactose as well as being used for synthetic
and mesophiles, it is difficult to correlate any par- reactions to create oligosaccharides.
ticular amino acid difference to thermostability.
Nevertheless, in general, thermophilic organisms tend
Regulation
to be a valuable source of thermostable enzymes. T.
aquaticus is perhaps one of the best studied ther- In addition to hot springs, this bacterium has also
mophiles or extremophiles and has been the source of been found in hot water taps and other thermal niches.
a number of valuable enzymes. Thermostable enzymes Thus this organism may be considered as a predictor
are useful in a number of biotechnological processes for thermal pollution. There have been no reports of
since they typically have faster catalytic rates, they illness due to T. aquaticus and no toxic material or
can be operated at high temperatures where con- poison has so far been isolated from this organism.
tamination is suppressed and they have a longer half-
life which makes them less expensive to use. In other See also: PCR-based Commercial Tests for Patho-
applications, thermostable enzymes are a dis- gens.
advantage as they cannot be inactivated and they can
continue to affect the food product well after the
optimal product composition is reached.
Further Reading
One of the most cited examples of a process
whereby the inclusion of a thermostable enzyme dra- Bej AK, Mahbubani M H and Atlas R M (1991) Amp-
matically improved the process is the use of the T. lification of nucleic acids by polymerase chain reaction
aquaticus DNA polymerase in the polymerase chain (PCRj and other methods and their applications. Critical
reaction (PCR).Although the original versions of PCR Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 26:
301-334.
were accomplished using thermolabile Escherichia
Brock TD (1967) Life at high temperature. Science 197:
coli DNA polymerase, the process was compromised 1012-101 9.
by the need to add enzyme after each step and the Brock TD and Freeze H (1969) Thermus aquaticus gen.
build up of inactive enzyme. The T. aquaticus DNA n. and sp. n, a non-sporulating extreme thermophile.
polymerase eliminated the need to add enzyme after Journal of Bacteriology 98: 289-297.
each step. PCR is described in detail elsewhere and its da Costa MS, Duarte JC and Williams RAD (edsj (1989)
application for the detection of food-borne pathogens Microbiology of the Extreme Environments and Its
holds the promise of revolutionizing food safety Potential for Biotechnology. London: Elsevier Applied
testing. Sciences.
In addition to the T. aquaticus DNA polymerase, Madigan M T and Marrs BL (1997) Extremophiles. Sci-
other enzymes from this organism have significantly entific American April 66-71.
Moreira LM, da Costa MS and Correia IS (1997) Com-
improved a host of other biotechnological appli-
parative genomic analysis of isolates belonging to the
cations. For example, T. aquaticus DNA ligase is used six species of the genus Thermus using pulse field gel
in the ligase chain reaction (LCR). LCR is an amp- electrophoresis and ribotyping. Archives of Micro-
lification-based process in which a pair of adjacent biology 168: 92-101.
oligonucleotides in a set of diametrically opposed Saiki T, Kimura R and Arima K (1972) Isolation and char-
oligonucleotide primer pairs are joined in a series of acterization of extremely thermophilic bacteria from hot
sequential ligation steps. The adjacent primers are springs. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 36:
only joined when the nucleotide at the junction 235 7-23 6 6.
matches the targeted 3' end of the upstream primer. Sato S, Hutchinson 111, CA and Harris JI (1997) A thermo-
LCR is therefore diagnostic for that nucleotide and stable sequence specific endonuclease from Thermus
has been used to format assays to discriminate aquaticus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences USA 74: 542-546.
between two targets that differ only in a single nucle- Williams RAD and da Costa M S (1992) The Genus
otide. Another T aquaticus enzyme of value is TaqI, Thermus and Related Microorganisms. In: Balows A,
a restriction endonuclease that shares thermostable Truper HG, Dworkin M, Harder W and Schleifer K H
properties along with other DNA modifying enzymes (eds) The Prokaryotes, 2nd edn. P. 3745. New York:
from this organism. Aqualysin is a thermostable serine Springer.
protease isolated from T. aquaticus and may have Williams RAD, Smith KE, Welch SG and Micallef J (1996)
applications in food processing where its high heat Thermus oshimai sp. nov., isolated from hot springs in
ULTRASONIC IMAGING/Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of Aseptic Packages 2195
I UHT Treatments see Heat Treatment of Foods: Ultra-high Temperature (UHT) Treatments. I
ULTRASONIC IMAGING
Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of
Aseptic Packages
Laura Raaska and Tiina Mattila-Sandholm, VTT Biotechnology and Food Research, Finland
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
Figure 1 The sensitivity of different ultrasound methods to detect contamination. The shaded bars show the number undetected
out of 12 samples; open bars are false positives. The ultrasound method, frequency and transducer distance shown are listed at the
left of the graphs. (A) Inoculum level < 700 cfu ml-‘ (B) Inoculum level < 10 cfu ml-’.
Potential Non-destructive Sterility Test frequencies and transducer distances. The meas-
Methods urements were clearly dependent on transducer dis-
tance and sound intensity. However, laser fluorescence
Contact Ultrasound Method
and shearwave could not distinguish between con-
taminated products and controls, and in the case of
One interesting method for non-destructive testing is velocity measurements, the number of undetected
ultrasound technology. Ultrasonics can be used in samples was high both with low and high inoculum
food engineering for many purposes, for example to levels. Repeatable and reliable ultrasound results were
measure the different physical properties of food- also shown to be dependent on the spreading and
stuffs. Its applicability to quality control of both fresh distribution of microbes in the package; shaking prior
and processed foodstuffs has been studied. The sta- to measurement was significant, especially in the case
bility of reconstituted orange juice, the skin texture of highly contaminated samples and more viscous
of oranges, cracks in tomatoes and defects in husked
products like Nantua fish sauce.
sweetcorn have been investigated using ultrasonics. It
The potential of second harmonic generation and
is also possible to determine the presence of foreign
absorption was studied more thoroughly in an inves-
materials such as metal and bone particles in food
tigation using Tetrapak packages provided with ‘win-
products with this method. Ultrasonic energy can be
used for non-destructive measurement of the thickness dows’, and water as a contact medium. The contact
of eggshells. It has also been shown that ultrasound ultrasound measurement system was a semiautomatic
imaging can be used for non-destructive testing of the system where the sample was manually changed (Fig.
microbiological quality of aseptic milk products. 2). The measurement vessel housed the transducers
The investigation was conducted with the primary for the second harmonic measurement in addition to
idea that any change in properties compared with the ones used for the absorption measurement. An
those of the controls is an indicator of a abnormality. optical switch indicated when the package was pos-
The ability of some contact ultrasound techniques to itioned correctly. Small air bubbles which accu-
detect contamination in UHT milk is shown in Figure mulated on the ultrasound window were cleaned off
I . The sensitivity of the ultrasound methods was with brushes. Using this method, it was possible to
greater with a high inoculum level than with a low record both the absorption and the second harmonic
level. In addition, there were more false alarms when values at the same time. If only two ‘windows’ were
a low inoculum level was used. The most sensitive used it was necessary to turn the package through
and accurate ultrasound techniques were second har- 180”. One package was measured at a time; the
monic generation, absorption at 60-210 kHz, absorp- change in absorption (1.1-5.6MHz) and the gen-
tion at 1-6MHz, and scattering at different eration of second harmonics (1MHz -+2 MHz,
ULTRASONIC IMAGING/Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of Aseptic Packages 2197
- 350r
.
Contact
medium E
(bo) - 3.30 - n
Mat: PVC 20 mm
a
- 3 10 L
““I
m
Bubble brush
Transducer
2.70
2 30
Table 1 The probability (%) of second harmonic generation further improved by taking into consideration the
and absorption detecting contaminated UHT milk samples. The effects of parameters such as temperature, air bubbles,
measurement values have been corrected for the width of the
package. The detection threshold level for second harmonic was
amount of inoculum, changes in package width
5% and for absorption 1.5% during incubation and differences in package weight.
In particular, the effect of air bubbles in the package
2nd Harmonic 3+6 MHz
lncubation time windows and changes in package width after inocu-
lation and during incubation were shown to be
Microorganism 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
important error factors. The use of brushes removed
Escherichia coli 20 20 40 nd the air bubbles and also reduced the variation between
Lactobacillus plantarum 20 20 50 nd replicate measurements and samples. The width was
Pseudomonas fluorescens 40 40 40 nd
shown to vary between UHT milk packages and width
Candida kefyr nd 40 40 80
Bacillus subtilis nd 40 40 40 also changed after the inoculation because of the
Clostridium sporogenes nd 100 100 100 needlestick. The possibility of measuring the width
of the package using the same transducers used for
Probability (day) 30 40 50 70
interlocating the sample was investigated, and found
to be feasible with the transducer pair used in absorp-
tion measurement for UHT milk and Pursoup vege-
Absorption
lncubation time table soup. Nantua fish sauce, however, attenuates
Microorganism 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days the signal too much for the pulse echo measurement
to be successful.
E. coli 40 80 90 nd
L. plantarum 60 40 100 nd Non-contact Ultrasound Method
i? fluorescens 80 80 80 nd
C. kefyr nd 100 60 100 The non-contact ultrasound method is based on the
5. subtilis nd 60 80 100 emission and reception of ultrasound by piezoelectric
C. sporogenes nd 100 100 100
transducers. This includes three steps:
Probability (day) 60 80 90 100
generation of ultrasound with pulsed lasers
nd, no data. detection of ultrasound with an interferometric
probe
data acquisition and signal processing.
Table 2 The probability (%) of second harmonic generation Generation of ultrasound with pulsed lasers is ach-
and absorption detecting contaminated Pursoup vegetable soup
samples. The measurement values have been corrected for the
ieved by electromagnetic radiation from the laser,
width of the package. The detection threshold level for second which is absorbed in the surface region of the sample,
harmonic was 5% and for absorption 1.5% causing heating; thermal energy then propagates into
2nd Harmonic 3-6 MHz
the specimen as thermal waves, the heated region
lncubation time undergoes thermal expansion, and thermoelastic
stresses generate elastic waves (ultrasound) which
Microorganism 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
propagate deep within the sample. The ultrasound
Escherichia coli nd nd nd nd waves are detected with an interferometric probe
Lactobacillus plantarum 80 80 60 80 which is designed as a high-resolution optical spec-
Pseudomonas fluorescens 100 80 100 100
Candida kefyr 100 40 100 100
trometer to detect changes in frequency of the scat-
Bacillus subtilis 60 100 100 80 tered or reflected light. This method, which is being
Clostridium sporogenes 80 100 100 80 developed in France by SFIM-ODS and Technogram
Probability (day) 80 80 90 90 in cooperation with Danone, has shown some prom-
Absorption ising results in detecting contamination in aseptic food
lncubation time products.
Microorganism 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
Calorimetric and Volumetric Methods
E. coli 60 60 60 60
L. plantarum 70 60 70 60 The calorimetric and volumetric methods were devel-
i? fluorescens 100 100 100 100 oped in the Netherlands at the Delft University of
C. kefyr 80 60 80 100
Technology, in cooperation with the Unilever
B. subtilis 20 40 20 40
C. sporogenes 60 100 80 20 Research Laboratorium. Metabolically active and
growing microorganisms consume energy and in turn
Probability (day) 70 60 70 60
generate small amounts of heat. This phenomenon is
nd, no data. used in the calorimetric method which detects small
ULTRASONIC IMAGING/Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of Aseptic Packages 21 99
lmpedimetric Method
For intensive, non-destructive sterility testing of
100% of the production lot a new impedance method
has been studied in the Netherlands. The main
problem to be solved in measuring the impedance of
aseptically packaged food is how to pass an electric
signal through the package. Most food containers are
designed to prevent any contact between the food and
the surrounding environment to ensure the highest
Time (min) food quality for the longest time possible. An inter-
Figure 4 Thermograms of different bacteria in UHT milk at mediate aluminium foil layer acts as a Faraday’s cage
30°C. Squares, Escherichia coli; triangles, Salmonella arizonae;
and does not allow electromagnetic fields to penetrate
circles, Bacillus cereus; crosses, S. cremoris H414.
it. The small change in packaging technology required
to apply the impedance method is already feasible and
prototypes of new packages with one small electrode,
temperature increases of a product caused by growing
fixed on the inside surface of the packaging material
microorganisms. The method uses a specially designed
and reachable from outside, are being tested. The
calorimeter, smart temperature sensors and data pro-
inside electrode can be in galvanic contact with the
cessing equipment. The calorimeter contains 100 cav-
food or it can be isolated from the food by a thin
ities for 1 litre packages. Each cavity is equipped
thermoplastic layer. As a second electrode, the alu-
with a smart sensor. The system is able to follow
minium foil itself is used. In the impedance method,
temperature changes of 100 packs simultaneously for
the changes in conductance and capacitance of the
an indefinite period. The system is microprocessor-
food are measured. The changes in impedance depend
controlled and is built in such a way that the influences
on the number of ions moving in the liquid - cations
of environmental temperature changes are minimized.
moving to the negatively charged electrode and anions
The temperature changes in the products tested in this to the positively charged electrode. The increase in
system are sensed using ‘smart’ sensor chips that are conductance and capacitance caused by the metabolic
in direct contact with the package material of the activity of the microbes leads to a decrease in the
product. With current technology, the heat pro- impedance.
duction of certain organisms can be detected in the It appears that non-invasive sterility testing of the
same time period as that needed for the destructive whole production lot guarantees high quality of the
test method based on ATP bioluminescence. However, food immediately after it is produced, but not a few
not all microorganisms produce enough heat during months or a year later, when it may actually be con-
their growth cycle to be detected. In Figure 4, ther- sumed. For such a guarantee, intensive quality check-
mograms of some bacteria growing in UHT milk are ing of the package itself is also needed. For aseptically
shown. packed foods, this check principally focuses on the
In practice the implementation of the calorimetric inner thermoplastic layer of the packaging laminate,
and the volumetric methods is very similar, and by since any possible leakage in this layer may result in
combining the two, the advantages of both non- the contents reaching the barrier layer (aluminium
specificity and sensitivity can be achieved. A prototype foil) or the fibre layer, at which time the other barrier
has been developed for simultaneous volume-tem- properties of the laminate are lost, even if no actual
perature monitoring of two 1 litre Tetrapaks. Relative liquid leakage occurs through the laminate. This pro-
temperature changes of less than 10 mK and relative cedure is destructive, time-consuming and makes sig-
volume changes of less than 0.3 ml (0.03%) can reli- nificant demands on reliability and costs. At the same
ably be distinguished. These results are achieved by time, it does not ensure individual consumer safety as
ensuring a good thermal insulation and by applying only a very small part of the production lot is tested.
smart sensor interfacing and smart data processing. The impedance method is easily applicable for sim-
This method has been shown to be very attractive ultaneous sterility testing and leakage detection. For
for automated, non-destructive sterility testing of a this purpose, the small-surface electrode has to be in
number of food packs under laboratory conditions. galvanic contact with the food. ‘Internal’ leakage has
It is not applicable for intensive, 100% sterility testing been simulated by making a hole in the thermoplastic
of the production lot, because the continuous testing layer, ensuring direct contact between the foil and the
procedure could last from a few hours up to a few liquid. What is observed in case of leakage is an
days. increase of the impedance components Rz and Cx that
2200 ULTRASONIC IMAGING/Non-destructive Methods to Detect Sterility of Aseptic Packages
100000~
and rapidity (permits extensive on-line measurement)
(Table 3). Changes in physical parameters are meas-
10000
R ured by ultrasound imaging, using Doppler tech-
niques as well as contact and non-contact ultrasound
methods. The impedance method detects changes in
the conductance and capacitance of the food. The
drawback of these non-destructive methods is that
the presence of microorganisms is not detected dir-
ectly but rather by a secondary parameter which
changes with the presence and growth of the micro-
organism. These can be viscosity changes in the
product or gas production by the microorganism.
(4 Frequency (kHz) However, there are indications that these methods
are also sensitive to physical parameters other than
look
120
*OM
viscosity changes or gas production. Nevertheless, the
effects of different microorganisms on the properties
of liquid food products vary considerably and little
is known about how different microbes change the
physical properties of liquid food products; research
in this area is certainly needed.
The smart temperature sensor method, which meas-
ures the minute temperature increases produced by
growing microbes, is the only method that directly
measures microbial growth. However, the meas-
“7 r 0 r r N m m d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
urements must be carried out before and during the
4 : ; ; : ; ; y ;
I I + +
W
+ + + + +
exponential growth phase of the microbe, which
(6) Frequency (kHz) makes the assessment time long and uncertain. In
Figure 5 The increase of R, (A) and C, (B)results in decrease
addition, not all microbes produce detectable
of the phase shift of the measured impedance w = arcfg amounts of heat during their exponential growth
(llwCR,Cr) at low frequency, which also can be used as an phase.
indication of leakage. R,, resistance; C,, capacitance. Delft Uni- Several promising non-destructive sterility test
versity of Technology, Netherlands. methods have been developed and studied at the
laboratory scale. Most of these methods presuppose
is easily detectable at frequencies below 10 kHz (Fig. some modifications in packaging technology.
5). Research has shown, however, the potential for new
industrial scale test methods. Optimization and on-
Conclusions line measurement tests at industrial scale are needed to
verify the potential and applicability of these methods.
The marketing study demonstrated the need to
develop new non-invasive methods for detecting the
Acknowledgements
growth of microorganisms and the spoilage of prod-
ucts; although new methods have been investigated Non-destructive sterility testing methods have been
and prototypes developed, none of these methods has investigated in an international European project
yet succeeded in meeting the three ‘ideal’ criteria of called Endtest ‘Development of non-destructive ster-
nonspecificity (detects growth of any microorganism), ility testing equipment for aseptic products’. The
high sensitivity (needs only a short incubation time) project involved research institutes as well as com-
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Biotechnology and Food ~ ~ university
~ of Haeggstrom
~ ~ E (1997)
~ Ultrasound
~ detection
h of microbe
, con-
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.
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281.
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26 8-2 72.
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105. of salmonellae by means of a new impedance-splitting
Gestrelius H (1996) Aseptic packaging of food - non- method. Journal of Food Protection 5715):369-376.
destructive sterility testing. Proceedings o f the Fourth Saito S (1993) Measurement of the acoustic nonlinearity
International Conference ASEPT - Food Safety ’96, 4- parameter in liquid media using focused ultrasound.
6 June 1996, Lava], France. P. 321. Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 93: 162-172.
Gestrelius H, Hertz TG, Nuamu M, Persson H W and Lind- Wirtanen G, Ahvenainen R and Mattila-Sandholm T (1992)
strom K (1993)A nondestructive ultrasound method for Nondestructive detection of spoilage of aseptically-
microbial quality control of aseptically packaged milk. packed milk products: effect of frequency and imaging
Lebensm. Wissensch. Technol. 26: 334-339. parameters on the sensitivity of ultrasound imaging.
Gestrelius H, Mattila-Sandholm T and Ahvenainen R Lebensm. Wissensch. Technol. 25: 126-132.
VAGOCOCCUS 2215
VAGOCOCCUS
Lucia Martins Teixeira and Maria da Gloria S Carvalho, Departamento de Microbiologia Medica, lnstituto de
Microbiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Richard R Facklam, Streptococcus Laboratory, Respiratory Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic
Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
The members of genus Vagococcus (wandering acid bacteria by phenotypic criteria is widely recog-
coccus) are facultatively anaerobic, catalase-negative nized. O n the basis of phenotypic characteristics, most
Gram-positive cocci. Cells occur singly or arranged isolates are initially classified as unidentified or atyp-
in pairs or as short chains. The colony morphology ical enterococci, because they resembled some of the
resembles that of enterococcal and streptococcal less common atypical arginine-negative enterococcal
strains. Colonies are raised and grey-white and they species. Results of motility and arginine hydrolysis
are a- or non-haemolytic on agar media containing tests can be helpful in the differentiation from the
sheep blood. They have fermentative metabolism, lactococci, which usually give negative and positive
with L-lactic acid being the predominant end product reactions, respectively. All Vagococcus strains tested
of glucose fermentation. They can react with Lance- to date reacted with the AccuProbe Enterococcus
field streptococcal groups D and N antisera. The cell culture confirmation test manufactured by Gen-Probe
wall peptidoglycan type is LYS-D-ASP. The DNA G+C (San Diego, CA, US). This probe is based on a DNA
content ranges from 33.6 to 36.5 mol%. Two species oligomer having a structure complementary to a
of Vagococcus have been described: V. fluvialis and V. segment of enterococcal rRNA. Although testing with
221 6 VAGOCOCCUS
the enterococcal genetic probe does not allow dif- since V% fluvialis strains are negative and the motile
ferentiation between the enterococci and the vag- Enterococcus species, E. gallinarum and E . cas-
ococci, it can also be used as a tool to separate the seliflavus, are positive. The arginine test may also be
vagococci from the lactococci, which are negative. a clue for such differentiation as most strains belong-
ing to these enterococcal species are positive.
Characterization of the Species However, uncommon arginine-negative variants of
Confirmation that a strain is a Vagococcus requires the Physiological group 11enterococcal species and E .
complete identification the species level, It is gen- columbae have biochemical characteristics which are
erally accomplished by using a series of additional very similar to those of the vagOCOCCi, especially lf#
conventional physiological tests. In addition to the fluvialis. Table 2 lists some of the tests that can be
tests included in Table 1, the following tests are used to differentiate between them.
usually included: hydrolysis of arginine, hydrolysis of Both vagococcal species V. fluvialis and sal-
hippurate, pigment production, pyruvate utilization, moninarum share several phenotypic characteristics.
tellurite tolerance, the Voges-Proskauer reaction, and They usually produce acids from maltose, ribose and
acid production from L-arabinose, methyl-a-D-gluco- trehalose, and are negative for the following tests:
pyranoside, glycerol, inulin, lactose, maltose, D-man- arginine, arabinose, inulin, lactose, melibiose and
nitol, melibiose, raffinose, ribose, D-sorbitol, sorbose, sorbose. Variable results are obtained for pyruvate
sucrose and trehalose. utilization, tellurite tolerance and Voges-Proskauer
As already pointed out, even using extensive testing, tests. They can be distinguished on the basis of a
the differentiation of vagococcal strains from entero- few phenotypic characteristics, such as motility, and
cocci is sometimes problematic. Tests for production production of acids from mannitol, raffinose and
of acid from L-arabinose and raffinose may be useful, sorbitol (Table 2). Tests for production of acids from
VAGOCOCCUS 2217
Table 2 Phenotypic characteristics used to differentiate between arginine-negative variants of physiological group II enterococcal
species, Enterococcus columbae and species of Vagococcus
Phenotypic characteristic
Species MAN SOR ARG ARA SBL RAF TEL MOT PIG SUC PYU MGP GLY
E. faecalis + - - - + - + - - +a + - +
E. casseliflavus + - - + V + V +a +a + V + V
E. gallinarum + - - + - + - += - + - + -a
E. columbae + - - + + + - - - + + - -
V: fluvialis + - - - + - -a + - +a v + +
!L salmoninarum - - - - - + - - - + + + -
~ ~~~~
MAN, mannitol; SOR, sorbose; ARG, arginine; ARA, arabinose; SBL, sorbitol; RAF, raffinose; TEL, tellurite; MOT, motility; PIG,
pigment; SUC, sucrose: PYU, pyruvate; MGP, methyl-a-o-glucopyranoside; GLY, glycerol; - , 3 95% of strains with negative
results; +, 3 95% of strains with positive results; V, variable reactions (some strains positive, some negative).
"Occasional exceDtions occur.
sucrose and glycerol, as well as pyruvate utilization Importance of the Genus in Animal and
and tellurite tolerance are also of some help. In the Human Diseases: Importance for the
original description of V. fluvialis this microorganism Food Industry and Potential Hazard for
was reported to be LAP-negative, PYR-variable and the Consumer
negative for growth in 6.5% NaCl broth, but all
strains tested at the Centers for Disease Control have As the members of the genus Vagococcus were only
been both LAP- and PYR-positive and have dem- recently distinguished from other related bacteria, the
onstrated growth in 6.5% NaCl broth. involvement of the vagococci as infectious agents has
In addition to the determination of physiological been possibly hindered by difficulties in their precise
characteristics, analysis of electrophoretic whole-cell identification, as they may have been misidentified or
protein profiles was shown to be a reliable method overlooked in diagnostic laboratories. Also, the role
for the identification of vagococcal strains. V. fluvialis of Vagococcus in food spoilage, decreasing its shelf
isolates correspond to a unique protein profile that is life, as well as the production of metabolic compounds
distinct from the protein profile characteristics of V. important for the food industry, is still unclear.
salmoninarum strains, enterococcal and lactococcal The pathogenic role of these microorganisms was
species. Genus- and species-specific oligonucleotide first recognized when they were identified among the
probes derived from 1 6 s rRNA were also shown to agents associated with a complex of similar fish dis-
facilitate the precise identification of vagococcal eases known under the general denomination of strep-
isolates. tococcosis, caused by different taxons of Gram-
Data on the antimicrobial susceptibility char- positive cocci. Such complex of diseases has long been
acteristics are only available for a few V. fluvialis considered a serious problem in cultured marine fish
isolates. Results of minimum inhibitory concentration in the Far East. Nowadays, with the development of
determinations indicated that V. fluvialis strains are intensive aquaculture, fish infections caused by Gram-
susceptible to ampicillin, cefotaxime, trimethoprim- positive cocci, including vagococcosis, have become a
sulphamethoxazole and vancomycin, and are resistant major problem in various parts of the world, affecting
to clindamycin, lomefloxacin and ofloxacin. Strain- different fish species destined for human con-
to-strain variation was observed in relation to 17 sumption. Heavy economic losses caused by these
other antimicrobial agents tested, including cefaclor, infections are in some cases estimated to encompass
cefazolin, cefixime, ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, chlor- 45% of total fish production. On the other hand,
amphenicol, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, erythro- except for reports of the isolation of V. salmoninarum
mycin, gentamicin, meropenem, oxacillin, penicillin, from diseased salmonid fish (brown trout, rainbow
piperacillin-tazobactam, rifampin, tetracycline and trout and Atlantic salmon) and of V. fluvialis from
tobramycin. domestic animals (cats, horses and pigs), information
Molecular characterization of V. fluvialis strains, on the significance of the vagococci as pathogens
using analysis of chromosomal DNA restriction pat- followed by proper identification of the micro-
terns by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) after organism is still very limited.
digestion with SmaI, resulted in distinctive PFGE pat- More recently, a report from our laboratories pro-
terns, suggesting the nonclonal nature of V. fluvialis, vided the first evidence of the possible connection of
and indicating the potential ability of this typing tech- a vagococcal species as a cause of infections in human
nique to discriminate between Vagococcus isolates. beings. Very little clinical information was submitted
2218 VAGOCOCCUS
with the cultures identified. One strain was isolated in the diagnostic setting, more information will
from the peritoneal fluid of a nephrology patient, and become available to help in answering the many ques-
another from an infected bite wound in a person who tions raised about the significance of these micro-
was bitten by a lamb. Two other human isolates were organisms.
recovered from blood cultures, and no additional
information on the clinical condition or associated Suggested Laboratory Procedures for
illness was available. Two additional strains have been
Isolation and Identification
received for identification. One was isolated from a
finger wound of a patient in Canada, and the other
was recovered from the cerebrospinal fluid of a patient Recommendations for Isolation and Preliminary
with meningitis in Argentina. All vagococcal strains Testing
isolated from humans until now are V fluvialis. No Enriched infusion agar and broth, such as trypticase
human infection associated with V salmoninarum has soy, heart infusion, Todd-Hewitt, Lactobacillus
been documented. Mann, Rogosa, and Sharpe (MRS) or brain-heart
Apart from the economic impact, concerns have infusion, support the growth of vagococci and 5%
been generated about the potential health hazard that sheep blood agar plates are recommended to verify
handling or consumption of colonized or infected haemolytic activity. If the specimen to be processed
fish, as well as other animals or their products can for primary isolation is likely to contain other bac-
represent for humans. The presence of lactic acid teria, such as food samples, bile-aesculin medium may
bacteria, including vagococci, in foodstuffs, is not be an option as a primary isolation-selective medium.
usually considered to be a major concern, because Vagococci growth is better when incubated for 18-
they are widely distributed in nature. Therefore, they 2 4 h in 3-10% COz atmosphere. Special attention
are not considered to be significant pathogens of must be paid to the temperature requirements for
humans, as they are probably only associated with optimal growth of each vagococcal species: V. fluvialis
opportunistic infections. However, recent evidence of cultures should be incubated at 35-37°C and V sal-
acquisition of serious infections by people who had moninarum cultures at 25°C. The most consistent
skin injuries during handling of Streptococcus iniae Gram stains can be prepared from growth in thio-
(another agent of fish streptococcosis that was not glycolate broth. The catalase test should be performed
considered pathogenic for humans) -colonized or dis- by flooding the growth of the bacteria on a blood-
eased fish grown by aquaculture, raises the question free medium with 3 % hydrogen peroxide and observ-
on the potential health hazard. During the inves- ing for bubbling (positive reaction) or not (negative
tigation of S. iniae transmission from farm-cultured reaction).
fish (Tilapia)to humans, many V fluvialis strains were
isolated from the surface of the fish. It is not known Bile-aesculin Test The bile-aesculin medium can be
whether these isolates had any effect on the fish or used in agar slants or agar plates. Inoculate the bile-
whether they could be transmitted to humans. One esculin medium with one to three colonies and incu-
additional example suggesting the possibility of bate it at normal atmosphere for up to 7 days. A
animals or their food products as sources of trans- positive reaction is recorded when a black colour
mission of infections, due to Gram-positive cocci, to forms over one-half or more of the slant, or when any
humans, is given by Lactococcus garvieae, another blackening occurs on the agar plate. N o change in the
agent of fish streptococcosis that has also been shown colour of the agar indicates a negative reaction.
to cause disease in cattle and in humans.
In the light of the above-mentioned, the vagococci NaCl Tolerance Test Growth in broth containing
should be considered to be among the emerging zoo- 6.5% NaCl is determined in heart infusion broth base
notic pathogens that have been isolated from various with an addition of 6% NaCl (heart infusion base
species of fish, as well as mammals, and finally contains 0.5% NaCl), 0.5% glucose and bromcresol
humans. Diagnostic laboratories as well as those purple indicator. When a frank growth occurs, the
devoted to the analysis of food products of fish and glucose is fermented and the broth colour changes
other animal origin, especially fresh produces, must from purple to yellow, but it is not necessary for a
be aware of the methods for the precise detection of positive result: an obvious increase in turbidity
this microorganisms, as they may serve as vehicles without a change in colour is also considered to be a
for transmission of infections caused by this newly positive test. One or two colonies or a drop of an
recognized pathogen. As more attention and accurate overnight broth culture is inoculated into the broth
procedures are incorporated into the identification containing 6.5% NaC1. The inoculated broth is incu-
schemes to detect and characterize vagococcal strains bated up to 7 days.
VAGOCOCCUS 221 9
LAP and PYR Tests The LAP and PYR disc tests are carbohydrate is determined in heart infusion broth
performed in the same manner, and the discs are containing the specific carbohydrate (1% ) and brom-
available from several commercial suppliers. The cresol purple indicator (0.0016%).The carbohydrate
strains to be tested are grown overnight on blood agar broth is inoculated with a drop or a loopful of an
plates. The discs are placed on the blood agar plate in overnight broth culture or with several colonies taken
an area of little or no growth. The discs are inoculated from a blood agar plate. The inoculum should be
heavily; two or more loopfuls of inoculum are neces- from a fresh culture. The carbohydrate broth is incu-
sary for satisfactory results. The plates with the discs bated for up to 7 days. A positive reaction is recorded
are incubated at room temperature for 10 min, the when the broth turns yellow.
detection reagent is added, and the reactions are read
after 3 min. The development of a red colour is posi- Gas Production Production of gas from glucose is
tive; no change in colour or a yellow colour is nega- determined in Lactobacillus MRS broth. Two or more
tive; and the development of a pink colour indicates colonies from a blood agar plate or a drop of broth
a weak positive reaction. The test should be discarded culture are used to inoculate the broth. The inoculated
after 10 min if still negative. tube is overlaid with melted petroleum jelly and incu-
bated for up to 7 days. Gas production is indicated
Tests for Growth at 10 and 45°C Growth at 10 when the wax plug is completely separated from the
and 45°C is determined in heart infusion broth base broth. Small bubbles that may accumulate over the
medium containing 0.1% dextrose and bromcresol incubation period are not read as positive.
purple indicator. The tests are performed by inocu-
lating the broths with a single colony or a drop of an Arginine Deamination The deamination of arginine
overnight broth culture and incubating at the respect- is determined in Moeller decarboxylase medium con-
ive temperatures for up to 7 days. The time between taining 1% L-arginine. The medium is inoculated with
inoculation and placement at the proper temperature a fresh culture and is then overlaid with sterile mineral
should not be longer than 10min. When the test oil (1-2ml per 5 m l of arginine medium) and incu-
cultures are inspected for growth during the incu- bated for up to 7 days. A positive reaction is recorded
bation period, the tubes should be returned to the when the broth turns deep purple, indicating an alka-
proper temperature without being allowed to warm line reaction. A yellow colour or no colour change of
or cool. A positive result is indicated by frank growth, the broth indicates a negative reaction.
which may be accompanied by a colour change in
the indicator. A colour change is not necessary to Motility Test Motility is determined in modified
determine a positive reaction; an increase in turbidity Difco motility medium. The medium is prepared by
indicates growth and a positive test. Be sure to rotate adding 16 g of motility test medium (Difco), 4 g of
the tube vigorously after the incubation period. Some nutrient broth powder (Difco), and 1g of NaCl to 11
bacterial strains have a tendency to settle to the of distilled water. The medium is inoculated with a
bottom of the tube, and turbidity will not be apparent single stab (with an inoculating needle, not a loop)
until the contents of the tubes are mixed. about 1in (2.54 cm) into the centre of the medium in
the tube. The inoculated tube is placed in a 25-30°C
Vancomycin Susceptibility Identification Test To incubator. Motility is indicated by the spread of
determine susceptibility to vancomycin, several col- growth to the bottom and sides of the tube. Growth
onies of the strain are transferred to one-half of a along and slightly away from the stab indicates nega-
trypticase soy agar plate containing 5 % sheep blood tive motility.
and spread with a loop or cotton swab to achieve
confluent growth. The vancomycin susceptibility Pigment Production Test Production of pigment is
testing disc (30 pg) is placed in the heavy part of the determined by examining a cotton swab that has been
streak. The inoculated plate is incubated at 5% C 0 2 smeared across growth on a trypticase soy-S% sheep
atmosphere for 18 h. Strains with any zone of growth blood agar plate that has been incubated for 24 h in
inhibition are considered susceptible, and strains that a 5% C 0 2 atmosphere. Production of pigment is
exhibit growth up to the disc are considered resistant. indicated by a yellow colour of the growth. A cream,
white or grey colour does not indicate pigmentation.
Carbohydrate Fermentation Test The carbo-
hydrates that may be tested are L-arabinose, methyl- Pyruvate Utilization Test A fresh culture is used
a-D-glucopyranoside, glycerol, inulin, lactose, to inoculate a tube of pyruvate broth. The broth is
maltose, D-mannitol, melibiose, raffinose, ribose, incubated for up to 7 days. A positive reaction is
sorbitol, sorbose, sucrose and trehalose. Acid from indicated by the development of a yellow colour. If
2220 VAGOCOCCUS
the broth remains green or greenish yellow the test Gram-positive cocci, excluding the streptococci and
result is negative. A yellow colour with only a hint of enterococci. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 8 : 479-495.
green is interpreted as positive. Facklam RR and Teixeira L M (1997) Enterococcus. In:
Collier L, Balows A and Sussman M (eds) Topley &
Tellurite Tolerance Test Tolerance to tellurite is Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th
determined on agar medium containing 0.04% potas- edn. Vol2, p. 669. London: Edward Arnold.
Pot B, Devriese LA, Hommez J et a1 (1994) Characterization
sium tellurite. The agar may be contained in a tube
and identification of Vagococcus fluvialis strains isolated
or plate. The medium is inoculated with a fresh culture from domestic animals. Journal of Applied Bacteriology
of the strain to be tested and incubated up to 7 days. 77: 362-369.
Tolerance (positive result) is indicated whenever black Schliefer KH and Kilpper-Balz R (1987) Molecular and
colonies form on the surface. chemotaxonomic approaches to the classification of
streptococci, enterococci and lactococci: a review. Sys-
Voges-Proskauer Test The Colbentz modification of tematic Applied Microbiology 10: 1-19.
the Voges-Proskauer test is used to determine the Schliefer KH, Kraus J, Dvorak C, Kilpper-Balz R, Collins
production of acetylmethyl carbinol. The strains are M D and Fischer W (1985) Transfer of Streptococcus
grown on blood agar plates overnight. With a loop, lactis and related streptococci to the genus Lactococcus
all growth on the plate is transferred to 2 ml of Voges- gen. nov. Systematic Applied Microbiology 6: 183-195.
Proskauer broth. The broth is incubated for 6 h or Schmidtke LM and Carson J (1994) Characteristics of Vag-
overnight and then tested. Ten drops of solution (A ococcus salmoninarum isolated from diseased salmonid
fish. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 77: 229-236.
(a-naphthol) and 10 drops of solution B (sodium
Teixeira LM, Merquior VLC, Vianni MCE et a1 (1996)
hydroxide and creatine) are added to 0.5ml of the Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of atypical
culture in the Voges-Proskauer broth. The tube is Lactococcus garvieae strains isolated from water buf-
shaken vigorously, and a positive reaction is indicated falos with subclinical mastitis and confirmation of L.
when a red colour develops within 30 min. A pink or gurvieae as a senior subjective synonym of Enterococcus
rust colour is interpreted as a weak positive reaction. seriolicida. International Journal of Systematic Bac-
teriology 46: 664-668.
See also: Enterococcus. Lactococcus: Introduction. Teixeira LM, Carvalho MGS, Merquior VLC, Steigerwalt
Streptococcus: Introduction. AG, Brenner DJ and Facklam RR (1997) Phenotypic
and genotypic characterization of Vagococcus fluvialis,
including strains isolated from human sources. Journal
of Clinical Microbiology 35: 2778-2781.
Further Reading Wallbanks S, Martinez-Murcia AJ, Fryer JL, Phillips BA
Carvalho MGS, Teixeira LM and Facklam RR (1998) Use and Collins M D (1990) 1 6 s rRNA sequence deter-
of tests for acidification of methyl-a-D-ghcopyranoside mination for members of the genus Carnobacterium and
and susceptibility to efrotomycin for differentiation of related lactic acid bacteria and description of Vagococcus
strains of Enterococcus and some related genera. Journal salmoninarum sp. nov. International Journal of Sys-
of Clinical Microbiology 36: 1584-1587. tematic Bacteriology 40: 224-230.
Collins MD, Ash C, Farrow JAE, Wallbanks S and Williams Weinstein MR, Litt M, Kertesz DA et a1 (1997) Invasive
M (1989) 16s ribosomal ribonucleic acid sequence infections due to a fish pathogen, Streptococcus iniae.
analyses of lactococci and related taxa. Description of N e w England Journal of Medicine 337: 589-594.
Vagococcus fluvialis gen. nov., sp. nov. Journal of Williams AM and Collins M D (1992) Genus- and species-
Applied Bacteriology 67: 453-460. specific oligonucleotide probes derived from 1 6 s rRNA
Facklam RR and Elliott JA (1995) Identification, clas- for the identification of vagococci. Letters in Applied
sification, and clinical relevance of catalase-negative, Microbiology 14: 17-21.
and Enterobacter cloacae), although associated with system. Under European legislation, treated waters
faeces, also occur naturally in the environment, on should contain (per 100ml) no coliforms, no faecal
vegetation and in soils. The enterococci and the clo- coliformslE. coli and no enterococci. The current
stridia are able to survive in water for substantially value for sulphite-reducing clostridia is not more than
longer periods and are therefore better indicators than one in 20 ml. These are MAC values. For the aerobic
the coliforms of remote pollution and serious plate counts there are guide values per millilitre of
contamination of raw water, when treatment and less than ten for colonies at 37°C and less than 100
disinfection have removed coliforms and faecal for colonies at 22°C. There is an additional provision
coliforms. They are also used for determining the for the plate count that there should be no significant
hygienic operation of new installations such as treat- increase above those levels normally seen during
ment works or boreholes and the proper laying, dis- routine analysis. If plate count levels normally exceed
infection and repair of water mains. The total viable the guide values, this is acceptable providing that
bacterial count (plate count) is a measure of the levels do not increase significantly. For distribution
hygienic quality of the water and not necessarily a systems and at point of use, 95% of samples must be
measure of its suitability for consumption. Counts in free from coliforms but faecal coliforms must be
treated water are usually low, but they may increase absent at all times. Standards for the United States are
dramatically if water becomes stagnant and the tem- based on the monitoring of coliforms in distribution,
perature increases. There have been many arguments where 95% of samples must be coliform free (or no
about indicators reliably establishing the presence of more than one sample per month may be positive if
pathogens, particularly those pathogens which are less than 40 per month are taken). Isolation of coli-
resistant to disinfection. Certainly, there have been a forms requires that there be additional sampling and
number of waterborne outbreaks of disease where testing for E . coli. There are no standards for the
indicator analysis has been satisfactory. other indicator organisms. In Canada the MAC for
coliforms is stated to be zero, but there is compliance
Current Legislation Governing Water if no sample contains more than 10 coliforms and
no faecal coliforms per 100ml and no consecutive
Quality
samples contain coliforms. In both the USA and
The European Community Directive relating to the Canada, aerobic plate counts are monitored, pri-
quality of potable water and water intended for food marily as an adjunct to the coliform test as high
production (known as the Drinking Water Directive) numbers of heterotrophic bacteria (500-1000 m1-l)
was implemented in July 1980. It lists microbiological can interfere with standard methods of coliform
criteria, providing guide (G) values and maximum enumeration.
admissible concentrations (MACs), and details ana- Frequencies of sampling and analysis for each indi-
lytical methods and sampling frequencies. It does not cator are set by each country, and are typically based
require direct monitoring for specific pathogens but on the sizes of the populations supplied.
does state that water should be free from such organ-
isms. The United Kingdom adopted these standards in
Methods of Analysis
the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 1989,
(amended 1990 and 1991). Private water supplies Early methods developed for water analysis were
were similarly covered in the Private Water Supply based on most probable number (MPN) or multiple
(Water Quality) Regulations, 1991. In the USA, tube techniques using liquid culture media. There
drinking water quality is covered by the National was always the requirement for confirmation of any
Primary Drinking Water Standards (1994) and in positive tests and therefore first results were always
Canada by the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking presumptive. Although relatively simple to perform,
Water Quality (1996). such test procedures were time consuming and of long
duration, with up to four days required to obtain
Current Standards confirmed results. In the UK, a chemically defined
medium, Minerals Modified Glutamate Medium, was
The World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines introduced in 1969. This is still used by some labora-
for Drinking Water Quality recommend that all tories. The introduction of enzyme-specific chromo-
100 ml water samples intended for drinking must not genic and fluorogenic substrates has made the MPN
contain Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms. test procedure popular again, and removed the need
Where water is treated it should not contain coliforms for confirmations. Results can now be available in
on entry to the distribution system, and they should 18 hours (Table I).
not be detected in 95% of samples from a distribution Membrane filtration was introduced in the 1950s
WATER QUALlTYASSESSMENT/RoutineTechniques for Monitoring Bacterial and Viral Contaminants 2283
aesculin when grown on bile aesculin azide agar or Other Pathogenic Microorganisms
kanamycin aesculin azide agar. Sulphite-reducing clo-
There is a wide range of pathogens that can
stridia can be confirmed as Clostridium perfringens
contaminate water, including bacteria, viruses and
by inoculation into litmus milk and incubation at
eukaryotic parasites. Analysis for bacteria such as
37°C for up to 5 days. Fermentation of the lactose
Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas
causes acid production and clotting of the milk.
spp. and Aeromonas spp. follow conventionally pub-
lished methods. Immunological techniques such as
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) can
Quality Assurance also be adapted for water analysis. Methods for the
isolation of Legionella spp. are currently detailed in
Legislation on water quality assessment in the water a draft British Standard BSI 6068 (1994).The proto-
industry has included the requirement for laboratories zoan Cryptosporidium parvum is an important water-
to have internal quality control and participate in borne parasite that has been implicated in a number of
external quality assurance schemes. Because of the waterborne disease outbreaks. Methods for detection
difficulties of preparing and keeping suspensions of have been published in the UK and USA and both
bacteria for quality control, manufacturers have now methods are currently under revision. The significance
developed dried suspensions which can be stored and and occurrence of this organism in water has led to
rehydrated to give consistent suspensions for day to the rapid development of faster and more efficient
day quality assurance. These suspensions can also be techniques for its detection, including the use of small
used in some of the validation procedures for new volume processing, immunomagnetic separation and
methods and for the assessment of new analysts. flow cytometry.
Escherichia coli 0157:H7 has received much atten-
tion and can be transmitted by water. Evidence
suggests that it is removed by conventional water
Interpretation of Results
treatment and is readily killed by conventional dis-
Coliforms in water can derive from a number of infectants. However, there have been several out-
sources of which faecal contamination is only one. In breaks where water was the vehicle of infection. In
the absence of other indicators, they may be derived one instance, four people died. One of the main prob-
from vegetation, soil or surface water. In addition lems with such pathogens occurring at low levels in
there is ample evidence that coliforms can grow in water is the opportunities for contamination of foods,
distribution systems in association with biofilms. where they may be able to multiply, or the con-
Although their presence in water is undesirable, the tamination of food wash waters where they can be
water may be perfectly safe for drinking, but its use for recycled.
other purposes may be unsatisfactory. The presence of
faecal coliforms, especially Escherichia coli, and other
indicators means that water is probably contaminated Other Indicators
with faecal material and immediate remedial action A wide range of other microorganisms have been
must be undertaken. Aerobic plate counts above the described as useful indicators of faecal contamination.
guide values in the EC Directive do not mean that Coliphages are bacterial viruses which are specific to
water is unfit for human consumption. High counts Escherichia coli and other coliforms. They can be
at 37°C are suspicious and may require further inves- divided into two groups. The somatic bacteriophages
tigation. High counts at 22°C suggest stagnation and gain access to the cell through the cell wall and the F
warming of water with the concomitant growth of specific bacteriophages attach to the F or sex pilus.
normal water bacteria. Cleaning and disinfection are The latter have been described as useful indicators of
required in some circumstances, e.g. hospitals, where the presence of enteric viruses in water.
counts in excess of 1000ml-I at 22°C may require a Bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis have also
water distribution system to be disinfected. Excep- been suggested as useful indicators, as have the bac-
tional counts may be used as indications for the teria themselves. Both are specific to the faeces of
growth of other microorganisms in such as cooling humans and farm animals. Bifidobacterium spp. can
towers and swimming pools. Pseudomonads, in par- also be found in humans and some animals. Sorbitol-
ticular Pseudomonas aeruginosa, aeromonads and fermenting strains have been specifically linked to
Legionella spp. can colonize water systems where human faeces. Both groups of bacteria are strictly
conditions are suitable, and high aerobic counts may anaerobic. Rhodococcus caprophilus is a Nocardia-
signal the need to look for pathogens. like actinomycete found in farm animals (cattle, sheep,
WATER QUALINASSESSMENT/Routine Techniques for Monitoring Bacterial and Viral Contaminants 2285
pigs and horses) and may be a useful indicator of of all viruses in the gastrointestinal tract, and includes
contamination with animal faeces. the enteroviruses.
Coincident with their pathogenesis is the ability of
enteric viruses to grow in cell culture. Thus, most of
Routine Techniques for Monitoring Viral the enteroviruses can be grown in BGM cells, a
Contamination monkey kidney cell line used for many years in the
Viruses in Water detection of waterborne viruses. Enteroviruses are
easily detected in this cell system after concentration.
The aquatic environment (which includes fresh and Because of this, and because enteroviruses are resist-
marine water, raw and treated sewage, sludge and ant to the p H changes carried out during the filtration
sediments) often provides conditions in which patho- process (see below), enteroviruses have been the group
genic viruses released from the body may retain infect- of waterborne viruses most investigated over the past
ivity, and so may cause disease on entry into a new 20 years. Conversely, the viruses of gastroenteritis
host. Human enteric viruses enter the water cycle cannot be grown in cell culture and are thus much
when faecal waste is discharged into the sewerage more difficult to detect, as non-culture based systems
system; they may end up in water which, after treat- are required.
ment, is used for drinking. The purpose of sewage The burden of disease imposed by enteric viruses
treatment is to remove microorganisms and other varies, and in many cases is difficult to estimate, since
organic matter from sewage so that the resulting many infections are subclinical or cause only minor
effluent can be discharged to receiving waters with symptoms. The enteroviruses cause relatively mild
minimal adverse effects. It also renders any receiving disease in the vast majority of infections, whereas
water fit for use as a raw water source for drinking rotaviruses and SRSVs cause moderate to severe diar-
water abstraction, as up to 90% of viruses are rhoea with or without vomiting. The proportion of
removed during sewage treatment. Viruses may rarely infections associated with waterborne spread is also
also gain access to raw water sources by percolation difficult to gauge but will be very small compared with
through the soil into groundwater used as a spring or person to person spread. Most reports of waterborne
a borehole supply. The treatment process to produce disease are anecdotal. SRSVs have caused well-docu-
wholesome drinking water involves the removal of mented outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis when fin-
organic material by flocculation and sedimentation ished drinking water has been polluted by sewage,
followed by disinfection with chlorine. Most viruses including contamination of a borehole in a tourist
will be removed by flocculation and the remainder resort, water tanks at a mobile home park, well water
will be inactivated by disinfection. It is thus important used to make ice, and cross connections of drinking
to be able to monitor both raw and finished waters water supplies with water supplies used for irrigation.
for viral contamination where there is likely to be a
risk that these are present. Concentration and Detection of Enteric Viruses
Concentration All viruses are obligate intracellular
Human Enteric Viruses
parasites and so will not multiply outside the body.
Enteric viruses, i.e. those inhabiting the gastro- This, coupled with the diluting effects of water, means
intestinal tract, may be divided into two groups that direct detection of these agents in any kind of
according to their effects on the gut lining. The entero- water (with the exception of raw sewage) requires
viruses cause little damage to the gut epithelium and the sample to be concentrated before virus can be
thus do not usually cause gastroenteritis. Although detected. The degree of concentration will reflect the
they multiply in the gut and therefore may be patho- nature of the water and the potential quality of virus
genic, in the majority of infections they do not migrate it contains. Thus raw waters will require less con-
to other tissues. This group includes poliovirus, centration than finished waters. Typically, volumes of
coxsackieviruses and echoviruses. They cause a about 101 are taken from river waters, whereas it is
variety of symptoms, mainly in children. They are necessary to take samples of 100-1000 1 to detect any
shed into the sewage in large numbers and include viruses in finished waters.
poliovirus vaccine strains, which will be present all The most common concentration technique is
year round. The viral pathogens which do cause adsorption/elution, where virus is adsorbed to an
gastroenteritis include the rotaviruses, small round- insoluble matrix then eluted in a smaller volume of
structured viruses (SRSVs, Norwalk viruses) and fluid. Concentration from water samples usually
astroviruses. It is important to distinguish between involves passage of the sample through a filter which
the enteroviruses, which is a taxonomic group, and adsorbs the virus. Filters may be membranes or cart-
enteric viruses, which is a term describing the habitat ridges. In the UK, membranes are most popular, but
Next Page
in the US, where more potable water supplies are However, the capital costs are high and filtration of
monitored, cartridge filters are used more frequently turbid waters can be a difficult and lengthy process.
since they can handle greater volumes without clog-
ging. Membrane materials include cellulose nitrate Detection Detection of viruses in concentrates is best
(commonest), cellulose acetate and glass fibre/epoxy done by cell culture, which is the only way to detect
resin, and are either 142 mm or 293 mm in diameter. infectious virus. As indicated above, of the viruses
Since retention of virus is by adsorption, not entrap- likely to be present in water, only the enteroviruses
ment, the pore size used is determined by the turbidity will grow well in culture. They are detected quan-
of the sample. For membranes, the smallest pore size titatively by plaque assay under agar or by a liquid
used is 0.45 pm and the largest, used for turbid waters, culture assay such as the MPN technique. Plaque
is 5 pm. A glass-fibre prefilter may be used for river assays are statistically more reliable in terms of the
waters but is not necessary for other types. number of cultures usually used, but liquid culture
Viruses are negatively charged at neutral pH. Most assay will detect a wider range of viruses. Plaque assay
filters are also negatively charged and it is necessary may be done with BGM cells in a monolayer or with
to precondition the water sample to increase the posi- cells suspended in the agar. The latter approach is
tive ion concentration on the virus particles. This is between three and 1 0 times more sensitive than the
done by lowering the pH to about 3.5 and sometimes monolayer assay due to the larger number of cells
adding aluminium ions (as aluminium chloride) to the available for virus infection, and is the SCA rec-
sample. Viruses will then adsorb efficiently to the ommended method. The US Environmental Pro-
filter. tection Agency (1984) recommends both methods.
Following filtration, adsorbed virus is eluted by Plaques usually develop after 3-5 days.
passing through the filter 100-400ml of a protein To demonstrate the presence of infectious virus of
solution, either beef extract or skimmed milk at p H 9, the types which grow less well in culture, more
which displaces the virus into the eluant. It is then complex procedures must be used. Rotaviruses and
further concentrated (secondary concentration) by astroviruses will undergo limited replication in
lowering the p H to the isoelectric point of the protein, different cell lines and may be detected by immuno-
which results in the formation of a floc to which virus fluorescence. Hepatitis A virus grows very slowly in
is adsorbed. This floc can be deposited by low-speed a limited range of cells and may be detected by radio-
centrifugation, resuspended in a small volume (about immunoassay. At present there is no cell culture
10 ml) of phosphate buffer and frozen until assayed. system for SRSVs.
This is the method most popular in the UK and rec- Molecular biology methods (principally reverse-
ommended by the Standing Committee of Analysts transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, RT-PCR)
(SCA). offer an alternative approach to the detection of non-
There are several variations on adsorption/elution. culturable viruses. Methods for the RT-PCR detection
Some laboratories use glass fibre tube filters, which of several enteric virus types from water and related
are more economic, but clog faster. Many EU and US materials are available, and have proved as sensitive
laboratories use positively charged filters which avoid as culture where the techniques have been tested in
the need for preconditioning the water sample, but parallel. The main drawback to RT-PCR is that it
these are considerably more expensive. Novel tech- does not specifically detect infectious virus, but a
niques being evaluated include adsorption to posi- positive result in such an analysis will nevertheless
tively charged nylon membranes, adsorption to glass indicate viral pollution of the water. Routine analysis
powder and glass wool, and to immunomagnetic for these fastidious viruses is not practical at present.
beads. The glass wool method has been used very
successfully in France for analysis of drinking water Significance of Waterborne Viruses
samples for enteroviruses. The detection of viruses in water indicates faecal pol-
Entrapment techniques can be used to concentrate lution. If animal viruses, which may gain access to
viruses from water; the most effective of these is water through soil run-off, are excluded, then it must
ultrafiltration, which has been used in Italy and the US be inferred that the water is polluted with sewage,
for analysis of drinking water supplies. Ultrafiltration since in the absence of virus multiplication in the
can be effected either through hollow fibre systems or environment, faeces from an infected individual are
tangential flow membranes using a 100 000 M,cut- the only source of the virus. In this sense enteroviruses
off level. The advantages of this system are that a act as another indicator of pollution. Viruses are more
wide range of viruses may be concentrated, usually resistant than many bacterial indicators and their
no secondary concentration is needed, and there infectious dose is lower than that for most bacterial
is no need to condition the water before filtration. infections. In the food context therefore, waterborne
XANTHOMONAS 2323
Glucose
The genus was created by Dowson in 1939 following
a proposal by Burkholder in 1930, for a group of
plant pathogens until then assigned to the genus Phy-
/- Koeinase
Glucose-6-phosphate
tomonas. Bradbury in 1984 widened the definition of
the genus to include characteristics such as the absence Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
Y
of denitrification, the nature of xanthomonadin
6-Phosphogluconic acid
pigment, and many more biochemical and physio- ,
logical properties. The word Xanthomonas (Xan. ’ Dehydrase
V
tho’mo. nas or Xan. tho’. monas) is composed of the 2-Keto-3-deoxygluconic acid 6-phosphate
Greek adjective Xanthus meaning yellow and femi- (KDPG)
nine noun monas meaning unit. In modern Latin it KDGP aldolase
literally translates to ‘yellow monad’. The bacteria V
belonging to the genus Xanthomonas are commonly
associated with the diseases of plants. Xanthomonas
I V
Pyruvate + Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
species are seen as yellow-pigmented colonies on a Y
nutrient agar plate and as Gram-negative, short and Glycolysis
usually straight rods under a microscope. However,
Pseudomonas maltophila has recently been included t
Pyruvate
in the genus, which is neither a plant pathogen nor
Figure 1 Entner-Doudoroff pathway.
does it produce the characteristic yellow pigment.
Characteristics of the Genus
but generally benzoate, oxalate and tartarate are not
Cells of bacteria belonging to this genus are short, used. The tests for indole production from tryp-
straight rods, but not vibrioid. The size is in the range tophan, and acetoin production (Voges-Proskauer
0.4-1.0 x 1.2-3.0 pm. The cells are monotrichous test) are negative. The growth on nutrient agar is
with a polar flagellum. The bacteria of the genus inhibited by 0.1-0.02% triphenyltetrazolium chlor-
do not form spores, sheaths, appendages or buds. ide. Hydrogen sulphide is produced from cysteine and
Xanthomonads are chemoorganotrophic, use low- by most species from thiosulphate and peptone due
molecular-weight compounds and some are able to to desulphurase activity. Proteins are usually readily
depolymerize natural polysaccharides and proteins. digested and milk becomes alkaline with the growth
The cells carry out aerobic respiratory metabolism of Xanthomonas. Asparagine is not sufficient as the
and are non-fermentative. The members of the genus only source of carbon and nitrogen. Most species
show oxidase negative (or weakly positive) and cat- hydrolyse starch and Tween 80 rapidly. Nitrates are
alase positive reactions. not reduced. Some species hydrolyse cellulose and
The major means of glucose catabolism is the pectin. G+C content of the members of the genus is
Entner-Duodoroff pathway (Fig. 1). Acid is produced in the range 63-71 mol%. A majority of the species
from mono- and disaccharides. In a weakly buffered are plant pathogens.
medium acid is produced from many carbohydrates The typical colonies on an LB agar plate (Fig. 2)
but not from rhamnose, inulin, adonitol, dulcitol, are about 2-5 mm diam., mucoid or buttery, with a
inositol or salicin, and rarely from sorbitol. Acetate, raised centre and entire margins. Minimum growth
citrate, malate, propionate, and succinate are utilized requirements are complex and include a need for
2324 XANTHOMONAS
Br
O
‘H
Br
OCH3
Figure 3 Xanthamonadin: yellow pigment of Xanthornonas.
monoclonal antibodies have shown that Pseudo- react with some or all the strains of a pathovar. There-
monas gardneri is also a xanthomonad. fore, strain identification has become a difficult task.
Development of probes based on more specific gene
Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate-Polyacrylamide Gel Elec- sequences such as those of hrp genes may provide
trophoresis (SDS-PAGE) Development of rapid a useful tool for the detection and identification of
high-resolution fingerprinting techniques such as phytopathogenic xanthomonads.
protein electrophoresis in combination with the com-
puter assisted processing of SDS-PAGE pattern of Internal Subdivisions of Xanthomonas
proteins make it possible to characterize and compare
a large number of strains at infra-subspecies levels. In Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology
The electrophoretic groupings corresponded in some, five species of Xanthomonas were recognized. These
but not in all cases, to the existing pathovars. Numer- species could be distinguished on the basis of bio-
ical analysis on SDS-PAGE protein patterns of chemical reactions as shown in Table i.X. campestris
Xanthomonas strains has shown a good agreement can grow at 35"C, hydrolyse aesculin (6,7-dihydroxy-
between groupings obtained by gas chromatographic coumarin 6-glucoside), exhibits mucoid growth, and
analysis of cellular fatty acids, and DNA-DNA can liquefy gelatin. It causes proteolysis of milk and
hybridization. H2S production from peptone. Salt tolerance of X.
campestris is high (2-5%). It can utilize arabinose,
DNA Based Techniques These techniques include glucose, mannose and cellobiose to produce acid. X .
DNA-DNA hybridization, DNA-RNA hybridization fragarzae can not cause proteolysis of milk and does
using 16s and 23s rRNA, restriction fragment length not produce H2S.It can use glucose and mannose to
polymorphism (RFLP)analysis, plasmid profile analy- produce acid. Its tolerance to salt is low (0.5-1.00/,).
sis, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based detec- X . albilineans does not show gelatin hydrolysis and
tion using random or specific primers. Based on DNA- mucoid growth, otherwise it is similar to X . fragariue.
DNA hybridization experiments strain clusters have It has the least salt tolerance (< 0.50/). X . axonopodis
been identified that deserve independent status as differs slightly from X . albilineans in that it produces
species. As a result of such studies Pseudomonas mal- H2S and can not use mannose to produce acid. X.
tophila, a member of the rRNA similarity group V ampelina differs from X . albilineans in that it has
of Pseudomonas together with P. geniculata and P. urease activity and use arabinose to produce acid.
gardeneri, has been allocated to the genus Xan- Two more species, X . populi and X . maltophila, have
thomonas and is now known as X . maltophila. The been recently added to the genus.
organism is not a phytopathogen and it does not X . fragariae, a pathogen of strawberries;
produce the xanthomonadin pigment. It is also X . albilineans, a pathogen of monocots;
reported to be an animal pathogen. On the other hand X . axonopodis, a pathogens of monocots;
RFLP analysis has shown striking similarities among X . ampelina, a pathogen of grapes;
different X . campestris pathovars. X . populi, a pathogen of poplars;
Conventional methods for detection and iden- 0 X . maltophila, recently transferred from the genus
tification of Xanthomonas rely on pure culture isol- Pseudomonas;
ation on selective media, followed by morphological 0 X . campestrzs, a pathogen of dicots.
and biochemical characterization of the isolates.
Pathogenicity is ascertained by testing for Koch's pos-
Xanthomonas campestris
tulates. A pathogenic microbe is further screened on
a number of cultivars to identify the presence of race The determination of the genus Xanthomonas and its
differences. Traditionally these methods have given species is relatively easy, however, the characterization
reliable results. However, with the discovery of so of X . campestris pathovars poses problems. An unam-
many new strains it has been increasingly difficult to biguous identification of the pathovars of X . cam-
establish their relationship with each other and to pestris can be of great use in plant pathology. The X.
classify them. Moreover, the traditional methods are campestris pathovars that are defined by the host or
cumbersome when quick results are required, for disease symptoms are difficult to identify by other
example in seed certification and quarantine pro- phenotypic characteristics. X . campestris group is the
cedures. Methods based on protein profiling and fatty largest of all and causes diseases in many plant species.
acid analysis are also time consuming and need pure It is, therefore, classified into pathovars differentiated
culture of each isolate for assessment. Polyclonal anti- by the host reaction. However, application of the
sera often cross-react and fail to identify pathovars or newer techniques of classification has been useful. A
races of the organism. Even monoclonal antisera may relationship of nutritional properties, host specificity
2326 XANTHOMONAS
Growth at 35°C + +
Aesculin hydrolysis + +
Mucoid growth + +
Gelatin liquefaction + +
Milk proteolysis + -
H2Sfrom peptone + -
Urease - -
NaCl tolerance (%) 2-5 0.5-1 .O
Acid production from
Arabinose + -
Glucose + +
Mannose + +
Cellobiose + -
and DNA homology groups has been observed. Immunoassay for the Detection of X. campestris
Genetic diversity among the strains of different patho- Both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are
vars of X. campestris has also been studied for a employed for detection using radioimmunoassay or
number of pathovars. It is believed that the variability enzyme immunoassay. Production of antibodies, both
could be more pronounced in the regions where the monoclonal and polyclonal, has been described. These
host plant originated. Ribosomal RNA and DNA antibodies have been used for the detection of Xan-
probes could be useful tools for the epidemiological thomonas campestris pv. campestrzs in crucifer seeds.
studies and in following the genetic evolution of the For assay the isolate is streaked on a solid medium.
strains. The plates are incubated at 26e2"C for 48 h. The
putative Xanthomonas colonies could be directly
Methods of Detection and Enumeration
tested by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
in Foods (ELISA).
Starch hydrolysis is a major distinguishing feature of A protocol for an indirect double antibody ELISA
xanthomonads from other pseudomonads. Soluble for the detection of X. campestris strains is as follows:
starch has been used in several agar media for isol- Coat polystyrene micotitre plates with poly-L-lysine
ation for X. campestris. by adding 0.1 mg ml-' solution in carbonate buffer
Typical solid media for the general enumeration of (pH 9.6) and incubating for 30 min at 21°C;
xanthomonads may contain (per litre): Wash microtitre plates three times with phosphate-
Potato starch, 10.0 g; K2HP04.3H20, 3.0 g; buffered saline containing 0.01% Tween 20
KHlP04, 1.5 g; (NH4)2S04, 2.0 g; L-methionine, (PBST);
0.5 g; nicotinic acid, 0.25 g; L-glutamic acid, 0.25 g; Add antigen (untreated or boiled bacterial cells lo'
pH 6.8-7.0; with 15 g agar; cells mi-') or bacterial protein extract (1-10 pg);
Potato starch, l o g ; yeast extract, 5.0g; Add PBST containing 0.5% BSA and incubate for
(NH4)H2P04, 0.5 g; K2HP04, 0.5 g; MgS04.7H20, 30 min at 37°C;
0.2 g; NaCl, 5.0 g, pH 7.4 with 15 g agar. Add antibody and incubate for 3 h at 4°C and wash
After autoclaving and cooling to 50°C the medium the plates three times with PBST;
is fortified with one or more i f the antibiotics such Add goat anti-mouse alkaline phosphatase con-
as cephalexin 20 pg ml-', kasugamycin, 20 pg ml-l, jugate (1: 1000 dilution in PBST containing 0.1%
chlorothalomine 15 pg ml-', gentamycin 2 pg mlb', albumin) and incubate 2 h at 37°C;
and dyes such as brilliant cresyl blue 1pg ml-', methyl Wash three times with PBST and incubate with
green 1pgml-' and methyl violet 1 pgml-'. Xantho- the enzyme substrate (0.75 mg ml-l p-nitrophenyl
monads are generally resistant to these antibiotics. phosphate in 10% diethanolamine buffer v/v,
After spread plating a given sample on the agar pH 9.8) for 0.5-1 h at 37°C;
plates the typical yellow colonies of Xanthomonas Read absorbance at 405 nm.
are seen after incubating the plates at 2622°C for Phytopathogenic Potential of
48 h. The starch hydrolysis is visualized as the zone
Xanthomonas
of clearance around the colonies. In the absence of
dyes, iodine solution (1Yo) is spread on the plate to Among the bacterial diseases of plants, the most wide-
visualize the zone of hydrolysis by starch. spread and destructive losses are caused by the Gram-
XANTHOMONAS 2327
Table 2 Some common plant diseases caused by Table 3 Pre-harvest disease of fruits and vegetables caused
Xanthomonas campestris by Xanthomonas campestris
Plant Disease Causative agent Fruithegetable Name of disease Causative agent
Cotton Leaf spot X.C. pv. malvacearum Lima beans Bacterial blight X.C. pv. phaseoli
Rice Leaf blight X. c. pv. oryzae Tomato Bacterial spot X.C. pv. tomato
Cereals Bacterial blight X.C. pv. translucens Pepper Bacterial spot X.C. pv. vesicatoria
Walnut Bacterial blight X.C. pv. juglandis Cabbage Black rot X.C. pv. campestris
Soybean Bacterial pustule X.C. pv. glycines Citrus Canker X.C. pv. citri
Sugarcane Gumming disease X.C. pv. vascularum
2328 XANTHOMONAS
HO
d...;
M 3 Na, K, ’/&a
produced by a pure culture fermentation of a carbo- Table 4 Applications of xanthan gum in the food industry
hydrate-containing medium with the strains of X. Product Function
campestvis developed for this purpose. Xanthan gum Stabilizer
Ice-cream
is a substituted cellulose. It is composed of p(1+4)- Sauces and gravies Thickener
linked glucose backbone. Every alternate glucose Dressings Stabilizing and suspending agent
residue in the backbone is connected to a mannose Non-alcoholic beverages Stabilizer
through an a(1+3) bond, which is connected to a Cake mixes and batters Suspending agent
Relishes Thickener
glucoronic acid residue through an a(1+2) linkage.
Processedcheese Stabilizer
The glucoronic acid residue is in turn connected to Milk-based desserts Thickener
another mannose unit through a p(1 4 4 ) linkage (Fig. Syrups and toppings Thickener
4). The repeating five-sugar unit thus comprises two Noodles Stabilizer
glucose and two mannose molecules and one glu- Spring roll pastry Stabilizer
curonic acid molecule. The mannose units have acetyl
and pyruvate groups. The contents of acetate and
food uses. The thickening, stabilizing, jelling and
pyruvate are in the ranges 4-5% and 2-6%, respect-
ively, in xanthan gum. The polymer has a molecular emulsifying properties of this polysaccharide make it
weight of 1-10 x l o 6kDa. useful in food industry. It imparts good flavour release
v
characteristics and sensory qualities to food. It can
Xanthan gum has the following useful properties:
be pumped, sprayed and spread easily. Some of the
It gives high viscosities at low concentrations; applications of xanthan gum in the food industry are
It has remarkable emulsion stabilizing and sus- given in Table 4. Xanthan gum is used as a stabilizer
pending ability; in ice-creams and other milk-based products, in con-
Its viscosity is stable to changes in pH, salts and fectionery products and noodles, in salad dressings,
temperature; and non-alcoholic beverages. It is used as thickener
Xanthan gum solutions show pseudoplastic behav- in soups, sauces, gravies, shakes, syrups, relishes and
iour, i.e. with an increase in shear rate the viscosity toppings. It is also used as a suspending agent in a
of a xanthan solution decreases and vice versa. number of foods including dressings, cake mixes and
batter. In its non-food uses, xanthan gum finds appli-
Application of Xanthan Gum in Food cation in the preparation of polishes, paints, adhe-
sives, ceramics, and explosives. In the petroleum
Industry
industry xanthan gum is used for enhanced oil
Because of the above properties of xanthan gum it recovery.
serves as an excellent stabilizing, thickening and emul-
sifying agent. Xanthan gum has a wide range of appli- See also: Enzyme Immunoassays: Overview. Fer-
cations. It has several pharmaceutical, food and non- mentation (Industrial): Production of Xanthan Gum.
YEASTS: PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL USES 2335
soil and human skin, sputum and leg ulcers. S. cer- Commercial Production of Bakers’ Yeast
evisiae has around 87 synonyms worldwide.
Morphology
Sources
After 3 days’ growth in malt extract at 25”C, S.
cerevisiae cells are either globose in shape (5.0- Industries requiring yeast cultures can either obtain
10.0)x (5-12.0) pm or ellipsoidal or cylindrical, them from culture collection centres or isolate and
measuring 3.0-9.5 pm x 4.5-21.0 ym. The cells may develop their own cultures. In either case, the propa-
occur singly or in pairs, short chains or clusters. gation and maintenance of cultures for long-term use
Streak cultures on malt agar are butyrous and ensures consistency of performance and quality.
cream to brownish. They are either smooth and However, basic facilities and expertise within the
slightly raised with shallow striations, or raised, industry are required.
folded and (often) subdivided. They can be either Saccharomyces can be isolated from natural
glossy or dull. sources, and maintained in pure culture by con-
ventional microbiological techniques. The source
Reproduction material (fermenting sugary materials, fruit juices or
Asexual reproduction usually occurs by budding. The soil) is usually serially diluted and plated onto potato-
buds arise on the ‘shoulders’ and at either pole of the dextrose agar (PDA) or yeast extract-peptone-dex-
cell. The vegetative cells are diploid or polyploid, and trose agar (YEPDA). The growth of yeasts in pref-
this phase predominates in the life cycle of the yeast. erence to bacteria is achieved by the p H of the medium
Sexual reproduction involves the production of being below neutral (usually 4-6) and the incorp-
asci, within which ascospores develop directly fol- oration of antibacterial antibiotics.
lowing meiosis of the diploid nucleus. The sporulation Enrichment culture is a technique by which strains
of S. cerevisiae is encouraged by media containing with characteristics required by industry (e.g. tol-
acetate, such as acetate agar. Sporulation also occurs erance to high temperatures) can be isolated from
on potato-dextrose agar. True sexual reproduction is natural habitats. The required strains are selected
found in some strains, which exhibit heterothallism, either by gradually increasing exposure to the factors
of the bipolar physiological type. Compatibility is to which tolerance is required, or by cultivation with
determined at one mating type locus, which may very high levels of the factors over a long period of
contain either of two alleles. Conjugation occurs time.
either by the fusion of two ascospores or by the
fusion of two haploid somatic cells of germinating
Maintenance of Cultures
ascospores. Haploid vegetative clones can be raised
by the germination of isolated spores. If yeasts are used regularly, for example in a batch
process with a constant periodicity, the simplest
Hybrid Strains
method of maintaining stock cultures is to use agar
Cells of opposite mating types can be fused to produce slopes or broth. For semi-continuous and continuous
hybrid yeast strains. This technique can be used to processes, fresh yeast cultures must be available
combine industrially desirable traits such as high because the overgrowth of less efficient and low-per-
growth rates, high yields, resistance to drying and COz forming variants of the yeasts in continuous processes
production. A range of hybrids has been developed, is a common problem.
suited to different needs. These include rapidly fer- Normally, slope and broth cultures are subcultured
menting strains which produce high volumes of COz, once every 2 months. After allowing for adequate
for automated bakeries; strains with intermediate growth at ambient temperature, they are kept at 4-
activity, for traditional bakeries; and strains which 8°C until use. The drawback of this simple technique
ferment more slowly, for in-store bakeries. Strains is the risk of contamination and the development of
have also been developed which have improved resist- genetic variants which are less efficient than the yeasts
ance to drying, osmotolerance and tolerance to freez- originally selected. These undesirable effects can be
ing. prevented by the incorporation of a ‘selection pres-
If sexual mating is difficult to achieve owing to very sure’ to ensure the retention of strains which perform
low yields of viable spores, modern techniques for well in preference to any variants which perform less
improving strains can be used. These include proto- well. Examples include the incorporation of a high
plast fusion and the construction of recombinant sugar or salt concentration in the maintenance
DNA, which can be achieved with relative ease using medium, to retain yeasts which will be tolerant to
the tools and techniques of molecular genetics. high concentrations in the fermentation.
YEASTS: PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL USES 2337
Diluted
molasses
Filter
Air
-
Cultivation
In industry, bakers' yeast is produced in fermentation
j
tanks with a capacity of 200 m3 or more. Tanks, and D
7
all connecting tubes, should preferably be made of
stainless steel. E,
W
The design and operation of fermenters for the m
W
outside the vessel. Directional flow of the cultivation thick strands, is cut into suitable lengths and packaged
medium is achieved by pumping air in at the bottom (usually in packs of about SOOg) in wax paper or
of a ‘draft tube’. The ratio between the depth of the polythene sheet. The compressed yeast must be
cultivation medium and the diameter of the vessel has rapidly cooled, and stored at 5 4 ° C .
been shown to influence 0 2 transfer. If the depth of
the broth exceeds 3 m, the use of compressed air, to Active Dry Yeast Active dry yeast is useful in situ-
overcome the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid, is ations (e.g. homes) where storage at low temperatures
recommended. The design of the air sparger is also is not possible. It is prepared by spreading out the
important for effective O2transfer. The inclusion of a pressed yeast cake to produce thin strands or small
motor-driven impeller further increases the effect- particles, which are then dried. Generally, a tunnel
iveness of 0 2 transfer, but the additional investment drier is used, taking 2-4h with the air inlet tem-
and energy consumption involved may undermine perature maintained at 28-42°C. However, more
their cost-effectiveness. modern equipment, achieving either continuous
The manufacture of bakers’ yeast begins with a drying or fluidized-bed drying (airlift drying), is also
number of stages which build up production, and available. Emulsifiers such as sucrose esters or sor-
involve the inoculation of the medium with pitching bitan esters (0.5-2.00/) are mixed with the dried yeast
yeast. This development process is usually divided to facilitate rehydration. Antioxidants, such as butyl
into eight stages, in which the yeast solids are grad- hydroxyanisole at 0.1%, are also added, to prevent
ually built up from the slope or flask culture of yeast. undesirable oxidative changes. Active dry yeast has a
Over the eight stages, 0.2 kg of yeast solids give a final moisture content of 4.0-8.5%.
yield of about 100000kg of yeast. In the first two
stages, sterilized medium and pure yeast cultures are Yeast Products and Uses
employed in pressurized tanks, but the subsequent
stages are operated in open tanks. The entire process Nutritional Yeast
is known to involve 24 generations of the yeast. Cul- Yeast which has been heat-killed and dried is a source
tivation may be terminated before the normal final of protein and the B vitamins, and useful for sup-
stage, in which case a yeast cream is obtained by plementing foods and animal feeds. Currently the
centrifugation and used for pitching as required. yeast used for these purposes is derived from brewing,
wine-making or distilling, but the cultivation of yeast
Maturation
exclusively for food/feed supplementation is a pos-
At the end of the final stage of yeast cultivation, the sible future development. The official definitions and
feed rate is greatly reduced. This allows the yeast cells standards for such products are laid down by the
to mature and results in a low proportion of budding International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
cells, which confers higher stability on compressed (IUPAC), the National Formulary (NF XII) of the
yeast in storage. American Pharmaceutical Association and the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) of the US.
Finishing Stages
Lysine-enriched Yeast
Yeast Cream The culture broth can be centrifuged
in a continuous centrifuge (with a vertical nozzle) at Strains of bakers’ yeast which can convert precursor
4000-5000 g, leading to almost complete recovery of molecules such as 5-formyl-2-oxovalerate or 2-oxo-
the yeast cells. In the first run, around two-thirds of adipate to lysine, with high efficiency, have been
the fluid can be removed and in subsequent runs reported. The use of such strains for the fortification
further concentration of the cells is achieved, pro- of lysine-deficient cereals has potential.
ducing a slurry called ‘yeast cream’, which contains Vitamin-enriched Yeast
about 20% yeast solids. Yeast cream can be stored at
4°C for a number of days, with good retention of The addition of thiazole and pyrimidine to the cul-
viability. tivation medium has been shown to cause bakers’
yeast to synthesize high levels of thiamin (around
Compressed Yeast This is prepared from yeast 600 pg g-’).
cream by filtration or by pressing in a filter press. The irradiation of bakers’ yeast with ultraviolet
Rotary continuous vacuum filters can also be used. light has been shown to convert ergosterol to cal-
The pressed cake thus obtained is mixed with 0.1- ciferol (vitamin D2),with a vitamin potency reaching
0.2% of emulsifiers such as monoglycerides, digly- as much as 180 000 USP units per gram of yeast. Such
cerides, sorbitan esters and lecithin, and then extruded strains will be useful for the fortification of food, feed
through nozzles. The extruded material, in the form of and pharmaceuticals.
YEASTS: PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL USES 2341
Yeast Lysates and Yeast Extract with a short life span, it is readily amenable to cul-
Yeast autolysates are prepared by imposing conditions tivation and to manipulation to reflect process needs.
which trigger the yeast’s native hydrolytic enzymes. It is also amenable to traditional and modern methods
These digest the yeast proteins and nucleic acids, of genetic engineering, using its natural recombination
converting them into soluble substances with an processes as well as in vitro techniques. Yeasts are
acceptable flavour and taste. The process involves the eukaryotes and their biochemistry has much in
addition of ethyl acetate and NaCl (l-3%) to a yeast common with that of higher organisms, including
slurry containing 14-16’70 yeast solids. The mixture glycosylation and cell sorting. Yeasts are therefore
is maintained at 45°C for about 20 h, and then the poised to be major players in biotechnology in the
whole autolysate is concentrated to a paste or dried future.
to a powder. The soluble fraction can be separated
out by centrifugation, and then concentrated. See also: Fermentation (Industrial): Basic Con-
Yeast hydrolysates can also be obtained, by adding siderations; Media for Industrial Fermentations. Genetic
hydrochloric acid to a yeast slurry containing 65- Engineering: Modification of Yeast and Moulds.
80% yeast solids and subjecting the mixture to reflux Saccharomyces: Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Sac-
for about 12 h. It is then neutralized with sodium charomyces carlsbergensis (Brewer’s Yeast). Single Cell
hydroxide solution, filtered, decolorized, con- Protein: Yeasts and Bacteria. Wines: Microbiology of
centrated and dried. Concentrates of hydrolysates, Wine-making.
containing 42% solids, 18% NaCl and 3 % Nz can be
obtained.
Further Reading
Biochemicals
Chapman JW (1991) Trends in Food Science and Tech-
S. cerevisiae is a good and economical source of nology. P. 176. Elsevier Sci. Pub. Ltd (UK).
several biochemicals which are in great demand by Collar C (1996) Food Sci. Technol. Int. 2 ( 6 ) :349-367.
biochemists and molecular biologists. S. cerevisiae is Doran PM (1995) Bioprocess Engineering Principles.
a source of the pyridine nucleotides NAD and NADP London: Academic Press.
and their reduced forms and of several ribonucleotides Edelmann K, Stelwagen P and Oura E (1980) In: Stewart G
and deoxyribonucleotides, including AMP, ADP and and Russell I (eds) Current Develop. Yeast Research. P.
ATP. 51. Toronto: Pergamen Press.
Oura E, Soumalainen H and Viskari R (1982) In: Rose AH
Heterologous Gene Expression in S. cerevisiae (ed) Economic Microbiology. P. 87. New York: Aca-
demic Press.
With the advent of the recombinant DNA technology Peppler HJ (1979) In: Peppler HJ and Perlman D (eds)
a major application has been to extract a desired plant Microbial Technology, 2nd edn., vol 1. I? 157. New
or mammalian gene and introduce it into a suitable York: Academic Press Inc.
microorganism with the aid of a vector for expression. Reed G (1982)In: Reed G (ed)Prescott & Dunn’s Industrial
As microorganisms can be grown to huge numbers in Microbiology, 4th edn. P. 593. Westport: AVI Publishing.
a short period of time in fermenters, copious amounts Reed G and Peppler HJ (1973) Yeast Technology. Westpor:
of the ‘foreign’ gene product can be produced. The AVI Publishing.
Human Genome Project makes great use of S. cer- Rose AH and Harrison JS (eds) (1993) The Yeast, 2nd edn.,
vol 5. Yeast Technology. London: Academic Press.
evisiae and its vectors. Sat0 T (1966) Bakers’ Yeast. Tokyo: Korin-Shoin Pub.
Trivedi NB and Jacobson G (1986) In: Adams M R (ed)
Future Developments Progress in Industrial Microbiology. I? 45. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Yeast has come to occupy a unique place in science White J (1954) Yeast Technology. London: Chapman &
and technology: being a unicellular microorganism Hall.
ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES 2359
ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES
John P Erickson and Denise N McKenna Bestfoods Technical Center, Somerset, New Jersey, USA
Copyright 0 1999 Academic Press
The yeast genus Zygosaccharomyces contains eight Macroscopic and microscopic morphology obser-
recognized species, of which three pose serious eco- vations cannot differentiate Zygosaccharomyces from
nomic spoilage risks to processed food manufacturers. other yeast or individual species within the genus.
They are Z . bailii, Z . rouxii and Z . bisporus. Z . O n various mycological agars, colonies are smooth,
bailii is particularly troublesome in mayonnaise, salad round, convex and cream-coloured. Microscopic
dressings, pickled vegetables, teas and various fruit observation shows large ovoid elongated cells and
drinks. In contrast, Z. vouxii spoilage is more closely multilateral budding. All eight species vigorously
associated with high sugar or salt-based ingredients ferment glucose and produce asci with one to four
and finished products like fruit concentrates, syrups, globose or ellipsoidal ascospores inside. The three
candied fruit pieces and confectioneries such as mar- food and beverage spoilage species can be dis-
zipan, chocolate candy fillings, etc. The Z. bisporus tinguished by sucrose fermentation properties,
spoilage profile is similar to Z . rouxii, but occurs presence/absence of growth at 37°C and acetic acid
less frequently. The types of food ingredients and resistance (Table 1). However, the incubation time
processed foods spoiled by Zygosaccharomyces are and laborious media preparation required to conduct
generally considered shelf-stable in that they readily these tests make them unsuitable for routine quality
inactivate a broad spectrum of food-associated micro- control applications. From a practical perspective, the
organisms ranging from bacteria to moulds. Hence, physiochemical attributes of the ingredient or finished
Z. bailii, Z. rouxii and, to a lesser extent, Z. bisporus product can furnish useful information regarding
possess several intrinsic physiological resistance species identification. For example, if yeast was reco-
factors which allow them to survive and thrive in vered from a highly acidified food with a 3 0.90 water
normally hostile environments. The most prominent activity (a,$,),there is a strong likelihood Z. bailii was
resistance factors are acetic acid (vinegar) tolerance,
chemical antimycotic preservative resistance and
growth under high osmotic pressure. Effective con- Table 1 Key taxonomic, biochemical and physiological tests
required to differentiate three Zygosaccharomyces - food
tamination control is dependent upon ingredient spoilage species
ecology knowledge, stringent/consistent sanitation
standards, tight formulation specifications and Results
focused quality assurance strategies. Equally import- Tests Z. bailii Z. rouxii Z. bisporus
ant, finished product microbiological stability streng- Glucose fermentation Positive Positive Positive
ths and weaknesses must be well documented and (slow)
fully understood. Sucrose fermentation Variable Variable Negative
(slow)
Growth at 37°C Variable Variable Negative
Taxonomic and Ecological Growth in presence of Positive Negative Positive
1% acetic acid
Characteristics Water activity (a,) 0.80-0.85 < 0.80 < 0.80
The general taxonomic properties of Zygo- tolerance
saccharomyces are identical to ubiquitous foods yeast Adapted from Kreger-Van Rij NJW (1984) The Yeasts, A
genera such as Saccharomyces, Candida and Pichia. Taxonomic Study, 3rd edition. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
2360 ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES
detected. Conversely, a low acid food with high sugar Depending upon accompanying formulation factors
or salt content is more likely to be contaminated and such as pH, it is not atypical to encounter Z . bailii
spoiled by Z . rouxii. strains spoiling fruit drinks and pourable salad dress-
Zygosaccharomyces isolates from alcoholic bev- ings preserved with > 1000 p.p.m. of potassium
erages are more difficult to discern since Z . bailii and sorbate. Intrinsic preservative resistance mechanisms
Z . rouxii exhibit comparable ethanol and low pH are extremely adaptable and robust. Their func-
tolerance, and the a,v of most wines is 30.95. Also, tionality and effectiveness are unaffected or mar-
with the exception of wines that contain sulphur ginally suppressed by physiochemical environmental
dioxide, very few wines and fruit cordials are pre- conditions such as low pH, low a , high osmotic
served with antimycotic acids such as acetic, benzoic pressure and sparse nutrients. Interestingly, there is
and sorbic. strong evidence that Z. bailii preservative resistance
The ecological distribution of Z . bailii, Z . rouxii is stimulated by the presence of multiple antimicrobial
and Z . bisporus is not well defined. The most fre- constituents. Cellular acetic acid uptake was inhibited
quently cited natural habitats are mummified fruits, when sorbic acid, benzoic acid or ethanol was incorp-
tree exudate, and at various stages of raw sugar refin- orated into yeast culture medium. Similarly, ethanol
ing and commercial syrup production. It appears that levels up to 10% did not adversely alter Z . bailii
Zygosaccharomyces prefers specialized, selective eco- intrinsic sorbic acid and benzoic acid resistance at
logical niches. But technical limitations have strongly p H 4.0-5.0. Sugar substrate investigations also
influenced ecological investigations in two ways: first, revealed negligible effects on preservative resistance.
the lack of reliable and simple-to-use selective recov- Comparable sorbic and benzoic acid resistance was
ery media prevented detection in highly competitive observed regardless of whether Z. bailii cells were
and dynamic environments, and second, slow, grown in culture medium containing glucose, fructose
complex identification methods deterred screening or sucrose as the fermentable substrate. Conversely,
large numbers of yeast isolates. Recent advances in synergistic interaction between salt and acetic acid
selective plating media combined with powerful new generated antagonistic effects against Z . bailii. As salt
genetic assays such as polymerase chain reaction levels increased, the yeast was inactivated by lower
(PCR)have greatly enhanced the ability to conduct in- amounts of acetic acid.
depth and long-term ecological studies in both natural Sugar fermentation within the Zygosaccharomyces
and food-processing plant environments. genus is unique. Unlike the vast majority of yeast
genera, fructose is metabolized more rapidly than
Physiological and Preservative glucose. For species like Z. bailii and Z . rouxii this
Resistance Characteristics produces a phenomenon known as fructophily, in
which yeast growth rates are greatly accelerated when
a food’s fructose level approaches and exceeds 1% of
Z. bailii
product composition. The slow and delayed fer-
Among the three Zygosaccharomyces food/beverage mentation of sucrose is directly linked to fructose
spoilage species, Z . bailii possess the most pro- metabolism: sucrose, a disaccharide composed of
nounced and diversified antimicrobial resistance glucose and fructose, is hydrolysed by food acids, i.e.
attributes. Extensive research conducted over four low p H conditions. Hence, in acidic processed foods
decades has repeatedly documented resistance to high and beverages there is a steady accumulation of
concentrations of monocarboxylic acids, chemical glucose and fructose during storage. If sucrose is the
antimycotic preservatives and ethanol. Z . bailii also primary carbohydrate ingredient and Z . bailii con-
grows over wide p H and a,< ranges - 2.0-7.0 and tamination is present, cell growth can be impeded for
0.85-0.99, respectively. Even more significant for the several weeks until sufficient quantities of fructose
food industry, the yeast can survive and defeat potent and glucose are available to support reproduction and
broad-spectrum synergistic preservative com- proliferation. This is usually preceded by a 2-4-week
binations (hurdles) that impart microbiological shelf- lag before visible spoilage defects are noticeable. In
stability protection to acidified processed foods. Spe- toto, overt product quality deterioration does not
cifically, Z . bailii has been shown to be innately resist- surface until 2-3 months after manufacturing. Z .
ant to commonly used food and beverage bailii’s key preservative, physiological and metabolic
preservatives, including acetic acid, lactic acid, pro- resistance properties are summarized in Table 2.
pionic acid, benzoic acid, sorbic acid, sulphur dioxide
and ethanol. Optimum preservative resistance is medi- 2. rouxii and 2.bisporus
ated by glucose levels, with 10-20% sugar con- These two species differ from Z . bailii in their inferior
centrations producing maximum resistance responses. resistance to acetic acid and chemical antimycotic
ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES 2361
Table 2 Key preservative and physiological resistance factors As expected, asci and vegetative cell heat resistance
of Zygosaccharomyces bailii increased as a,v decreased. Six log reductions (D64sC)
factor Resistance properties were calculated as 1.2mid0.963 a,,, and
Acetic acid (pH 4.0) 33% 5.4 min/0.858 a,,,. Commercially processed fruit
Benzoic acid (pH 4.0) 31000 p.p.m. drinks and sugar syrups are normally pasteurized at
Sorbic acid (pH 4.0) 31000 p.p.m. 75-85°C. This provides a large quality assurance
Sulphur dioxide 3500 p . p m margin with respect to Zygosaccharomyces thermal
Ethanol 2 10-1 5%
destruction efficacy.
Sodium chloride <IO%
Sugar (glucose) 2 60%
PH 12.0 Zygosaccharomyces Preservative and
Water activity (a,) 3 0.80-0.85
Temperature range 3 8-37°C Environmental Resistance Mechanisms
Atmosphere 3 Facultative (aerobic-stimulatory)
Due to the pioneering and elegant research efforts of
Dr A.D. Warth the Z . bailti preservative resistance
preservatives. In contrast, both yeasts grow at lower mechanism has been elucidated and thoroughly
a,vthan Z . bailii. Z . rouxii is capable of spoiling honey understood. The organism utilizes an inducible, active
and related high-sugar foods at a, as low as 0.62, transport pump to counteract the toxic effects pro-
whereas Z. bailii growth potential ceases in the 0.80- duced by undissociated preservative molecule build-
0.85 range. Comparative salt tolerance further illus- up inside individual cells. The pump provides two
trates exceptional capacity of Z . rouxii to survive high levels of protection. First, it physically expels pre-
osmotic stresses. It can grow in liquid sugars at > 75" servative molecules from the cell, which assists in
Brix and salt concentrations close to 20%, cor- maintaining low, non-injurious preservative levels
responding to 0.75 and 0.85 a,\,respectively. With the within the cell. Second, the rapid and efficient purging
exception of a few rare strains, the growth of Z . of undissociated molecules prevents deleterious cyto-
rouxii and Z . bisporus is completely inhibited by plasm pH changes that could disrupt or shut down
3 500 p.p.m. of sorbic and benzoic acids within a 4.0- critical metabolic pathways. Because the pump
4.5pH range. They are especially sensitive to acetic requires energy to function optimally, high sugar
acid, rapidly dying off at 2 1% levels. levels enhance Z. bailii preservative resistance. It is
Physiochemical environmental effects on sugar and equally effective in excreting monocarboxylic organic
salt-tolerant yeast have not been studied as com- acids and lipophilic straight chain fatty acid pre-
prehensively as Z . bailii. This is most likely due to the servatives such as sorbic acid and benzoic acid. Add-
latter's broader economic impact regarding food and itionally, the active transport successfully operates
beverage categories vulnerable to spoilage. Com- across a wide p H and a , range, and broad nutritional
parative studies of sugar- and salt-tolerant 2. rouxii conditions.
strains indicated that distinct physiological differences The resistance to osmotic stress of Z. rouxii is
existed. The sugar-tolerant strains grew over a 1.8-8.0 primarily associated with internal synthesis of polyols,
pH range in high sugar media, whereas salt-tolerant mainly glycerol and arabitol, which raises intra-
strains were more sensitive to pH conditions. At 1mol cellular pressure, bringing it in balance with the exter-
sodium chloride concentration, growth was detected nal osmotic gradient. Cell membrane and wall
over a 3.0-6.6 pH range. When sodium chloride mol- composition as well as ATPase enzyme activity may
arity was doubled, growth was restricted to a narrow be important in augmenting poly01 formation, thus
4.0-5.0 range. Z. rouxii optimum growth tem- regulating osmotolerance.
perature increased as a,v decreased. Surprisingly, the
optimum temperature reached 35°C at 60.96 a, Zygosaccharomyces Spoilage in Food and
levels, which is more typical of mesophilic bacteria Beverages
incubation requirements.
Z . bailii is the most troublesome and persistent spoil-
age yeast confronting acidified food and beverage
Zygosaccharomyces Heat Resistance
manufacturers. Early reports of inexplicable fer-
The heat resistance profiles of Z . bailii, Z . rouxii mentation spoilage in mayonnaise and salad dressing
and Z . bisporus are comparable to other ascospore- date back to the 1920s. Several incidents described
forming yeasts. Z . bailii asci were significantly more violent fermentation coupled with the recovery of a
heat-resistant than Z . rouxii at 0.963 and 0.858 a, in few yeasts. More detailed investigations in the 1940s
liquid medium adjusted to pH4.5. Z . bailii vegetative and 1950s confirmed Z. bailii spoilage in cucumber
cells were also more heat-resistant than Z . rouxii. pickles, sundry pickled vegetable mixes, acidified
2362 ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES
Table 3 Food and Drug Administration yeast fermentation - Drug Administration yeast fermentation - spoilage
spoilage recalls in dressings and related acidified processed
recalls in high acetic acid and/or chemically preserved
foods (1978-1 996)
foods and beverages covering an 18-year period
Year Product (1978-1996). Most likely, Table 3 represents a small
-
1978 Imitation mayonnaise fraction of economic losses produced by Z . bailii
1981 Mayonnaise (single serving pouch) contamination. Obviously, company rejections, pro-
1984 Low-calorie Roquefort dressing longed holding times and spoilage risks caught before
1985 Homestyle salad dressing, real mayonnaise
finished production lots reached retail distribution
1986 Real mayonnaise
1987 Carbonated beverages (soda and fruit concentrate)
channels are not accounted for.
1988 Ketchup In most cases it is difficult to pinpoint the specific
1990 Reduced-calorie mayonnaise, fat-free French cause of spoilage. This is because the problem does
dressing not show up until 2-4 months after production and
1991 Light mayonnaise
the finished product conformed to applicable for-
1992 Lite Caesar dressing, lite creamy Parmesan dressing,
olive oil vinaigrette dressing mulation, processing and microbiological spe-
1993 Salad dressing, tartar sauce, coleslaw dressing, cifications at the time of manufacture. Z . bailii
burger tartar sauce, thousand island dressing, spoilage manifestations are readily recognized by both
Parmesan pepper dressing, lite Parmesan pepper customers and consumers. Overt physical and organ-
dressing
oleptic decomposition signs include product oozing
1995 White salad dressing
1996 Salad dressing from jars or bottles, emission of pungent yeast and
alcoholic odours, occasional emulsion breakage
(dressings), sediment formation (beverages) and
sauces, mayonnaise and salad dressings. Spoilage brown surface film development on product surfaces.
invariably occurred in acidic shelf-stable foods which Z . bailii and Z . rouxii spoilage must never be taken
relied upon acetic acid (vinegar) to negate micro- lightly. Under extreme circumstances, internal COz
biological growth risks. Around the same time, spor- pressure increases inside glass jars or bottles to the
adic gaseous fermentation spoilage incidents suddenly level where on-the-shelf explosions may take place.
appeared in high-acid/sugar fruit syrups and bev- Although the possibility is remote, personal injury
erages preserved with moderate benzoic acid levels could result from flying debris. Plastic containers and
of 400-500 p.p.m. Again, Z . bailii was indisputably polyfilm pouches burst open rather than explode. If
identified as the spoilage culprit. The near sim- slip and fall injuries were caused by spilled product
ultaneous emergence of Z . bailii spoilage in two diver- residue, the company is exposed to contentious liabil-
gent processed food categories was probably due to ity issues. A plausible scenario is that individuals
improved laboratory and field evaluation techniques, become angry after being soiled by high-velocity
better communication channels, movement towards product expelled from jars or bottles immediately
consolidated, mass-production manufacturing facil- upon opening. More often than not, these types of
ities and large-scale complex distribution networks. incidents result in unwanted government involve-
Remarkably, 50 years later, Z. bailii spoilage risks ment, or costly consumer complaint investigations.
and root causes closely parallel the processed food Z. rouxii and Z. bisporus exclusively spoil high-
industry’s situation in the late 1940s to early 1950s. sugar/low a, foods and food ingredients. The most
Despite quantum leaps in formulation control, food prevalent types are sugar syrups, fruit syrups, molas-
process equipment design and construction, and sani- ses, honey, fruit concentrates, sweetened wines and
tation technologies (automated clean-in-place, sani- cordials and confectionaries such as marzipan and
tary transfer valves, etc.), Z. bailii remains candy fillings. These yeasts ferment the food product,
problematic in mayonnaise, salad dressings, tomato leading to effervescence, alcohol odour or taste, and
ketchup, pickled/brined vegetables, low to moderate turbidity which is more easily noted in clear sugar
Brix fruit concentrates, and various non-carbonated syrups. However, Z. rouxii and Z . bisporus ferment
fruit drinks. This is mute testimony to the organism’s slower and less aggressively than Z. bailii. Thus, the
adaptability, resilience and overall hardiness. Fur- potentially serious ramifications generated by vig-
thermore, Z . bailii spoilage is expanding into new orous Z. bailii fermentative metabolism are not a
food categories. Two recent examples are spoilage concern with osmotolerant yeast.
incidents in prepared mustards and fruit-flavoured As mentioned previously, it is generally impossible
carbonated soft drinks containing citrus, apple and to ascertain the exact reason why Z. bailii or Z . rouxii
grape juice concentrates. The specialized but per- contamination occurred in processed food lots made
sistent nature of Z . bailii spoilage problems is exem- 2-3 months earlier. Circumstantial and inferential evi-
plified in Table 3,which summarizes the US Food and dence is readily attainable from additional finished
ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES 2363
product and environmental sample testing, but accur- 0 Rich nutrient content and absence of acidulants
ate and concrete information gathering is highly concomitantly resuscitate debilitated cells and
suspect when the investigation focuses on recon- maximize growth rates.
structing and interpreting events that happened weeks 0 Use of antibiotics to eliminate bacterial growth.
ago. However, trend analysis of past spoilage inci- 0 Plating or streaking on selective media to separate
dents suggests that certain commonalties exist among spoilage from innocuous yeast strains.
diverse Zygosaccharomyces contamination failures.
They include undetected introduction of the offending The detection and enumeration of sugar- and salt-
Z. bailii or Z. rouxii strain into the plant environment tolerant yeast ( Z . rouxiij rely upon high solute con-
from a low-level heterogeneous contaminated ingre- centrations in plating media and enrichment broths.
dient lot. This is followed by yeast build-ups inside Typically, 40-60% glucose is added to the basal
key processing equipment because of inadequate or medium to lower a , and establish a high osmotic
poorly executed sanitation procedures. In tandem, pressure environment, The most popular basal plating
routine quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) medium is unacidified total plate count agar, which
monitoring protocols missed or overlooked con- is often supplemented with antibiotics that obviate
tamination risks. Eventually, finished product cross bacterial growth. Incubation conditions and length
contamination occurred during production runs, and are identical to preservative-resistant yeast. One con-
QA/QC standard operating procedures (SOPS)lacked troversial aspect is whether plating diluent must
appropriate detection sensitivity, discrimination abil- contain 40-60% glucose in order to prevent osmotic
ities and sampling discipline/focus to discover the shock (transfer from low to high a , environment) that
problem. These shortcomings and deficiencies are dramatically decreases yeast recovery rates. Recent
compounded in product formulations which are observations suggest that 30°C is the best incubation
excessively sensitive to yeast growth. Certain fruit temperature for yeast detection. Faster growth rates
beverages can be spoiled by Z. bailii contamination and larger surface colonies occurred at 30°C vs 25°C
as low as one viable cell in 3 10 1 of finished product. incubation for 3-5 days.
It is also widely accepted that all yeast and mould
No sanitation or microbiological QA/QC programme
plating assays should employ surface plating tech-
can cope with this degree of risk. The only viable
niques which simplify counting procedures, improve
alternatives would be reformulation to increase sta-
discrimination between food particles and yeast col-
bility and/or application of high-lethality thermal-
onies, and enhance recovery rates due to high oxygen
processing parameters.
tension. Surface plating effectiveness is further opti-
-
Zygosaccharomyces Pract i caI
mized when the sample aliquot is analysed by mem-
brane filtration methods (for example, hydrophobic
Food/Beverage Industry Aspects grid membrane filtration j. Membrane filtration phys-
ically separates viable yeast cells from food and bev-
Recovery and Enumeration - Q N Q C Microbiology erage ingredients that may inhibit or slow yeast
growth. The filtration step is superior to manual
Several media were developed for the selective detec-
spreading and streaking regarding depositing and dis-
tion and quantification of preservative-resistant and
tributing individual yeast cells over the entire agar
sugadsalt-tolerant yeast in susceptible foods and bev-
surface, which increases enumeration accuracy and
erages. As regards the former yeast group, standard
non-differential yeast and mould plating media (malt improves analytical reliability and simplicity. Rec-
ommended preservative-resistant and sugar-tolerant
extract or potato dextrose agars) were supplemented
with 20.5% glacial acetic acid and/or 0.05% sodium Zygosaccharomyces microbiological Q C plating and
enrichment media are summarized in Table 4.
benzoate. Recommended incubation times ranged
from 5 to 14 days. Common incubation conditions
were 20-25"C, aerobic atmosphere and acidifying
Zygosaccharomyces Identification
media to 4.0-4.5 p H range to ensure proper select-
ivity. The addition of 0.5% glacial acetic acid was As discussed earlier, Zygosaccharomyces colonies on
usually sufficient to produce a final p H of 4.0-4.5. non-selective and semi-selective media are mor-
Specialized yeast enrichment broths were co-devel- phologically similar to many common yeasts, and
oped to increase recovery sensitivity below the typical traditional biochemical and physiological tests used
b 10 per gram or millilitre detection threshold of direct to identify Z. bailii and Z . rouxii do not lend them-
microbiological plating methods. Up to 1000-fold selves to routine microbiological Q C applications.
sensitivity increases were reported. The enrichment Yeast identification kits have been available for over
broths operate on three principles: 10 years. However, they have limited Q C benefits
Next Page
2364 ZYGOSACCHAROMYCES
Table 4 Recommended enumeration and recovery media for preservative-resistant and sugarhalt-tolerant Zygosaccharomyces
Medium Composition (per litre) Preparation lncubation Special comments
timeltempera ture
Acidified tryptone glucose 100 g Glucose 1. Mix and boil dry 5 days 1. 0.5% glacial acetic
yeast extract agar monohydrate ingredients 25-30°C acid in final medium:
(ATGYE) 5 g Tryptone 2. Autoclave at 121"C for pH ca. 3.9
5 g Yeast extract 15minat 15Ibsteam 2. Best total recovery of
15 g Agar 3. Cool to 45-52°C preservative-
5 ml Glacial acetic acid 4. Add 5 ml glacial acetic resistant yeast
acid and mix thoroughly 3. Not selective for Z.
5. Pour plates, let solidify. bailii
Store at 4-6°C for up to 2
weeks
Z. bailii selective agar 30 g Sabouraud's 1. Same as ATGY E except 3-5 days 1. 0.5% glacial acetic
medium (ZBM)" dextrose broth autoclave 121"C for 5 min 30°C acid in final medium:
30 g Fructose at 15 Ib steam pH 3.7-4.0
25 g Sodium chloride 2. Add potassium sorbate 2. Filter sterilize 10%
15 g Agar and glacial acetic acid potassium sorbate
5 g Tryptone after cooling to 45-52°C solution before use:
2.5 g yeast extract 100 p.p.m. in final
0.1 g Trypan blue dye medium
(optional) 3. Highly specific for Z.
5 ml Glacial acetic acid bailii
1 ml Potassium sorbate 4. Targeted to pickled
10% solution vegetables, fruit
concentrates and
salad dressings
5. Requires validation in
alcoholic and acidified
beverages
Dichloran-18% glycerol Commercially available As directed by 5 days 1. Recovered Z. bailii
agar (DGl8) manufacturer 25°C and Z.rouxii
2. Best yeast recovery
when mixed with
xerophilic mould
Malt-yeast extractdo% 500 g Glucose 1. Mix and boil dry 5 days 1. Does not recover Z.
glucose agar (MY50G) 10 g Malt extract ingredients 25°C bailii
10 g Agar 2. Autoclave at 121"C for 2. Colonies small at 5
2.5 g Yeast extract 15 min at 15 Ib steam days
3. Cool to 45-52°C
4. Pour plates, let solidify.
Store at 4-6°C for up to 2
weeks
Plate count 30% sugar 200 g Glucose 1. Mix and boil dry 3 days 1. Used with
agar (PCAS) 100 g Fructose ingredients 30°C hydrophobic
23 g Plate count agar 2. Cool to 45-50°C membrane filtration
0.1 g Trypan blue dye 3. Add 20 ml antibiotic method
(optional) solution and mix 2. Leverages
20 ml Sterile antibiotic thoroughly fructophily response
solution 4. Pour plates, let solidify. of Z. rouxii to speed up
Store at 4-6°C for up to 2 growth rate
weeks
~~
aModified from Erickson JP (1993) Hydrophobic membrane filtration method for the selective recovery and differentiation of
Zygosaccharomyces bailii in acidified ingredients. J. Food Prot. 56: 234-238.
because of labour requirements, complexity and ing Z.bailii and Z.rouxii. Three technologies men-
length of testing, which can take 37 days for a final tioned were random amplified polymorphic DNA
result. A trained laboratory staff is needed to reduce (RAPD), RAPD-polymerase chain reaction, and
human error. These kits are useful plant investigation, microsatellite polymerase chain reaction assays. All
trouble-shooting and problem-solving tools. have been described as extremely precise and faster
Various genetic DNA probe techniques have been than traditional cultural identification methods.
successfully applied to identify spoilage yeast, includ- Whether there is enough industry demand and volume
APPENDIX I: BACTERIA AND FUNGI
The genera listed here are those associated with food, agricultural products and environments in which food is
prepared or handled.
The suppliers below are mentioned in the text as main sources of specialist equipment, culture media or diagnostic
materials. This list is not intended to be comprehensive.
bio resources
ABC Research Corporation
9304 Canterbury
3437 SW 24th Avenue
Leawood
Gainesville
KS 66206
FL 32607
USA
USA
BioControl Systems
Adgen Ltd 19805 North Creek Parkway
Nellies Gate Bothwell
Auchincruive WA 98011
Ayr KA6 5HW USA
UK
BioControl Systems, Inc
Agi-Diagnostics Associates 12822 SE
Cinnaminson 32nd Street
New Jersey Bellevue
USA WA 98005
USA
diAgnostix, Inc
Bioscience International
11607 Mcgruder Lane 1238 Anthony Road
RockviI le Burlington
MD 20852 4365 NC 27215
USA
USA
DIFCO
Biosynth AG
PO Box 331058
PO Box 125
Detroit
9422 Staad
MI 48232
Switzerland
USA
Biotecon
Diffchamb (UK)
Hermannswerder haus 17
1 Unit 12 Block 2/3
14473 Potsdam
Old Mill Trading Estate
Germany
Mansfield Woodhouse
Biotrace Nottingham NG19 9BG
666 Plainsboro Road UK
Suite 1116
Plainsboro Diffchamb SA
NJ 08536 8 Rue St Jean de Dieu
USA 69007 Lyons
France
Celsis
2948 Old Britain Circle Digen Ltd
Chattanooga 65 High Street
TN 37421 Wheatley
USA Oxford OX33 1UL
UK
Celsis International plc
Cambridge Science Park DiverseyLever
Milton Road Weston Favell Centre
Cambridge Northampton
CB4 4FX NN3 8PD
UK UK
APPENDIX II: LIST OF SUPPLIERS Av
Ecolab Ltd
David Murray John Building IDEXX Laboratories, Inc
Swindon One IDEXX Drive
Wiltshire Westbrook
SNl 1NH ME 04092
UK USA
Avi APPENDIX II: LIST OF SUPPLIERS
1. Contents Lists
Your first point of reference will probably be the contents list. The complete contents list appearing in each
volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry. On the opening
page of an entry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry are immediately
available.
Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as
your guide. To assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates
the current entry and the current article within that entry.
You will find ‘dummy entries’ where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped together
related topics. Dummy entries appear in both the contents list and the body of the text. For example, a dummy
entry appears for Butter which directs you to Milk and Milk Products: Microbiology of Cream and Butter,
where the material is located.
Example
If you were attempting to locate material on Dairy Products via the contents list.
DAIRY PRODUCTS see BRUCELLA: Problems with Dairy Products; CHEESE: In the Market Place; Microbiology of
Cheese-making and Maturation; Mould-ripened Varieties; Role of Specific Groups of Bacteria; Microflora of White-
brined Cheeses; FERMENTED MILKS: Yoghurt; Products from Northern Europe; Products of Eastern Europe and
Asia; PROBIOTIC BACTERIA: Detection and Estimation in Fermented and Non-fermented Dairy Products
At the appropriate location in the contents list, the page numbers for articles under Brucella, etc. are given.
If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Dairy Products then
the following information would be provided.
xiv Guide to use of the Encyclopedia
DAIRY PRODUCTS see BRUCELLA: Problems with Dairy Products; CHEESE: In the Market Place; Micro-
biology of Cheese-making and Maturation; Mould-ripened Varieties; Role of Specific Groups of Bacteria;
Microflora of White-brined Cheeses; FERMENTED MILKS: Yoghurt; Products from Northern Europe; Products
of Eastern Europe and Asia; PROBIOTIC BACTERIA: Detection and Estimation in Fermented and Non-
fermented Dairv Products.
Alternatively, if you were looking up Brucella the following information would be provided.
BRUCELLA
Contents
Characteristics
Problems with Dairy Products
2. Cross References
All of the articles in the Encyclopedia have an extensive list of cross references which appear a t the end of
each article, e.g.:
3. Index
The index will provide you with the volume number and page number of where the material is to be located,
and the index entries differentiate between material that is a whole article, is part of a n article or is data
presented in a table. O n the opening page of the index, detailed notes are provided.
4. Colour Plates
The colour figures for each volume have been grouped together in a plate section. The location of this section
is cited both in the contents list and before the See also list of the pertinent articles.
5. Contributors
A full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume.
CONTRIBUTORS
T E Cloete N D Cowell
Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology Elstead
Faculty of Biological and Agricultural Sciences Godalming
University of Pretoria Surrey
Pretoria 0002 GU8 6HT
South Africa UK
Vinod K Dhir
E Alison Davies
Biotec Laboratories Ltd
Technical Services & Research Department
32 Anson Road
Aplin & Barrett Ltd (Cultor Food Science)
Martlesham Heath
15 North Street
lpswich
Beaminster
Suffolk
Dorset
IP5 3RD
DT8 3DZ
UK
UK
M W Dick
Brian P F Day Department of Botany
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association University of Reading
Chipping Campden Reading
Gloucestershire RG6 6AU
GL55 6LD UK
UK
Vivian M Dillon
Department of Biology and Biochemistry
J M Debevere University of Bath
Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation Bath
Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences UK
University of Ghent
Coupure Links 654 Eleftherios H Drosinos
9000 Ghent Department of Food Science and Technology
Belgium Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods
Agricultural University of Athens
lera Odos 75
Joss Delves-Broughton Athens
Technical Services and Research Department Greece
Aplin & Barrett Ltd (Cultor Food Science)
15 North Street F M Dugan
Beaminster USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station
Dorset Washington State University
DT8 3DZ Washington
UK USA
xxii Contributors
H Ray Gamble
M Gibert
United States Department of Agriculture
lnstitut Pasteur
Agricultural Research Service
Unite Interactions Bacteries Cellules
Parasite Biology and Epidemiology Laboratory
28 rue du Dr Roux
Building 1040, Room 103, BARC-East
75724 Paris
Beltsville
Cedex 15
MD 20705
France
USA
S A S Hanna, A D Hitchins
48 Kensington Street Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Newton Food and Drug Administration
MA 02460 Washington, DC
USA USA
J Harvey
Food Science Division (Food Microbiology) Ailsa D Hocking,
Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland CSlRO Food Science Australia
Agriculture and Food Science Centre Riverside Corporate Park
Newforge Lane North Ryde
Belfast New South Wales 21 13
BT9 5PX Australia
Northern Ireland, UK
Cornelis P Hollenberg
Wilma C Hazeleger lnstitut fur Microbiology
Wageningen University and Research Centre Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf
Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences 40225 Dusseldorf
Bomenweg 2 Germany
NL 6703 HD Wageningen
The Netherlands
Richard A Holley
G M Heard Department of Food Science
University of Manitoba
CRC for Food Industry Innovation
Department of Food Science and Technology Winnipeg
University of New South Wales Manitoba
R3T 2N2
Sydney
Canada
New South Wales 2052
Australia
Wilhelm H Holzapfel
Nidal Hila1 Institute of Hygiene and Toxicology
Biochemical Engineering Group Federal Research Centre for Nutrition
Centre for Complex Fluids Processing Bundesforschungsanstalt
Department of Chemical and Biological Process Haid-und-Neu-Str. 9
Engineering D-7613 Karlsruhe
University of Wales Swansea Germany
Singleton Park
Swansea SA2 8PP
Rolf K Hommel
UK
Cell Technologie Leipzig
Fontanestr. 21
G Hildebrandt Leipzig
Institute for Food Hygiene D-04289
Free University of Berlin
Germany
Germany
C A Kaysner
Vinod K Joshi
US Food and Drug Administration
Department of Post-harvest Technology
22201 23rd Drive SE
Dr YSP University of Horticulture and Foresty
Bothell
Nauni
Washington 98021
Solan-173 230
USA
India
D F Lewis R H Madden
Food Systems Division Food Microbiology
SAC Food Science Department
Auchincruive Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland and
Ayr KA6 5HW Queen’s University of Belfast
Scotland Newforge Lane
UK Belfast
BT9 5PX
Northern Ireland
M J Lewis
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Reading
UK T Mahmutoglu
TATKO TAS
E Litopoulou-Tzanetaki Gayrettepe
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agriculture Istanbul
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Turkey
54006
Thessaloniki
Greece K A Malik
Chairman
Aline Lonvaud-Funel Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
Faculty of Enology Islamabad
University Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2 Pakistan
351, Cours de la Liberation
33405 Talence Cedex
France Miguel Prieto Maradona
Department of Food Hygiene and Food Technology
S E Lopez University of Leon
Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas 24071-Leon
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Spain
Pabellon I1 4to piso - Ciudad Universitaria
1428 Buenos Aires
Argentina
Scott E Martin
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
G Love University of Illinois
Centre for Electron Optical Studies 486 Animal Sciences Laboratory
University of Bath 1207 West Gregory Drive
Claverton Down Urbana
Bath IL 61 801
BA2 7AY USA
UK
Robert W Lovitt
Biochemical Engineering Group L Martinkova
Laboratory of Biotransformation
Centre for Complex Fluids Processing
Institute of Microbiology
Department of Chemical and Biological Process
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Engineering
Prague
University of Wales Swansea
Singleton Park Czech Republic
Swansea
SA2 8PP
UK Tina Mattila-Sandholm
VTT Biotechnology and Food Research
Majella Maher Tietotie 2
National Diagnostics Centre Espoo
National University of Ireland PO Box 1501
Galway FIN-02044 v1T
Ireland Finland
xxx Contributors
Rachel M Oakley
D S Nichols United Biscuits (UK Ltd)
School of Agricultural Science High Wycombe
University of Tasmania Buckinghamshire
Hobart HP12 4JX
Australia UK
P A Pawar J I Pitt
Fermentation Technology and Bioengineering CSlRO Food Science Australia
Department Riverside Corporate Park
Central Food Technological Research Institute North Ryde
Mysore 570013 New South Wales 21 13
India Australia
Moshe Raccach
Jouko Ridell
Food Science Program
Department of Food and Environmental Hygiene, Faculty
School of Agribusiness and Resource Management
of Veterinary Medicine
Arizona State University East
University of Helsinki
Mesa
Finland
Arizona 85206-01 80
USA
R K Robinson
Fatemeh Rafii, Department of Food Science
Division of Microbiology University of Reading
National Center for Toxicological Research, US FDA Whiteknights
Jefferson Reading
AR Berkshire RG6 6AP
USA UK
M I Rajoka,
National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Hubert Roginski
Engineering (NIBGE) Gilbert Chandler College
PO Box 577 The University of Melbourne
Faisalabad Sneydes Road
Pakistan Werri bee
Victoria
Javier Raso
Biological Systems Engineering 3030
Washington State University Australia
Pullman
Washington 99164-61 20 Alexandra Rompf
USA Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry
K S Reddy Albert Ludwigs University Freiburg
Department of Meat Science and Technology Albertstr. 21
College of Veterinary Science 79104 Freiburg
Tirupati 517 502 Germany
India
S M Reddy T Ross
Department of Botany School of Agricultural Science
Kakatiya University University of Tasmania
Warangal Hobart
506 009 Australia
India
Wim Reybroeck T Roukas
Department for Animal Product Quality and Department of Food Science and Technology
Transformation Technology Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Agricultural Research Centre CLO-Ghent Greece
Melle
Belgium
M T Rowe
U G Reyes Food Microbiology
Food Science Australia Food Science Department
Private Bag 16 Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland and
Sneydes Road Queen’s University of Belfast
Werri bee Newforge Lane
Victoria Belfast
VIC 3030 BT9 5PX
Australia Northern Ireland
Contributors xxxv
P Scheu
G Salvat BioteCon Gesellschaft fur Biotechnologische
AFSSA Entwicklung und Consulting
Ploufragan Hermannswerder Haus 17
France 14473 Potsdam
Germany
A Stolle J S Tang
Institute of Hygiene and Technology of Food of Animal American Type Culture Collection
Origin 10801 University Blvd
Ludwig-Maximilians-UniversityMunich Manassas
Veterinary Faculty VA 201 10-2209
Veterinarstr. 13 USA
81369
Munich
Chrysoula C Tassou
Germany
National Agricultural Research Foundation
Institute of Technology of Agricultural Products
Liz Straszynski S. Venizelou 1
Alcontrol Laboratories Lycovrisi 14123
Bradford Athens
UK Greece
M Stratford
S R Tatini
Microbiology Section
University of Minnesota
Unilever Research
Department of Food Science and Nutrition
Colworth House
1334 Eckles Ave
Sharnbrook
St Paul
Bedfordshire
MN 55108
MK44 1LQ
USA
UK
M Surekha D M Taylor
Department of Botany Neuropathogenesis Unit
Kakatiya University Institute for Animal Health
Warangal West Mains Road
506 009 Edinburgh
India EH9 3JF
UK
B C Sutton
Apple Tree Cottage John R N Taylor
Blackheath Cereal Foods Research Unit
Wenhaston Department of Food Science
Suffolk University of Pretoria
IP19 9HD Pretoria 0002
UK South Africa
Seyhun Yurdugul
Middle East Technical University Cynthia Zook
Department of Biochemistry Department of Food Science and
Ankara University of Minnesota
Turkey St Paul
MN 55108
Klaus-Jurgen Zaadhof USA
Institute for Hygiene and Technology of Foods of Animal
Origin
Veterinary Faculty
Ludwig-Maximilians University
80539 Munich
Germany
INDEX
NOTE
Page numbers in bold refer to major discussions. Page numbers suffixed by T refer to Tables; page numbers
suffixed by F refer to Figures. vs denotes comparisons.
This index is in letter-by-letter order, whereby hyphens and spaces within index headings are ignored in the
alphabetization. Terms in parentheses are excluded from the initial alphabetization.
Cross-reference terms in italics are general cross-references, or refer to subentry terms within the same main
entry (the main entry is not repeated to save space).
Readers are also advised to refer to the end of each article for additional cross-references - not all of these
cross-references have been included in the index cross-references.
alkenes, flavour in fermented meat products Alternaria solani 47, 4 5 1 amino acid auxotrophs, Bacillus subtilis 136
751T Alternaria sonchi 45T amino acid complexes, hazardous 1743
allergic skin test (AST) 326, 326 Alternaria tenuis 43 D-amino acid oxidase, Rhodotorula 1901
allergy Alternaria tenuissima 44, 4 5 1 g-aminobutyric acid, production, by
sulphur dioxide 1753 Alternaria triticina 45T Lactobacillus brevis 1150
treatment, Lactobacillus acidothilus role Alternaria zinniae 4 5 1 aminoglycosides 2138
1364 alternariol, Alternaria producing 49T synthesis 1330
allicin, antimicrobial compound 1577 alternariol monomethyl ether (AWE), 6-aminopenicillanic acid, structure 1320F
allozymes 229 Alternaria producing 49T aminopeptidase, Brevibacterium linens 313
all purpose Tween 80 (APT) medium 1145, Alteromonas, in fish 807-808 aminopterin 626
1145T Alteromonas putrefaciens 2008 ammonia
ALTA 187 cells as biosensor 270 formation in gut 1354
altenuene, Alternaria producing 49T altertoxin I (ATX-I),Alternaria producing neoplastic growth in colon 1354
Alternaria 42-50, 862, 868-869, 894 49T productionisynthesis 677
appearance on cultural media 857 altertoxin I1 (ATX-II),Alternarra producing Brevibacteriurn linens 396
characteristics 42-46 49T cheese maturation 391
conidia 45T altertoxin 111 (ATX-1111, Alternaria ammonium ions, conversion to organic
detection in foods 48-49 producing 49T nitrogen 1296, 1296F
culture methods 48-49 aluminium cans 1619 ammonium salts, utilization by fungi 1297-
direct methods 48 Amadori compounds 1742 1298
endophytic 48 ambrox 734,734F ammonium sulphate, salting-out of proteins
phyiloplane detection 48-49 America 693
platingidiluting methods 49 fermented foods 737 amnesic shellfish poisoning 2000-2001,
seeds 48 see also USA 1673
ecological aspects 46-47 American National Standards Institute 1841 amoebiasis 2292
enzymes 46 American Organization of Analytical pathogenesis 2293
on fresh foods 46 Chemists (AOAC), HGMF methods treatment 2294
grouping by macroscopic appearance 45T 1079-1081 see also Entamoeba hrstolytica
growthidispersal, environmental factors amines amoebic colitis 2293
affecting 46 biogenic see biogenic amines amoebic liver abscesses 2293-2294
growth requirementsiconditions 46T in colon 1354 amoebic ulcers 2293
metabolites 47-48 in fermented meat products 748-749 amoebopores 2293
mycotoxins 46,47-48, 47-48,49T, 1512 N-nitrosopyrrolidine formation 1767 amperometric biosensors 277
optimal temperature and water activity production 748-749 amperometric transducers 272-273
46T enterococci 1369 organic conductors 273
as pathogen 47 Pediococcus 1646 ampicillin-dextrin agar (ADA) 31
physiological aspects 46 amino acidis) amplified fragment length polymorphism
phytotoxins 47-48 aromatic 1296 (AFLP), Clostridium beijerinckii 43 1
host-specific 47-48,48T synthesis 1295 AmpliSensor system, polymerase chain
nonspecific 47 aromatic compounds from, in fermented reaction 1604F
as saprophyte 42, 46 meat products 750 amylase
species 42-46, 45T aspartate, synthesis 1296, 1296F Debaryomyces occidentalis 519
identification 44 deamination fungal, synthesis by recombinant DNA
important 44, 4 5 1 Brevibacterium 31 1 technology 915
spores 43 Clostridium 1292 production, Aspergillus 907
on harvested crops 47 Proteus 1857-1 85 8 a-amylase
sporulation 47, 46T see also deamination; specific amino Aspergillus oryzae 68
patterns 45 acids egg pasteurization indicator 1036
taxonomy 4 2 , 4 2 , 4 3 decarboxylation Flavobacterium 825
conidia number 43 Brevibacterium 311 genes 68
toxins 42, 857, 1518 in cheese maturation 391 production, by moulds 21 11
in foodstuffs 1518 degradationicata holism recovery from fermented broth 693, 693F
see also phytotoxins (above) bacteria in fish 815 test, egg yolk 571
type species 43-44 Brevibacterium 308 vinegar production and 2259
see also Alternaria alternata fermented meat products 750 Anabaena spp. 1674
Alternaria alternata 42 energy release (aerobic) 1277-1278 anaerobes 173, 1284
characteristics 43-44 essential, mycoprotein products 2042T aerotolerant 173
colonization 46 fermentation 1291 facultative 200, 557
ecological aspects 46-47 in fermented meat products 750 on meatimeat products 1255T
infection appearance 43F in fermented milks 783 phosphotransferase system 1290
metabolites 47-48 free
.~ growth, yields 560
mycotoxins 47-48 cheeses 1660T growth rates 559
as saprophyte 46 fish 807 heat-treated fish product spoilage 820
structure and conidia 44F Droteolvsis of cheese 385-386 normal gut flora 198
type species 42 grdups 1235 obligate (strict) 173, 556
Alternaria brassicae 44, 45T metabolic pathways 1291 methanogens 1334
Alternaria brassicicola 44, 45T metabolism, Lactococcus lactis role sulphate-reducers 520
Alternaria cheiranthi 45T 1168-1169 transoort svstems 12737
Alternaria citri 44, 4 5 1 mycoprotein products 20421 types'173, i 7 4 1
Alternaria cucumerina 4 5 1 as nitrogen source 1289 anaerobic bioreactor 1336-1337
Alternaria dauci 45T Pediococcus requirement 1643 anaerobic conditions, E . coli regulatory
Alternaria gaisen 45T single-cell Drotein content systems 560
Alternaria helianthi 45T algal 20'24,2025T anaerobic digestion 1336
Alternaria helianthinfciens 45T yeast 2030T anaerobic metabolism
Alternaria infectoria 45T svnthesisiproduction 1295 carbohydrate catabolism 1281-1282
Alternaria longipes 48, 4 5 1 . Alcaligenes, enzymatic 40 catabolic pathways 1281-1286
Alternaria longissima 45T Brevibacterium 311 carbohydrate breakdown 1281-1282
Akernaria peponicola 45T pathways 1295-1296 Embden-Meyerhof 1282
A!ternaria petroselini 45T transamination, Brevibacterium 3 11 Entner-Doudoroff pathway 1282-
Alternaria porri 45T transport 1290 1283
Alternaria radicina 4 5 1 uptake and accumulation 1290 fermentation 1283-1286
Alternaria raphani 45T utilization, Brevibacterium 31 1 monophosphate shunt 1282
I vi INDEX
INDEX I xvii