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skeletal system the body's framework of bones; there are 206 distinct bones in the body of an average a

dult human.(See anatomic Table of Bones in the Appendices and see Plates.) The bones give support an
d shape to the body,protect delicate internal organs, and provide sites of attachment for muscles to make
motion possible. In addition, theystore and help maintain the correct level of CALCIUM, and the bone MARR
OW manufactures blood cells. Called alsoskeleton.

MAIN PARTS OF THE SKELETON. There are two main parts of the skeleton: the axial skeleton, including the
bones ofthe head and trunk, and the appendicular skeleton, including the bones of the limbs. The axial sk
eleton has 80 bonesand the appendicular skeleton has 126 bones.
Axial Skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, the spine, and the ribs and sternum. The most impor
tant ofthese is the SPINE (called also the spinal or vertebral column), consisting of 26 separate bones. Twe
nty-
fourvertebrae have holes through them, which are lined up vertically to form a hollow tube called the spin
al CANAL;the spinal cord runs through this canal and is protected by it.

The seven topmost vertebrae, in the neck, are the cervical vertebrae; they support the skull, which enclos
es andprotects the brain and provides protection for the eyes, inner ears, and nasal passages. The skull i
ncludes thecranium, the facial bones, and the auditory ossicles. Of the 28 bones of the skull, only one, th
e mandible, ismovable.

Below the cervical vertebrae are 12 thoracic vertebrae; attached to them are 12 pairs of RIBS, one pair to
avertebra. The ribs curve around to the front of the body, where most attach directly to the sternum or are
indirectlyattached to it by means of cartilage. The two bottom pairs of ribs are unattached in front and are
called floatingribs. Together, the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum form a bony basket called t
he thoracic (or rib)cage, which prevents the chest wall from collapsing and protects the heart and the lung
s. The remaining bones ofthe spine include five lumbar vertebrae, which support the small of the back, an
d the sacrum and coccyx. Theaxial skeleton also includes a single bone in the neck, the hyoid bone, to w
hich muscles of the mouth areattached. This is the only bone of the body that does not join with another b
one.
Appendicular Skeleton. The appendicular skeleton includes the shoulder girdle, bones of the upper limb,
pelvicgirdle, and bones of the lower limb. The shoulder girdle, from which the arms hang, consists of two
CLAVICLES andtwo SCAPULAE; the scapulae are joined to the sternum.

The upper LIMB has three long bones. The uppermost bone is the HUMERUS, whose upper (proximal) end
fits intoa socket in the shoulder girdle; its lower (distal) end is connected at the elbow to the ULNA and RAD
IUS, the twolong bones of the forearm. Eight small bones, the carpals, compose the wrist. Five metacarpal
s form the palm ofthe hand, and the finger bones are made up of 14 phalanges in each hand.

At the lower end of the spine is the pelvic girdle; it, along with the last two bones of the spinal column (the
SACRUM and COCCYX), forms the PELVIS. This part of the skeleton encircles and protects the internal organ
s ofthe genitourinary system. In each side of the pelvis is the ACETABULUM, a socket into which a femur fit
s.

The bones of the lower LIMB are similar in construction to those of the upper limb but are heavier and stro
nger.The FEMUR (thigh bone), which is the longest bone in the body, extends from the pelvis to the knee.
The TIBIA andthe FIBULA are long bones that extend from the knee to the ankle. On the knee is another si
ngle bone, thePATELLA or kneecap. In each leg there are seven ankle bones, or tarsals; five foot bones, or
metatarsals; and 14toe bones, or phalanges.
JOINTS AND MOVEMENT. Anywhere in the skeleton that two or more bones come together is known as a JOI
NT. Theway these bones are joined determines whether they can move and how they move. The elbow, f
or example, is ahinge joint, which allows bending in only one direction. In contrast, both bending and rotar
y movements are possiblein the hip joint, a ball-and-
socket joint. Many joints, such as most of those in the skull, are rigid and permit nomovement whatsoever.

The force needed to move the bones is provided by MUSCLES, which are attached to the bones by tendon
s. A muscletypically spans a joint so that one end is attached by a tendon to one bone, and the other end
to a second bone.Usually one bone serves as an anchor for the muscle, and the second bone is free to m
ove. When the musclecontracts, it pulls the second bone. Actually, two sets of muscles that pull in opposit
e directions take part in anymovement. When one set contracts, the opposing set relaxes.

system
[sis´tem]
1. a set or series of interconnected or interdependent parts or entities (objects, organs, or organisms) that
act together ina common purpose or produce results impossible by action of one alone.
2. an organized set of principles or ideas. adj., adj systemat´ic, system´ic.

The parts of a system can be referred to as its elements or components; the environment of the system is
defined as allof the factors that affect the system and are affected by it. A living system is capable of taki
ng in matter, energy, andinformation from its environment (input), processing them in some way, and retur
ning matter, energy, and information toits environment as output.

An open system is one in which there is an exchange of matter, energy, and information with the environ
ment; in aclosed system there is no such exchange. A living system cannot survive without this exchange
, but in order to surviveit must maintain pattern and organization in the midst of constant change. Control
of self-
regulation of an open system isachieved by dynamic interactions among its elements or components. The
result of self-
regulation is referred to as thesteady state; that is, a state of equilibrium. HOMEOSTASIS is an assemblage
of organic regulations that act to maintainsteady states of a living organism.

A system can be divided hierarchically into subsystems, which can be further subdivided into sub-
subsystems andcomponents. A system and its environment could be considered as a unified whole for pu
rposes of study, or asubsystem could be studied as a system. For example, the collection of glands in the
endocrine system can be thoughtof as a system, each endocrine gland could be viewed as a system, or
even specific cells of a single gland could bestudied as a system. It is also possible to think of the human
body as a living system and the endocrine system as asubsystem. The division of a system into a subsyst
em and its environment is dependent on the perspective chosen bythe person studying a particular pheno
menon.

skeletal kerangka tubuh dari tulang; ada 206 tulang yang berbeda dalam tubuh manusia dewasa rata-
rata. (Lihat Tabel anatomi Bones di Lampiran dan melihat Pelat.) Tulang memberikan dukungan dan
bentuk tubuh, melindungi organ halus, dan menyediakan situs lampiran untuk otot untuk membuat
gerakan mungkin. Selain itu, mereka menyimpan dan membantu mempertahankan tingkat yang benar
kalsium, dan sumsum tulang memproduksi sel-sel darah. Disebut juga kerangka.
Bagian utama dari Skeleton. Ada dua bagian utama dari kerangka: kerangka aksial, termasuk tulang
kepala dan batang, dan kerangka apendikularis, termasuk tulang-tulang tungkai. Kerangka aksial
memiliki 80 tulang dan kerangka apendikularis memiliki 126 tulang.

Aksial Skeleton. Kerangka aksial meliputi tengkorak, tulang belakang, dan tulang rusuk dan tulang dada.
Yang paling penting dari ini adalah tulang belakang (disebut juga tulang belakang atau tulang belakang),
yang terdiri dari 26 tulang yang terpisah. Dua puluh empat vertebra memiliki lubang melalui mereka,
yang berbaris secara vertikal untuk membentuk tabung hampa yang disebut kanal tulang belakang;
sumsum tulang belakang berjalan melalui kanal ini dan dilindungi oleh itu.

Tujuh vertebra paling atas, di leher, adalah tulang leher; mereka mendukung tengkorak, yang
membungkus dan melindungi otak dan memberikan perlindungan untuk mata, telinga bagian dalam,
dan saluran hidung. Tengkorak termasuk tengkorak, tulang wajah, dan ossicles pendengaran. Dari 28
tulang tengkorak, hanya satu, mandibula, adalah bergerak.

Di bawah tulang leher 12 vertebra toraks; menyertainya adalah 12 pasang tulang rusuk, satu pasang
untuk vertebra. Tulang rusuk kurva sekitar ke depan tubuh, di mana sebagian besar melampirkan
langsung ke sternum atau secara tidak langsung melekat padanya dengan cara tulang rawan. Dua
pasang bawah tulang rusuk yang terikat di depan dan disebut tulang rusuk mengambang. Bersama-
sama, vertebra toraks, tulang rusuk, dan tulang dada membentuk keranjang tulang disebut toraks (atau
rib) kandang, yang mencegah dinding dada dari runtuh dan melindungi jantung dan paru-paru. Sisa
tulang dari tulang belakang termasuk lima vertebra lumbalis, yang mendukung punggung, dan sakrum
dan tulang ekor. Kerangka aksial juga termasuk satu tulang di leher, tulang hyoid, yang otot-otot mulut
yang terpasang. Ini adalah satu-satunya tulang tubuh yang tidak bergabung dengan tulang lain.

Apendikularis Skeleton. Kerangka apendikularis termasuk korset bahu, tulang-tulang ekstremitas atas,
korset panggul, dan tulang-tulang ekstremitas bawah. Bahu korset, dari mana lengan menggantung,
terdiri dari dua klavikula dan dua skapula; skapula bergabung ke sternum.

Ekstremitas atas memiliki tiga tulang panjang. Tulang yang menonjol adalah humerus, yang atas
(proksimal) akhir cocok ke soket di korset bahu; lebih rendah (distal) ujungnya dihubungkan pada siku ke
ulna dan radius, dua tulang panjang lengan bawah. Delapan tulang kecil, carpals, menulis pergelangan
tangan. Lima metacarpals membentuk telapak tangan, dan tulang jari yang terdiri dari 14 falang di
masing-masing tangan.
Di ujung bawah tulang belakang adalah korset panggul; itu, bersama dengan dua tulang terakhir dari
kolom tulang belakang (sakrum dan tulang ekor), membentuk panggul. Ini bagian dari kerangka
mengelilingi dan melindungi organ-organ internal dari sistem genitourinari. Di setiap sisi panggul adalah
acetabulum, soket di mana tulang paha cocok.

Tulang tungkai bawah yang mirip dalam konstruksi mereka dari ekstremitas atas tetapi lebih berat dan
lebih kuat. Femur (tulang paha), yang merupakan tulang terpanjang dalam tubuh, membentang dari
panggul hingga lutut. Tibia dan fibula adalah tulang panjang yang membentang dari lutut ke pergelangan
kaki. Pada lutut adalah tulang tunggal yang lain, patela atau tempurung lutut. Di setiap kaki ada tujuh
tulang pergelangan kaki, atau tarsals; lima tulang kaki, atau metatarsal; dan 14 kaki tulang, atau falang.

Sendi dan Gerakan. Di mana saja dalam kerangka bahwa dua atau lebih tulang datang bersama-sama
dikenal sebagai sendi. Cara tulang-tulang ini bergabung menentukan apakah mereka dapat bergerak dan
bagaimana mereka bergerak. siku, misalnya, adalah sendi engsel, yang memungkinkan lentur hanya satu
arah. Sebaliknya, kedua gerakan membungkuk dan rotary yang mungkin di sendi pinggul, bersama bola-
dan-socket. Banyak sendi, seperti kebanyakan dari mereka di tengkorak, yang kaku dan mengizinkan ada
gerakan apapun.

Gaya yang dibutuhkan untuk memindahkan tulang disediakan oleh otot, yang melekat pada tulang
dengan tendon. Otot biasanya mencakup gabungan sehingga salah satu ujungnya terpasang dengan
tendon untuk satu tulang, dan ujung lainnya ke tulang kedua. Biasanya satu tulang berfungsi sebagai
jangkar untuk otot, dan tulang kedua adalah bebas bergerak. Ketika kontrak otot, itu menarik tulang
kedua. Sebenarnya, dua set otot yang menarik dalam arah yang berlawanan ambil bagian dalam setiap
gerakan. Ketika satu set kontrak, set lawan rileks.

sistem [sis'tem]

1. satu set atau serangkaian bagian yang saling berhubungan atau saling tergantung atau badan (benda,
organ, atau organisme) yang bertindak bersama dalam tujuan yang sama atau produksi

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