Church History

Was Constantine’s Conversion Genuine? What were its results for the Church?

Introduction

The life of Constantine stands at a point in history which sees the close of the
Roman Empire and the establishment of the Byzantine state which was to
exist for more than a millennium after him. His rule came at a time when the
Roman Empire was recovering from half a century of a series of crises and
disasters in all aspects of its existence: political, military, economic, and
social.

There had been a rapid succession of emperors, soldier emperors as

Pohslander refers to them, who rose through the military ranks1. The East and
West of the Empire had seen separatist movements suppressed. The frontiers
of the Empire had come under concerted and repeated attack. The burden of
taxation and military requisitions had damaged the civil economy, and plague
had visited North Africa and the Balkans. Also in the years leading up to his
rule there had been systematic persecution of the Christians which had
increased in intensity and comprehensiveness, particularly in the East of the
Empire, culminating in the “Great Persecution” which began under Diocletian
and Galerius in 303.

1
Pohlsander, 2004 p4

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Diocletian who came to power in 285 remained there for 20 years, and
arrested and reversed the fortunes of the Empire. He instigated a new
system of joint rule with an Augustus and Caesar for the East and West of the
Empire, strengthened and reorganised the Roman army into a border guard
and mobile strike force; in addition he attempted to strengthen the economy
though tax reforms. He also sought to foster and re-enforce traditional
Roman values and restore the old Roman religiosity. Both Augusti took divine
titles, Diocletian Jovius (Jupiter) and Maximian Herculius (Hercules) suggesting
to their subjects they enjoyed divine patronage. He sought to build a new
basis for imperial legitimacy in the state religion, with himself as semi-divine
monarch and high priest. The old republican title of Pontifex Maximus would
begin to take on a new importance. Diocletian would actually sit on a throne.
He was not to be seen in public, and if an audience was required, he had
elaborate ceremonies in which the visitor would be required to lie on the
ground prostrate and never to look at the emperor, and would only be
allowed, perhaps, to kiss the bottom of his robe. In this way he created a
remote, mysterious, theocratic and autocratic office. According to an analysis
by Edward Gibbon in his book The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
Diocletian did not require such ritual out of vanity. This type of majesty
regarding the emperor had existed since the rule of Augustus. However,
whereas Augustus disguised it, Diocletian simply displayed it. Diocletian had
restored stability in the Empire against what were overwhelming
circumstances, the institutions and uniformity he put in place and enforced
left a greatly different Empire when he announced his retirement in 305.

Constantine’s rise to power

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Constantine was born in the early 270s, son of Constantius who had risen in
the military to be Caesar to Maximian the Augustus of the western Empire.
On Diocletian’s retirement in 305 Constantius rose to Augustus, and Severus
was appointed his new Caesar, but when Constantius died at York in July 306
his troops proclaimed Constantine the new Augustus. The following six years
saw a period of military campaigns for Constantine and a time in which 6
powerful men, Constantine among them, vied for political dominance and
overall leadership. This was resolved for the western Empire in 312 following
the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, when Constantine emerged as undisputed
master of the West, with Licinius soon to deal with his rival Maximin and take
power as Augustus in the East.

Constantine’s Conversion

It was just before his final battle to secure his sole rule in the west that
Constantine’s conversion is said to have taken place. There are two differing
accounts of this conversion.

Lactantius, a venerable converted teacher of rhetoric, who had served in the

court of Diocletian prior to the great persecution, and went on to tutor
Constantine’s son Crispus, offered the following report in his work De
Mortibus Persecutorum: Constantine had dreamt of an emblem and a voice
saying in Latin "In hoc signo vinces" ("In this sign you shall conquer").On
waking he ordered his soldiers to put the emblem on their shields, the Chi-Rho
sign (Chi X and Rho P being the first two letters of the word “Christ” in Greek).
Constantine did as he was told, won the battle against Maxentius and from
then on believed in the power of “the God of the Christians”.

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Eusebius of Caesarea, a prominent and controversial historian and church

leader in the 4th century, has a different account which he recorded in his
elaborate four book eulogy Life of Constantine (Vita Constantini), written after
Constantine’s death. Here the emperor had been pondering the logical
question of misfortunes that befall armies that invoke the help of many
different gods, and decided to seek divine aid in the forthcoming battle from
the One God. At noon Constantine saw a cross of light imposed over the sun.
Attached to it, in Greek characters, was the saying "Εν Τούτω, Νίκα!"( "In this,
be victorious!"). Not only Constantine, but the whole army saw the miracle.
That night Christ appeared to the emperor in a dream and told him to make a
replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in
battle.

Whatever the exact details it is likely Constantine had some sort of

‘experience’ which was interpreted for him by Bishop Ossius who was
travelling with him, Ossius later presided over The Council of Nicea, and which
demonstrated to Constantine the power of the Christian God and prompted
him to profess Christianity.

Professing Christianity, at face value, gave Constantine no specific advantage

that could not be achieved through toleration, especially given Christians
formed only a small minority of the population, especially in the Western
Empire. As Constantine marched into Rome what could his purpose be in
professing Christianity?

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Baker puts forward that Constantine discerned that by means of the Church
he was enabled to gain touch with and hold upon social elements which had
been out of control of earlier emperors2. The Church, far more than the
Roman Senate, embodied the experience and ambitions of the people of the
Empire. It clearly represented an organised and agreed set of ideas
concerning the essentials of human life and therefore could express a
coherent political philosophy applicable to contemporary conditions.
Constantine saw himself now not only as the divinely appointed ruler of the
world but he deemed himself also koinos episkopos (common bishop), that is
a general overseer and arbiter of church affairs. It appears unlikely that
Constantine admired the church because it was a weak, persecuted minority.
More likely he saw it was remarkably strong and dangerous to meddle with.
The church was under the control of the God of creation and it was plain to
see the unfortunate ends the rivals of Constantine had come to whilst
Constantine, the now friend of the church had been fortunate, even blessed
perhaps, in all he had just undertaken. Was this the moment for him to
capitalise to further his political ambitions?

Within months Constantine’s support and patronage of the church was very
evident. Letters to the Bishop of Carthage and the proconsul of Africa: allow
for subsidies for the church from public funds, the clergy and church leaders
are exempt from the Roman taxation system and other public obligations,
show Constantine’s belief that proper worship of “the Deity” to be of vital
importance for the empire, and show he regarded himself as God’s servant.

2
Baker GP, 1930 p161

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In February 313 the Emperors Constantine and Licinius met in Milan. An

alliance between then was confirmed by the marriage of Constantine’s half
sister Constantina to Licinius, and they agreed a joint policy of religious
liberty. Licinius, in June 313, issued a circular to his provincial governors in
both his and Constantine’s name presenting the detail of the decision reached
earlier in Milan. The circular asserted the persecution of Christians was
officially to cease, any land or property belonging to individual Christians or
the church corporate was to be returned, and freedom to worship according to
conscience was established. This religious freedom wasn’t just for the
Christian church but extended to all and gave authority for an individual to
follow whatever religion. This became known as the edict of Milan, though no
formal edict was issued from the meeting early in 313. The edict of Milan
provided for the east of the Empires the freedoms Constantine had already
started granting in the west going back to 306. The fact the bishop Ossius
was one of his senior advisers supports this. After Constantine defeated
Maxentuis and entered Rome he had immediately put in place the freedoms
contained in the Edict of Milan across the whole of the western empire.

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Constantine the Christian Emperor?

In James chapter two we read: “Show me your faith without deeds, and I will
show you my faith by what I do. You believe that there is one God. Good!
Even the demons believe that—and shudder.”

From 312 on Constantine clearly started to ‘do’ and display the impact of
Christianity on his life, however his Christian faith seemed to run alongside his
political ambitions and the latter was seen to take precedence sometimes in
brutal ways.

Constantine stopped performing pagan rituals associated with military

triumphs, and he instigated many reforms within society. The church was
granted the power to free slaves. The branding of criminals’ faces was
stopped on the grounds not of cruelty but thatConstantine considered the
face “is shaped in the likeness of heavenly beauty”3. In 321 Sunday was
established as a day of rest and worship. In 325 gladiatorial shows were
outlawed and in the same year the practice of crucifixion as a means of
official execution was also outlawed. In 326 there was a flurry of laws meant
to protect the sanctity of marriage. In 334 when famine struck Syria food
supplies were distributed through the churches. Constantine was seen to
favour the appointment of Christian officials and Christian chaplains were
appointed amongst the army troops. The church received large financial gifts
and was allowed to inherit legacies from rich individuals. Places of worship
destroyed in the persecutions were rebuilt, and in addition vast sums of
money were spent on new and splendid church buildings not only in Rome but
also in Palestine, Asia Minor and further afield. The very idea to build the new
eastern capital city of Constantinople was said to have been given by divine
revelation, the city to be a Christian metropolis untainted by all things pagan.

3
Pohlsander 2004 p75

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The church now public and under the patronage of state finds it has both
wealth and power and can exert its influence freely. The immediate result is
schism. Initially in the west in North Africa, where Donatus and his followers
believed the true followers of Christ were only those who had not
compromised in any way under the persecutions by either surrendering holy
scripture or making pagan sacrifice. Constantine had put himself, through his
patronage and position, of having to adjudicate in a dispute between
Christians without any real awareness of the doctrinal emphases and nuances
being resented by the opposing parties. Constantine took a position against
the Donatists and even attempted to reinforce it through persecution of the
movement between 317 and 321. The dispute was not resolved and went on
to embroil other emperors.

By 316 any accord between Constantine and Licinius had disappeared and
mounting anti-Christian measures were being taken by Licinius in the East. In
324 Constantine intervened and defeated Licinius. Constantine had achieved
his self-professed mission as one called by God to reunite the empire.

Now in control of the East, schism in the church reared its head in the eastern
half of the empire. Aruis and the church at Alexandria were in dispute over
how to conceive the person of Christ himself. ‘Was Christ one with God or
was he created’ was the essence of the argument. Constantine wanted to see
a settlement of this dispute as it had the potential to undermine his dream of
presenting an empire unified both politically and theologically – a church
divided was not capable of being the controlling influence Constantine had
conceived it could be.

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Constantine funded and supported a council of bishops, which was held at

Nicaea. Constantine did not impose his will or attempt to stage-manage the
proceeding of this council. He did attend though and did make it very clear
that the delegates were expected to reach an agreement, which they would
implement and adhere to as the outcome of the council. Constantine wanted
above all peace and unity in the church – whilst the finer points of theological
controversy were of much less interest to him. The outcome of the council
was the Nicene Creed, which established important points of doctrine
regarding the nature of Christ.

A dark period

In 325 and 326 we see a dark side to Constantine. In 325 Licinius having
surrendered himself to Constantine in defeat was executed, despite the pleas
of his wife, Constantine’s sister. Multiple ancient sources state in doing so he
broke a solemn oath to spare the life of Licinius4. The ten year old son of
Licinius was also executed around the same time on Constantine’s orders.

In 326 with no apparent reason Constantine orders the execution of his son
Crispus, and later the same year his wife Fausta. The laws issued regarding
the sanctity of marriage coincide with this period but there is no certain
connection, and there is nothing to suggest any attempt by Crispus to usurp
some of the power his father holds.

Conclusion

Constantine was a clear patron and committed supporter of the church, that
this was borne out of political ambitions is most likely, but there must be a
clear separation between motivations and results. To paraphrase the apostle
Paul – “If Christ is preached I don’t really care what the ultimate motivations
of the preacher are as long as the message is faithfully preached!”

4
Pohslander 2004 p45

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Alistair Kee in his book Constantine Versus Christ observes that Constantine
religion was “ neither profound or particularly edifying” although he “was
fanatically committed to it”5. At the end of his life as Constantine was finally
baptised and admitted to the church, the only real judge of the true level of
his personal commitment is Christ himself.

The legacy for the church Constantine left and the intertwining of Church and
state was to last centuries after him. In Mark Chapman’s Anglicanism A very
Short Introduction6 he refers to the study of religious organisations. The Tudor
Church of England could have provided the scholar with evidence of a
Western example of something approaching a Byzantine state church. Henry
VIII’s vision of power and authority was not so far removed from that of
Constantine or the Eastern emperors who followed him.

5
Kee 1982
6
Chapman 2006 p1

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Bibliography

Baker, GP, Constantine the Great and the Christian Revolution, (New York,
Cooper Square Press, c1930)

Chapman Mark, Anglicanism A very Short Introduction, (Oxford University

Press 2006)

Davidson Ivor J, Monarch History of the Church Volume One The Birth of the
Church – From Jesus to Constantine AD30-312, (Monarch 2005)

Davidson Ivor J, Monarch History of the Church Volume Two A Public Faith
From -Constantine to the Medieval World, (Monarch 2005)

Gibbon E edited by David Womersley, Outline of The History of the Decline

and Fall of the Roman Empire (Allen Lane (London) and Penguin Press (New
York)1994)

Kee Alistair, Constantine Versus Christ, (Londn,SCM Press,1982)

Pohlsander, Hans A, The Emperor Constantine (Second Edition), (London and

New York: Routledge, 2004)

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org Searches on: Constantine, Eusebius of

Caesarea, Lactantius, Labarum, Diocletian, Maxentius, Galerius, Licinius,
Maximian, Maximinius Dia, Helena

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