CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Sense Of Management of Coastal and Marine Resources

According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Management is the effective use of
resources to achieve the target. The sea is a vast collection of saltwater that separates one
continent from another, and also separates one island from another. The sea is a large and
extensive pool of salt water that inundates and divides the land over the continent or island
(Ramasita, 2011). The coast is the boundary between land and sea, measured at the highest and
lowest tides, influenced by marine and marine socio-economic, while on land is limited by
natural processes and human activities on land (Triatmodjo, 1999, p. ).

Marine management usually includes regulations about the distribution of the resource
among users, access to resources, quotas and territorial or resource property rights. So far, socio-
political (economic) forces have dominated policies to manage resources, to the detriment of
population, community or ecosystem ecological knowledge (Hilborn and Walters, 1992)

2.2. Categories of EcosystemCoastal and Marine Resources

Ecosystems are the basic functional units in the ecology within which organisms and
their environment (biotic and abiotic environments) that interact between them (odum 1993).
Marine ecosystem is an ecosystem found in marine waters, consisting of deepwater ecosystems,
shallow sand beach ecosystems, and tidal ecosystems. While the coastal ecosystem is the
interaction between biotic and abiotic components that exist in the coastal plains (Muin, 2007).
Categories of coastal ecosystems include:

2.2.1 Mangrove Forest Ecosystem

 Picture 1. Source: (Miller, spoolman scout, 2010, Environmental science)

Mangrove forests can be defined as the type of forest ecosystem that grows in the
boundary area of the tidal water, precisely the coastal area and around the mouth of the river.
Plants are inundated during tidal conditions and free from puddles during low tide conditions.
Mangrove forests are the majority of coastal communities in tropical and sub-tropical areas
dominated by mangrove plants in tidal areas of muddy beaches, especially in places where
mudflows and organic matter accumulate (Indriyanto,2006). Where the frequency of tidal
flooding decreases progressively towards more land-based zones of forests leads to the
accumulation of salt. In the mangrove area, the feature continuum can be observed, as described
by Woodroffeet al. (1992), which includes:

1. The mud in the subsurface zone.

2. Mangrove forests in the zone between sea level and high tide levels.
3. Salt flats in the zone above the high tide level.

Generally mangroves have a prominent root system called the root of breath (pneumatofor).
This root system is a way of adapting to poor oxygen or even anaerobic soil conditions. In
mangrove forests soil, water, living flora and fauna give each other and receive and create a
cycle of its own ecosystem. Mangrove forests provide nutrient inputs to the water ecosystem,
providing shelter and care for fish children, spawning grounds, and others. The main food source
for aquatic organisms in the mangrove area is in the form of particles of organic matter (detritus)
resulting from the decomposition of mangrove litter such as leaves, twigs and flowers. Mangrove
forest can also be used to control the damage of the beach that is abrasion

2.2.2 Seagrass Ecosystem

 Picture 3. Source : http://journals.plos.org

Seagrass is defined as the only flowering plant (Angiospermae) that is fully adaptable in
waters that have high salinity or live in water and have true rhizomes, leaves, and roots. Some
experts also define Seagrass as a flowering aquatic plant, living in seawater, vascular, leafy,
stray, rooted, and breeding with seeds and buds. Seagrass ecosystems have very special
ecological conditions and are different from mangrove and coral ecosystems. The ecological
characteristics of sea grass include:

1. There are in the sloping coastal waters, in the mud / sand plains
2. Able to live to a depth of 30 meters, in calm and sheltered waters
3. Very dependent on sunlight entering the waters.
4. Can metabolism optimally if the whole body is immersed in water
5. Able to live in saltwater media
6. Have a well-developed root system

Seagrass beds are a potential habitat for biological resources of fish that is as care area,
spawning area, shelter and foraging. One type of fish that is always found in the seagrass in the
abundant amount of the fish baronang (Siganus canaliculatus). Seagrass beds in Indonesian
waters generally include mixed vegetation fields (Azkab, 1999 in Sitorus, 2011). Seagrass
ecosystems in Indonesia are often encountered in the lower tide (inner intertidal) and upper
subtidal (upper subtidal) regions. Seen from the pattern of horizontal seagrass zoning, the
seagrass ecosystem is located between two important ecosystem ie mangrove ecosystem and
coral reef ecosystem. The seagrass ecosystem is closely connected and interacted as a link and as
a buffer with mangroves on the beach and coral reefs towards the sea.

2.2.3 Coral Reef Ecosystem

 Picture 3. Source : (Miller, Spoolman scout, 2010, environmental science)

Coral reef ecosystems occupy the forefront, followed by ecosystems seagrass and
mangroves. Coral reefs need waters with brightness high and sufficient light intensity, which
usually resides in the exposure area the shallow. The territory of Indonesia has more than 81,000
coastal waters km. These waters are predominantly shallow waters for the development of coral
reef ecosystem (Sunarto 2006). The reef is a massive deposit of calcium carbonate produced by
coral (phylum cnidaria, ordo scelaractinia) with main additives from callacerous algae and other
organisms that emit calcium carbonate. Corals are the invertebrates belonging to the phylum
Coelenterata (hollow animals) or Cnidaria called coral (coral) includes corals of the Order
scleractinia and Octocorallia Subclass (Anthozoa class and Hydrozoa class). Coral reef (Coral
reef) is a living organism community based on waters and in the form of limestone rock
(CaCO3) which is strong enough to resist the force of sea waves (Tomascik 1992). Coral reefs
are one of the most important ecosystems sustainability of resources found in coastal and marine
areas, and generally grows in the tropics, and has high primary productivity (10 kgC / m2 / year).
The high primary productivity in this area of coral reefs leading to the collection of diverse
animals.

The WRI survey (2002) in eastern Indonesia shows about 65% of coral reef ecosystem
destruction caused by destructive fishing. Most use toxins and bombs where this activity has
resulted in tremendous economic losses. WRI estimates that losses in Indonesia due to fishing
with explosives over the next 20 years amounted to 570 million US Dollars. While the estimated
losses from fishing with cyanide toxins regularly amounted to 46 million US Dollar.From the
damaged coral reef ecosystems only obtained an average fishery of 5 tons / km2 / year while the
productivity of healthy coral reefs can reach about 20 ton / km2 / year.