Kinsley David R Tantric Visions of The Divine Feminine 330p PDF

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Tantric Visions
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Divine Feminine
Tantric Visions
o f the Divine Feminine
Tantric Visions
of the Divine
Feminine
The Ten Mahavidyas
DAVI D KI NSLEY
M O TILA L BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS

PRIVATE LIMITED • DELHI
F irst Indian E dition: D elh i, 1998
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I o m y fr ie n d s a n d teachers
O m Prakash S harm a and V irendra Singh
Contents
ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS ix
Introduction i
PAR T I. T H E M AH AV ID YAS AS A GROUP
T h e T e n M a h a v id y a s 9; T y p ic a l L i t e r a r y a n d I c o n o g r a p h ic
C o n te x ts 14; T h e M a h a v id y a s a s F o r m s o f th e M a h a d e v i 18;
M a h a v id y a O r i g i n M y th s 22; I n te r r e la tio n s h ip s a m o n g th e
M a h a v id y a s 38; W o r s h i p o f t h e M a h a v id y a s 49 ; T h e
M a h a v id y a s a n d M a g ic a l P o w e r s 55; T h e S ig n ific a n c e o f t h e
T e r m M a h a v i d y a 57; C o n c l u d i n g O b s e r v a t io n s 61
PAR T H. T H E IN D IVIDU AL M AH AV ID YAS
K ali: The Black Goddess 67
Tara: T h e Goddess W h o G u id es th ro u g h T rou bles 92
Tripura-sundari: She W h o Is L ovely in the Three W orlds 112
Bhuvanesvari: She W hose Body Is the W o rld 12 9
C hinnam asta: T h e S elf-D ecap itated Goddess 14 4
Bhairavi: The Fierce One 16 7
Dhumavati: The W id o w Goddess 176

Bagalam ukhl: T h e P aralyzer 193
vm CO NTEN TS
M a ta rig i: T h e O utcaste Goddess 209
K am ala: T h e L otus G oddess 223
PA R T III. C O N C L U D IN G REFLECTIONS
C o r p s e s a n d C r e m a t i o n G r o u n d s 233; S k u lls a n d S e v e r e d
H e a d s 238; S e x u a lity a n d A w a k e n e d C o n s c io u s n e s s 241; T h e
C o n ju n c t io n o f D e a t h a n d S e x u a l I m a g e r y 244; T h e R o le s o f
W o m e n a n d R e v e r e n c e f o r W o m e n 246; T h e P o t e n t ia lly
L i b e r a t i n g N a t u r e o f S o c ia l A n t im o d e ls 251
NOTES 253
G L O SSA R Y
B IB L IO G R A P H Y 289
IN D E X 299
Acknowledgments
I first became aware o f the group o f H in d u goddesses

k n o w n as the ten M ahavidyas w h ile con d u ctin g research on the goddess
Kali in C alcu tta d urin g the academic year 19 6 8 -6 9 . Kali is n early always
listed as the first o f this group o ften unusual goddesses and in m any ways
is the exem plary M ahavidya. It was n ot until 1983-84 in Varanasi, h o w
ever, that I began to undertake detailed research on this group. W i t h the
help o f a fellow ship from the Canadian Social Sciences and H um anities
Research C o u n c il, I investigated litera ry sources and did field research
on M a h a vid ya temples, iconography, and w orship. I returned to Varanasi
in 1992-93 to continue m y research, this tim e w ith the help o f a grant
from M c M a ste r U n iv e r s ity A rts Research Board.
D u rin g m y research in Varanasi I was fortunate to have the assistance
o f m any people. Om Prakash Sharma was indispensable in h elp in g me
locate several M ah avid ya temples and paintings, pu tting me in tou ch w ith
m any know ledgeable people, and finding relevant texts. V ire n d ra Singh,
w h o patiently attempted to teach me H in d i, was always encouraging about
m y w ork. M a h a n t Sri Rama Shankar T rip a th i o fth e K ashi V ish van ath
tem ple held frequent useful discussions w ith me d u rin g 1983-84 and
translated several relevant Sanskrit texts about the M ahavidyas for me.
Hem endra N ath C hakravarty was especially im portant in helping me th in k
through the m eaning o f several o f the M ahavidyas and in locatin g and
translating for me several cru cial passages relatin g to the M ahavidyas as
a group and to in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas. I also appreciated the m any dis
cussions I had w ith M a rk D y cz k o w sk i at his hom e o v erlo o k in g Assi G hat.
I rem em ber these chats as a pleasant blend o f sober sch olarly in q u iry and
ACK N O W LE D G M EN TS
am using speculation on the m ysteries presented b y this unusual group

o f H in d u goddesses.
D o u g Abram s A ra va , m y editor, has made several d iscern in g sugges
tions that have v e ry m u ch im proved this b o o k and has been u n w averin g
in his attentive support th rou gh ou t its preparation. I ow e special thanks
also to the three readers w h o review ed the m anuscript: K a th leen E rn d l,
M ira n d a Shaw, and an anonym ous review er. T h e ir com m ents and c r i t i
cisms proved v e ry useful in revisin g the book. V ic to r ia W ils o n -S c h w a rtz ,
the U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia Press copyeditor, was attentive, construc
tive, and unhesitant in sc ru tin izin g m y prose— to her, thanks ve ry m uch.
I am also grateful to m y w ife, C a r o ly n , for the m any hours she spent le n d
in g this book consistency and clarity, from an early draft th ro u g h subse
q u en t stages o fp r o d u c tio n .
Introduction
W h a t is one to make o f a group o f goddesses that includes

a goddess w h o cuts h er o w n head off, a n oth er w h o prefers to be offered
po llu ted items by devotees w h o themselves are in a state o f p o llu tio n ,
one w h o sits on a corpse w h ile p u llin g the tongue o f a dem on, another
w h o has sex astride a male consort w h o is ly in g on a crem ation pyre, an
other whose couch has as its legs four great male gods o fth e H in d u pan
theon, another w h o prefers to be w orshiped in a crem ation ground w ith
offerings o f semen, and yet another w h o is a haglike w idow ?
A re these goddesses, w h o are k n o w n as the ten M ahavidyas, bizarre
creations o f radical groups w ith in the H in d u tradition, obscure beings
whose significance is peripheral to the basic themes o fH in d u sp iritu al
ity? Should w e dismiss them as tangential, perhaps even irrelevant, to
H in d u religion? A fter years o f studying and m using on them , it seems to
me that there is a logic to the group as a w h ole and that even its most
outrageous members, if understood w ith in their proper context, reveal
im portant spiritual truths.
W e k n ow the M ahavidyas from a variety o f sources. M a n y goddess
temples across N o r th India contain paintings and images o f them . C o n
tem porary lithographs portray them both as a group and in d ivid u ally.
Dhydna mantras describe them for litu rg ical and m editative purposes, and
they are the subject o f several tantric digests.
T h e M ahavidyas have been k n o w n as a group since the early m edieval
period (after the tenth cen tury C .E .).1 Some o f them predated this d evel
opm ent and continue to be very w e ll k n o w n in th eir ow n right, such as
the fierce black goddess K a li. She is also usually the prim ary, or ddi,
IN TR O D U CTIO N
M ah avid ya. Kam ala, w h o is the same as the ve ry popular goddess S ri-
L ak sm i, is also a m em ber o fth e group. Tara and T rip u ra-su n dari, lesser
k n o w n but s till far from obscure, are oth er examples o f H in d u goddesses
w h o are popular on th e ir ow n and as part o f the group. O n the oth er
hand, B agalam ukhi, C hinn am asta, D h u m avatl, and M a ta h g i are rarely
m en tion ed apart from the M ahavidyas.
T h e aim o f this study is to reflect on the m eaning o fth e M ahavidyas,
both as a group and as in d iv id u a l deities. As a group, the M ahavidyas p re
sent a curious c o lle ctio n . It is not at all apparent w h y these particu lar ten
goddesses have becom e associated w ith one another. As for the in d iv id
ual goddesses, several are obscure and have received no sch olarly atten
tio n . In some cases the sources available on in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are
so lim ite d that it is d ifficu lt, if not im possible, to reconstruct th eir h isto
ries or gain a clear im pression o f their w orship. In m any respects this study
is not d efin itive or conclu sive. I seek here to b rin g a p re lim in a ry ord er
in g to the M a h a vid y a trad itio n in the hope that it w i l l encourage oth er
scholars to undertake m ore detailed studies o fth e group and o f its i n d i
vid u a l members.
T h ro u g h o u t m y study o fth e M ahavidyas, I was to ld m any times b y a
num ber o f people— priests, scholars, painters, and practitioners— that the
M ahavidyas are "all one." Som etim es th ey w ere responding to a ques
tion c o n cern in g the significance o fth e group as a w h o le and sometimes
to one c o n cern in g the peculiarities o f an in d iv id u a l goddess. I often took
this rep ly to indicate that the person did not have an appropriate answer
to the question and that the m ain p o in t, in any case, was to understand
the group as so m any m anifestations o f one (or the) great goddess. Such
questions as, " W h y d o e s Bagalam ukhi like y ello w ?" "W h a td o es the name
B agalam ukhi mean, and w hat is its significance?" " W h y does K a li stand
on Siva?" " W h a t is the significance o fth e name M ata h gi?" often elicited
a lo o k o f in com p reh en sion (w hy w o u ld I w ant to k n o w this anyway?),
fo llo w ed b y the com m ent that all o f the M ahavidyas are the same: they
are a ll different expressions o f the same goddess, w h o enjoys takin g m any
forms for her ow n pleasure and the needs o f h er devotees. I usu ally too k
this as a form ulaic reply, the k in d that H in d u s often make to n o n -H in d u s
w h o stand b ew ild ered before the fantastic array o f d iv in ity expressed in
the immense H in d u pantheon. A fte r a careful study o f the in d iv id u a l
M ahavidyas, how ever, it became apparent to me that in m any ways this
com m ent, " T h e y are all one," is im portant in understanding the sign if
icance o fth e in d iv id u a l manifestations and th eir w orship.
Texts that d w e ll in detail on the M ahavid yas— the Tantrasdra, Sdkta-
IN TRO D U CTIO N
pramoda, Saktisamgama-tantra, and m any others— discuss each M ahavidya

according to a clear structure. T h a t is, the description and w orship o f each
goddess is outlined in very sim ilar terms, no matter h o w different she may
appear from the others. She is made to conform to an accepted structure that
has at least tw o central components: (i) a ritualistic approach to the deity
that is ind ivid ual and tantric in nature and ( 2 ) a philosophical/m ythological
paradigm o f the M ahadevi (great goddess) to w h ic h the individual M ahavidya
is compared or equated.
W h e th e r the sddhaka (practitioner) w orships K a li or Kam ala, w h eth er
one seeks w o r ld ly boons or spiritual awareness, set patterns o f w orship
determ ine h o w one approaches the deity. T h e adept must know , "per
fect," and repeatedly recite the goddess's mantra (japa sddhand) th ro u g h
out the w orsh ip rituals; carefu lly select and "protect" a place o f w orship
w ith the appropriate mantras and mudrds (hand gestures); co rre c tly im a
gine and in terio rize the goddess; draw or carefu lly im agine and w orship
her yantra; invoke the goddess's hym ns, in c lu d in g her h un dred- and
thousand-nam e hym ns; offer her standard sixteen-partpuja (worship), or
an abbreviated form o f it; and make his or her w ish or wishes k n o w n to
the chosen deity. T h e overall inten t o fth e w orsh ip also has norm ative as
pects. In general, the sddhaka seeks to id en tify w ith the goddess in ques
tio n , to have a v isio n o f her, and to gain a boon that is understood to be
part o f her "store" o f grace. In the lo g ic o fth e w orsh ip , if one is able to
become the goddess, one can obtain that w h ic h she possesses, be it re
dem ptive know ledge or the pow er to annihilate one's enemies.
T h is type o fw o rsh ip , generally k n o w n as tantric (as opposed to V ed ic
o r purdnic), is stron gly in d iv id u a listic. T a n tric texts emphasize its secrecy.
T h e mantras o f the goddesses, w h ic h are the basic b u ild in g blocks o f
tantric w o rsh ip and represent the essential po w er o f the goddesses, are
always disguised and must be decoded b y those w ith special know ledge
before their exact com ponents can be understood. A guru, a spiritual mas
ter w h o is expert and accom plished in the w orsh ip o f a particu lar go d
dess, transmits the m antra o f that goddess, and oth er details o f w orsh ip,
to the in itiated in d iv id u a l. T h e guru gives this in fo rm a tion o n ly after de
te rm in in g the cap ability o fth e adept. F u rth erm ore, the guru chooses the
goddess whose peculiarities m atch the p red ilection s o f the initiate. A n
ideal m atch is supposedly made accord in g to the guru's superior spiritual
in tu itio n and know ledge o f b oth the initiate and the goddess. She b e
com es the initiate's special goddess, to w h o m he or she w ill devote i n
tense energy over a lifetim e.
It is un com m on for a person to be initiated into more than one goddess.
IN TRO D U CTIO N
Fig. i. Rajarajesvari (Lalita, Tripura-sundari), contemporary lithograph.
It is more typical for someone to focus on one particular goddess and to

find in her the satisfaction o f all his or her w o r ld ly and spiritual needs. For
the adept, this goddess becomes the G reat Goddess. T h is relationship be
tw een the goddess and the practitioner is in d ivid u al and personal and in
this sense is secret. T h a t is, o n ly the devotee and the goddess (and per
IN TRO D U CTIO N
haps the adept's gum) k n ow its nature and peculiar features. It is not shared
w ith the public, not even w ith fam ily members.
T h e ph ilosop h ical/m yth o lo gical m odel to w h ic h m ost o fth e in d iv id
ual M ahavidyas conform is exem plified in the Lalita-sahasranama, an early
thousand-name h y m n in praise o f T ripura-sun dari in h er form as L alita.
T h is text attributes several dom inant characteristics to L alita . It id e n ti
fies her in a n um ber o f ways and in m any epithets as the highest reality
in the cosmos, id en tical w ith certain p h ilosop h ical absolutes such as brah
man. As the highest reality, she oversees the three prin cip al cosm ic fu n c
tions: creation, m aintenance, and destruction. Related to this role as cos
m ic queen is her role as slayer o f demons. She protects the w o r ld and the
position o f the gods by defeating demons that th e y have found too fo r
m idable. In this respect she is said to transcend or em pow er the great
male gods Brahma, V is n u , and Siva, w h o are often said to be helpless in
the face o f the demons she defeats. She is id en tified w ith the physical
creation itself. She is prakrti, the inh eren t or v ita l p rin cip le o f creation.
She is also usually id en tified w ith s'akti (the in h eren t pow er o f creation),
dtman (the spiritual essence o f reality), and purusa (another term denot
in g the spiritual aspect o f creation). She is often described as the consort
o f Siva and in this role is a m odel w ife. She has m any benign qualities
and grants boons to her devotees, in c lu d in g spiritual attainments and en
lightenm ent. She is also said to have fierce, terrib le, frig h ten in g aspects,
and sometimes she is said to like meat, liquor, and blood (all considered
p o llu tin g in the H in d u tradition). She is also lo v e ly to behold and erot
ically pow erful.2
T h e ways and extent to w h ic h an in d iv id u a l M ah avid ya conform s to
this m odel vary, to be sure. As one m igh t expect, hym ns to goddesses such
as K a li and C hinnam asta paint them in rather fierce tones, w h ile Kam ala
and Bhuvanesvari are fairly benign in th eir hym ns. But each goddess in
her ow n w ay approximates the paradigm. From descriptions o f K a li in
her dhyana mantras, one m igh t expect h er to lack any pacific or n u rtu r
in g qualities, but her thousand-nam e hym ns describe her as havin g both.
F rom D hum avati's dhyana mantras, one w o u ld expect that she w o u ld lack
all positive, beneficent features, but her thousand-nam e h ym n says that
she has m any such qualities. C on versely, one is surprised to find fierce
or terrib le aspects to Kam ala, given her strong associations w ith good
fortune, fertility, and royal authority, but such qualities are m entioned.
It is also surprising, given the descriptions o f most o fth e M ahavidyas in
th e ir dhyana mantras and the stories about th e ir origins, that every one
o f them is stron gly associated w ith D urga in her role as dem on slayer.
6 IN TRO D U CTIO N
Each goddess, no matter h o w rem ote she m ay seem from the G reat G o d
dess in oth er ways, in her thousand-name h y m n is associated w ith p ro
tectin g cosm ic order b y slaying demons. T h is is strik in g, given h o w d if
ferent some o fth e M ahavidyas appear to be from each other.
These texts seem to make the p o in t that, indeed, in the case o f the
M ahavidyas, "all are one." T h e o rig in m yths o fth e group as a w h ole also
make this point, saying that all ten forms arose from one goddess (Sari,
K a li, or Durga) and all are different facets, aspects, or avatdras o f that
goddess. T h e hym ns to the in d iv id u a l goddesses also seem to make the
p o in t by suggesting that an adept w h o delves deeply enough into any one
o fth e M ahavidyas w i l l find them all in her. T h e y inhere in each other
and represent different facets o f a single, m ultifaceted being. T h e adept
or devotee need not w orship all ten M ahavidyas to gain th e ir assortment
o f blessings or siddhis. He or she need o n ly cultivate an intense and sus
tained rapport w ith one goddess to discover the blessings o f all.
But w h y w o u ld one w ant to receive the blessings o f such goddesses in
the first place? W h y w o u ld a H in d u p ractitioner go out o fth e w ay to es
tablish rapport w ith a goddess w h o is outrageous or bizarre? W h a t are
the blessings to be had from these unusual goddesses? A n im portant key
to understanding, or appreciating, the M ahavidyas, I th in k , lies precisely
in th e ir radical or outrageous aspects. It is true that some o fth e M a h a
vidyas are benign deities, associated w ith such w o r ld ly boons as w ealth,
fecundity, and security. H ow ever, most o fth e M ahavidyas are associated
w ith m arginality, inauspicious qualities, p o llu tio n , and death; th ey m ight
be term ed antimodels, especially for w om en. By antim odels I mean that
th e ir roles violate approved social values, customs, norm s, or paradigms.
For example, the most pow erful approved m odel for H in d u w om en for
centuries has been the goddess Slta, w h o is the ideal pad vratd (a w ife de
voted to her husband). H in d u w om en for generations have been social
ized to v ie w Slta as an ideal to im itate in th e ir o w n lives. Slta's husband
is the be-all and end-all o f her existence. H er thoughts and actions, wishes
and dreams, all focus on him ; her life o n ly has m eaning in relation to
h im . M o st o f the M ahavidyas, however, eith er are independent from
males or dominate (sometimes hum iliate) them in one w ay or another.
M a n y o fth e M ahavidyas seem to m ock the pad vratd ideal and to pre
sent an alternative social role that is almost its exact opposite. These god
desses, if th ey a llow males in th e ir presence at all, demand to be served
b y them .
Several o f the M ahavidyas also subvert the strong emphasis in the
H in d u trad ition on avoiding p o llu tio n . D eath, w h ic h is h ig h ly p o llu tin g
IN T R O D U C TIO N
in H in d u cu ltu re, is a d om inan t them e in M a h a v id y a ico n o grap h y and

w o rsh ip . Several M a h a vid y a goddesses d w e ll in crem ation grounds and
sit on corpses. Several w ear garlands o f severed heads (always male) or
h o ld severed heads. Several receive b lo o d sacrifice, always o f male v i c
tims. Several lik e b lo o d (w h ich is its e lf p o llu tin g ), perhaps need it, and
sometimes are said to be smeared w ith it. Several o fth e M a h a v id y a g o d
desses are also sexually aggressive. Sexual fluids are p o llu tin g in H in d u
cu ltu re, and the sexually p o w erfu l nature o f the M ahavid yas suggests that
th ey are in a p o llu te d state. T h e y are often show n h avin g sex, always in
the so-called d om inan t or reverse p o sitio n , that is, on top o f th e ir c o n
sorts. In the case o f M a ta h g i, w e have a goddess w h o prefers p o llu tio n
and w h o requires her devotees to be in a state o f p o llu tio n w h e n th ey of
fer her p o llu te d substances, such as m enstrual b lo o d .
In m any ways the goddess K a li, w h o is almost always named as the
first o fth e M ah avid yas, is the prototype o fth e group in terms o f b ein g
w hat I have term ed an an tim od el. She haunts crem ation grounds. She
wears a garland o f severed hum an heads, w h ic h are often gu shing b lo od
that smears her body. She holds a freshly severed head in one o f her hands.
She receives b lo o d sacrifice at her temples. She rides a ghost or a corpse
as her v e h icle . She is alm ost always naked. She is aggressive and is often
standing on her male consort. She is sexually p o w erfu l and is show n h av
in g sex astride her consort (w ho sometimes- lies on a funeral pyre). H e r
com panions are ghosts, jackals, and female furies. H e r hair is w ild and
un b ou n d . H e r tongue lolls out grotesquely, rudely, suggesting an insa
tiable, in d iscrim in ate h un ger and thirst. K a li insults, subverts, and m ocks
the social status quo, p articu la rly as it defines proper b eh avior for w om en .
A p p re c ia tin g the lib e ra tin g p o ten tial o f antim odels, it seems to me, is
one w a y o f appreciating the M ahavid yas. It is a them e I take up at sev
eral points in the book. I argue that it is a feature o f certain aspects o f
tantric sp iritu a lity in particular, but I also th in k that it is a m uted them e
in m uch o fth e n on tan tric H in d u trad itio n as w e ll. T h e r e is an insistence
in H in d u ism that the w o r ld as it appears to us is a show, that there re
mains hid d en from our n orm al v ie w an aspect o f rea lity that is different,
perhaps sh o ck in g ly different, from our ego-centered w a y ,o f apprehend
in g it. T h e w o r ld is not the w ay w e lik e to th in k it is, and the sooner w e
realize that, the q u ick er w e will make progress in a cq u irin g spiritual m a
turity. T h e M ahavid yas, as antim odels, are awakeners, visions o fth e d i
vin e that challen ge com fortable and c o m fo rtin g fantasies about the w ay
things are in the w o rld .
PART I
T h e Mahavidyas as a G roup
T h e Ten Mahavidyas
T h e order in w h ic h the M ahavidyas are given varies some

what, as do the goddesses inclu d ed in the group. In contem porary
sources, however, the follow ing goddesses in the follow ing order are most
com m on: (i) K a li, ( 2 ) T ara, ( 3 ) T rip u ra-su n d arl (SodasI), ( 4 ) B h u -
vanesvari, (5) Chinnamasta, (6 ) Bhairavl, ( 7 ) Dhumavati, (8) Bagalamukhi,
( 9 ) M atarigl, and ( 1 0 ) Kam ala. T h e ten are described in most sources as
follows:
1. K a li is black, w h ic h in fact is w hat h er name means. She has a fierce
countenance, stands on the supine body ofthe god Siva, and has four arms.
H er upper left hand holds a blood ied cleaver and her low er left hand a
severed head. H er rig h t upper hand makes the sign "fear n ot," and her
lo w er rig h t hand makes the gesture o f b estow ing boons. She is naked,
apart from a garland o f severed heads and a girdle o f severed arms; her
hair is unbound and disheveled; and she is often standing in a crem ation
ground or on a battlefield. She is almost always m entioned as the first of
the M ahavidyas and occupies a preem inent place in the group. In some
texts and in some settings, the other M ahavidyas are understood to arise
from her and to be her d ifferent forms.
2 . Tara is usually given as the second M ah avid ya, and in appearance
she is sim ilar to K a li. She is dark; her left foot is placed on a corpse or
on Siva; she wears a tiger skin; her hair is tied in a lon g braid; she is pot
bellied and has four arms. In her left hands she holds a knife and a sev-
Fig. 2. The ten Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.
TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP 11
ered head, and her rig h t hands make the signs o f giv in g favors and grant
ing fearlessness. She often stands in the m idst o f a crem ation fire.
3 . Sodas! (also k n o w n as T ripura-sundari, L alita, and Rajarajesvari) is
a beautiful y o u n g g irl o f sixteen w ith a red com plexion . She is sometimes
shown astride Siva in sexual intercourse. T h e y are on a pedestal or couch
supported by the gods Brahma, V is n u , Rudra, and Indra. Some descrip
tions say that the four gods w h o support her pedestal are Brahma, V isn u ,
Rudra, and Yam a. Sometimes she is said to sit on a lotus that emerges
from the navel o f Siva, w h o is re c lin in g b elow her. H er four arms h old a
noose, goad, bow, and arrows.
4 . Bhuvanesvari, w h o is said to nourish the three w orlds, holds a piece
o f fruit in one o f her four hands, makes the sign o f assurance w ith another,
and holds a goad and a noose in the oth er tw o. H e r breasts are large and
ooze m ilk. She has a bright, lig h t com p lexion and smiles pleasantly.
5. C hinnam asta has cut o ff her o w n head w ith a sword. H e r left hand
supports her head on a platter, and her rig h t hand holds the sword w ith
w h ic h she cut it off. T h ree jets o f blood gush from her neck: one stream
enters the m outh o f her severed head; the other tw o jets enter the mouths
o f tw o female com panions. C hinnam asta stands on the copu lating b od
ies o f the goddess Rati and her husband Kam a, the god o f sexual lust.
T h e y in tu rn are ly in g on a lotus or sometimes a crem ation pyre. Som e
times C hinnam asta (w ith her head chopped off) is show n astride Siva,
copulating w ith him as he lies beneath her. H er hair is loose, and she is
naked.
6 . B hairavi has a fierce appearance; her prim ary role in the cosm ic
process is destruction. H er com p lexion is said to be as b rig h t as th o u
sands o f risin g suns. She wears a garland o f skulls and clothes made from
the skins o f demons she has k ille d ; her feet and breasts are covered w ith
blood . H e r four hands h old a rosary and a book and make the signs of
fearlessness and granting wishes. T h e Kdlikd-purdna says that her eyes
r o ll from in to x ica tio n and that she stands on a corpse.1
7 . D hum avati is tall, w ith a pale com p lexion and a stern, u n sm ilin g
face. She is dressed as a w id ow , in w h ite clothes w ith no adornments. H er
clothes are d irty and her hair disheveled. She is toothless, her breasts lon g
and pendulous, and her nose large and crooked. She is h u n gry and thirsty,
has a quarrelsome nature, and rides a cro w or is seated on a chariot. She
holds a w in n o w in g basket and sometimes a trident.
8. Bagalam ukhi, "she w h o has the head o f a crane," usually sits on a
throne o f jewels, w h ic h is sometimes in the m idst o f a body o f water. She
is dressed in a y e llo w sari. In one hand she holds a club, w ith w h ich she
£ alM & o right, top to bottom, the Mahavidyas Tripura-bhairavT, Dhumavaa, Bagala, Matangl,
Fig. 3. Left to right, top to bottom, the Mahavidyas Kali, Tara, SodasI, Bhuvanesvari, and Chinnamasta.
TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
is about to beat a dark-com plexioned enemy. W i t h another hand she is

p u llin g his ton gue. Som etim es she sits on a corpse, and in some cases she
has a crane's head, or a crane is her veh icle, or vahana.
o. MatarigT has several different forms. U su ally she is a beautiful you n g
w om an w ith a dark or black com plexion . T h e m oon adorns her lon g hair,
and she sits on a jew eled throne. She wears a beautiful robe and a gar
land offlow ers. H er four hands h old a goad, noose, sw ord, and club. H e r
eyes are described as intoxicated from passion.
lO. Kam ala is a beautiful you n g w om an w ith a golden com plexion .
Tw o elephants flank her and pour pitchers o f w ater on her w h ile she sits
on a lotus and holds lotuses in her hands. She is clearly a form o fth e god
dess Laksm i, one o f whose com m on epithets is Kam ala, "lotus."
T h is list o fth e M ahavidyas is not u n varying. Lists or depictions o fth e
M ahavidyas almost always include K a li, Tara, Chinnam asta, Bagala
mukhi, Tripura-sundari (Sodasi), and D hum avati, but the others are som e
tim e s excluded. A t times, w e ll-k n o w n goddesses such as D urga, A n
napurna (she w h o is fu ll o f food), and K am akhya (she whose eyes express
desire) may be included in the list, w hich is the case in the Cdmundd-
tantra.2 A t other tim es obscure goddesses such as Vasali, Bala, and Pra-
tyarigiras w i l l be in clu d ed .3In addition, the order in w h ic h the M ahavidyas
are given varies, although K a li is almost always named as the first o fth e
group and T ara as the second.4 T h e num ber o f M ahavidyas also varies.
T h e Niruttara-tantra lists eighteen M ah avid yas,5 w h ile the Ndrada-
pancardtra says that th ere are seven m illion M ah avid yas.6
T ypical Literary and Iconographic Contexts
T h e M ahavidyas are prom in en t p rim a rily in tantric lite r

ature and in a few late sdktapurdnas and upapurdnas (m inor, later, or sub
sidiary purdnas). T h e tantras contain little narrative m aterial about the
M ahavidyas. T h e y are p rim arily interested in p ro v id in g the details o f how
to w orship the M ahavidyas and do not d w ell on the m eaning o fth e irs y m
bolism or stories that feature them . A typ ical tantric treatm ent o f a
M ah avid ya includes, first, her mantra, w h ic h is believed to represent her
essence; a devotee seek in g the goddess's blessin g or p o w e r m ust repeat
it con tin ually. N ext, the goddess's dhydna (meditation) m antra describes
her physical appearance in som e detail; again, the devotee is to fill his or
her-m ind w ith this description o fth e goddess w h ile r itu a lly approaching
THF MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP «5
her. T h e text also gives the goddess's rahasya (essence or secret), w h ic h

is usually sim ilar to her dhydna mantra. It also lists her kvaca (armor), usu
a lly in the form o f a prayer to protect her devotee on all sides. A tantra
usually includes the goddess's ndma stotra, a list o f her names or epithets.
Sometimes it describes her yantra (a schem atic d raw ing generally co m
posed o f circles, triangles, and stylized lotuses), along w ith directions for
constructin g and m editating upon it. In addition to this, the text som e
times gives directions for routine pujd (worship), in w h ic h various items
are offered to the goddess.
In purdnic literature, o n ly a few late texts m en tion the M ahavidyas.
T h e y do, however, contain fa irly detailed stories about the o rig in o fth e
M ahavidyas as a group. These m yths are im portant in p ro v id in g in te r
pretive contexts for the group as a w h ole.
C e rta in goddess hym ns also m en tion the M ahavidyas. For example,
th ey are named in the Durgd-cdlisd, a famous h ym n o f fo rty verses to
the goddess D urga. T h e y are also m entioned in the Kdmdkhyd-cdlisd.
A hym n to the goddess G ariga says that the M ahavidyas Tara, DhumavatJ,
M atarigi, and BhairavT are her m anifestations.7 T h e purpose o f th e ir
in clu sio n in such hym ns is to demonstrate that the m ain d eity being
praised— for example, D urga, K am akhya, or Gariga— appears in m any
forms th ro u g h o u t the w o r ld and that all goddesses are sim ply her
manifestations.
Iconographically, the M ahavidyas are often show n as a group in god
dess temples. T h e ir images are usually painted on the tem ple walls; more
un com m only, th ey m ay be represented by stone or m etal images. Som e
times the presiding goddess o f the tem ple in w h ic h the M ahavidyas are
depicted is h erself one o f them . In the K a ll-b a ri tem ple dedicated to the
goddess K a li in Simla, for example, the M ahavidyas are painted on the
w alls surrounding the garbha grba, the in n er shrine room , w h ic h houses
an image o f D aksina-kall. K a li h erself is depicted am ong the M ahavidyas.8
In a tem ple to D hum avatl in Varanasi, sim ilarly, the M ahavidyas are
painted on the in terio r o f the outer w alls and inclu d e the usual group.
A g a in in V aranasi, at the L ak sm i K u n d tem ple, the images o f the
M ahavidyas are painted around the inside door frame o f the m ain en
trance to the tem ple and include Kam ala (a form o f Laksm i).
In oth er cases, the M ahavidyas are depicted in temples dedicated to
goddesses w h o are not am ong the M ahavidyas. Images o fth e M ahavidyas
are carved on pillars o f a gate at N aina-devI tem ple in the d istrict o f B i-
laspur in H im ach al Pradesh. T h e y are show n on the in terio r w alls o f a
tem ple dedicated to C aral-devl-m ata in Siddhapur on the outskirts o f
16 TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
Dharm sala in H im ach al Pradesh. C aral-devI is a local deity; her tem ple
was established by truckers w h o sought the goddess's protection for th eir
u n io n b u ild in g . A t a C am unda-devi tem ple located about fifteen k i lo
meters from Dharm sala, the M ahavidyas are painted on the in terio r walls
o fth e central shrine. A n in scrip tio n states that the goddesses have been
depicted according to the Sdkta-pramoda, a w e ll-k n o w n text that describes
the M ahavidyas. W h e n I asked w h y the M ahavidyas w ere depicted in the
tem ple, the priest replied that C am unda-devi was a form o f K a li, the c h ie f
o fth e M ahavidyas. In his m ind, then, this tem ple is an example o fth e
type in w h ic h the M ahavidyas appear as a group in a tem ple dedicated to
one ofth em . H in d u texts, how ever, almost always distinguish Cam unda-
devi from K a li, and th ey are different in appearance.
T w o other temples whose prim ary deity is not a M ah avid ya are in te r
esting because th ey are related to Sat! and the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas.
T h e tem ple o f Jvalam ukhi-devi in H im a ch al Pradesh p ro m in en tly de
picts the M ahavidyas on the w alls o f a large p a vilio n , separate from the
m ain shrine, w h ic h houses an image o f D u rg a .5Jvalamukhi-devT's tem
ple is said to be the place w here the goddess Sati's tongue fell w h en her
body was chopped up by V isn u and so is one o fth e sdkta pithas, sacred
goddess sites scattered all over In d ia .10 As this is the case, Jvalam ukhi is
associated w ith Satl, w h o , as w e shall see below, is said to be the o rig in
o fth e M ahavidyas in certain m y th o lo g ica l accounts o fth e ir o rig in . S im
ilarly, the famous K am akhya-devi shrine near G au hati in Assam is said
to be the place w here Sari's y o n i (vulva) fell to earth. T h e hillside on w h ic h
the m ain shrine is located has small shrines to each o f the M ahavidyas.
A t the Bajresvarl-devI tem ple in K angra, large paintings in an alcove
called the s'akti bhavan show the M ahavidyas. T h e A m b e r Fort, about
eleven kilom eters east o fja ip u r in Rajasthan, has a tem ple to Sila-devI;
a large double door at the m ain entrance to the tem ple depicts the ten
M ah avid yas." In the D urga Saptasati tem ple in Nagawa, just south o f
Varanasi, th ey are painted in a row on one o fth e in n er w alls o fth e m ain
sh rin e .12 T h e M ahavidyas are also show n in bas-relief on the exterior walls
o fth e tem ple at the Ram akrishna M a th in Varanasi.
Temples dedicated to the group o f M ahavidyas themselves are rare,
in m y experience. Indeed, I have been able to find o n ly one. In the sec
tio n o f n orth C alcu tta k n o w n as Cossipore, near the crem ation ground
on the H o o g ly River, is a small tem ple dedicated to the Dasamahavidyas.
It contain s ten (dasa) images o fth e M a h a vid y as. Sodasi is in the cen ter
and is larger than the rest. O n her right, from the most distant to the
closest, are Bagala, M atarigi, Kamala, and D hum avatl. O n her left, from
Fig. 5 . Dhumavati, Durga Saptasati temple, Nagawa, Varanasi.
closest to farthest, are K a li, Tara, Bhuvanesvari, B hairavl, and C h in n a

masta. T h e tem ple enshrines several lirigams (phalluses), con n otin g the
presence o f Siva and suggesting his con n ection w ith the M ahavidyas.
T h e presence o fth e M ahavidyas at the K am akhya temple at Kamarupa
in Assam is unusual in the abundance and variety o f images throu ghou t
the site .13 T h is tem ple is an im portant s'dkta center according to m any
texts, because it is the place w here Sati's y o n i fell to earth, and hence her
adipitha (prim ordial or origin al seat). It is also stron gly associated w ith
the M ahavidyas. Stone yon is in the main temple represent the M ahavidyas
Sodasi, MatarigT, and Kam ala. Indeed, some inform ants id en tify K a
makhya herself w ith Sodasi. T h e other M ahavidyas (and other goddesses
as w ell) have small shrines or temples located n earb y.14 Several o f these
sm aller shrines are associated w ith Siva lingams. T h e Tara tem ple is quite
large and resembles the central shrine. T h e Bhairavi shrine has images
o fth e other nine M ahavidyas on the w alls near the ceilin g . T h e central
representations o f the M ahavidyas in these shrines usually are not an
th rop om orp h ic and are sometimes d ifficu lt to see at all, as th ey are ob
scured by flow ers, clo th in g , or offerings or are located in underground
caves that are open for darsan (view in g by devotees) o n ly on special o c
casions. Sometimes this representation is a y o n i and is associated w ith a
spring (as in the m ain shrine as w ell).
T h e M ahavidyas are prom in en t icon o grap h ically in tw o large goddess
festivals in Bengal, D urga Puja (Navaratra) and K a li Puja (D ivali). D u r
ing D urga Puja, artisans construct thousands o f large clay images fea
tu rin g D urga as M ahisam ard ini (the slayer o fth e buffalo dem onM ahisa).
These images are usually part o f an elaborate tableau that includes the
goddesses Sarasvati and Laksm i and the gods Ganesa and K a rtik eya . T r a
d ition al renditions o f this divine tableau have a h alolik e panel called the
cdlcitra (literally, "ro ofp ictu re") behind and e n c irc lin g the central image
o f D urga. T h is frame depicts deities or scenes from H in d u m ythology.
It often shows the M ahavidyas, g iv in g the unm istakable im pression that
th ey are different forms o fth e goddess D urga.
D u rin g K a li Puja, devotees establish clay images o f K a li all over B en
gal. T h e images are often set in a tableau featuring Siva, Ram akrishna,
and Bamakhepa (two famous B engali K a li devotees) or some aspect o f
K a li m y th o lo g y or iconography. In recent years, K ali's tableau has i n
cluded the other M ahavidyas. I saw tw o examples ofth is d u rin g K a li Puja
in O c to b er 1 9 9 2 . B oth sets o f M ah avid ya images w ere setu p in central
C alcutta, and both featured K a li in the center o fth e ro w o ften goddesses.
H er image was far larger than the others; it was clear that she held the
preem inent position. Indeed, a man at one o f the pandals referred to the
M ahavidyas as "the ten K a lis." F or the m ost part, the images w ere fa ith
ful duplications o f the tantric dhydna mantras that describe the appear
ance o fth e M a h a vid y as.15
T h e Mahavidyas as Forms ofthe MahadevT
B oth litera ry and iconograp h ic materials give the general

im pression that the ten M ahavidyas are different forms o f an overarch
ing, transcendent female reality, w h o is usually referred to sim ply as the
Fig. 6. D urga surrounded by the M ahavidyas, contem porary lithograph.
M a h a d ev i (great goddess). A n u n d e rly in g assum ption o fm a n y s'aktatexts

is that the highest reality is the G reat Goddess, and this in fin ite ly great
b eing manifests herself in a w ide variety o f forms. Indeed, this is perhaps
the central feature o f H in d u s'akta th e o lo gy in those texts.16 M a n y m yths
in s'akta literature describe a goddess, or the goddess, as p rod u cin g other
goddesses from her ow n body. In such cases she often announces that she
assumes different forms at different times to m aintain cosm ic sta b ility ,17
to bless a p a rticu la r d evotee, or ou t o f a sense o fsp o rt or playfulness. T h e
th eological idea is that ultim ate reality, w h ic h is female in essence and
form , displays herself in a great variety o f ways for different purposes.
Some texts even say that w herever a female being exists, there the go d
dess reveals herself, being present in every female fo r m .18 T h is them e is
strong and obvious in the case o fth e M ahavidyas. T h e ir presence in devi
tem ples seems to state: " T h e goddess en sh rin ed in th is place assumes
m any form s." T h e M ahavidyas are the concrete expression o fth e idea o f
"m any form s." In the case o f goddesses w h o are identified w ith a p artic
ular place, and w h o are not w e ll k n o w n outside th e ir local areas, associ
ation w ith the M ahavidyas lends them a cosm ic, universal, transcendent
dim ension. T h e presence o fth e M ahavidyas in a goddess tem ple id e n ti
fies a local or regional goddess w ith an all-In d ia m y th o lo g y or sym bolic
structure, len d in g her a certain prestige.
T h e re is evidence that the ten avataras ("descents" or incarnations) o f
V is n u are the m odel for the ten M ahavidyas as expressions o f the
M ahadevi; that is, the M ahavidyas represent, at least to some extent, a
s'akta version o fth e Vaisnava idea. C om parison o fth e M ahavidyas to the
avataras o fV is n u places a prem ium on th e ir role as m ain tainin g and sus
tain in g the cosm ic and m oral orders. In d ivid u ally and as a group, th eir
positive, w orld -su p p o rtin g natures are em phasized. T h e Guhydtiguhya-
tantra, for example, lists the M ahavidyas and identifies each w ith one o f
V isnu's avataras: K a li is said to have becom e Krsna, C hinnam asta to have
become N arasirhha, and so o n .15 T h e Todala-tantra, in chapter n, also
equates the ten M ahavidyas w ith the ten avatarasP A n article on T ara in
H in d i says that the ten avataras come from the fingernails ofth e M ahadevi
and that the M ahavidyas, w h ic h are also her forms, are like the avataras
in that th ey are created to help overcom e adharma (evil or im m o ra lity ).21
T h e Mundamala-tantra com pares the ten M ah avid yas to the ten avataras.22
A contem porary H in d i w o rk also compares the M ahavid yas to the
avataras." A n o th e r contem porary H in d i w o rk on T antra says that the
M ahad evi takes on different forms from tim e to tim e to defeat demons,
and the M ahavidyas are such form s.24 Icon ographically the tw o groups
are also associated. A t the tem ple at the Ram akrishna M a th in Varanasi,
the ten avataras are sculpted on tw o exterior w alls, five to a side. T h e
M ahavidyas are on the oth er tw o w alls. T h e juxtaposition o f the tw o
groups suggests that the M ahavidyas are the female counterparts o f the
ten avataras.
A s'akta devotee and teacher in Varanasi, Swam i Sadhananda Shastri,
told me that the M ahavidyas correspond to the "avataras" (I put the term
in quotations because several o f the examples o f male deities that he
m en tion ed are not actually V is n u avataras): Bagalam ukhi is Vam ana, K a
mala is V is n u , K a li is K rsna, T ara is Rama, B h airavi is Rudra, C h in n a
masta is M atsya, M atarigi is Brahm a, D h u m avatl is V araha, Sodasi is Siva,
and Bhuvanesvari is the formless brahman (the absolute). He stated that,
like the avataras o f V is n u , the M ahavidyas w ere created to play positive
functions in the w o rld . T ara, for example, was created to defeat the th o u
sand-headed Ravana, w h o appeared after Rama's defeat o f the te n
headed Ravana. T h e thousand-headed Ravana cou ld be slain o n ly b y a
w om an, and so the G reat Goddess too k the form o f T ara to kill him. Kali
was created to eat and d rin k the b lo od o f demons w h o threaten the w o r ld ,
and Chinnam asta, he said, was created to delude the demons at the c h u rn
in g o f the ocean so that th ey w o u ld not get th eir share o f the nectar of
im m ortality. Chinnam asta too k th e ir share o f the nectar, drank it, and
then k ille d h erself so that th ey w ere deprived o f it. Sodasi was created to
arouse Siva to sexual a ctiv ity so his creative pow ers cou ld stimulate the
w o rld . Bhuvanesvari was created to save the w o r ld w h en it was taken u n
der the waters o f the cosm ic ocean and thus plays the same role as the
boar avatdra o fV is n u . Kam ala was created to spread w ealth in the w o rld .
M atarig i, w h o is the same as Sarasvati, accord in g to Swam i Shastri, was
created to spread m usic and education and to help hum an beings acquire
lib eratin g w isd om (jndna). Bagalam ukhi was created to paralyze enemies.
D h u m avatl was created to spread disease. A lth o u g h this m ay not seem a
v e ry positive cosm ic role, w e m ight suppose that D h u m a va tl spreads dis
ease to punish the w ic k e d and support the m oral o rd er.25
A lth o u g h an im portant aspect o f s'akta th e o lo gy stresses the place of

the M ah ad evi in u p h o ld in g the cosm ic order and the M ahavidyas are
sometimes liken ed to V isnu's avataras as p la y in g positive cosm ic roles,
the M ahavidyas seem o n ly tenuously connected to this type o f a ctiv ity
in most tantric an d purdnic texts that m en tion them . In most cases, as w e
shall see, the emphasis seems to be not so m uch on m ain tain in g cosm ic
order and defeating demons as on the d iversity o f forms the M ah ad evi
assumes and, b y im p lic a tio n , the insistence that, th ro u g h her m any
forms, she pervades all aspects o f reality. T h a t there are ten M ahavidyas
as a group, however, does seem best explained on the analogy o f the ten
avataras o f V is n u , w h ic h is an ancient, w e ll-k n o w n , and popular feature
o f H in d u m ythology. In fact, this explanation is supported by certain texts
and by present-day inform ants.
Mahavidya O rigin M yths
I have come across five versions o f the o r ig in o f the

M ahavidyas as a group. In one ofthese versions, the M ahavidyas are d if
ferent forms o f the goddess Satl; in a second version th ey are forms of
the goddess Parvati; in a th ird th ey arise from the goddess K a li, herself
one o fth e M ahavidyas; in a fou rth th ey are forms o fth e goddess Durga;
and in a fifth th ey are said to arise from the goddess Sataksi, w h o is also
identified w ith Sakam bhari and D urga.
I. T H E M A H A V ID Y A S AS FO R M S OF SATI
O fth e five versions o fth e M ahavidyas' origin , I have found

o n ly tw o that are firm ly attested in literary sources. W e shall look first at
the most detailed version. In the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna and the Brhad-
dharma-purdna, w h ic h are both late s'akta upapurdnas, probably w ritte n
in eastern India after the fourteenth cen tu ry C.E., the o rig in o fth e ten
M ahavidyas is recounted as part o f the story o f Daksa's sacrifice. T h is
tale is ancient in the H in d u trad itio n and w e ll k n o w n all over India. It is
also an im portant s'akta m yth , being the prelude to the story o fth e o r i
gin o f the s'akta pithas, w h ic h are sacred centers o f goddess w orship
th rou gh ou t In d ia .26 In early versions o fth e story, the M ahavidyas do not
appear; th ey enter it for the first tim e in these tw o relatively late purdnas.
By in clu d in g th e ir o rig in in this m yth , o f course, the authors ofthese texts
have len t the M ahavidyas considerable prestige, as the m yth is w e ll k n ow n
and central to s'akta m ythology.
T h e account o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas in the Brhaddharma- and
Mahdbhdgavata-purdnas is as fo llo w s .27 O n ce upon a tim e, Daksa decided
to undertake a great sacrifice. He in vited all the inhabitants o f heaven,
all the gods and goddesses, except his daughter, Satl, and his son-in-law ,
Siva. Daksa was not fond o f Siva, as he disapproved o f Siva's odd habits
and antisocial nature. Siva, the archetypal y o g i, was fond o f in h ab itin g
lo n e ly places and crem ation grounds and surrounding h im se lf w ith

ghosts and goblins. W h e n he was not go in g about com p letely naked, he
w ore anim al hides. He often smeared his body w ith ashes and spent time
in isolated m editation. To Daksa, he did not seem a fittin g husband for
his daughter, and so Daksa deliberately did not in vite him or Satl to his
sacrifice. Siva him selfw as ind ifferen t to this snub, but Satl was outraged
and determ ined to attend her father's sacrifice in order to disrupt it and
berate her father. Siva, how ever, forbade her to go.
N o w the story departs from earlier versions by in tro d u cin g in an ac
count o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas. F orbid d en by Siva to attend the
sacrifice, Satl becomes enraged and accuses h im o f n eglectin g her. In her
anger her eyes become red and b rig h t and her lim bs trem ble. Seeing her
fury, Siva closes his eyes. W h e n he opens them , a fearsome female stands
before h im . As he looks at her, she becomes ve ry old , her graceful ap
pearance disappearing. She develops four arms, her com plexion becomes
fiery and her hair disheveled, her lips are smeared w ith sweat, and her
tongue lolls out and begins to wave from side to side. She is naked ex
cept for a garland o f severed heads; she wears the h a lf m oon as a crow n .
Standing before Siva, she blazes like a m illio n risin g suns and fills the
w o r ld w ith earth-shattering laughter.
Siva is afraid and tries to flee. He runs around in all directions, but
then the terrible goddess gives a dreadful laugh, and Siva is too petrified
to move. To make sure that he does not flee from her terrjble form , Satl
fills the directions around h im w ith ten different forms (the M ahavidyas).
In the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna, w h e n Siva asks w h o these goddesses are,
Satl answers that th ey are her "frie n d s."28 W h e re v e r Siva goes or looks,
he sees a dreadful figure, and his fear increases. U nable to flee, he stands
still and closes his eyes. W h e n he opens them , he sees before him a sm il
in g w om an whose face is as pleasing as a lotus blossom . She is black, her
breasts are large, and she is naked. H e r hair is disheveled, and she glows
w ith the b rillia n ce o f a m illio n suns. Siva asks: "W h e re is m y beloved
Sati?" She replies: "D o y o u n ot see Satl standing before you?"
Siva then asks w h o the oth er goddesses are w h o surround h im and is
told th eir names: K a li, Tara, Kam ala, Bhuvanesvari, Chinnam asta, Sodasi,
Sundari, Bagalam ukhi, D hum avatl, and M atarigi. In relation to Siva, w ho
is facing south, K a li is in fro n t o f him (to the south), T ara above h im ,
C hinnam asta to his rig h t (west), Bhuvanesvari to his left (east), Bagala
behind h im (north), D h u m avatl to the southeast, T ripura-sun dari to the
southwest, M atarigi to the northw est, and Sodasi to the n ortheast.25 A t
one point, the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna ( 7 7 . 4 - 1 1 ) locates the M ahavidyas
Fig. 7 . Sati and Siva surrounded by the Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.
relative to the goddess Kam akhya, w h o is id en tified w ith K a li. K am akhya

(or K ali) is in the center, seated on a corpse that is ly in g on a lotus that
is resting on a lio n . T h e text identifies the corpse as Siva, the lotus as
Brahm a, and the lio n as V is n u , so the goddess is supported by the three
great male deities o fth e H in d u pantheon. T h e M ahavidyas are arrayed
around the central figure, w h o faces so u th .30N o n e ofthese enumerations
o fth e M ahavid yas elaborates th e ir in d iv id u a l appearances or character

istics. T h e Brhaddharma-purdna does say that T ara represents tim e and
that C hin n am asta is em aciated and d re ad fu l,31 but for the m ost part the
tw o texts conten t them selves w ith m akin g general com m ents about the
group as a w h o le.
In b o th accounts, Satl, in h er te rrib le, b la ck form , w h ic h is sometimes
said to be K a li, tells Siva that these ten goddesses are her d ifferent forms.
" A l l these figures are m y ex cellen t form s, and I abide in m a n ifo ld
fo rm s."32 In the Brhaddharma-purdna the M ahavid yas as a group are said
to cause troub le and c o n flic t am ong people, but also to give sp iritu al l i b
eration (moksa).1’ T h e y are also said to bestow the pow ers ofmdrana(the
a b ility to cause a person's death sim p ly b y w i lli n g it), uccdtana (the a b il
ity to make one's en em y sick b y w i l li n g it), stambhana (the a b ility to i m
m o b ilize a person), the p o w er to c o n tro l another's speech, the po w er o f
rem ain in g y o u n g on eself w h ile causing another to grow o ld , and the
p o w er to attract another to on eself.34 T h e Brhaddharma-purdna also says
that w h en B rahm a creates the w o r ld and V is n u m aintains it, th ey use the
pow ers o ft h e M ahavid yas "lik e tw o arm s."35 These references suggest
that the M ahavid yas are associated w ith m agical pow ers, w h ic h m ay be
acquired b y w o rsh ip in g them .
A fte r the M ahavid yas have surrounded Siva and he has been told w h o
th ey are, he acquiesces to Sari's w ish and says that she m ay attend her fa
ther's sacrifice. In the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna, T ara merges w ith K a li at
this p o in t, and the oth er forms disappear.36Satl, in the form o f K a li, then
goes o ff to Daksa's sacrifice and k ills h erse lf b y th r o w in g h e rse lf on the
sacrificial fire. In the Brhaddharma-purdna account, Satl leaves the M a h a
vidyas b eh in d w ith Siva, in stru ctin g them to lo o k after h im in her ab
sence. She explains that she has created these form s to attend Siva w h en
she is aw ay.37 T h e n Satl, takin g on a form that wears a tig er skin and has
disheveled hair, a fearsome face, and fiery red eyes, heads o ff to Daksa's
sacrifice, fly in g th ro u g h the sky. T h e rest o fth e story conform s to the
account in the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna.
In the version o f the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas that is given in the Brhad-
dharma- and Mahdbhdgavata-purdnas, there are several im portan t points
to be noted.
First, the m yths make clear that Satl, or the goddess in the form o f
Sati, is a superior po w er to Siva. He forbids her to attend h er father's sac
rifice, but she forces h im to let her go b y o v e rw h e lm in g h im w ith her n u
merous and terrible forms. B oth accounts o fth e story stress the fact that
Siva is afraid o f the goddess in h er terrib le form s and tries to dee. T h e
fact that the goddess is able to p h y sic a lly restrain Siva d ram atically makes
the p o in t that she is superior in pow er. T h e them e o f the su p erio rity o f
the goddess over male deities is com m on in s'akta texts, so the story is
stressing a cen tral s'akta th e o lo gica l p rin cip le.
Second, the Brhaddharma- and Mahdbhdgavata-purdna account o f the
o rig in o f the M ahavid yas stresses th e ir te rr ify in g aspects. A lth o u g h oth er
texts describe some o fth e M ahavid yas as pleasant, b eau tifu l, and m ild o f
m anner, here th ey are, as a group, aw ful and frig h te n in g . T h e one g o d
dess the story does describe in detail, the in itia l form taken b y Satl, is
p a rticu la rly fearsome, and Siva reacts to it b y clo sin g his eyes or tr y in g
to run away. T h is account stresses the dram atic effects the M ahavid yas
have on Siva. He is frightened and repelled b y them . T h e y are te rrib le,
n ot pleasing, in form .
T h i r d , this versio n o fth e M ah avid yas' o rig in emphasizes that the ten
goddesses are m anifestations o f Satl, or o f the G reat Goddess, w h o has
taken the form o f Satl. W h e n Siva asks w h o the M ahavidyas are, Satl tells
h im th ey are her forms or her friends. T h e m y th makes clear that the
M ahavid yas are extensions o f Sari's pow er. T h e y em bod y her w i l l and
w rath and succeed in b en d in g Siva to her wishes.
F o u rth , the appearance o fth e M ahavid yas takes place in the context
o f husband-w ife and father-daughter tensions. Daksa insults his daugh
ter b y not in v itin g her to his hom e for the sacrifice, and Siva offends her
b y n ot a llo w in g her to go to her paternal hom e. T h e M ahavid yas are, at
least to some extent, the em bodim ents o f an offended w ife and daugh
ter. T h e y are the em bodim ents o f female fu ry precipitated b y male n e
glect and abuse.
T h e cu lt o f the goddess N an d a-d evi o f G a rw a h l in H im a ch a l P ra-
dhesh illustrates the p o ten tial danger posed b y u n fa irly restrictin g a
woman's freedom to retu rn to her native village (the dom ain o f her fa
ther), w h e th e r the im pedim ents are caused b y the father or the husband.
A lth o u g h lo c a l G a rw a h li literature stresses that a w om an is to ta lly trans
form ed w h e n she marries, b eco m in g part o f her husband's lineage, G a r
w a h li w o m en insist that females rem ain stron gly id en tified w ith , in flu
enced by, and related to th e ir hom e fam ilies and villages, th eir mats. B oth
m en and w o m en share the b e lie f that a w om an has the a b ility to effec
tiv e ly curse her husband or her father if she is im peded from m a in ta in
in g contact w ith her hom e village. T h e bride w h o has gone away, the "out-
m arried villa ge daughter" (dhiydnt), sh ould con tin u e to be respected by
her hom e village and must be in v ite d back for all its im portan t festivals
and events. A villa g e that neglects to do this risks her destructive curse,
w h ic h could be ruinous. In the cu lt o fth e goddess N an d a-d evi, a yea rly

pilgrim age wends its w ay th rou gh m any local villages w here she is w o r
shiped, and this represents her return to her native village. If this p i l
grim age is not undertaken, the goddess will be offended and assume that
she is no lon ger loved and respected. Such im plied neglect or in d iffe r
ence w o u ld court her w r a th .38
A sim ilar situation exists in the story o f Satl. H e r m aitis n ot fu lfillin g
its d u ty to her, because her father has n ot in v ited her hom e for his elab
orate sacrifice. F urtherm ore, her husband, in forbid d in g her to retu rn to
her home village, is sh ow in g her serious disrespect. Both Siva and Daksa
become the targets o f her anger. In the logic o fth e N an d a-d evi cult, Satl
returns to her hom e village enraged at her father's lack o f respect for her
and im m olates h erself in her father's sacrificial fire. He and his hom e are
cursed and even tually destroyed by Siva and his hosts w h en Siva hears o f
Sati's death.
A fifth im portan t p o in t about this versio n o f the o r ig in o f the
M ahavidyas is that these goddesses are associated w ith m agical powers
and have little or no con n ection w ith u p h o ld in g the order o fd h a rm a .35
T h e y do not resemble the avataras o fV is n u in eith er nature or fu n ction .
T h e y do not appear in order to defeat demons w h o threaten the stab il
ity o fth e w o rld but in order to frighten Siva into a llo w in g Satl to attend
her father's sacrifice. T h e ir prim ary role in the story is to overpow er an
opponent, in this case, Siva. T h e Brhaddharma-purdna says that the M a h a
vidyas have been created to produce co n flict and trouble am ong p eo p le40
and that th ey confer the pow er to kill at will, to im m o b ilize one's ene
mies, and so on. Indeed, the effect th ey have on Siva underlines this as
pect o f th e ir nature. Siva is alternately frightened into fleeing and frozen
w ith fear. A lth o u g h oth er m yths con cern in g in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas sug
gest th e ir w orld -su p p o rtin g fu n ction , and in several instances the M a h a
vidyas are compared to the Vaisnava avataras, this version o f th e ir o rig in
o n ly hints at w o rld -su p p o rtin g characteristics. A lth o u g h some o ft h e in -
dividual M ahavidyas are more stron gly associated w ith magical powers
than others, as w e will see below, this version o fth e group's o rig in says
that the group as a w h ole grants these powers.
2. TH E M A H A V ID Y A S AS FO R M S O F P A R V A T I
T h e second version o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas was

told to me by the mahant (ch ief priest) o f the K ashi V ish van ath tem ple
in Varanasi, Sri Rama Shankar T rip a th i, w h o in tu rn was told the story
by a tdntrika friend o f his. T h e tdntrika said the story was to be found in

"all the Tantra s'dstras," but as y et I have n ot been able to find it in any
w ritte n source. A c c o rd in g to this version, Siva is liv in g w ith his second
w ife, Parvati (whom he m arried after Satl k ille d herself), in her father's
house in the m ountains. O n e day, Siva decides to leave. Parvati asks him
to stay, but he refuses. W h e n he attempts to leave, she prevents him from
d oin g so b y b lo ck in g the ten doors o fth e house w ith her ten forms, the
M ahavidyas. T h e esoteric m eaning o fth e m yth , according to the tdntrika,
is based on an allegory. T h e house represents the hum an body, and the
b lo ck in g o fth e ten doors means the b lo ck in g , or c o n tro llin g , o fth e ten
b o d ily apertures: tw o eyes, ears, and nostrils, plus the m outh, anus, pe
nis or vagina, and brahmarandhra (an aperture at the top o fth e head). In
this allegorical interpretation, Siva's desire to leave Parvati's house pre
sum ably signifies the individual's desire to indulge the senses w illfu lly , to
act w ith o u t yo g ic discipline and co n tro l.
T h is version bears sim ilarities to the first version o fth e M ahavidyas'
o rig in . As in the first one, the M ahavidyas appear in order to restrain Siva,
to bend him to the goddess's will. He wants to leave his father-in-law's
house, but she wants h im to rem ain. T h e M ahavidyas force the issue in
Parvati's favor. It is also clear in this version that the M ahavidyas are all
forms o f one goddess, in this case, Parvati. T h e y represent various as
pects o f the goddess. As in the first version also, the appearance o f the
M ahavidyas is the result o f m arital tension. In this case, however, the go d
dess's father seems to play little or no role. T h is version o fth e story also
emphasizes the su p eriority o f the goddess over Siva. T h e fact that Siva
and Parvati are liv in g at her father's house in itse lf makes this point, as it
is trad itional in m any parts o f India for the w ife to leave her father's hom e
upon marriage and become a m em ber o f her husband's lineage and live
in his hom e among his relatives. T h a t Siva dw ells in Parvati's house im
plies her p r io r ity in th e ir relationship. H er p rio rity is also demonstrated
in her ability, th rou gh the M ahavidyas, to th w art Siva's will and assert
her ow n .
T h is story lends itse lf to an allegorical interpretation o fth e M a h a
vidyas as aspects or powers o f the hum an organism , states o f conscious
ness perhaps, rather than as w orld -su p p o rtin g or cosm ic powers. T h e
teller's emphasis on th e ir role in y o g ic con cen tratio n , or perhaps sddhand
(religious endeavor) generally, suggests that the M ahavidyas are associ
ated w ith facets, aspects, dimensions, or characteristics o fth e hum an o r
ganism, w h ic h in Tantra is understood to be the universe in m icrocosm .
In fact, this interpretation ofthe M ahavidyas is supported by some tantric
T H E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP *9
texts. T h e Saktisamgama-tantra, for example, says that the M ahavidyas

are connected w ith the five senses (sound, to u ch , co lo r or sight, flavor,
and smell) and the five elements (ether, air, fire, water, and earth).41 A l
though the Saktisamgama-tantra does not specify w h ic h M ah avid ya is c o n
nected w ith each sense or elem ent, it is clear that th e y are associated w ith
the fundam ental makeup o f humans.
T h e association o fth e M ahavidyas w ith siddhis (magical powers) is also
im p lied in this second version o fth e ir creation. Such powers are acquired
b y means ofsddhand, w h ic h almost always includes y o g ic practices aimed
at c o n tro llin g or en h an cin g the senses. W e shall treat the idea o f the
M ahavidyas as siddhis in m ore detail below .
3 . T H E M A H A V ID Y A S AS FORM S OF KALI
T h e th ird version o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas is found

in a con tem porary H in d i b ook about the w orsh ip o f T a r a .42 A c c o rd in g
to this version , Siva is liv in g w ith the goddess K a li in the Satya Y u ga, the
first and most perfect o fth e four periods o f a w o r ld cycle. E v en tu a lly he
grows resdess and decides he is tired o f livin g w ith Kali. H e gets up, and
w h en she asks h im w here he is go in g, he answers: "W h e r e v e r 1 w ish !"
She does not reply, and he begins to w ander off. H o w ever, in w h ich ev er
d ire ctio n Siva goes, a form o f K a li appears, one o fth e M ahavidyas: first
K a li herself, th e n T a ra , Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari, Bagalam ukhi, B hairavl, K a
mala, D h u m avatl, M a ta rig i, and C hinnam asta. Seeing these goddesses,
Siva loses his y ea rn in g to leave K a li and w ander about, h avin g gained the
know ledge (vidyd) that she pervades the entire cosmos and that w herever
one goes she is th e re in one o f h e r form s.
T h is version o fth e m yth is o b vio u sly related to the first tw o in sev
eral respects. T h e M ahavidyas arise as manifestations o f a particu lar g o d
dess, w h o is said to be Siva's spouse. As in the oth er tw o versions, the
goddess (K a li, in this case) creates the M ahavidyas to prevent Siva from
lea vin g or fleein g. T h is versio n also gives no in d ic a tio n that the
M ahavidyas p lay a role sim ilar to the Vaisnava avataras. U n lik e the first
tw o versions, how ever, there is less emphasis on m arital tension, although
the im p lica tio n is that Siva is go in g against K ali's w ish b y tr y in g to leave
her and w ander about. T h is version also does not indicate that the
M ahavidyas are terrible or frig h te n in g (they are not even described) or
that Siva is afraid o f them . T h e story does not even say that the M a h a
vidyas prevent Siva from leavin g. It sim ply says that K a li fills the w hole
cosmos w ith her forms.
T h e central po in t o f this version o f the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas, a

po in t im p lic it in the oth er versions, is that it is im possible to go w here
the goddess is not. To depart (or flee) from her is im possible, as she per
vades the entire cosmos in one form or another. She is everyw here; i n
deed, she is iden tical w ith the cosmos itself. T h e story as told here also
places a prem ium on the M ahavidyas as revealing know ledge (vidyd), in
this case, know ledge that K a li pervades all o f reality. In this sense, the
story interprets the M ahavidyas, not as avatdra-type figures w h o m ain
tain the cosmos, nor as manifestations o f m agical powers or states o f c o n
sciousness, but as sources ofw isd om . T h e po in t ofth is version o fth e story
is Siva's en lightenm ent, w h ic h the M ahavidyas b rin g about.
4. T H E M A H A V I D Y A S A S F O R M S O F D U R G A
C o n tem p o ra ry oral trad itio n , supported b y certain icon o -

graphic evidence, supplies yet a fou rth version o f the o rig in o f the
M ahavidyas. A c c o rd in g to this version, the M ahavidyas appear w h en the
great battle queen D u rga confronts the demons Sum bha and N isu m bha.
T h e m y th o f Durga's defeat ofthese demons constitutes the th ird episode
ofthe Devi-mdhdtmya and is also told in several otherpurdnas. AA lth o u g h
none o fth e texts that describe this battle m entions the M ahavidyas, sev
eral people have told me that th ey figh t in it as a group. M o reover, in d i
vid ual M ahavidyas are sometimes associated w ith the m yth , and there is,
as w e shall see, considerable iconographic evidence to support this v e r
sion o fth e M ahavidyas' o rig in . A contem porary H in d i book on Tantra
also alludes to this version o f the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas: the author
states that, in the b egin nin g, the male gods w ere threatened by demons
and appealed to the M ahadevi, w h o defeated the demons by takin g on
different forms, in c lu d in g the nine D u rgas44 and the ten M ah avid yas.45
T h e Devi-mdhdtmya is the most famous and revered o fa ll H in d u s 'a ita
texts. It was probably w ritte n around the sixth cen tu ry C .E. and today o c
cupies a central position in sdkta circles. Several com m entaries have been
w ritte n on it, and several subsidiary texts have arisen as addenda to i t . 46
It is n ot surprising, therefore, that people associate the M ahavidyas w ith
this famous text. T h e nature o fth e text also invites such association, par
ticu larly the th ird episode featuring the defeat o f Sum bha and N isu m bha.
T h e th eo lo gy o fth e Devi-mdhdtmya is summed up in that episode. D urga
is said to un derlie or pervade the cosmos; to create, m aintain, and p e ri
o d ically destroy it accordin g to the rh yth m ic sequences o f H in d u cos
m ology (1 2 .3 3 - 3 5 ); and to assume different forms from time to time w hen
Fig. 8. Durga with the Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.
cosm ic balance is threatened by enemies o fth e gods (i i .3 8-51). T h e th e

olog y o fth e text is succinct: "T h o u g h she is eternal, the goddess becomes
manifest over and over again to protect the w o r ld " ( 1 2 .3 2 ) . T h is is ve ry
sim ilar to the Vaisnava avatara th e o lo g y .47 W h e n associated w ith this type
o f theology, the M ahavidyas' fu n ction becomes p rim a rily that o f u p
h o ld in g and p rotectin g cosm ic order. W e have already seen that other
texts compare the M ahavidyas to the avataras, so it is not surprising that
some H in d us th in k th ey appear in the Devi-mdhdtmya, even th ou gh th ey
do not.
A n o th e r feature o f the th ird episode o f the Devi-mdhdtmya makes it
understandable that the M ahavidyas w o u ld be th o u gh t to arise there. In
the course o f the battle, D urga produces several goddesses to help her.
She brings fo rth K a li w h ile co n fro n tin g the demons Canda and M u n d a
(7.3-22) and calls upon her again for help in defeating Raktabija (8.49
6 1 ) . D u rin g the battle a group o f seven goddesses, c o lle c tiv e ly k n o w n as
the M atrkas, is created from certain male gods to help defeat the demons.
T h e y are Brahm ani, created from Brahma; M ahesvari, created from Siva;
K aum arl, created from K artikeya; V aisn avi, created from V isn u ; V arah l,
created from the boar avatara o fV isn u ; N arasirhhi, created from the man-
lion avatara ofV isn u ; and Aindri, created from the god Indra (8.12-20).
Later in the battle, w h en D urga confronts the dem on Sum bha him self,
he challenges her to single combat, and she agrees, saying that her bat
tle com panions are o n ly her different forms (10.2-5). She then absorbs
the M atrkas and K a li into herself. T h e Devi-mdhdtmya describes the na
ture o fth e M atrkas as w ild and fierce. T h e y are furious w arriors and near
the end o fth e battle dance w ild ly , intoxicated on the blood o fth e ir slain
victim s (8.62).*“ T h e third episode, then, includes the creation o fa g ro u p
o f goddesses w h o bear certain resemblances to the M ahavidyas, giv in g
rise to the trad itio n that the M ahavidyas themselves appear in the Devi-
mdhdtmya. It is also the case that other texts compare in d iv id u a l M a h a
vidyas to the M atrkas or give them M atrkas' names as epithets. T h e
M ahavidya T rip ura-bh airavi, for example, in her sahasranamastotra (thou
sand-name hym n) in the Sdkta-pramoda, has the fo llo w in g epithets:
Brahm ani, M ahesvari, Kaum arf, V aisn avi, V arah l, C am unda, and In-
d ra n i.45 T h e y are the same as the names o f the M atrkas in the Devi-
mdhdtmya, except that the Sdkta-pramoda substitutes Cam unda for N a ra
sirhhi. T h e M a h a vid y a B huvanesvari has am ong her m any epithets
V aisnavi, Brahm ani, N arasirhhi, M ahesvari, and V a r a h l.50
T h ere is also iconograp hic support for this fou rth version o fth e o r i
gin o f the M ahavidyas. C o n tem p o rary religious art ty p ic a lly shows the
S4M%>*
Fig. 9 . Durga surrounded by the Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.
M ahavidyas surrounding a central goddess, none other than D u rga (in

her form o fM ah isam ard in i, slayer o fth e dem on Mahisa) and the central
figure o f the Devi-mdhdtmya. W h i l e contem porary art also depicts the
M ahavidyas surrounding Siva and Satl as the central figures, the con figu r
ation w ith D urga in the center is just as com m on, if n ot m ore com m on,
at least in the areas w ith w h ic h I am m ost fam iliar, Varanasi and C alcu tta.
T h e d ep iction o f the M ahavidyas on the cdl citras o f the D urga images
34 T H E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GRO UP
set up for D u r g a Puja also re in fo r ces the tradition that the M a h a vid y a s
arise to help D u r g a defeat d e m o n s and restore the stability o f t h e c o s
m os. A t the D u r g a Saptasati t e m p le in N a g a w a , just outside V aranasi (a
tem ple dedicated to the Devi-mdhdtmya, p o pula rly kn o w n as the Saptaiati),
pain tings o f the M a h a v id y a s on a w all o f the inner shrine also d r a m a ti
cally associate the M a h a v id y a s w ith D u r g a , and specifically w ith D u rga
as she appears in the Devi-mdhdtmya. F r o m these e xam ples it is easy to
co n clu d e th a t the M a h a v id y a s are fo rm s o f D u rg a , and as D u r g a is p r i
m a rily a ba ttle queen , it is also lo gica l to assume that the M a h a v id y a s play
the role o f s u p p o r t in g D u rga in her attempts to p ro tect the co sm ic o r d e r .si
T h i s ve rs io n , then, differs m a r k e d l y from the first three in its v ie w o f
the role and nature o f t h e M a h a v id y a s . T h i s v e rsio n does n ot m e n tio n
marital ten s io n , the godd esses do n ot appear in o rder to frig h te n or c o n
trol Siva, t h e y are n ot associated w ith m a g ica l po w ers, and t h e y are in a
battlefield rather than a d o m e stic setting. T h e i r a ssociatio n w ith the
avatdras o f V i s n u is h e ig h t e n e d and stressed.
Stories associa ted w ith in dividual M a h a v id y a s also ten d to sugg est this
fourth ve rs io n o f th e ir o rigin. A n im a ge m aker in V aranasi, for exam ple,
to ld me that D h u m a v a t l was crea te d by D u r g a in her battle w ith Sum bha
and N i s u m b h a and that she h e lp e d defeat these d e m o n s b y e m p l o y in g
acrid s m oke, "like tear gas," against t h e m . D h u m a v a t l, "she w h o abides
in s m o ke ," is here in te rp re ted as h a v in g a special w e a p o n w ith w h ic h she
defeats d e m o n s for the w elfare o f t h e w o r ld . Similarly, I have b e en told
that B a g a la m u k h i has often app eared in battles, w h er e she has deluded
the e n e m y (often the Pakistanis) into m a k in g critical b lun ders. Swam i
Sadhananda Shastri, a tantric p ra c titio n e r from Varanasi, w h o m I m e n
tioned earlier as co m p a r in g the M a h a v id y a s to the avatdras, n oted a w orld -
m a in ta in in g fu n ctio n for each o f t h e M a h a v i d y a s . ”
Several people have also told me that fam ous gods and he ro e s o f H in d u
m y t h o l o g y e m p lo y e d the M a h a vid y a s, or the powers gained th r o u g h w o r
s hip ing th e m , in their c o n q u e s t o f d e m o n s . Siva killed T a r a k a , K rsn a d e
feated Karhsa, R am a killed Ravana, and Indra killed V rtr a w ith the help
o f th e M a h a v id y a s . L ik ew is e, H a n u m a n , w ith the aid o f t h e M a h a v id y a s ,
defeated the fem ale d e m o n w h o tried to stop him from j u m p i n g to Lanka.
T h a t is, by p ro p itia tin g the go d d es s es he was able to acquire the m a g i
cal p o w e r o f b e c o m i n g v e ry small and thus was able to enter the m o u th
o f th e fem ale d e m o n and destro y her from i n s i d e .” Indeed, at the Sankat
M o c h a n t e m p le in Varanasi, a fam ou s H a n u m a n tem p le , the M a h a v id y a s
are d epicted a ro u n d the ceilin g o f t h e p o rch in front o f t h e shrine c o n
tain in g the main H a n u m a n im age.
TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GRO UP 35
W h e n we l o o k at the in dividual M a h a v id y a s in detail, as we shall do

below, it also b e c o m e s app arent that th e y are often associated w ith D u rga
the d e m o n slayer and the Devi-mahdtmya m yths, lb take just one e x a m
ple at this point, Bhu vanesvari in her sahasrandma stotra in the Rudraydmala
has a m o n g her n am es several that d ir e c t ly identify her w ith D u rg a , the
form s D u r g a takes in the Devi-mahdtmya, and the actions she p e rfo rm s
there. She is called She W h o D e s tr o y s M a d h u and Kaitabha, She W h o
Slays M a hisasura, and She W h o Slays S u m b h a and N i s u m b h a , T h e s e
three nam es, that is, identify her w ith all three episodes o f the Devi-
mahdtmya as the slayer o f the p rincipal d e m o n s . ” She is also called
Sivaduti, C a m u n d a , and She W h o D e s tr o y s Raktablja, all o f w h i c h are
epithets o f D u rg a or one o f D u r g a 's form s in the Devi-mdhdtmya. She is
also called b y the nam e D u r g a itself.”
5. THE MAHAVIDYAS AS FORMS OF SATAKSI
T h e f ifth ve rs io n o f t h e o rig in o f t h e M a h a v id y a s is told

in the Devi-bhdgavata-purdna. As in the fo u rth v e rsio n , t h e y arise to d e
fend the w o r l d against d e m o n s . O n c e u p o n a tim e the d e m o n D u r g a m a
gain ed co n tro l o ver the universe and fo rce d the gods into su b servie n c e.
T h e gods appealed to the M a h a d e v i for help. She appeared in a form h a v
ing i n n u m er a b le eyes, all o f w h ic h shed tears on see ing the pitiable plight
o f t h e gods, h u m a n be in gs, and the earth as a result o f d e m o n i c o p p r e s
sion. She was d u ly n am e d Sataksi (she w h o has one h u n d r e d eyes). She
then distributed fruits and vege table s from her o w n b o d y to feed the starv
in g bein gs o f t h e earth , w h ic h was suffering from d r o u g h t. F o r this re a
son she was n am e d Sa ka m bha ri (she w h o bears v e ge tab le s ). A fierce b a t
tle then b e gan b e tw e e n the goddess and the d e m o n and his arm ies. T h e
goddess crea te d several gro u p s o f go dd ess allies to help her in this fight,
and a m o n g t h e m w ere the M a h a v id y a s. T h e text says that these goddesses
are her principal saktis and have e m e r g e d d ir ectly from her body. It names
them in the f o l lo w in g order: Kalika, T a r i n i , T rip u r a , BhairavT, K am ala,
Bagala, M atarigi, T rip u r a -s u n d a ri, Ka m ak sa, Tulaja-devT, J a m b h in i, M o -
hinl, and C h i n n a m a s t a . s‘ T h e Devi-bhdgavata-purdna does n ot m e n t io n
the M a ha vidy a s again. A t the end o f the battle the goddess is n am ed D u rga
because she killed the d e m o n D u rg a m a .
T h e r e are tw o i m p o rta n t points to n ote abou t this versio n o f t h e o r i
gin o f t h e M a h a v id y a s . First, th e y are created to defeat d e m o n s and d e
fend the co s m ic order, as in ve rs io n 4. In this sense th e y f u n ctio n like the
avatdras o f V i s n u . T h e y are form s o f t h e M a h a d e v i created for a specific
3* TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
purpose. Second, th ey are m entioned along w ith other groups o f go d

desses: the G u h ya-k alis, w h o are said to num ber ten thousand, and tw o
oth er groups, n um bering th ir ty -tw o and sixty-four. T h e group o f sixty-
four may allude to the sixty-four yoginis. A c c o rd in g to the text, the god
dess (called M ah ad evi, M ah esvari, Sataksi, Sakam bharl, and D urga,
among oth er names) has m any forms and m ultiplies herself as needs arise.
In the Devi-bhdgavata-purdna this is a very com m on them e. T h ro u g h o u t
this treatise on goddess m y th o lo g y and philosophy, a central them e is the
overarch in g reality o fth e M ahadevi, the highest p rin cip le in the universe,
indeed, the universe itself. A c c o rd in g to this text, she manifests herself
in m any female forms, and all goddesses are manifestations o f h e r.57
C O N C L U S IO N S
H a v in g review ed these five versions o f the o rig in o f the

M ahavidyas, w e can n ow draw some general conclusions about w hat th ey
te ll us about these goddesses.
The Mahavidyas are related to Siva. T h e goddesses from w h o m the
M ahavidyas are created are usually associated w ith Siva as his spouse. T h e
first three versions feature Satl, Parvati, and K a li as his w ife or consort.
Several o f the in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas, as w e shall see below, also have
strong associations w ith Siva, rein fo rcin g this point.
Siva is subordinate to the goddesses. In version s 1 - 3 , the M ahavidyas lim it,
frighten, or c o n tro l Siva. Indeed, this is the reason th ey w ere created in
these three versions. T h e M ahavidyas demonstrate the superior m ight
o fth e goddess in question, her a b ility to overpow er Siva. V ersions 1 - 3 ,
that is, emphasize the superiority o fth e goddess to Siva. A com m on theme
i n s'akta theology, a n d i n m any tantric texts as w ell, is that Siva is u lti
m ately dependent upon s'akti. T h is them e is su ccin ctly and v iv id ly ex
pressed in the w e ll-k n o w n saying, "Siva is a mere s'ava (corpse) w ith o u t
s'akti." T h is theme o f Siva's dependence upon s'akti is perhaps expressed
most clearly in version 2 , w h ic h features K a li as the source o f the
M ahavidyas. In this version, Siva wishes for independence. He wants to
leave K a li but cannot, because she pervades the cosmos in her various
forms. T h ere is now here that she is not. It is im possible to exist apart
from her. T h is them e is also im p lic it in versions 1 and 3 .
The Mahavidyas are fierce goddesses. In v e rsio n 1, the M ahavidyas as a
group are dreadful and frightening. V ersions 2 , 3 , and 4 im p ly th eir fierce
nature but do not make it explicit. T h e frigh tenin g nature o fth e M aha-
vidyas is also attested in most descriptions o fin d iv id u a l M ahavidyas. K a li,

Tara, Bagala, D hum avatl, and C hinnam asta are n early always frig h te n
ing, terrib le, and fierce. T ripura-sun dari (Sodasi), B hairavi, M atarigi, and
Bhuvanesvari are often said to have fearsome characteristics. O n ly K a
mala is consistently presented as benign. In characterizin g tantric r e li
gion generally as "m ore rugged than ten d er,"58 the authors o f a recent
book on T antrism m igh t w e ll be describing the M ahavidyas, w h o in fact
feature p ro m in en tly in tantric relig io n .
The Mahavidyas are associated with magical powers. V ersio n i exp licitly,
and versions 2 and 3 im p lic itly , lin k the M ahavidyas to m agical, m edita
tive, or y o g ic powers. M a n y oth er texts about the M ahavidyas em pha
size this association, p articu larly in the case o f certain in d ivid u al M a h a
vidyas, such as Bagalam ukhi. These powers are often used to con trol other
people, usually adversaries, and include the pow er to b rin g about w hat
ever one w ills , to attract other people to oneself, to im m o b ilize someone
or make that person m ute, to cause someone to flee, to make others grow
old prem aturely w hile rem ain ing you n g oneself, and to kill som eone sim
p ly by w illin g it. T h e fact that in versions 1-3 a goddess is able to c o n
tro l Siva w ith the M ahavidyas reinforces the idea that th ey are associated
w ith m agical or m editative powers. W e m igh t say that in these three v e r
sions, the goddess in question controls Siva w ith her m agical or m edita
tive powers.
Male-female tensions and female independence. In version s 1 and 2 , the
M ahavidyas emerge against a background o f male-fem ale tensions, and
there m ay be the im p licatio n o f such tension in version 3 as w e ll. T h is
tension arises w h en the goddess feels abused, ignored, or insulted by her
father or husband. In version 1 , Satl becomes furious and transforms h er
self into such a h o rrib le, frigh ten in g b eing that Siva can barely stand to
look at her. T h e M ahavidyas are forms o f this being, further p ersonifi
cations o f Sati's w rath . V ersio n 1 makes clear, and versions 2 and 3 im
ply, that the goddess, Siva's spouse in each case, has a will o f her o w n and
is perfectly capable o f exercising that will even i f it m eans going against
her husband or father. T h e po in t cannot be missed in version 1: Satl is
not conten t to rem ain a passive, obedient, submissive w ife if she is suffi
cien tly provoked. She contains aspects and powers that easily overw helm
and frighten her husband.
T h e fact that the in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are n ot submissive consorts
o f male deities reinforces the emphasis in versions 1 -3 that the goddess
is an independent being. M o st o fth e in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are not de
picted w ith a male consort, and w h en th ey are, as in the case o f Kali, Tara,
and Tripura-sundari, for exam ple, th ey dom inate h im (both K a li and Tara
are shown standing on the supine body o f Siva, w h ile T ripura-sun dari is
usually shown sittin g on him ).
World maintenance. V ersions 4 and 5 differ m arkedly from versions 1-3
in stressing the w o rld -m a in ta in in g fu n ction o fth e M ahavidyas. V ersions
4 and 5 cast the M ahavidyas in th e fam iliar role o f forms o f the goddess
D urga or the M ahad evi, created by her to defeat demons w h o have
usurped the position o fth e gods. T h e extent to w h ic h in d ivid u al M a h a
vidyas are described or featured as w o rld m aintainers or dem on slayers
varies a good deal. K a li is w e ll k n o w n as a dem on slayer and is often fea
tured in the role. O thers, h ow ever, such as D h u m avatl and Bagala, are
o n ly rarely described in this capacity. For the most part, w ith the excep
tio n o f K a li, w o rld m aintenance is a m in o r them e in stories o fth e i n d i
vid u al M ahavidyas.
Group versus individual character o f t h e Mahavidyas. F inally, it is im
portant to note that the M ah avid yas as a group in these five versions o f
th e ir o rig in often fun ction or are described quite d ifferen tly from the i n
d ivid u al M ahavidyas. As was just n oted, the w o rld -m a in ta in in g aspect o f
the M ahavidyas is stressed in versions 4 and 5 but figures o n ly w ea k ly in
the w orsh ip , m ythology, and sym bo lism o f the in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas.
V ersio n 1 im plies that all the M ahavidyas are associated w ith magical p o w
ers and that th ey all create c o n flic t am ong people. H ow ever, the extent
to w h ic h the in d ivid u al M ahavid yas are characterized this w ay varies a
good deal. Bagalam ukhi, for exam ple, is stron gly associated w ith these
characteristics, but Kam ala h a rd ly at all.
Interrelationships among the Mahavidyas
A s a group, the M ah avid yas present a curious c o lle ctio n o f

goddesses. If there is an internal coherence to the group that explains
h o w its members are related to each other, it is n ot readily apparent. N e i
th er in textual sources n or in the co n tem p o ra ry oral trad itio n have I been
able to discover an obvious pattern or logic to the in clu sio n ofthese ten
goddesses in the same grou p . T h e r e are h in ts in som e texts, and som e o f
m y inform ants have speculated about the question. These hints and spec
ulations cover a w ide range o f possibilities.
1. F O R M S OF TH E GREAT G O D D ESS
M a n y texts and the contem porary oral trad itio n say that
the M ahavidyas are "all form s o fth e goddess," that "they are all one."
Indeed, this is cle arly the case. O n e M a h a vid y a is often e x p lic itly equated
w ith another or w ith several others. To take just one example, am ong the
names o f Bhuvanesvari in her sahasrandma stotra from the Rudraydmala
are M atarigi (v. 10 ), Bhairavi (v. 12 ), K alika (v. 15 ), Ugra-tara (v. 19 ), Tara
(v. 2 0 ), Sundari (v. 10 ), Chinnamasta (v. 6 0 ) , and Kamala (v. 6 ) . ” The im
pression is d ifficu lt to avoid that each M a h a vid ya is one facet o f a m u lti
faceted G reat Goddess and that each facet contains all the others— that
i f one observes inten sely and carefu lly enough, one will find all forms in
h erin g in each particular form .
W h a t continues to be perp lexin g, how ever, is w h y this particular c o m
b in ation o fte n goddesses has come to express the rather basic s'akta th eo
log ical them e that the G reat Goddess has m any forms. W i t h the excep
tion o f K a li, Kam ala, and to some extent T rip u ra-su n dari and T ara, the
goddesses w h o make up this group are not ve ry w e ll k n o w n . Indeed, some
o fth e M ahavidyas are obscure. If the in ten tio n o f M a h a vid ya m y th o l
ogy and icon o grap h y is to illustrate the idea that the goddess takes m any
forms, one w o u ld have th ought that some o fth e m ore popular goddesses,
such as D u rga and Sarasvati, w o u ld have been in clu d ed in the group. T h e
choice o f the ten goddesses w h o make up the M ahavidyas as illustrative
o f this idea, then, is not obvious and still begs the question con cern in g
the essential interrelatedness o f the group.
2 . S A IV IT E A S S O C IA T IO N S
V ersions 1-3 o ft h e origin o fth e M ahavidyas stress th at

th ey issue from Siva's w ife or consort and are all forms o f th is goddess.
It th e re fo re seems th at on e c h a ra c te ristic o f th e g ro u p that lends it co
h eren ce is that a ll o f the M a h a v id y a s are w iv e s or consorts o f Siva, or
stron gly associated w ith Siva. T h e prob lem here is that when w e look at
the M ahavidyas individually, as w e shall do below , w e find th a t som e o f
the M ahavidyas have a stronger affiliation w ith Siva than others, that
D h u m a va tl is a w id o w and has no consort (although, as w e shall see, one
o f her in d iv id u a l o rig in m yths relates her to Satl), and that Kam ala is the
w ife o fV is n u , not Siva. M o re o ve r, an explanation o fth e in te rre la tio n
ship o f the M ahavidyas as centered in th eir relationship to Siva breaks
dow n outside these three versions. T h e emphasis on the independence
4 ° THE MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
o f the goddess from w hom the M ahavidyas arise, and on the in d epen
dence o f several in d ivid u al M ahavidyas, also tends to attenuate this fea
ture as the k ey to explaining the lo g ic o f th e ir interrelation ship.
3 . S IS T E R S
In answer to m y question con cern in g h o w the M ahavidyas

relate to each other, a priest at the D hum avatl tem ple in Varanasi sug
gested that th ey are all sisters. O th e r groups o f goddess sisters exist in
H in d u ism . T h e seven goddesses w h o form a protective circle in the desert
around the c ity o f Jaiselmer in western Rajasthan, for example, are said
to be sisters. T h e priest at the D hum avatl tem ple said that Laksm i (K a
mala) is the older sister o f D hum avatl and that Sodasi (Sundari) is
youn ger than the others. He was uncertain about the relative ages o fth e
other M ahavidyas. T h is idea is not found in textual sources and seems
u n kn ow n to most o f m y contem porary inform ants. It therefore seems less
than satisfying as the key to understanding the interrelation sh ip o f the
M ahavidyas.
4 . S T A G E S IN W O M E N 'S L IV E S
A related idea is that the M ahavidyas represent different

stages or aspects o f a woman's life cycle. In ancient G reek religio n , the
divine fem inine was said to reveal herself in three m ain forms, corre
sponding to the "three ages o f w om an": m aiden, mother, and crone. I
have also learned that the N in e Durgas, a group o f goddesses in Varanasi
w h o are said to be different forms o f D u rg a ,60 are considered by a female
devotee o f D u rg a to represent the d iffe r in g stages o ft h e goddess's (and
by extension a woman's) life c y c le .61 T h is scheme has some plau sib ility
vis-a-vis certain goddesses in the M ah avid ya group. D hum avatl, for ex
ample, m igh t represent the goddess in old age. She is usually show n as
aged and is n early always described as a w id ow . O th e r members o f the
group, particularly Sodasi (Sundari), are said to be sixteen years old. O th e r
M ahavidyas, such as B hairavl in her form as A n n apu rn a-b h airavl, have
m atronly qualities.
O n e problem is that other members o f the group do not seem to fit
this scheme. M o reover, there is little or no emphasis on the m otherhood
o fth e M ahavidyas. A lth o u g h th ey are sometimes called M a, th ey are not
show n w ith infants or ch ild ren , and th e ir independence from male c o n
sorts is stressed. T h e m arried and m o th erly aspects o fth e female life c y
cle are m in im ized in the m y th o lo g y o fth e A lahavidyas. T h is scheme also,

then, seems unsatisfactory as the k ey to understanding the in terrela
tionships o f the group.
5. STAG ES OF C R E A T IO N AND D E S T R U C T IO N
O n e o f the most com m on s'akta th eological formulas for

presenting or describing the m u ltiform nature o fth e M ahad evi is to th in k
o f her as fu n ctio n in g in three ways, corresponding to the functions o f
the male trimurti (the great male deities, "having three forms": Brahma,
the creator; V is n u , the m aintainer; Siva, the destroyer). T h a t is, in her
creative aspect the G reat Goddess manifests herself as Mahasarasvati (cor
responding to Brahma), in her role as m aintainer o f the cosmos, as
M ahalaksm i (corresponding to V isn u ), and as destroyer o fth e cosmos,
as M ah akali (corresponding to Siva). It has been suggested to me that the
M ahavidyas m ight be divided along these lines, that th ey represent sym
bols o f the cosm ic process o f creation, preservation, and destruction,
w h ic h the goddess oversees or embodies. Indeed, a contem porary prac
tical guide to Tantra for aspirants says: "M aham aya becomes Sodasi and
creates the w o rld , then she becomes Bhuvanesvari and maintains the
w o rld , and th en she becomes C hinnam asta to destroy the w o r ld ." 62
A n o th e r author supports this idea. He sees seven stages o f creation
and three stages o f dissolution o f the universe sym b o lica lly expressed in
the M ahavidyas as given in th eir usual order: K a li represents the p r i
m ordial vo id p rio r to creation, T ara represents the first manifestations
o f creation, Tripura-sundari represents the creation o f tim e, and so o n .63
T h e problem w ith this particular attem pt is that the last m entioned o f
the M ahavidyas, Kam ala, is thereby associated w ith destruction, exactly
the opposite o f her character: she is trad itio n a lly associated w ith abun
dance and fertility. T h e other M ahavidyas also do not fit at all neatly into
this scheme, so it seems h ig h ly u n lik e ly that the usual sequence in w h ic h
th ey are named is meant to suggest seven stages o f creation and three of
dissolution.
It is possible to categorize some in d ivid u al M ahavidyas under the three
functions o f creation, m aintenance, and destruction. T h a t is, some o f
them are associated w ith preservation, such as Laksm i; others w ith de
struction, such as K a li and Tara; others w ith creation, such as B h u
vanesvari and Sodasi. Few o fth e in d ivid u al M ahavidyas, how ever, are p r i
m arily images o f cosm ogonic functions. K a li and Kam ala are members
ofth e w e ll-k n o w n s'akta trimurti, the tripartite cosm ogonic form ula that
says.that Mahasarasvati creates the w o rld , M ahalaksm l m aintains it, and

M ah akali destroys it, but the other members o fth e group do n ot neatly
fit the form ula. Some o fth e in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas have little or no ap
parent co n n ectio n w ith any cosm ogonic fu n ction . T h erefo re, this ap
proach to the interrelationship ofth e M ahavidyas also seems unsatisfying.
O n the other hand, some in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are associated w ith
all three goddesses (Mahasarasvati, M ahalaksm l, and M ahakali) and all
three o f th e ir cosm ic functions. So, for example, in the sahasranama sto-
tra o f Bhuvanesvari from the Rudraydmala, Bhuvanesvari is called Sa-
rasvati (v. 1 6 ) , She W h o Creates and Sustains the W o r ld (v. 5 2 ) , Kam ala
(v. 6 ) , M ahalaksm l (v. 6 5 ) , and K alika (v. 1 8 ) . •* In fact, the tend en cy is
usually to associate a particular M ah avid ya w ith a w ide range o f charac
teristics and functions and to equate her w ith all three cosm ic functions,
n o t ju st one.
6. TH E THREE GUNAS
A related approach to explainin g the intercon n ections

among, or the u n d e rly in g logic of, the M ahavidyas is to th in k o f them as
symbols o fth e three gunas (qualities). In this approach, each M ah avid ya
corresponds to one ofthe three constituents o fth e created universe: sattva
(p u rity), rajas (energy), or tamas (ignorance). In d eed , the three goddesses
o fth e s'akta trimurti discussed above are also sometimes associated w ith
the three gunas: Mahasarasvati w ith sattva, M ahalaksm l w ith rajas, and
M ah akali w ith tamas. T h e three gunas are often related to colors: sattva
is w h ite , rajas is red , and tamas is b lack. In the case o fth e M a h a v id y a s,
John W oo droffe says that according to the Kdmadhenu-tantra Tara is id en
tified w ith sattva guna and the achieving o f kaivalya, yo gic bliss; Sodasi,
Bhuvanesvari, and C hinnam asta are associated w ith rajas guna; and
D hum avatl, Kamala, Bagala, and M atarigi are related to tamas guna.'5 T h e
Mahdnirvdna-tantra associates the in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas w ith the three
gunas in the same w a y.6* It has also been suggested to me that the co m
plexions o fth e M ahavidyas, w h ic h v a r y in color, m igh t be the key to id e n
tifying them w ith the three gunas. So, for example, Kali, Tara, arid
M atarigi, w h o have black or dark com plexions, w o u ld be associated w ith
the tamas guna, w h ile B hairavl, w h o has a red com plexion , w o u ld be as
sociated w ith the rajas guna. M ahavidyas w ith golden or lig h t com plex
ions, such as Bagala, D hum avatl, and Chinnam asta, w o u ld be related to
sattva guna.
T h is o f course divides the M ahavidyas quite d ifferen tly from W o o d -
roffe's scheme based on the Kdmadhenu-tantra. A n o th e r p rob lem that

arises here concerns the c o m p a tib ility o f the co lo r o f an in d iv id u a l
M ahavidya's com p lexion w ith w hat w e k n o w o f her nature and functions.
Kali, w h o w o u ld be linked w ith tamas, is know n in m any texts as the sym
b o l o fth e highest know ledge, w h ile the tamas guna is equated w ith d e lu
sion, lust, and sloth. B agalam ukhi, w h o is usually said to have a golden
or lig h t com p lex ion , is often associated w ith the acquisition o f m agical
powers w ith w h ic h one can satisfy w o r ld ly desires, but the sattva guna,
w ith w h ic h she w o u ld be id en tified in terms o f her color, is related to
p u rely sp iritual qualities. So this form ula also cannot easily be applied to
the M ahavidyas to explain th e ir coherence as a group.
o
7 . THREE MOODS
Y e t another tripartite scheme used to describe the nature

o fth e goddess and her m any manifestations is found in the Kdlika-purana,
w here it is said that the M ah ad evi has three forms or moods: amorous,
angry, and benevolent. She assumes these form s, the text says, accordin g
to her w him s. In her amorous form she holds a y e llo w garland and stands
on a red lotus on a w h ite corpse. In her angry form she holds a sw ord
and stands d ire ctly on a corpse. In her benevolent m ood she rides a l i o n .67
T h e Kdlika-purana also says that the goddess T rip u ra is adored in three
aspects: T rip ura-bala (the v irg in ), T rip u ra-su n dari (the beautiful), and
T rip u ra -b h airav l (the te rr ib le ).68
T h is schem a applies fa irly w e ll to certain M a h a vid yas, such as
D h u m avatlan d K a li, w h o are p rim a rily terrible manifestations. But w h en
w e lo o k at each o fth e M ahavid yas in detail, it becomes obvious that they
usually have all three o f these characteristics. In m any cases, it is d ifficu lt
to determ ine w h ic h o f the three "m oods" a M a h a vid y a best expresses.
W h i l e the schema is c ertain ly suggestive, I do not find in it the k ey to
exp lainin g the in n er coherence o f the ten goddesses w h o form the
M ahavidyas.
8. FIERCE AND PEACEFUL FORMS
A n o th e r com m on w a y o f sch em atizing the various forms

o fth e M a h a d evi in s'akta th e o lo g y is to say that she reveals or expresses
h erse lfin fierce (raudra) and peaceful (saumya) form s.69 S im ilarly, in fo r
mants have suggested to me that the M ahavidyas m ay be d ivid ed into
fierce and peaceful manifestations o f the M a h a d evi. A c c o r d in g to this
44 THE MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
scheme, K a li, Tara, Bagala, Chinnam asta, and D h u m a v a tl m ig h t be i n

cluded under the raudra forms o f the M ah ad evi, w h ile Sodasi, B h u
vanesvari, Kam ala, M atarigi, and B hairavl m igh t be in c lu d e d under the
saumya forms.
A p art from the fact that I have not found any texts that apply this
schema to the M ahavidyas, certain M ahavidyas are d iffic u lt to classify as
either fierce or peaceful. Sometimes an in d iv id u a l M a h a v id y a has sev
eral different forms, some more fierce than others. O th e rs seem am
biguous vis-a-vis such a d ich otom y; for example, D h u m a va tl is described
as quarrelsome and has inauspicious characteristics, but she is not actu
ally said to be fearsome or terrib le. B h airavl also presents som ew h at o f
a problem , for although her name means "the frig h tfu l o n e ," her de
scriptions often depict her as peaceful. A lso , if the p rim ary purpose o f
selecting ten goddesses to illustrate this d ich o to m y w ere th e rationale
for the M ahavidyas, it is strange that certain goddesses w h o are un am
biguous examples o f eith er the raudra type, such as C am u n d a, or o f the
saumya type, such as Sarasvatl, are om itted from the group. It is true that
the M ahavidyas include examples o f both the raudra and saumya types,
but as a structure to explain all ten o fth e goddesses the p o la r ity remains
unsatisfying.
9 - D Y N A M IC A N D S T A T IC A S P E C T S O F T H E D IV IN E
A n o th e r w ay o f classifying goddesses is to th in k o f them

as expressing eith er the dynam ic or static nature o f reality. A tantric
scholar in Varanasi suggested to me that the goddesses am ong the
M ahavidyas w h o sit or stand on or otherwise dom inate a m ale figure
(these w o u ld include K a li, Tara, Bagala, Bhairavl, T rip u ra-su n dari, and
sometimes Chinnam asta) m igh t illustrate the dynam ic aspect o fth e go d
dess, w h ile the others (D hum avatl, M atarigi, Kamala, and Bhuvanesvari)
illustrate the static aspect. A g ain , w h ile this schema m ight be h elpful in
suggesting how certain s'akta theological themes are reflected in the
M ahavidyas, it applies more clearly to certain M ahavidyas than others
and seems forced in cases w here the particular goddess illustrates n either
pole in any clear way.
10 . K N O W LED G E AND IG N O R A N C E (C O N C E A L M E N T )
A n o th e r w ay o f classifying manifestarions o f the goddess

according to tw o polarities is to say that her forms are vidya or avidyd,
that is, some o f her manifestations are meant to get rid o f ignorance and
delusion and grant liberating know ledge (the vidyd forms), w h ile other
forms are meant to ve il reality and delude beings as to its true nature (the
avidya form s).70A c c o rd in g to this scheme, K a li m ight belong to the fo r
mer type o f manifestation, sym bo lizin g the nature ofultim ate truth, w h ile
Kamala, w h o is approached p rim arily for w o r ld ly rewards, m igh t belong
to the latter. T h e oth er M ahavidyas m igh t be arranged in sim ilar fashion.
T h e problem here is that a goddess such as K a li, about w hom so m uch
is w ritten , and w h o has such an ancient and widespread cult, clearly plays
both roles. To assign a particular M ah avidya to one pole or the other is
d ifficult in m any cases. W h i c h type o f goddess, vidyd or avidyd, for ex
ample, is D h u m avatl or Matarigi? A case m ight be made for eith er pole.
L ikew ise w ith most o fth e M ahavidyas. A lso , I have yet to find any text
that divides the M ahavidyas in this fashion.
I I. T H E LUNAR PHASES
A tantric scholar suggested to me yet another approach to

explaining the interrelationships o f the M ahavidyas, one that identifies
them w ith the different lunar tithis (the th irty days ofthe w axing and w a n
ing moon). A c c o rd in g to this scholar, K a li is identified w ith the new m oon
(amavasyd) and Sodasi w ith the full m oon (pumimd). These tw o goddesses
represent completeness o f know ledge, according to this scheme, in two
different ways, both equally valid . K a li represents com plete know ledge
in terms o f transcendence. L ik e the new m oon, she is beyond w hat can
be perceived and circum scribed. O r perhaps one could say that K a li rep
resents know ledge gained by getting rid o f all false know ledge, by shed
ding ignorance, w h ile Sodasi represents know ledge gained by acquiring
increasing amounts o f know ledge u n til one is filled w ith w isdom . T h e
form er w ou ld be suggested in the tithis o fth e w anin g phase o fth e m oon,
w h ile the latter (Sodasi) w ou ld be suggested in the tithis o f the w axing
m oon . Sodasi, w hose nam e means "the six tee n th ," represents com plete
know ledge or w isdom in terms o f being all-in clu sive. As the sixteenth,
she includes all the other fifteen tithis. T h e oth er M ahavidyas are asso
ciated w ith the w axin g and w anin g lunar tithis according to w h ic h o fth e
poles they most resemble. T h e tantric scholar suggested that C h in n a
masta, w h o is close in nature o r m eaning to Kali, w o u ld represent th e
first and second w aning lunar tithis, w h ile Bhuvanesvari and Kam ala, both
o f w hom are associated w ith abundance, w o u ld represent the last four
tithis p rior to the full m oon.
4 * TH E M AH AVIDYAS AS A GROUP
A g a in , although th is approach m ay be h elp fu l in the case o f a few o f

the M ahavidyas, it seems forced in most. T h e extent to w h ic h a p a rticu
lar M ah avid ya approxim ates know ledge as transcendent or know ledge as
all-in clusive is u su a lly d ifficu lt to determ ine.
12. LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED GODDESSES
Some inform ants have suggested to me that the M a h a

vidyas are in terco n n ected through th eir association w ith the righ t- or left
handed paths in T a n trism . Tantrism describes tw o paths, left and right,
as means to a ch ie vin g sp iritu al fu lfillm en t. T h e left-handed path is re
stricted to those o fh e r o ic nature, is described as dangerous, and em ploys
the infamous panca tattva ritual in w h ic h the aspirant partakes o f five fo r
bidden things: meat, fish, w in e , a particular type o f grain (possibly a drug
ofsom e kind), and i l l i c i t sexual intercourse. T a n tric texts sometimes spec
ify w h ic h path should be used in w o rsh ip in g particular M ahavidyas. T h e
Saktisamgama-tantra, fo r example, says that K a li, Tara, Sundari, BhairavT,
Chinnam asta, M atarigi, and Bagala are fond o fth e left-handed path, w h ile
Bhuvanesvari, D h u m a v a tl, and Kam ala should be w orshiped by the
right-handed p ath .71 H o w e v e r, in m any cases texts specify that both paths
are appropriate, and in practice m ost o fth e goddesses w h o b elon g to the
M ahavidyas are w o rsh ip e d by practitioners o f both paths. It is d ifficu lt,
therefore, to designate p articu lar M ahavidyas as b elon gin g either to the
left- or the rig h t-h a n d e d paths.
If one is attem pting to divide the M ahavidyas betw een rig h t and left,
it is relevant to con sid er images in w h ic h th ey are arrayed in the ten d i
rections, w ith a goddess or Siva in the center. O n e m igh t expect that the
goddesses on the c e n tra l deity's left side are those w orshiped p rim a rily
by means o f the left-han ded path and those on the right, by the r ig h t
handed path, but that is not the case. A c c o rd in g to the Mahdbhdgavata-
purdna, Tara, Sodasi, and T ripura-sundari are located to the left (the east),
w h ile BhairavT, C h in n am asta, and Bhuvanesvari are to the righ t. These
six goddesses do not corresp on d in any consistent w ay to the left- and
right-handed paths.
13. S T A G E S OF CONSCIOUSNESS
F in a lly , th e M ahavidyas m igh t be understood as symbols

o f the stages (or types) o f consciousness ex p erien ced b y ta n tric aspirants
in th e ir progressive sp iritu a l developm ent. Each goddess confers a cer
tain type o f perfection, blessing, or awareness. These perfections (siddhis)

or types o f consciousness, m ed ita tive states, or m oods (bhavas) 72m ig h t
be understood as progressive, some presupposing or being m ore in c lu
sive than others. Several inform ants in d ep en d en tly o f each other sug
gested this approach to the M ahavidyas, and it has some textual support.73
In this approach, K a li is understood to represent unfettered, com plete
know ledge o f self and o f ultim ate reality, fu lly en lightened consciousness
that has transcended all lim itations o f e g o c e n tric ity .74 She is sym bolic of
the ultim ate goal o f tantric sddhand (spiritual exercise). Tara, w h o is very
sim ilar to K a li in appearance, sym bolizes a h igh or expanded state o f
awareness, but a state that has not en tirely transcended physical and per
sonal lim itation s. Bagalam ukhi represents a state o f sharply focused c o n
sciousness, an intensified will that is capable o f d ire ctly in flu en cin g
people w ith w h om the adept comes in contact. K am ala and B hairavl sym
bolize lo w er states o f consciousness, in w h ic h the adept is preoccupied
w ith satisfying b o d ily and m ental needs. T h e oth er M ahavidyas sym b o l
ize states o f consciousness th at arise b e tw e e n the adept's p re o cc u p a tio n
w ith w o rld ly, bodily, or personal needs and desires and the eventual d aw n
ing o fth e fu lly en lightened consciousness represented b y K a li.
In tantric relig io n , the progressive nature o f sddhand is often described
as the awakening, arising, and ascent o f kundalinis'akti. T h is female pow er
or energy is depicted as a coiled and slu m berin g serpent at the base of
the spine in a cakra (center), pictured as a lotus. T h r o u g h m editative te ch
niques, the aspirant awakens this pow er and causes it to ascend by w ay
o fth e central channel, the susumnd nddi, w h ic h traverses the body along
the line o fth e backbone. As the kundalinirises, it passes th rou gh six other
cakras, also represented as lotuses, and awakens or invigorates them as it
reaches them . D ifferen t bhavas, "spiritual m oods" or states o f c o n
sciousness, are sometimes associated w ith the aw akening o f each cakra.
A c c o rd in g to one adept, w h en kundalini s'akti awakens in the muladhdra
cakra, one experiences a feelin g o f dissatisfaction w ith ord inary life. T h a t
is, kundalini sddhand represents a desire to go beyond or to expand n o r
mal consciousness.75 U ltim ately , the sddhaka (aspirant) seeks to have the
kundalini rise to the topm ost cakra at the c ro w n o f the head, w here she
unites w ith Siva and creates the bliss o f aw akening (mahdsukha).
In in terpretin g the M ahavidyas as states o f consciousness, m editative
states, or m ental perfections (siddhis), one m igh t th in k o f them as sym
bols o f the nature o f the m ental states associated w ith the seven cakras of
kundalini y o g a .76 T h ere is, in fact, evidence that the M ahavidyas are as
sociated w ith the cakras, and w ith the kundalini generally. It is said o f B hu-
vanesvari, for example, that she sleeps in the muladhara cakra, the lowest
cakra, w h ere the kundalini sleeps.77 It is also said that B huvanesvari cuts
the knots o f (or awakens) the cakras and rises to m eet Siva, w h ic h means
that she is equated w ith the kundalini.1* A n o th e r example is T rip u ra -
b h airavi, w h o is called Sat-cakra-kram a-vasini (she w h o abides in the six
cakras) .79
L e n d in g c re d ib ility to this approach to the M ah avid yas is the tantras'
ran k in g o f d ifferent paths. M a n y tantras name seven (sometimes nine)
different paths and describe and rank them , usually from in fe rio r (in w h ic h
the aims are w o rld ly ) to superior (in w h ic h the aims are transcendent).
A standard list o f the seven paths, in ascending order, is: Vedacara,
Vaisnavacara, Saivacara, D aksinacara, V am acara, Siddhantacara, and
K aulacara. T h e Saktisamgama-tantra says that the highest path, the
Kaulacara, comprises the kula, the fam ily o f w orshipers, w h o k n o w the
truth that rea lity is com prised o fs'a ktiand S iv a .80T h e Mahdnirvdna-tantra
says that the Kaulacara path includes the perform ance o f the panca
makdra (five essentials) ritu al and is o n ly entered upon after the aspirant
has been in itiated b y a g u ru .81
A good example o f goddesses representing progressive states o f per
fection is found in the S rivid ya cu lt. In ritu a lly and m ed itatively m o v in g
from the outw ard parts o fth e S riv id y a cakra, w h ic h represents the entire
cosmos, to the center, the adept acquires different siddhis, or perfections.
T h e outer siddhis are less po w erfu l and m ore w o r ld ly in nature, w h ile the
in n e r siddhis are b oth m ore sp iritu al and m ore p o w erfu l. These siddhis,
furtherm ore, are personified as goddesses.82
T h e re is even a trad ition that associates particu lar goddesses w ith each
ofth e seven cakras. D a k in i is associated w ith the muladhara cakra, R a k in i
w ith the svddhisthdna cakra, Laksm i w ith the manipura cakra, K a k in i w ith
the andhata cakra, Sakin i w ith the vis'uddha cakra, H a k in i w ith the djnd
cakra, and N irvana-sakti w ith the sahasrdra cakraP For the most part, these
goddesses are hard ly k n o w n outside this context, and o f the seven, o n ly
L aksm i, w h o m w e m ay id en tify w ith Kam ala, is a M a h a vid ya.
W h a t is m issing in order to make the association o f the M ahavidyas
w ith the cakras and ascending states o f consciousness a c o n v in c in g in te r
pretation o f the in terrelation sh ip o f the M ahavid yas is a clear trad itio n
that asserts a h iera rch y or progressive ran kin g o f the ten goddesses84 and
consisten tly identifies each one w ith specific paths, siddhis, or cakras. A l
thou gh a certain M a h a vid y a m ay sometimes be id en tified w ith a p artic
ular path, siddhi, or cakra, there is seldom a consistent pattern, except,
perhaps, in the case o f Kali, w h o is often id en tified w ith the Kaulacara
path, w h ic h is considered the highest. A lth o u g h w e find M ahavidyas as

sociated w ith kundalini s'akti, the muladhara cakra, or the cakras generally,
it is rare to find M ahavidyas assigned to each o fth e oth er cakras in a p re
dictable way. It is also curious that there are ten, not seven, M ahavidyas
i f they are meant to be sym bols o f the progressive stages o f conscious
ness experienced b y aspirants in kundaliniyoga.. A lth o u g h I am in clin e d
to see in this approach a h elp fu l fram ew ork for th in k in g about the m ean
in g o f the M ahavidyas as a group and as in d iv id u a l goddesses, the e v i
dence is too th in to say w ith assurance that this is the key to understanding
h o w they relate to each oth er w ith in the group.
W e seem left, then, w ith no en tirely satisfactory key to understand
in g the connections am ong the M ahavidyas. Perhaps the best w e can hope
for is to com bine all the possibilities w e have m en tion ed , or some sub
set o f them , in our efforts to discern the coherence o f the group, to u n
derstand h o w such a curious m ix o f goddesses has come together to form
the ten M ahavidyas.
W o rsh ip ofthe Mahavidyas
T h e M ahavidyas are approached in a variety o f ritu al c o n

texts, and the w orship o f one M ah avid ya m ay differ from that o f others.
Some o f the M ahavidyas, for example, have ancient and widespread cults
that existed, and still exist, quite apart from the M ahavidyas as a group.
T h is is the case w ith Kali, T ara, T rip u ra-su n dari, and Kam ala, for ex
ample. In general, th o u gh , w e can th in k o f th eir w orship as takin g place
p rim a rily in tw o contexts: in tem ples, w here th ey are served b y priests
and w here people come to take part in p u b lic w orsh ip , and in tem porary
places m arked o ff b y in d iv id u a l aspirants, w here w orsh ip is undertaken
in tantric fashion, either right-hand ed or left-handed. A lth o u g h tem ple
and tantric styles o f w orship have some sim ilarities, th ey are quite d if
ferent in m ood and style.
TEMPLE WORS HIP
T h e extent to w h ic h in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are w orshiped

in temples varies considerably. T h ere are K a li and Laksm i temples
throughout India, and these tw o goddesses have been w id e ly w orshiped
in such settings since ancient times. O th e r members o fth e M ahavidyas,
such as D h u m avatl, Bagala, and C hinnam asta, how ever, are not w e ll
k n o w n at all outside the group, and there are ve ry few temples dedicated
specially to them anyw here in India. As for temples dedicated to the
M ahavidyas as a group, I k n o w o f o n ly the one m en tion ed above in C a l
cutta, although the M ahavidyas are depicted as a group in m any goddess
temples across N o r th India.
A w orsh ip er in a tem ple approaches a M a h a vid y a p rim a rily as a de
voted servant atten d ing a ro yal mistress. T h e w h o le structure o f H in d u
tem ple puja is patterned on the m od el o f a subject serving a ro yal p er
son. T h e p rop er m ood o fth e devotee is that o f hum ble supplication b e
fore a superior b ein g from w h o m one makes requests and to w h o m one
offers respectful service and homage. T h e standard sixteen-part puja,
w h ic h is perform ed daily, often several times daily in large temples, c o n
sists o f actions that are thought appropriate for a servant or subject to
w ard a superior, royal figure. T h e devotee w h o comes to the tem ple—
the royal court— also brings offerings appropriate to the particu lar deity.
Several o f the M ahavidyas like b lo o d offerings (w h ich are made in the
form o f anim al sacrifices), in ad dition to the typ ical flow ers, incense, and
fruit. K a li, Chinnam asta, Tara, and Bagalam ukhi all have a reputation
for b ein g pleased b y b lo o d offerings, although practices vary from temple
to tem ple.
W o rsh ip o f the M ahavidyas in temples invites an open, pu blic approach
to them as powers w h o are able to grant devotees blessings and favors
and w h o are pleased w ith d evotion al service and the p u b lic festivals and
celebrations that are a part o f every temple's annual cycle. In the context
o f tem ple w orsh ip , the in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas are perceived as ve ry sim
ilar to oth er H in d u deities. T h e y are th o u gh t ofas great beings w h o have
an objective existence outside the devotee and w h o live in heavenly places
or special, sacred dw ellings constructed for them on earth. In this c o n
text, the ritu al actions o f the devotee are d irected outw ard tow ard the
po w erfu l b eing, w h o is affirm ed to exist outside, above, or beyon d the
worshiper.
TANTRIC WORSHIP
T h e m ajority o f texts that m en tion the M ahavidyas are

tantric. Indeed, it is prob ab ly fair to refer to the M ah avid yas as p rim ar
ily tantric goddesses, b y w h ic h I mean that the proper fram ew ork in w h ic h
to understand them is tantric. It is clear that th ey are ty p ic a lly approached
b y means o f tantric rituals and that th eir w orsh ip is to be interpreted ac
TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP 5’
co rd in g to tantric p rinciples. A lth o u g h m any tantric texts give the spe

cific details for sixteen-part puja (discussed above), such puja takes on a
som ewhat different m eaning in a tantric context, as w e shall see.
In tantric w orsh ip, w h ic h is generally referred to as sddhand, or spir
itual exercise, the aspirant seeks to achieve an awakened or en lightened
state o f consciousness th rou gh techniques that are p h ysical, m ental, r it
ualistic, and sp iritual at the same time. A cen tral them e in tantric sddhand
is the id en tifica tio n o f the m acrocosm w ith the m icrocosm , w h ic h is rep
resented b y the hum an organism , sp ecifically b y the sddhaka, the p ra cti
tioner or adept. T h r o u g h m editation techniques, rituals, images, mantras,
yantras, and mandalas (schematic diagrams), the adept system atically id en
tifies parts, aspects, or dim ensions o f h im se lf or h erse lf w ith parts,
aspects, or dim ensions o f the cosmos. T h e deities are th ou ght o f as as
pects o f the cosmos that corresp on d to aspects o f the hum an organism —
m ental, ph ysical, or b oth . T h e aim o ftan tric sddhandis to establish id e n
tity w ith the d eity w orsh ip ed , to appropriate that deity, or to awaken that
deity w ith in oneself, and then to offer it puja, w h ic h in effect means w o r
shipin g the d iv in ity w ith in oneself. O r , conversely, one w orships the de
ity residing w ith in in the hope o f aw aken ing in on eself the reality that it
represents.
T h e self-d ivin iza tio n o fta n tric sddhand m ay have several results. T h e
adept m ay acquire an expanded self-awareness, that is, the w isdom o f self
know ledge, w h ic h is often said to be tantam ount to achieving moksa (mukti
or "liberation "). T h a t is, tantric sddhand m ay result in redem ptive trans
form ation. O r such sddhand m ay lead to heightened sense p ercep tion , the
acquisition o f siddhis th rou gh w h ic h the adept excels at one o f the senses
or even transcends the lim itatio n s o f sensory percep tion . T hese siddhis,
in tu rn , may lead to enjoym ents im possible before ach ievin g such p er
fections. O r tantric sddhand may result in an intensified or expanded m en
tal capacity or pow er that enables the practitio n er to achieve feats o f self
co n tro l or c o n tro l over others. W e have already seen, and w i l l see in more
detail b elo w w h en w e discuss the M ahavidyas in d ivid u ally, that all o f these
results, or "fruits"— redem ptive w isd om , increased sensory perception ,
w o r ld ly boons, and m agical powers— are associated w ith w orship o f the
M ahavidyas.
W e can get a good idea o f h o w the M ahavid yas are w orsh ip ed ac
cord in g to tantric prin ciples and rites from a b r ie f d escrip tion oisdmanya
puja, ord in ary or regular w o rsh ip o f the goddess, as described in the
Kdlika-purana, a fo u rtee n th -ce n tu ry text devoted to the goddess in the
form o f K a l i . 85 T h o u g h the text does not describe tantric w o rsh ip o f
52 THE MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
the Mahavidyas per se, it provides a rather detailed ou tlin e o f the stages
o fta n tric worship, w h ic h can be adapted to any given deity. The r itu a l
may be done almost anyw here, although the text does recommend c e r
tain sites, such as a m ountaintop or a cave, and says that the ritual is m ore
potent if done at a place sacred to w h ich ev er form o f the goddess is be
in g worshiped. T h e ritual m ay be perform ed at any tim e and does not
require a prj,,t. It is done by an in d ivid u al by and for h im self (let us im a g
ine that the adept is a male in the fo llo w in g description, although the
adept could be female). A physical image o fth e goddess is not necessary.
T h e ritual probably takes no longer than an hou r and co u ld be done in
abbreviated form in considerably less tim e. T h e Kdlika-purana describes
a continuous set o f actions, but w e can th in k o f the cerem ony as h a vin g
four parts: Q preparation, ( 2 ) m editation, ( 3 ) w orship o fth e goddess h er
self, and (4 ) conclud ing rites.
T h e opening rites o f sdmanyapiijd aim p rim arily at purification o fth e
adept and the d elim itation o f an appropriate place w ith in w h ic h to per
form the cerem ony." T h e adept bathes, sips w ater (signifying internal
purification), and asks the goddess to rid his m ind o f any im purities. He
also recites certain mantras at this p o in t to expel p o ten tially harm ful
spirits.
T h e adept next purifies the place o f w orship by sp rin k lin g w ater on
the ground. He carefully inspects the items to be used in the ritual to i n
sure that they are unblem ished. Flow ers to be offered, for example, should
be free from insects. Items are also purified by means o f mantras and w a
ter. T h e adept then draws a yantra (a schem atic diagram) representing
the particular goddess to be w orshiped . In the case o f the M ahavidyas,
each has her distin ctive yantra or mandala.
In the second phase o f the cerem o n y, the adept p e rfo rm s a series o f
acts that ar, p rim a rily m ental to further p u rify him self. In general, this
part o fth e rite aims at the adept's sym bolic death and dissolution . T h e
text says that the body is com posed o f im pure elem ents— mucus, feces,
urin e, and so on— and as such is u n fit to be an in stru m en t o f w orship.
T h e adept's sym bolic death is follow ed by his m ental re-creation o fth e
w o rld and, „oSt im portant, b y the appearance o f t h e goddess herself.
Assum ing the correct posture and practicin g breath c o n tro l, the adept
begins a ritual that releases his life force, hisjiva, from his body. He inag-
ines his jiva passing th rou gh d ifferent stages, each conn ected w ith ai e l
ement: earth, water, fire, air, and sound. F inally, id en tify in g h im selfw ith
space, he imagines his life force leavin g his body th ro u g h the top o f his
head. T h is signals his sym bolic death.
TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP S3
T h e adept then sy m b o lica lly dissolves his body, w h ic h as a m icrocosm

o fth e universe also represents the p h ysical w o r ld as a w h o le. He im ag
ines his b od y d issolvin g, then im agines it b u rn in g on a funeral p yre, then
imagines the ashes b lo w in g away, and finally im agines a shower o f pure
nectar clean in g the place w here his b od y had lain and been burned. In
effect, the adept has destroyed the cosmos and h im se lfb y red u cin g them
to their elem ental constituents. H is ultim ate p u rification is n ow com plete,
and he is ready to be reborn .
R e-creation o f the cosmos, and the reb irth o f the adept, begins w ith
the adept p ro n o u n cin g the seed syllable (bija) o f the goddess. He then
visualizes the different parts o f the cosmos, often in the form o f letters,
syllables, or mantras. He com pletes the re-creation o fth e cosmos b y v i
sualizing the goddess h erself seated on a throne in the center o fth e w o rld ,
w h ic h is im agined as her particu lar mandala. N ex t he identifies h im self
w ith the goddess b y p lacin g a flow er that he has been h o ld in g in his hands
on top o fh is head and saying: "I am th is." T h e adept reinforces his de
ification w ith mudrds (hand gestures) and mantras that id en tify parts of
the cosmos w ith parts o fh is body. H a v in g p rovid ed h im s e lfw ith a new,
divin e b od y (actually id en tified w ith the goddess herself), he is n o w p re
pared to undertake w orsh ip o f the goddess herself.
T h is begins w ith in w ard w orsh ip. T h a t is, the adept im agines the god
dess and her attendants d w e llin g in his heart. He pictures the goddess by
recitin g her dhydna mantra, w h ic h often describes her in great detail. He
then transfers the goddess from his heart into the yantra he has draw n
on the ground b y exhaling th rou gh his rig h t n ostril on to a flow er that h'e
holds in his hand. H e r transference to the yantra can also be done w ith
mudrds, hand gestures w ith w h ic h the adept "catches" the goddess and
places her in the yantra. T h e adept n ow praises the goddess w ith hym ns
and treats her as an hon ored guest b y o fferin g her various articles, ph ys
ically or m entally. T h e actions are sim ilar to tem ple pujd, but in contrast
to elaborate and costly tem ple pujd, in this cerem on y the adept offers the
goddess little more than pu rified w ater and flow ers. T h e text instructs
the adept, throu gh ou t this part o f the cerem ony, to constantly repeat the
goddess's special m antra, w h ic h is said to be id en tical w ith the goddess
herself.
O u tw a rd w orsh ip o f the goddess in the mandala, w h o can be any o f
the ten M ahavidyas, closes w ith a final offerin g, usually consisting o f rice
or some oth er grain. T h e adept m ay also make a b lo o d offerin g. A n en
tire chapter in the Kdlika-purana suggests offerings appropriate to the
goddess and the rewards that may be expected from them . A m o n g the
M ahavid yas, K a li, T ara, and C hinn am asta are fond o fb lo o d offerings,
so these are recom m en ded in th e ir w o rsh ip , w h ile M ah avid yas lik e K a
mala do n ot receive such offerings.
T h e adept n o w dismisses the goddess b y circu m am b u latin g the flow er
that represents her and m en ta lly v isu a liz in g her retu rn to her norm al
abode: heaven, the adept's heart, or some particu lar h o ly place. Ifth e go d
dess is visu alized as retu rn in g to the w orshiper's heart, the adept smells
the flow er that represents her, in h a lin g her, as it w ere, and then places
the flo w er on his head. W i t h the w o rsh ip o fth e goddess com plete, he
finishes the cerem on y b y erasing the yantra or mandala and disposing o f
the rem ains o fth e offerings. T h e remains are considered especially p o
tent and dangerous and must be handled w ith great care. Fierce goddesses
are associated w ith these leftovers and must be prop itiated before the cer
em on y is c o m p le te .87
Samanyapujdis a ritu a l th ro u g h w h ic h the w o rsh ip er is deified. A fte r
r itu a lly u n d ertak in g one's o w n death and d issolu tion , one re-creates the
w o r ld and oneself. In this act o f re-creation , the goddess is id e n tifie d w ith
the w orsh iper. T h e tw o are declared essentially one. In this sense,
samanyapujd is w o rsh ip o f one's o w n in n er sacred essence as w e ll as o f a
superior d ivin e b ein g. O r perhaps one cou ld say that in samanya pujd,
w h ic h is essentially tantric in nature, one reveres one's highest or most
essential nature, w h ic h is id en tified w ith the goddess.
D u r in g samanya pujd, then , w h ic h is the lik e ly setting for w orsh ip o f
the M ahavid yas, the emphasis is upon in d iv id u a l m ed itation and id e n ti
ficatio n w ith the goddess in question. U n lik e tem ple w o rsh ip , the goal
is to in w a rd ly realize the presence o f the goddess in the aspirant. A lth o u g h
samanya pujd perceives the goddess in question to be b oth a superior b e
in g w h o exists outside the sddhaka and an in w a rd d im en sion or aspect o f
the w orshiper, the emphasis, p a rticu la rly in com parison to tem ple w o r
ship, is on the latter.
T h e M ahavid yas are also w o rsh ip ed in a form at k n o w n as the left
handed (Vamacara) path in T an trism . T h is type o fw o rsh ip is character
ized p rim a rily b y th e panca tattva o rpanca makdra ritu a l, the ritu a l o fth e
"five forbid d en th in gs." A c c o r d in g to the tantras, it is reserved for the
few o f h eroic nature w h o are capable o fu n d erta k in g it w ith o u t h arm in g
themselves in the process. T h e sddhaka must partake o f five things that
are o r d in a rily forbid d en or are h ig h ly p o llu tin g : meat, fish, w in e , mudrd
(a type o f grain that m ay have h a llu cin o g en ic properties), and sexual i n
tercourse w ith a w om an w h o is not one's w ife (the ritu al is described from
a male p o in t o f view ). T h e ritu al is done u nder the guidance o f a guru.
Individual texts differ over w h eth er this rite is to be done alone or in a

group. Texts devoted to the M ahavidyas often refer to the panca tattva
ritual, in d icatin g that at least some o f the goddesses are w orshiped in this
context.
T h e logic or in ten tion o f this ritual appears to be related to perceiv
ing or intensely rea lizin g the basic tru th that all o f reality, all things, are
pervaded by s'akti, the goddess herself, or brahman. By partaking o f for
bidden things, one affirms that u ltim ately there is n o th in g that is not the
goddess, that n o th in g is p o llu tin g , for she pervades a l l . 88 Such d istin c
tions as "pure" and "p o llu tin g" impose artificial qualifications on the m an
ifestation ofthe goddess as the physical w o rld . T h epanca tattva ritual seeks
to abolish a m en tality that perceives the w o rld according to artificial h u
man constructs, that perceives the essentially un ified w o rld that is the
goddess (or brahman, w ith w h ic h the goddess is often identified) as frac
tured and divided.
T h e precise co n n ectio n between the M ahavidyas and the left-handed
path, and the panca tattva ritual specifically, is not en tirely clear. T h e ir
w orship m ay include this ritu al, but some m ay be w orshiped by either
the right- or left-handed paths. Perhaps the fierce or inauspicious qu al
ities o f some o fth e M ahavidyas that are w orshiped according to the left
handed path relate to the logic ofthe panca tattva ritual, in w h ic h the adept
is forced to confron t and partake o f forbidden things. Some o f the
M ahavidyas, particu larly K a li, Tara, D hum avatl, and Chinnam asta, are
identified w ith such harsh realities as death, destruction, old age, and de
crepitude. By co n fro n tin g these deities, and one's fears, one gains release
from the in h ib itio n s and constraints th ey can generate.
The Mahavidyas and M agical Powers
W e have already touched on the association o fth e M a h a

vidyas w ith magical powers, but it is so persistent that w e should discuss
it in more detail before tu rn in g to a treatm ent o fth e ind ivid u al goddesses.
H in d u literature is fu ll o f stories in w h ic h individuals, often demons, u n
dertake ascetic and m editative practices in order to acquire special a b il
ities w ith w h ic h th ey hope to achieve power, w ealth, sex, or some other
w o r ld ly pleasure or rew ard. In these stories, it is clear that th ey em ploy
meditative and ascetic practices to attain selfish, w o r ld ly goals rather than
w hat w e m ight th in k o f as spiritual ones. Texts on yoga say that one can
acquire special powers (siddhis) b y p ra cticin g yoga, but w arn against i n

d u lgin g in them and th ereby p erv ertin g the spiritual quest.89
O th e r H in d u texts deal specifically w ith m agical powers. T h e Ddmara-
tantra, for example, is devoted en tirely to describing the use o f mantras
to acquire siddhis, p articu la rly h ealing ones, but also the kinds often as
sociated w ith the M ahavidyas, such as causing strife, p aralyzin g or o b
tainin g v ic to r y over an enemy, and attracting a person o fth e opposite sex.90
T h e Phetkdrini-tantra describes six m agical powers (sat karmdni): sand
(pacification), vasikarana (subjugation), stambhana (im m o b iliza tio n or
paralyzing), uccdtana (eradication), vidvesana (sowing dissension), and
mdrana (causing death).91 T h is text, w h ic h is named after K a li as "the h o w l
in g one" (P hetkarin i), has chapters on several o fth e M ahavidyas, thereby
associating the quest for m agical powers w ith the M ahavidyas specifically.
T h e six m agical acts are also described in the Salya-tantra, the Dattdtreya-
tantra,’2 and the Udddmara-tantra?' T h e Kdlarudra-tantra "describes de
structive rites to be executed w ith the help o f mantras o f fearsome god
desses such as D h u m a v a tl." 94 T h e Satkarmadipikd and the Kdmaratna are
also preoccupied w ith m agical a cts.95 T h e Sdradd-dlaka-tantra (23.122ft.)
m entions a list o f six m agical practices: sand (cure o f disease and the ex
pulsion o f e v il spirits), vasya (b rin gin g others under one's con trol), stam
bhana (paralyzing the a ctiv ity o f others), vidvesa (causing dissension),
uccdtana (com pellin g someone to leave hom e), and mdrana (k illin g by
w i l l ) .96T h e Brhaddharma-purdna says that the M ahavidyas as a group give
the powers o f eradication, attracting, paralyzin g, k illin g b y w ish in g it,
m akin g a person sick, c o n tro llin g speech, causing a person to get o ld , and
preserving one's y ou th . These are said to be the duties o fth e M ah avid yas.97
O th e r groups o f goddesses are id en tified w ith specific siddhis in some
tantric texts. In the S rivid ya school o f T an trism , w h ic h is dom inant in
South India, w e find a group o f ten yoginis (female beings endow ed w ith
m agical powers) w h o personify ten siddhis: the pow ers to make sm all, to
becom e lig h t, to becom e large, to becom e superior, to c o n tro l others, to
have an irresistible will, to enjoy, to gain all o f one's desires, to obtain
an yth in g, and to c o n tro l desires.98 In this case, the goddesses not o n ly
grant these powers but actu ally represent, or are id en tica l w ith , them .
In d ivid u al M ahavidyas are often associated w ith m agical pow ers.
M atarigi is said to give all kinds o f siddhis, especially the po w er b y w h ic h
w hatever one says comes true (vdk siddhi).” K a li has a lo n g h isto ry o f as
sociation w ith m agical powers. In the B engali marigalkdvyas, K a li is often
the m ain d eity and bestows m agical powers on her devotees. In the Kdlikd-
marigal-kdvya, for example, the hero Sundara succeeds in finding and w i n
n in g the heroine, V id y a , by means o f m agical powers acquired in w o r

shiping K a l i . 100 In the Sdkta-pramoda, Siva says that D hu m avatl is w o r
shiped p rim arily for the siddhi o f k illin g one's en em ies.101 A lso in the Sdkta-
pramodawe read this prayer to Chinnam asta: "G ive me siddhis and destroy
m y en em ies."102 T h e M ahavid ya w h o is most consistently associated w ith
magical powers is Bagalam ukhi. T h e Bagaldmukhi-rahasya says that she is
w orshiped for paralyzing, eradication, and con trol over the planets. D if
ferent recipes are given to achieve these different powers. To achieve the
ability to k ill at w i l l, one should burn mustard o il and blood o f ashe-buffalo
in a sacrificial fire, w h ile for eradication one should burn the feathers of
a crow and a v u lt u r e .103 T h e Sdkta-pramoda says that w orship o f Sodasi
(Tripura-sundari) gives know ledge o f all and makes one w ealthy, im m une
to poison, authoritative in speech, and free from sickness.104
T h e im portance o f m agical powers in the w orship o fth e M ahavidyas
m ight be understood from at least tw o points o fv iew . First, and perhaps
obviously, w orsh ip generally can be prom pted by specific desires, frus
trations, and needs. A d eity is approached for help. In this sense, it is not
surprising to find the M ahavidyas associated w ith granting a range o f
blessings and powers. O th e r deities also bestow a variety ofblessings, i n
clud in g magical powers.
Second, the adept w orships the M ahavidyas by d evelopin g and em
p lo y in g m ental capacities th ro u g h m editation. T a n tric yoga is supposed
to awaken one's consciousness, to expand and intensify it. T h a t m agical
powers as w e ll as transform ative w isdom m igh t be associated w ith this
process is understandable, and m any o fth e m agical powers that are spec
ified relate d ire ctly to m ental powers. In exp lorin g and expanding one's
consciousness, one discovers new dim ensions to one's psychic capacities.
L ik e the kundalini serpent risin g and aw akening the cakras, causing the
lotuses to blo om , the adept awakens aspects or dim ensions o fh is c o n
sciousness and realizes that his m ental or psychic capacities are m uch
greater than he m igh t have im agined. Insofar as the M ahavidyas m ight
be th o u g h t o f as aspects or stages o f consciousness in the sp iritu a l quest,
the association o f siddhis w ith them is not surprising.
T h e Significance o f the Term Mahavidya
A literal translation o fth e term mahavidya is "great k n o w l

edge," w h ile a som ewhat less literal translation m igh t be "supreme (or
superior or com plete) know ledge (or w isd om )." T h e r e are several possi
b ilities for w hat the name tells us about the nature and fu n ctio n o f the
M ahavidyas. It is not obvious w h y these ten goddesses should have been
so designated, but several explanations are possible.
I have been to ld b y tw o scholars o f T a n trism in V a r a n a s i105 that the
term dasamahdvldyd as it applies to the ten goddesses is te ch n ica l and
means the "ten great mantras," vidyd generally b ein g used in this te ch n ica l
sense in tantric contexts. In his com m en tary on the Lalitd-sahasrandma,
Bhaskararaya says: "T h e difference betw een Mantra and Vidyd is that the
form er has reference to male deities and the latter to female o n e s."106 I n
deed, the first order o f business in m any tantric texts that discuss or de
scribe the M ahavidyas is to give th e ir mantras, w h ic h consist o f a few s y l
lables. T h e m antra, it is often said, is h ig h ly secret and e x trem e ly
p o w erfu l. It is a given in the tantric context, in fact, that the m antra is
id en tica l w ith the goddess. It is not that the m antra belongs to the g o d
dess, w h ic h is the w a y one is often tem pted to understand the r e la tio n
ship betw een the d eity and the m antra; the situ ation , rather, is that the
m antra i f the goddess. Jan G o n d a says: "T h e essence o f a mantra . . . is
the presence o f the deity: o n ly that mantra in w h ic h the devatd has r e
vealed his or h er aspects can reveal that aspect. T h e d eity is b elieved to
appear from the mantra w h e n it is c o rre c tly p r o n o u n c e d ." 107
T h ere is a lon g-stand in g trad itio n in H in d u ism that sound is the
essence o f reality. T h e idea otsabda brahman is ancient: ultim ate r e a lity
in its most essential form is expressed in sound. P h ilo so p h ic a l schools o f
great sophistication, such as the Sphota s c h o o l,108 are based on theories
o f sound and v ib ra tio n as the essential and basic constituents o f reality.
R elated to this emphasis on the p r io r ity o f sound as basic to the nature
o f ultim ate rea lity is the eq u ally ancient emphasis in H in d u ism on the
p o ten cy o f mantras, or sacred utterances. R e c itin g mantras, p a r tic u la rly
V e d ic mantras, is an essential part o f most H in d u rituals. Indeed, m an y
rituals are b elieved to be im poten t unless qualified priests p ro n o u n ce the
mantras correctly. T rad itio n a lly , furtherm ore, o n ly a select group o f
people, certain Brahmans, k n e w V e d ic mantras and w ere p ro h ib ite d from
u tte rin g them w here they m igh t be heard b y un qualified people, such as
w om en or any members o f lo w er castes. M antras w ere u sually taken from
sacred texts, and th eir p o w er was b elieved to be almost u n lim ite d ; a h i g h -
caste male elite guarded them closely.
S im ila rly in tantric sddhand, the mantras that a sddhaka receives from
his or her guru are secret and regarded as extrem ely p ow erfu l. T h e m antra
o f a goddess, for exam ple, is transm itted to a sddhaka b y a gu ru sec retly
in a ritual; the guru has chosen the particu lar m antra as suitable to the
adept. D espite the im pression that mantras are p u b lic because th ey are
in p rin ted editions o f the tantras and that one m ight freely invoke them
for their effect, mantras are in fact transm itted b y a spiritual master d u r
in g a carefully supervised sp iritu al undertaking.
T h e idea, then , that the ten goddesses w h o constitute the M ahavidyas
are essentially ten mantras, and that the term dasamdhavidyd m ay lite r
ally mean the "ten great mantras," is understandable. W h a t is also sig
n ificant is that the goddess— w h o is the mantra— appears or exists o n ly
w h en the m antra is in v o k ed . She remains in latent form u n til a p a rtic u
lar adept invokes her th ro u g h the m antra that is her anim ating essence.
It is in this sense, perhaps, that the emphasis u pon the adept and the g o d
dess b ein g one m igh t be understood in the tantric context. O n e cannot
and does not exist w ith o u t the other.
It is d ifficu lt, how ever, to leave the m atter o fth e term mahavidyahere.
Indeed, several people have com m ented on the significance o f the term
w ith o u t em phasizing, or even m en tio n in g , its reference to the mantras
o f the ten goddesses. T h e term vidya means "k n ow led ge" and can refer
to practical k n ow ledge, know ledge o f arts and sciences, or transform ative
know ledge. T h e nam e, th en , accord in g to some, is related to the idea
that the ten goddesses bestow or reveal certain types o f know ledge. O n e
contem porary scholar says: "These [the M ahavidyas] are the represen
tatives o f transcendent know ledge and pow er, the sources o f all that is to
be k n o w n ." 109 A n o th e r scholar refers to the M ahavidyas as "ten objects
o f transcendental know ledge . . . sig n ifyin g the various degrees and stages
o f ex iste n ce."110 A n o th e r scholar says that the M ahavidyas are so called
because th ey are the "sources o f all that is to be k n o w n ." 111 Y e t another
scholar m aintains that the M a h a d evi causes bondage and in this capac
ity is referred to as avidyd, but that she also causes lib e ra tio n and in this
capacity is referred to as vidyd. T h e ten M ahavidyas, then , are ten forms
in w h ic h the goddess brings about en ligh ten m en t b y means o f lib e ra tin g
k n o w le d g e ." 2Y e t another scholar equates vidydw ith s'akti, w h ic h , he says,
underlies and pervades all things. Indeed, he equates vidyd w ith brahman
itself, ultim ate reality. Vidyd, lik e brahman, is sacciddnanda (being, c o n
sciousness, and bliss). T h e M ahavidyas, th en , em body or transm it u l t i
mate po w er and com plete k n o w le d g e ." 3
E ach ofthese interpretation s o fth e term mahavidya goes b eyon d the

tech n ica l m eanin g o f "m antra" to apply the m ore encom passing m ean
ing, "k n o w led g e," to the ten goddesses. V ie w in g the goddesses as those
w h o grant great kn ow ledge or w isd om is in keep in g w ith a general as
6o TH E MAHAVIDYAS AS A GROUP
so cia tio n b etw een goddesses and k n o w le d g e th ro u g h o u t s'akta lite ra tu re .

W e find m any textual references to goddesses, or the G reat Goddess, as
id en tical w ith , or associated w ith , know ledge and in tellect or other m en
tal attributes related to know ledge and w isdom . In the Devi-mdhdtmya,
D urga is referred to as M a h a vid y a tw ice (1.58 and 11.21) and as V id y a
( 1 . 4 4 and 4 . 8 ) . It is clear, furtherm ore, that her id en tifica tio n w ith vidyd
in these verses is related to lib era tin g know ledge. D urga is also associ
ated w ith buddhi, "in te lle ct," fou r tim es in the Devi-mdhdtmya."* In the
con clu d in g scene o fth e Devi-mdhdtmya, the goddess grants the m erchan t
Samadhi lib era tin g know ledge (vidyd) ( 1 3 . 1 6 ) . In the Brahma-vaivarta-
purdna, D urga is also associated w ith buddhi and is called B u d dh iru pa,
"she whose form is in t e lle c t." 115 D urga is also identified w ith cetand, " c o n
sciousness," in the Devi-mdhdtmya (5.13). In the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna,
the goddess is said to be supreme know ledge, pardvidyd, and in this form
to manifest herself in different goddesses: Gariga, Durga, Savitri, Laksm i,
and Sarasvao".116 Several o f the epithets in clu d ed in the Lalitd-sahas-
randma, a famous goddess h ym n , id en tify the goddess w ith kn ow ledge
and wisdom: Mahabuddhi, "great intelligence" (no. 2 2 3 ), Vijnanabhana-
ru p in i, "she whose form is a mass o f kn ow ledge" (no. 2 5 3 ) , Prajnatm ika,
"she w h o is w isdom itself" (no. 2 6 1 ) , M a ti, "in tellig en ce " (no. 4 4 5 ) ,
V id y a , "kn ow led ge" (no. 5 4 9 ) , A tm av id y a , "know ledge o f dtm an('self
or soul)" (no. 5 8 3 ) , M a h a vid y a , "great k n o w le d g e" (no. 5 8 4 ) , and
Jnanada, "she w h o b estow s k n ow led g e" (no. 6 4 3 ) .111 T h e Devi-bhdga-
vata-purdna frequently refers to the p rin cip al goddess o fth e text as V id y a
or B rahm avidya, "the know ledge o f brahman (the highest r e a lit y ) ." 118
Perhaps the earliest examples o f female beings bearing the name V id y a
are found in the Mabdbhdrata. A female being named V id y a is m en tion ed
as a m em ber o f Parvati's en tou rage (3.221.20), and a group o f female be
ings called the V id y a s are described attending the god Brahm a ( 2 . 1 1 . 1 5 ) .
T h e co n n ectio n betw een the tech n ical m eaning o f mahavidya as
"great m antra" and interpretations that emphasize the term as m eaning
"k n ow led ge" or "w isd om " resides in the tantric b e lie f that mantras
awaken consciousness and expand the senses and in tellect. T h e d iffe r
ence is o n ly one o f means and ends. M antras are the means to re a lizin g
the goal ofkn ow led ge. In this sense, the ten M ahavidyas are the ten great
mantras by means o f w h ic h know ledge is gained, awakened, or d isco v
ered w ith in .
C o n clu d in g Observations
T h e ten M ahavidyas form a distinctive group o f deities.

A lth o u g h it includes some w e ll-k n o w n goddesses, such as K a li and
Laksm i, most o f them are little k n o w n apart from this group, and sev
eral o f the goddesses are strik in g ly unusual (Chinnam asta, D hum avatl,
and Bagalam ukhi in particular). T h e group does not p articu larly m a n i
fest characteristics and functions that ty p ify s'akta H in d u ism , y et th ey are
often said to represent the M ahad evi in her diverse forms. Several texts
and secondary sources im p ly that th ey sum up, or circum scribe in some
fashion, the m ain features o fth e M ahad evi. N onetheless, the group lacks
m any features considered central to s'akta th e o lo gy and religio n .
For example, the group lacks the close association w ith sacred places
that is an im portant feature o f H in d u goddess traditions. K a li, outside
the M ahavidyas, has m any famous temples, and at these sacred places she
is often connected to the m yth ofth e s'aktapithas, w h ic h has a geographical
theme. T h e most famous o f such K a li temples is K aligh at (after w h ic h
the c ity o f C alcu tta is named). Sim ilarly, apart from the M ahavidyas, Tara
has several im portant sacred places. T arap ith in B irb h u m d istrict o f B en
gal is perhaps the most famous. Laksm i (Kamala) also has m any w e ll-
k n ow n temples o f regional or local im portance that tie her to the local
culture and land. H ow ever, this geographical aspect o f K a li, Tara, and
Kamala is barely even m entioned in the context o f th eir roles am ong the
M ahavidyas. T h e texts that discuss and describe the M ahavidyas do not
seem to be interested in reflecting upon or prom otin g the ways in w h ic h
these goddesses are associated w ith sacred geography in th e ir in d ep en
dent cults. In the same vein , the s'akta pttha m yth is rarely m entioned,
even though in the m yth the pithas all arise from the body o f Satl, w h o
is the o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas in the purdnic accounts (see above). It is
also interesting that the M ahavidyas as a group and in d iv id u a lly are rarely
associated w ith such geographical goddesses as Gariga, even thou gh the
Mahdbhdgavata-purdna tells the stories o f both G ariga and the o rig in o f
the M ahavidyas. It is d ifficu lt to resist the con clu sion that the m eaning
and function o f the M ahavidyas are o n ly ve ry w ea k ly related to sacred
geography, even thou gh it is often extrem ely im portant in the case o f
other goddesses and goddess cults. To use D iana Eck's expression, the
M ahavidyas, as a group and as individuals, lack a clear "locative aspect,"
w h ic h is a p articu larly distinctive feature o f H in d u ism and m uch H in d u
goddess w o r s h ip .115 T h e M ahavidyas have little or no co n n ectio n w ith
"organic sym bols" o fth e sacred ,120such as m ountains, rivers, river banks,
or river confluences.
T h e M ahavidyas lack another characteristic that typifies m any H in d u
goddesses. T h e y have little or no con n ection w ith m oth erh ood , fecu n
dity, and grow th . A lth o u g h th ey may have names that connect them w ith
creation in a general way, particu larly in th eir noma stotras (hymns c o n
sisting o f names or epithets), th ey are not depicted as mothers, and th ey
are rarely referred to by m aternal epithets. S im ilarly, th ey are o n ly very
w ea k ly connected w ith fecu n d ity and gro w th , w h ic h are im portan t
themes in the cults o f oth er goddesses, even in the cults o f K am ala and
K a li apart from th eir associations w ith the M a h a v id y a s.121 T h e M a h a
vidyas are seldom w orshiped for progeny or fertility.
A n o th e r notable feature o f H in d u goddesses is th e ir role as consorts.
M a n y o f them are associated w ith particular gods as w ives or consorts.
A m o n g the M ahavidyas this role is extrem ely weak. T h e y are almost a l
ways depicted or described w ith o u t reference to a consort. A lth o u g h they
m ay bear epithets in th eir nama stotras that associate them w ith a male
deity, usually Siva, he is rarely depicted w ith them , and w h en he is, he is
subordinate to them . For example, K a li and T ara are show n standing on
his supine body, and Tripura-sundari is show n sittin g on a throne whose
legs are the four male gods (Brahma, V is n u , Siva, and Rudra). B oth as a
group and as in d ivid u al goddesses w ith in the group, the M ahavidyas are
independent. It is p articu larly strik in g in the case o f Kam ala, w h o is o th
erwise k n o w n to be V isnu 's consort, that he is not depicted w ith her w h en
she is show n as one o fth e M ahavidyas. H e r dhyana m antra describes her
w ith o u t him , preferrin g the ve ry ancient image ofG aja-laksm i, in w h ic h
she is flanked by elephants show erin g her w ith w ater from th e ir trunks
or from pots. It is not her w ife ly associations and functions that are sig
nificant in her role as a M ah avid ya.
T h e function o fth e M ahavidyas in m aintaining cosm ic order, dharma,
is also weak. For m any goddesses, particu larly the dem on-slaying D urga,
th e ir role as guardian and m aintainer o f dharma is central. As w e have
discussed above, the M ahadevl's assumption o f appropriate forms to de
feat demons and m aintain cosm ic balance and harm on y is an im portant
facet o f s'akta th eo lo gy in m any texts. Indeed, the M ahavidyas are some
times com pared to the avataras o fV is n u , or the avataras are said to be
iden tical w ith or to have arisen from the M ahavidyas. T h e ir nama stotras
also give in d iv id u a l M ahavidyas epithets that suggest a w o rld -m a in ta in in g
role. T h e ir iconograp hy and m ythology, how ever, do not emphasize it,
for the M ahavidyas as a group or as individuals.
A lth o u g h the M ahavidyas are not stron gly associated w ith seoeraoh-
ical features or m aternal, consort, or d harm a-upholding functions, th ey

do have other characteristics that m igh t help us begin to understand th eir
distinctive nature as a group and as in d ivid u al goddesses. T h e M ahavidyas
are independent deities, havin g o n ly a w eak con n ection w ith a male de
ity. In the case o fin d iv id u a l M ahavid ya w h o are k n o w n to be consorts of
male deities outside the context ofth e M ah avid ya cult, such as K a li, Tara,
and Kam ala, this association is played dow n or ignored w h en th ey are
approached as M ahavidyas. E ven the o rig in m yth o f the M ahavidyas,
though featuring Satl, Siva's w ife, stresses her decision to act in d ep en
dently o f her husband and her success in bending him to her will. W h e n
the M ahavidyas as individuals are show n w ith a male consort, th ey d om
inate h im , standing on his supine body, assuming the "superior" position
in sexual intercourse, or sittin g on a throne or couch supported b y male
deities. In short, w here male deities do appear, th ey are subordinate and
subservient to the M ahavidyas.
T h e M ahavidyas, w ith a few exceptions, are fearsome. T h e y d w ell or
are w orshiped in crem ation grounds, sit on corpses, w ear garlands o f sev
ered heads or skulls, are naked and smeared w ith blood, and have d i
sheveled hair. T h e y tend to be rough, n ot soft, in nature. T h is fierce as
pect overshadows th e ir b oon -con ferrin g, ind u lgent nature.
In the context o f Tantrism , and in terms o f m any o f th eir names, th ey
are associated w ith sddhand (spiritual exercises). T h e y are associated
also w ith m ental and psychic powers (siddhis) and heightened states o f
consciousness.
F inally, th ey are associated w ith mantras. T h e y are mantras, th e y ex
ist w here th e ir mantras are uttered, and th e ir most essential form is as
mantras. T h e y are, unquestionably, pow erful sounds. In this respect, th ey
are tied in ex tricab ly to hum an beings, w ith o u t w h o m th ey w o u ld rem ain
o n ly latent. It is w h en a sddhaka invokes the m antra o f a goddess that she
"comes alive." T h e M ahavidyas, that is, as mantras, represent or sy m
bolize aspects o f awareness, consciousness, or m ental capacity associated
w ith mantra sddhand (spiritual discipline that em ploys sacred sounds). In
a sense w e could say that each M ah avid ya represents a style o f sp iritu a l
ity appropriate to the sddhaka as determ ined by the guru w h o has be
queathed to h im or her a special mantra, that is, a special goddess.
Next we w ill turn our attention to the individual Mahavidyas. W e w ill
often find ideas and themes that apply to the M ahavidyas as a group be-
mg reiterated and emphasized in the iconograp hy and m y th o lo g y o f a
particular goddess. O n the other hand, each goddess also has her p ecu
liarities: unique features that are o n ly w ea k ly stressed in the group as a
w hole.
PART II
The Individual Mahavidyas

Kali
T he Black, G oddess
She is the terrible one w ho has a dreadful face. She should be meditated
upon as having disheveled hair and a garland of freshly cut human heads.
She has four arms. In her upper left hand she holds a sword that has just
been bloodied by the severed head that she holds in her low er left hand.
H er upper right hand makes the gesture of assurance and her low er right
hand, the sign of granting favors. She has a bluish com plexion and is lus
trous like a dark cloud. She is com pletely naked, and her body gleams w ith
blood that is smeared all over it from the garland of bleeding severed heads
around her neck. H er ear ornaments are the corpses of children. H er fangs
are dreadful, and her face is fierce. H er breasts are large and round, and
she wears a girdle made o f severed human hands. Blood trickles from the
comers of her mouth and makes her face gleam. She makes a terrible sound
and lives in the cremation ground, where she is surrounded by how ling
jackals. She stands on the chest of Siva in the form of a corpse. She is ea
ger to have sexual intercourse in reverse fashion w ith Mahakala. She wears
a satisfied expression. She smiles.1
She is lustrous like a dark cloud and wears black clothes. H er tongue lolls,
her face is dreadful to behold, her eyes are sunken, and she smiles. She
wears the crescent moon on her forehead and is decorated w ith serpents.
She drinks w ine, has a serpent as a sacred thread, is seated on a bed of
snakes, and wears a garland of fifty human heads that hangs all the way
down to her knees. She has a large belly, and the thousand-hooded ser
pent Ananta looms above her head. Siva is present as a boy beside her.
She makes a loud, laughing sound, is very dreadful, but bestows the de
sires o f the aspirant.-
68 KALI
She is like a mountain of collyriu m , and her abode is in the cremation

ground. She has three red eyes, her hair is disheveled, and she is awful to
look at because of her emaciated body. In her left hand she holds a jar full
o f liquor mixed w ith meat, and in her right hand she holds a freshly sev
ered head. She is eating raw flesh, she is naked, her limbs are adorned w ith
ornaments, she is drunk on w ine, and she smiles.'
A lth o u g h the order, number, and names o fth e M ahavidyas m ay vary, K a li

is always included and is usually named or shown first. She is also affirmed
in m any places to be the most im portant o f the M ahavidyas, the p r i
m ordial or prim ary M ahavidya, the A/ M a h a v id y a .4 In some cases it seems
apparent that the other M ahavidyas originate from K a li or are her d if
fering forms. In one o fth e accounts o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas as
a group, it is e x p lic itly stated that th ey arise from K a li w h en Siva wishes
to leave h er.5 In the o rig in account given in the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna,
Sati takes on the form o f a goddess w h o resembles K a li before actually
m u ltip ly in g h erself into the ten M ahavidyas. A lth o u g h K a li is not specif
ic a lly named, Sati first turns into a dark, frigh ten in g, naked, four-arm ed
goddess w ith disheveled hair and a garland o f skulls (w hich is just h ow
K a li is usually described), and th en creates from h erselfth e oth er form s.6
F urtherm ore, in early accounts o f Sati's con fron tation w ith Siva over her
rig h t to attend her father's sacrifice— accounts in w h ic h the M ahavidyas
do not appear— Sati does tu rn h erselfin to K a li and in her K a li form c o n
vinces Siva to let her go.7 T h e Saktisamgama-tantra proclaim s K ali's p r i
o r ity exp licitly: " A 1lth e deities, in clu d in g the M ahavidyas, Siddhi-vidyas,
V idyas, and U pa-vidyas, are different forms that K a li assumes."8
K ali's place as the prim ary M ahavid ya, the first am ong the goddesses,
is reinforced by the fact that she lends the group as a w h ole her ow n ch ar
acteristics. H er character, attributes, and nature are shared by the o th
ers. She is typ ical, perhaps even paradigm atic, as the ddi M ah avid ya. A n d
her sym bolic m eaning, I th in k , often helps to u n cover the m eaning o f
some ofthe other goddesses in the group. As w e shall see below, according
to some interpretations K a li reveals or sym bolizes the ultim ate goal sug
gested or im plied in the other M ahavidyas. She com pletes the others, as
it w ere.
G iv e n Kali's central role am ong the M ahavidyas, it is im portant to c o n
sider in some detail her histo ry p rio r to her association w ith them . K a li
appeared quite early in the H in d u trad itio n , and by the late m edieval pe
riod , w h en the cu lt o fth e M ahavidyas arose, she was by no means an o b
scure goddess: she had achieved a clearly defined m y th o lo g y and ch ar
acter and a cu lt that was popular th rou gh ou t India. It is quite clear,
Fig. 10. Kali, contemporary painting.
KALI
furtherm ore, that Kali's character has rem ained fairly intact in the context
o f the M ahavidyas. That is, her role in the group is not based on a se
lective use o f her characteristics, although there are some aspects o f her
nature and m yth o lo g y that are preferred over others, as w e shall see. It
is also im portant to look at Kali's central role in Tantrism generally be
fore seeking to understand her m eaning in the context ofthe M ahavidyas.
The Early History of Kali
T h e earliest references to K a li date to the m edieval period

(around 6 0 0 C.E.). T h e y usually place h e ro n the perip h ery o fH in d u s o -
ciety or on the battlefield. T h e Agni- and Garuda-purdnas in volve K a li
for success in w ar and victory over one's enemies. She has an awful ap
pearance: she is gaunt, has fangs, laughs lou d ly, dances madly, wears a
garland o f corpses, sits on the back o f a ghost, and lives in the crem ation
ground. She is asked to crush, tram ple, break, and burn the enem y.5 In
the Bhdgavata-purdna, Kali is the patron d eity o f a band ofthieves whose
leader tries to secure her blessing in order to have a son. T h e th ie f k id
naps a saintly Brahman youth w ith the in ten tion o f offering him as a blood
sacrifice to K a li. T h e effulgence o fth e virtuous y o u th , however, burns
K a li h erselfw h en he is brought near her image. E m erging from her im
age, infuriated, she kills the leader and his entire band. She and her host
o f demons then decapitate the corpses o f the thieves, d rin k th eir blood
u n til drunk, and th ro w their heads about in sport. She is described as hav
ing a dreadful face and large teeth and as laughing lo u d ly .10 K ali's asso
ciation w ith thieves is also seen in her role as patron deity ofthe infamous
T hugs, w h o specialized in befriendin g and then m urderin g travelers.11
K a li is also pictured in the Bengali marigal kdvyas as bestow ing magical
powers on thieves to help them in th eir crim in a l deeds.12
Kali's association w ith the periphery o f H in d u society (she is w orshiped
by crim inals, tribals, and members o f lo w castes in u n civ iliz e d and w ild
places) is also evident in an architectural w o rk o fth e sixth to eighth ce n
turies, the Mdnasdra-silpa-sastra. It says that K ali's temples should be b u ilt
far from villages and towns, near crem ation grounds and the dw ellings
o f Candalas (very low-caste p eople).13 Kali's association w ith areas ou t
side or beyond the borders o f c iv iliz e d society is also clear in a eleventh-
century C.E. T a m il text, the Kalingattupamni, w h ic h says that her temple is
located in a desert where the trees are w ithered and the landscape is barren.
KALI
T h e description o f the tem ple itse lf underlines K ali's aw ful, u n c iv i

lized nature. T h e tem ple is constructed ofbones, flesh, blood, heads, and
body parts o f enemies k ille d in battle. T h e severed heads are used as
bricks, the blood is used to make mortar, elephant tusks serve as ro o f
trusses, and on top o f the enclosure w alls (a com m on feature o f South
Indian temples) "the severed heads o f peacocks, the heads o f m en offered
as sacrifice, the heads o fy o u n g babies also severed in sacrifice and blood-
oozing flesh as standards w ere placed as beautifying elem ents."14T h e tem
ple is "cleansed" daily w ith b lood instead ofw ater, and flesh is offered to
the goddess instead o f flowers. T h e fires consum ing the corpses o f sac
rificial victim s also serve as lamps.
T h e description ofthe w orshipers and the pujd at the tem ple is equally
h o rrific. A graphic account is given o f a devotee ch op p in g o ff his ow n
head as an offerin g to the goddess.15 W a rrio rs also offer th e ir heads to
the goddess to demonstrate th e ir fearlessness. Yoginis frequent the tem ple
and arrive there w ith swords and severed heads, in appearance like K a li
herself. T h e temple is "full o fb lo o d , flesh, b u rn ing corpses, vultures, jack
als and g o b lin s ."16 K a li h erself is seated on a couch o f five ghosts (panca
preta) w ith a corpse as a p illo w . She sleeps on a bed made o f fle s h .17
Kali's most famous appearances on the battlefield are found in the Devi-
mdhdtmya. In the th ird episode, w h ic h features Durga's defeat o f the
demons Sumbha and N isu m bha and th eir allies, K a li appears tw ice. E arly
in the battle, the demons C anda and M u n d a approach D urga w ith read
ied weapons. Seeing them prepared to attack her, Durga's face becomes
dark w ith anger. Suddenly the goddess K a li springs from her forehead.
She is black, wears a garland o f hum an heads and a tiger skin, and w ields
a skull-topped staff. She is gaunt, w ith sunken eyes, gaping m outh, and
lo llin g tongue. She roars lo u d ly and leaps into the battle, w here she tears
demons apart w ith her hands and crushes them in her jaws. She grasps
the tw o dem on generals and in one furious b lo w decapitates them both
w ith her sword ( 7 .3 - 2 2 ) . Later in the battle, K a li is sum m oned by D urga
to help defeat the dem on Raktabija. T h is dem on has the a b ility to re
produce h im self instantly w henever a drop ofh is blood falls to the ground.
H a vin g w ounded Raktabija w ith a variety ofw eapons, D urga and her as
sistants, a fierce band o f goddesses called the M atrkas, find th ey have w ors
ened th eir situation. As Raktabija bleeds m ore and m ore profusely from
his wounds, the battlefield fills w ith his duplicates. K a li fin ally defeats the
dem on by sucking the b lood from his body and th ro w in g the countless
duplicate Raktabljas into her gaping m outh ( 8 . 4 9 - 6 1 ) .
In these tw o episodes, K a li emerges to represent Durga's personified
KALI 73
w rath , her em bodied fury. K a li plays a sim ilar role in her association w ith
Parvati. In general, P arvati is a b en ig fi goddess, but from tim e to tim e
she exhibits fierce aspects. W h e n this occurs, K a li is sometimes described
as b ein g brough t into being. In the Linga-purana, Siva asks P arvati to de
stroy the dem on D aruka, w h o has b<;eP given the boon that he can o n ly
be k ille d b y a female. P arvati enters Siva's b od y and transforms herself
from the poison that is stored in Sivy's throat. She emerges from Siva as
K a li, ferocious in appearance, and w it h the help o f flesh-eating pisacas
(demons) attacks and defeats D a r u k . and his hosts. K a li, how ever, b e
comes so intoxicated b y the b lo od lu .t o fb attle that she threatens to de
stroy the entire w o r ld in her fury. T h e w o r ld is saved w h en Siva in ter
venes and calms h e r .18 K a li appears i„ a sim ilar context elsewhere in the
same text. W h e n Siva sets out to defeat the demons o fth e three cities,
K a li is part o fh is entourage. A d o r n e d w ith skulls and w ea rin g an ele
phant hide, her eyes half-closed in ii Ax i c a t i o n from d rin k in g the b lood
o f demons, she w h irls a trident. She is also praised, how ever, as the daugh
ter o f H im alaya (the m ou n tain range personified as a god), a clear id e n
tification w ith P arvati (who is H im alaya's daughter). It seems that, in the
course o f Parvati's preparation fo , ty.r, K a li appears as her personified
w rath , her alter ego, as it w e r e .19
In the Vdmana-purdna, Siva calls P ai-va tl" K a l i " (the black one) because
o f her dark com plexion . H e a rin g him u • A • name, P arvati takes offense
and undertakes austerities to rid h erse lf °f her dark com plexion . A fte r
succeeding, she is renam ed G a u rf (ms golden one). H e r discarded dark
sheath, how ever, is transformed into x h C furious battle queen Kaus'ikI, w h o
subsequently creates K a li in her fury. £ o, again, although there is an i n
term ediary goddess (Kaus'ikI), K a li plays the role o f Parvati's dark, n eg
ative, v io le n t nature in em bodied fo n t1-20
K a li makes sim ilar appearances i„ m yths co n cern in g both Satl and Slta.
In the case o f Satl, K a li emerges w h en Satl's father, Daksa, infuriates his
daughter b y not in v itin g her and Siva great sacrificial rite. Satl rubs
her nose in anger, and K a li appears,2 i T h is story, o f course, rem inds us
o f one o fth e accounts o f h o w the M ahavidyas as a group origin ated, the
one in w h ic h th ey com e forth as Saul's em bodied anger. In the case of
Slta, K a li arises as her fierce, terrible, b lo o d th irsty aspect w h en Slta's hus
band, Rama, is confron ted w ith sntk ,. terrib le m onster that he is frozen
w ith fear. Slta, transform ed in to Kali h a n d ily defeats the d em o n ."
In her association w ith Siva, K a il', tenden cy to wildness and disorder
persists. A lth o u g h sometimes he is said to tame or soften her, at times she
incites Siva h im self to dangerous, destructive behavior. A South Indian
74 KALI
tradition tells o f a dance c o n te st betw een the tw o. After defeating Sumbha

and N isum bha, K a li takes up residence in a forest with her retinue o f fierce
com panions and te r r o r iz e s the surrounding area. T h is distracts a local
devotee o f Siva from his austerities, and he asks Siva to rid the forest of
the v io le n t goddess. W h e n Siva appears, K a li threatens h im , cla im in g the
region as her ow n . Siva ch allen ges her to a dance contest and defeats her
w h en she is unable (or u n w illin g ) to match his energetic tandava dance.
T h a t Siva should have to resort to his tandava dance to defeat K a li sug
gests the m o tif o f Kali in c itin g Siva to destructive activity, as this p a rtic
ular dance is ty p ic a lly p e rfo rm e d at the end ofthe cosmic age and destroys
the universe. D escrip tio n s o fth e dance d w ell on its destructive aspects.23
A lth o u g h Siva defeats K a 1i in the dance contest and forces her to c o n
tro l her disruptive habits, w e find few images and myths d ep ictin g her as
d ocile. Instead, w e re p e a te d ly find Siva and K a li behaving in disruptive
ways, in c itin g each oth er, or K a li in her w ild activity d om in atin g an i n
active or corpselike Siva. In the first type o f relationship, the tw o appear
dancing together in such a w a y that th ey threaten the w o rld . Bhavabhuti's
Malatimadhava describes th e pair as th ey dance w ild ly near the goddess's
tem ple. T h e ir dance is so fren zied that it threatens to disrupt the cos
mos. Parvati stands b y fr ig h te n e d as she watches them .24
Iconographic representations o f K a li and Siva nearly always show K a li
as dom inant. She is u s u a lly standing or dancing on Siva's supine body,
and w h en the tw o are s h o w n in sexual intercourse, she is on top o f h im .
A lth o u g h Siva is said to tam e K a li in the m yth ofthe dance contest, it
seems clear that she is n e v e r fin a lly subdued by him; she is most p o p u
la rly represented as u n c o n tr o lla b le , more apt to provoke Siva h im se lf to
dangerous a ctiv ity than to renounce her ow n wildness.
In terms o f her early h is to ry , then , w e can say that K a li is p r im a r ily a
goddess w h o threatens s ta b ility and order. A lthough she m ay be said to
serve order in her role as si ayer o f demons, more often than not she b e
comes so frenzied on the b a ttle fie ld , intoxicated on the b lo o d o fh e r v ic -
tims, that she h erself b e g in s to destroy the w o r ld that she is supposed to
protect. T h u s, even in the service o fth e gods, she is dangerous and lik e ly
to get out o f c o n tro l. In association w ith other goddesses, she emerges
to represent th eir em b o d ie d w rath and fury, a frightening, dangerous d i
m ension o fth e d ivin e fe m in in e that is released when these goddesses b e
come enraged or are su m m on ed to take part in war and k illin g . In rela
tion to Siva, she appears to play the opposite role from that o f Parvati.
Parvati calms Siva, c o u n terb a la n cin g his antisocial or destructive te n
dencies; she brings h im w i t h i n the sphere o f domesticity and w ith her
KALI
soft glances urges h im to m oderate the d estru ctive aspects o fh is tdndava

dance. K a li is Siva's "other w ife ," as it w ere, p ro v o k in g him and en cour
aging him in his mad, antisocial, disruptive habits. It is never K a li w h o
tames Siva but Siva w h o must calm K a li. H e r association w ith crim inals
reinforces her dangerous role vis-a-vis society. She is at hom e outside the
moral order and seems to be unrestrained by it.
Kali's Preeminence in Tantrism
Despite K ali's terrible appearance, gruesome habits, and

association w ith the p erip hery o f c iv iliz a tio n in m any early references,
she even tually achieved great popu larity and prom inence in the H in d u
trad itio n . O f particular interest is the cen tra lity that K a li achieved in the
Aantric trad itio n , w h ic h for our purposes is especially significant. She fig
ures p ro m in en d y in tantric texts in K ashm ir, p articu larly in the w orks o f
A bhinavagupta. In a p h ilosoph y that portrays reality as essentially the i n
teraction o ftw o principles, Siva and Sakti, K a li is often designated as one
o fth e forms assumed by Sakti. M a n y different forms o f K a li are m en
tioned: in Tantraloka, Abhinavagupta m entions th ir te e n .25 It is clear that
tantric sddhana (spiritual endeavor) featuring K a li was com m on in K ash
m ir at an early p e rio d .26A n im portant image in K ashm ir T antrism is the
s'akti cakra, described as a w h ee l o f energy sy m b o lizin g the evo lu tio n and
dynamics o f consciousness. Sometimes the m ain w h eel has additional
wheels w ith in it, representing different types o f consciousness, or phases
in the cogn itive process, and these w heels are identified w ith "the tw elve
K a lis."27
K a li is even more popular and dom inant in the Tantrism o f eastern
India, particu larly Bengal. M a n y tantric texts w ritte n in Bengal include
manuals for her w orship; th ey describe her appearance, mantra, and
yantra and give hym ns in her praise (nama stotras), ty p ic a lly listin g either
1 0 8 or 1 ,0 0 0 names. In tantric digests such as the Tantrasdra, Sdkta-
pramoda, and Prdnatosini, she plays a central role and is said to have sev
eral forms, o f w h ic h the fo llo w in g are described in detail: D aksin a-kall,
M ahakali, Smasana-kall, G u h y a -k a ll, Bhadra-kall, C am unda-kali, Siddha-
k all, H arhsa-kall, and K a m ak a la -k all.28 K a li is w id e ly w orshiped accord
ing to tantric rites th rou gh ou t eastern India, and this trad itio n is proba
b ly quite ancient. It is im portant at this po in t to reflect in a general w ay
on h ow K a li came to achieve such a central position in Tantra.
76 KALI
A n u n d e rly in g assumption in tantric id eology is that reality is the re

sult and expression o fth e sym biotic interaction o f male and female, Siva
and Sakti, the quiescent and the dynam ic, and other polar opposites that
produce a creative tension. Consequently, goddesses in T antrism play an
im portant role and are affirmed to be crucial in discerning the nature of
ultim ate reality. A lth o u g h Siva is usually said to be the source o f the
tantras, the source o f w isdom and tru th , and Parvati, his spouse, to be the
student to w h o m the scriptures are given, m any o fth e tantras emphasize
the fact that it is Sakti (personified as Parvati, K a li, and other goddesses)
w h o is im m ediately present to the adept and whose presence and being
underlie the adept's ow n being. For the tantric adept it is her v ita lity that
is sought th rou gh various techniques aimed at spiritual transform ation;
thus it is she w h o is affirmed as the dom inant and prim ary reality.
A lth o u g h Parvati is usually said to be the recip ien t o f Siva's w isdom
in the form o fth e tantras, it is K a li w h o seems to dom inate tantric ic o n o g
raphy, texts, and rituals. In m any places, K a li is praised as the greatest of
all deities or as the highest reality. T h e Nirvdna-tantra says that the gods
Brahma, V is n u , and Siva arise from her like bubbles from the sea, en d
lessly appearing and passing away, leaving th e ir source unchanged. C o m
paring them to K a li, says this text, is like com paring the puddle o f w ater
in a cow's h oo fp rin t to the waters o fth e sea.25 T h e Nigama-kalpataru and
the Picchild-tantra declare that, o f all mantras, K ali's is the greatest.30T h e
Yogini-, Kamakhya-, and Niruttara-tantras all proclaim K a li the greatest
o fth e V id yas, d iv in ity itself; indeed, th ey declare her to be the essential
form (svarupa) o f the M a h a d e v i.31 T h e Kdmadd-tantra states u n equ ivo
cally that she is attributeless, neither male n or female, sinless, the im
perishable sacciddnanda (being, consciousness, and bliss), brahman itself.32
In the Mahdnirvdna-tantra, too, K a li is one o fth e most com m on epithets
for the prim ord ial S a k ti.33 In one passage, Siva praises K a li as she w ho
devours tim e, w h o alone remains after the dissolution o f the universe,
and w h o is the o rig in and destroyer o f all th in g s.34
W h y K a li, instead o f some other goddess, attained this preem inent
position in Tantrism is not en tirely clear, but the explanation may lie in
certain tantric id eological and ritual presuppositions. Tantrism generally
is oriented tow ard ritual. By means o f certain rituals (exterior and in te
rior, b o d ily and mental), the sddhaka (religious adept), seeks to gain moksa
(awakening, or the bliss o f self-know ledge). A consistent them e in this
endeavor is the u n itin g o f opposites or the seeing beyond opposites (male-
female, m icrocosm -m acrocosm , sacred-profane, auspicious-inauspicious,
pure-polluted, Siva-Sakti). Tantrism teaches there is an elaborate, subtle
KALI 77
r r
II w fS^rr$|njt U rM m $$
*
- ■«**»«•*m
Fig. a . Kali within her yantra, contem porary lithograph.
geography o f the b od y that must be learned and co n tro lled . By means of

the body, in c lu d in g both ph ysical and subtle bodies, the sadhaka can m a
nipulate levels o f rea lity and harness the dynam ics o f those levels to the
attainm ent o fth e desired goal. W i t h the help o f a guru, the sadhaka u n
dertakes to gain his or her goal b y conquest, to use his or her o w n body
and know ledge o f that body to b rin g the fractured w o r ld o f name and
78 KALI
form , the polarized w o r ld o f male and female, sacred and profane, pure
and po llu ted , good and bad, back to w holeness and unity.
Sddhand takes a p a rticu la rly dram atic form in left-handed Tantrism.
In the attempt to realize the nature o fth e w o r ld as th o ro u g h ly pervaded
by the one s'akti, the sddhaka (here called the vira, "hero") undertakes the
ritu al o f the panca tattva, the "five (forbidden) things" or "truths". In a
ritu al context arid under the supervision o f a guru, the sddhaka partakes
o fw in e , meat, fish, parched grain (perhaps a h allu cin o gen ic drug o f some
kind), and sexual intercourse. In this w ay one overcom es the distinction
(or duality) o f clean and un clean , sacred and profane, and breaks one's
bondage to a w o r ld that is a rtific ia lly fragm ented. T h e adept affirms in
a radical w ay the u n d e rly in g u n ity o fth e phenom enal w o r ld , the id en
tity o t s'akti w ith the w h o le creation. H e ro ic a lly , one trium phs over it,
controls and masters it. By affirm in g the essential w o rth o f the forbid
den, one disarms it o f its pow er to pollu te, degrade, and b in d , and changes
that negative po w er into sp iritu a lly transform ative en ergy.35
T h e figure o f K a li conveys death, destruction , terror, the all-con
sum ing aspect o f reality. She is also a "forbidden th in g ," or the forbid
den par excellence, for she is death itself. T h e tantric hero does not p ro
pitiate, fear, ign ore, or avoid the forbidden. D u r in g xhtpancatezttro ritual,
the adept b o ld ly confronts K a li and thereby assimilates and overcomes
her, transform ing her in to a veh icle o f salvation. T h is is particularly clear
in the Karpurddi-stotra, a short w o r k in praise o f K a li, w h ic h describes the
panca tattva ritu a l as perform ed in the crem ation ground (smasdna
sddhand). T h ro u g h o u t this text K a li is described in fam iliar terms. She is
black (v. i), has disheveled hair and b lo o d tr ic k lin g from her mouth (v.
3), holds a sword and a severed head (v. 4), wears a girdle o f severed arms,
sits on a corpse in the crem ation ground (v. 7), and is surrounded b y skulls,
bones, and female jackals (v. 8). It is she, w h en confron ted b o ld ly in med
itation , w h o gives the sddhaka great po w er and u ltim ately salvation. In
K ali's favorite d w e llin g place, the crem ation groun d, the sddhaka medi
tates on every terrib le aspect o f the b lack goddess and thus achieves the
desired goal.
H e, O M ahakali, w ho in the crem ation-ground, naked, and with d i

shevelled hair, in ten dy meditates upon Thee and recites T h y mantra, and
w ith each recitation makes offering to Th ee o f a thousand Akan da flo w
ers w ith seed, becomes w ith ou t any effort a lord of the earth.
O K ali, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered T h y mantra,
makes offering even but once w ith devotion to Thee o f a hair ofhis Sakti
KALI 79
[his female companion] in the crem ation-ground, becomes a great poet,

a lord ofthe earth, and ever goes m ounted upon an elephant, (w. 15 - i 6 )3‘
T h e Karpurddi-stotra cle a rly makes K a li m ore than a ferocious slayer

o f demons w h o serves D u rga and Siva on the b attlefield . In fact, she is
b y and large rem oved from the battle context. She is the supreme m is
tress o f the universe (v. 1 2 ) , she is id en tica l w ith the five elem ents (v. 1 4 ) ,
and in u n io n w ith Siva (w ho is id en tified as her spouse) she creates and
destroys the w orlds. H e r appearance also has been m od ified , b e fittin g her
exalted p o sition as ru le r o f the w o r ld and the object o f m ed itation by
w h ic h the sddhaka attains lib e ra tio n . In ad dition to her terrib le aspects
(w h ich are insisted upon), there are n o w hints o f another, b en ign d i
m ension to the goddess. So, for exam ple, she is no lon ger described as
emaciated or ugly. In the Karpurddi-stotra she is y o u n g and beau tifu l (v.
l ) , has a gen tly sm ilin g face (v. 1 8 ) , and makes gestures w ith h er tw o rig h t
hands that dispel fear and offer boons (v. 4 ) . These positive features are
apt, because K a li no lo n ger is a mere shrew, the d istilla tio n o f Durga's or
Parvati's w ra th , but is she th ro u g h w h o m the hero achieves success, she
w h o grants the b oon o f lib e ra tio n , and she w h o , w h en b o ld ly approached,
frees the sddhaka from fear itself. She is here not o n ly the sym bol o f death
but the sym bo l o f triu m p h over death.
Kali as the Exemplary Mahavidya
Several o f K ali's p ro m in en t characteristics set the tone for

the M ahavid yas as a group, and several in d iv id u a l M ahavid yas cle a rly re
flect her character. M o re o v e r, acco rd in g to several inform ants, K a li
alone am ong the M ah avid yas, or to the fullest extent, reveals the nature
o f ultim ate rea lity and sym bolizes fu lly awakened consciousness.
In several o f th e ir o r ig in m yths, the M ahavid yas arise w h e n a goddess
(Sati, P arvati, or K a li) exerts her independence from h er husband, i n
va riab ly Siva. In this sense, the M ahavid yas are sym bols o f female in d e
pendence. K a li d ram atically illustrates this. She is rarely, if ever, depicted
or described as p la y in g the role o fth e com plian t, subservient w ife. She
is not characterized b y the attributes o f a pad vratd, a w om an to ta lly de
vo ted to her husband, obedient to his wishes and com p lian t to his w i l l in
every way. As Siva's consort, she violates that stereotype. She dom inates
h im , in c itin g h im to destructive fren zy , standing on his body, or assum
in g the upper p o sitio n , the "man's p o sitio n ," in sex.
Kali also deviates shockingly from the appearance o f the ideal wife,
who wears her hair tightly bound and is modestly but carefully attired
and adorned with attractive ornaments. Kali is naked, immodestly dis
playing herself. H er “ ornaments” are awful, disgusting: she wears a string
o f severed heads or skulls as a garland and a string o f severed arms as a
girdle; infant corpses dangle from her ears. H er hair is completely un
bound and ratty, in keeping with her wild nature. She is often smeared
with blood, which is highly polluting and inauspicious.
Kali is also sexually powerful. W hile early descriptions o f her em
phasize her gaunt, sometimes skeletal, appearance, with sunken eyes,
withered, dangling breasts, and wrinkled skin, in later texts her haglike
appearance is gready attenuated, and she is often said to be eternally
young, with full and firm breasts and a beautiful, smiling face. In later
texts, especially the tantms, she is sexually aggressive and is often shown
or described as having sex with §iva. In her sabasrandma stotra (thousand-
name hymn) many names emphasize her vigorous sexual appetite or her
sexual attractiveness. She is callcd She Whose Essential Form Is Sexual
Desire, Whose Form Is the Yoni, W ho Is Situated in the Yoni, W ho Is
Adorned with a Garland o f Yonis, W ho Loves the Lihgam, W ho Dwells
in the Lirigam, Who Is Worshiped with Semen, W ho Dwells in an Ocean
o f Semen, W ho Is Always Filled with Semen, and many other such
names.37 In this respect, K ali also violates the idea o f the controlled
woman who is sexually satisfied by marriage. Kali is sexually voracious,
and dangerous because o f this.
Kali denotes freedom, particularly freedom from societal norms. She
dwells outside the confines o f normal society. She prefers the cremation
ground, which is a place avoided by those who live within society. She
lives in the forests or the jungle, among uncivilized people. Her loose
hair and nudity suggest that she is totally unrestrained, totally free from
social and ethical roles and expectations. In the same vein, she is an out
sider, beyond convention. She is worshiped by criminals and outcastes.
She is unrefined, raw in appearance and habit. And she is powerful, full
o f energy, perhaps because o f being an outsider, a breaker o f boundaries
and social models.
Some o f these characteristics seem important among the other Maha-
vidyas. Tara is very close to Kali in appearance and character and shares
with her the role o f independent outsider. Chinnamasta is even more
shocking in appearance than Kali and rudely breaks the model o f the sub
dued, controlled, obedient wife, mother, or daughter. She suggests en
ergy out o f control to the point o f self-destruction. Matangl, particularly
Uccista-matahgini, as we shall see, has strong associations with the jun
gle and with pollution. Bagalamukhi is a fierce goddess associated with
black magic. Dhumavad is the essence o f die inauspicious: an ugly, with
ered old widow with a quarrelsome temperament. It is difficult to resist
the conclusion that many o f the Mahavidyas, in a vein similar to Kali, are
deliberately depicted as breaking stereotypes o f the properly socialized
female. T h ey are symbols o f the “other,” o f ways o f being female that
male-dominated mainstream society sees as dangerous.
Kali’s Tongue: Tasting the Forbidden
Two features that typify Kali's appearancc— her unbound,

wild hair and her lolling tongue— seem particularly apt expressions of
her (and by extension, the Mahavidyas’) “otherness,” her nontradidonal,
boundary-stretching, role-shattering, liminal character. Both o f these fea
tures have been the subject o f recent scholarly work.
One o f the most distinctive features o f Kali's appearance is her gro
tesquely lolling tongue. In her dbydna mantras (meditation mantras) and
iconography, she is almost always shown with her mouth open and her
tongue hanging out. In her early history, where she is depicted as a wild,
bloodthirsty goddess who lives on the edges o f civilization or as a fero
cious slayer o f demons who gets drunk on the blood o f her victims, her
lolling tongue seems to suggest her great appetite for blood, as does her
gaunt and emaciated figure. She is famished and extends her tongue
grossly to satisfy her huge appetite, which is all-consuming.
M ost contemporary Hindu informants interpret the lolling tongue o f
her best-known image, Dak$ina-kall, quite differendy. T h ey see it as an
expression o f her being disconcerted: Kail is embarrassed when she in
advertently finds herself standing on Siva, her husband. T h e Dak§ina-
kali image shows her in the moment o f recognizing her husband as she
stands on him. She is abashed and “ bites her tongue.”
In recent work, Jeffrey Kripal suggests another interpretation o f Kali’s
tongue, one that seems much more in keeping with the image o f Kali in
tantric literature and practice as a goddess who subverts social norms and
challenges the socialized ego .58According to Kripal, Kali's lolling tongue
has two primary meanings in the context o f Tantra: (i) sexual gratifica
tion and (2) consumption o f the forbidden or polluted.
Kali’s lolling tongue as denoting sexual gratification or the desire for
82 KALI
sexual indulgence seems plausible. In D aksin a-kali images, Siva som e

times has an erection, and in some dhydna mantras and icon o grap h ic rep
resentations o f Kali she is having sex w ith him. In both cases her tongue
lolls out. T h is interpretation is substantiated b y a story recorded in Orissa.
D urga became angry when she found out that she cou ld defeat the bu f
falo dem on o n ly if she showed her genitals to h im . She did so, but then
w en t on a terrible rampage.
H e r anger grew so terrible that she transformed herself, grew smaller and
black and left her lion mount and started w alk in g on foot. H er name then
became K a li. W ith tongue lo llin g out and d rip p in g w ith blood, she then
w ent on a b lin d , destructive rampage, k illin g everything and everyone in
sight, regardless of who they were. T h e gods and the people became ex
trem ely w orried and appealed to Siva for help. M ahadev agreed and lay
him self down, sleeping on the path on w h ich the furious, black and naked
K a li was com ing. In her blinded anger she did not see him and stepped
on his chest. A t that moment Siva's penis became erect and entered K a li.
A t that instant K ali recognized her husband and pulled out her tongue in
ecstasy and her anger disappeared.39
Kali's tongue also hangs out in contexts that are not even rem otely
sexual, how ever, where neither gratification n or embarrassment seems a
lik e ly interpretation . She is often pictu red in crem ation grounds w i t h
out a male consort, for example, and in v aria b ly her tongue is lo llin g . H o w
m igh t her tongue in these instances be interpreted w ith in a tantric fram e
w ork? O n the basis ofhis careful exam ination o f a group o f passages de
scrib in g the tantric sddband o f Ram akrishna, K r ip a l argues that K ali's
tongue denotes the act oftastin g or en jo y in g w hat society regards as fo r
b id d en, fou l, or polluted, her indiscrim inate enjoym ent o f all the w orld's
"flavors.''
T h e passages in question concern Ramakrishna's habit w h ile u n d er
tak in g tantric sddhand o f eating feces, sometimes his o w n , and d rin k in g
w in e and urin e. D u rin g his tantric sddhand, Ram akrishna sought to rea l
ize the state o f consciousness in w h ic h all things are perceived to be es
sen tially one, or essentially un ified and related. He is said to have held
his ow n feces in one hand and sandal paste (a p a rticu la rly fragrant and
pure substance) in the other and contem plated th e ir essential sameness.40
Ramakrishna's use ofhis ow n feces in his sddhand w o rrie d and even re
v o lted some o f his friends, w h o began to th in k h im mad. A n acquain
tance, prob ab ly tr y in g to dissuade Ram akrishna from his ways, rebuked
h im b y saying that anyone can handle th eir ow n feces, but to handle the
feces o f another is what really marks one as a k n o w e r o f brahman. As was
KALI 83
his habit, Ram akrishna took this rebuke as a challenge. He summoned

K a li, and she entered his body. " A t that m om ent, possessed b y the god
dess and her lo llin g tongue, the saint w en t dow n to the river w here people
defecate and urinate. T h ere he took clay laced w ith feces and touched it
to his tongue, 'and he felt no disgust.' "41
Kali's gaping m outh and lo llin g tongue, her appearance and habits
generally, are unquestionably repulsive to our o rd in ary sensibilities. In
Tantra, this is probably precisely the point. W h a t w e experience as dis
gusting, polluted, forbidden, and gruesome is grounded in lim ited h u
man (or cultural) consciousness, w h ic h has ordered, regim ented, and d i
vided reality into categories that serve lim ited , ego-centered, selfish
conceptions o f h o w the w o rld should be. K a li, in her rude way, d econ
structs these categories, in v itin g those w h o w o u ld learn from her to be
open to the w h ole w o rld in all o f its aspects. She invites her devotees,
like Ram akrishna, to dare to taste the w o rld in its most disgusting and
forbid d in g manifestations in order to detect its u n d e rly in g u n ity and
sacrality, w h ic h is the G reat Goddess herself.
Kali's Hair: Pollu tio n and Dissolution
A n o th e r strik in g feature o f K a li is her loose, disheveled

hair. I have never seen a d ep ictio n o f K a li w ith bound or braided hair.
Some o fth e other M ahavidyas, such as Chinnam asta, Bagalam ukhi, and
D hum avatl, are also ty p ic a lly show n w ith w ild hair. In some cases, as in
the D urga Saptasati tem ple in N agawa, near Varanasi, all the M ahavidyas
are depicted w ith disheveled hair. U n k em p t hair contrasts strik in g ly w ith
the w ay adult H in d u w om en w ear th e ir hair and the w ay the hair ofm ost
goddesses is depicted. W h a t m ight be the significance o f K ali's unbound
hair? T w o general interpretations seem likely.
W om en's braided or bound hair suggests c o n fo rm ity to social c o n
ven tio n and probably also acceptance o f social c o n tro l. M a rrie d w om en
part th e ir hair in the m iddle and p u ll it back tig h tly in a braid. T h e part
is often marked w ith red, w h ic h sym bolizes the woman's m arried state.
G irls w ho have reached puberty also usually w ear th eir hair bound in some
fashion. Loose hair is ve ry uncom m on. A lo n g w ith Kali's oth er u n co n
ven tion al features— her nudity, her standing atop her husband or c o n
sort, her d w ellin g in crem ation grounds, and her rude, lo llin g tongue—
her messy, loose, tangled hair emphasizes her socially m arginal character,
84 KALI
her disdain for c o n v e n tio n .42 K a li is free from con ven tion , w ild and u n
con trolled in nature, and not bound to or lim ited by a male consort.
Kali's unbound hair m ay also have a broader, indeed cosm ic, sig n ifi
cance, suggesting dissolution itself. C o n sid e rin g K ali's id en tification
w ith the crem ation ground and death, her loose hair m ay suggest the end
o fth e w o rld . H e r hair has come apart and flies about every w h ic h way;
order has come to an end; all has returned to chaos. T h e "braidedness"
o f social and cosm ic order comes to an end in K ali's w ild , unbound, flo w
ing hair.
A second interpretation o f K ali's disheveled hair seems plausible. In
certain circumstances, almost all associated w ith im p u rity and p o llu tio n
ofsom e k in d , H in d u w om en do u n bin d th eir hair. In particular, th ey u n
bind it d u rin g m en stru ation.43 Perhaps the best-know n example o f this
in Sanskrit literature is the case o f DraupadI in the Mahabharata. H e r hus
band, Y u d h isth ira, wagers her and loses her. DraupadI, at the com m and
o f D uryodhan a, an opponent o f Y u d h isth ira , is dragged into the assem
b ly hall and made to undress. T h e text notes that she is m enstruating and
that her hair is disheveled. C o m m e n tin g on this scene, A l f H ilte b e ite l
says, "These tw o facts are n ot unrelated. Draupadl's hair is dishevelled
because she is menstruating. T h e Mahabharata draws here on a w e ll k n o w n
p ro h ib itio n on w earin g the hair braided du rin g m enstruation, and not
b in d in g it up u n til the ritual bath that ends the period o fim p u r ity ." 44 In
addition to w earin g th eir hair unbound d u rin g m enstruation, w om en in
the Punjab also un b in d th eir hair fo llo w in g c h ild b irth , intercourse, and
the death o f th e ir husbands. T h a t is, w om en w ear th e ir hair unbound
w h en th ey are in a state o f p o llu tio n .45
I have been unable to find textual verificatio n for the suggestion that
Kali's disheveled hair indicates that she is m enstruating. B ut since she
sym bolizes the subversion o f social order and decorum and represents a
confrontation w ith , or at least the acknow ledgm ent of, the forbidden (rep
resented by the polluted), it seems lik e ly that w e are m eant to understand
her as m enstruating.
K ali as an Expression of Ultimate Reality
K a li is also considered the exem plary M ahavid ya because

she most com p letely reveals the ultim ate tru th . She is the d d iM ahavidya,
the p rim ord ia l M ah avid ya. In one o f her sahasranama stotras (there are
Fig- 13- Kail's hair, contemporary lithograph.
86 KALI
several ofthese addressed to K a li), she is called She W h o Is K n ow led ge

o fth e Self, She W h o Is K n ow led ge o f Brahman, She W h o se Form Is the
H igh est Brahman,*6 and M istress o fth e t M a h a vid yas.47 Kali's preem inent
position in such epithets as these i m p l i e s that in some w ay she reveals the
ultim ate truth. In Tantrism , w h ic h is r it t x a lly oriented and sp iritu ally prag
matic, ultim ate tru th is perhaps confirrtoied and realized o n ly by means of
sddhand, is revealed o n ly to adepts w h o have w orshiped K a li. It is tem pt
ing, nevertheless, to speculate on just h o w K a li reveals ultim ate truth.
O n e approach is to interpret K ali's m o s t im portant form , D aksina-kali,
sym bolically, allegorically, or m y s t i c a l l y as some contem porary H in d u
w riters and practitioners have done. T f i e y find that esoteric truths can
be gleaned from K ali's image, truths tj-ia t are n ot obvious, that are not
im m ed iately suggested by her app eararice. Based on the in fo rm ation I
have been able to gather, this esoteric or m ystical interpretation o f K a li
as exem p lifyin g ultim ate tru th runs as fx n llo w s .48
T h e overall image o f D aksina-kali, fit-st o f all, teaches ph ilosophical or
cosm ological truths. Kali's standing on S iva, for example, is often in ter
preted as sym b o lizin g the interaction o f Siva and Sakti and the ultimate
superiority o fth e latter. T h e image, th a t: is, is taken as an icon suggesting
the essential nature o f reality as Siva ancd Sakti and the p rio rity o f Sakti.
A n o th e r interpretation also finds c o s m o lo g ic a l significance in the image.
Siva was born from the goddess K a li. Shue is the onlyuncreated being. Siva
was needed for creation, so she created l him by her ow n action. She cre
ated sperm in her wom b and made lo v e : to herself. She made a mistake in
creating the w orld and started to d e s t r o y it. Brahma told Siva to stop the
destruction— so he stretched h im self dBown before her. To avoid k illin g
him , she stopped destroying the w o rld . S iva insisted that she re-create the
destroyed part, so she vom ited it out. Srne had swallowed the w hole w orld.
T h at is w h y her tongue is sticking ou t -w hen she stands on S iva.45
T h e name D aksin a-kali, accordin g to a contem porary author, im plies

K ali's preem inent position. T h e name c:om es from the story that w hen
Yama, k in g o fth e dead, w h o lives in the scrjuth (daksina), heard Kali's name,
he ran away in fear and ever since has beeen unable to take her devotees
to his k ingdom . T h a t is, w orship o f K a l i ; overcom es death, and so she is
the one w h o overw helm s the ru ler o f ithe south (Yama) and is called
D aksin a-kali. T h e name is also d e riv e d , accordin g to some inform ants,
from daksina, the name for the gift g iv e n to a priest after a ritual w ith o u t
w h ic h the ritu al is not effective. K a li is tih a t reality w ith o u t w h ic h n o th
in g w o u ld be effective. She is the u n d e r l y i n g sakti.
KALI S,
Several inform ants have also suggested to me that the name D aksina-
kali refers to the fact that K a li places her rig h t (daksina) foot on Siva's
chest in this particular iconographic depiction. L en d in g c re d ib ility to this
is the fact that several inform ants have m entioned a form o f K a li k n o w n
as V am a-kali (leftw ard-tending K ali), in w h ic h K a li is show n w ith her left
foot on Siva's chest. V am a-kali is said to be extrem ely dangerous and rarely
w orshiped except by people o f h eroic nature. D ep iction s or descriptions
o fV a m a -k ali are rare. F inally, she is called D aksin a-kali because she is
w orshiped by Daksina-bhairava, that is, Siva, w h o is often said to be the
highest re a lity .50
Kali's four arms represent the com plete circle o f creation and de
struction, w h ic h is contained w ith in or encompassed by her. She repre
sents the in h eren t creative and destructive rhythm s o fth e cosmos. H er
right hands, m aking the mudrds o f "fear not" and con ferrin g boons, rep
resent the creative aspect o f K a li, w h ile the left hands, h o ld in g a b lo o d
ied sword and a severed head, represent her destructive aspect.51 H e r three
eyes represent the sun, m oon, and fire, w ith w h ic h she is able to observe
the three modes o f time: past, present, and fu tu re.52
T h e bloodied sword and severed head also sym bolize the destruction
o f ignorance and the d aw ning o f know ledge. T h e sword is the sword of
knowledge, or desireless sddhand, that cuts the knots o f ignorance and
destroys false consciousness (the severed head).53 K a li opens the gates of
freedom w ith this sword, havin g cut the eight bonds (pasu) that bind h u
man beings.54 In addition to sign ifyin g false consciousness, the bleeding
severed head is said to signify the ou tflow o f rajas guna (passionate p ro
clivities), w h ic h com p letely purifies the adept, w h o becomes to ta lly co m
posed ofsattvic(spiritual) qualities in his or her aw akening to t r u t h .55 T h e
severed head is also interpreted as that o f a ch ild and thus as sy m b o liz
ing the nature o fth e accom plished devotee or practitioner, w h o , like Ra
makrishna, has achieved the innocence o fa c h i l d .56
Kali's lo llin g tongue and sharp fangs are interpreted as sy m b o lizin g
die conquest o f rajasic pow er (the red tongue) by sattvic pow er (the w h ite
teeth). T h a t is, K a li is to ta lly sattvic, to ta lly spiritual in nature, having
transcended any im purities inh erent in the oth er tw o gunas."
Kali's blackness also sym bolizes her all-em bracing, com prehensive na
ture, because black is the co lo r in w h ic h all other colors merge; black ab
sorbs and dissolves them . O r black is said to represent the total absence
°f color, again sign ifyin g the nirguna (beyond qualities) nature o f K a li as
ultimate re a lity .58 E ith er way, K ali's black co lo r sym bolizes her tran
scendence o f all fo r m .55
88 : KALI
K a li'-s n udity has a sim ilar m eaning. It sym bolizes that she is com pletely
b eyon d name and form , com p letely beyond the illu so ry effects o f mdyd
(false consciou sness), com p letely transcendent. H e r n u d ity is said to rep
resent t .o tally illum in ated consciousness, unaffected by mdyd .60K a li is the
b rig h t fn re o ftru th , w h ic h cannot be hidden by the clothes ofignorance,
r e p r e se n te d by mdyd. Such tru th sim ply burns them aw ay.61
K a l i As d w e llin g place, the crem ation ground, has a sim ilar meaning.
T h e creem ation ground denotes a place w here the five elements (panca
mahdbh"iita) are dissolved. K a li dw ells w here dissolution takes place. In
terms o o f devotion, w orship, and sddhand, this denotes the dissolving of
a tta ch m e n ts, anger, lust, and other b in d in g em otions, feelings, and ideas.
T h e he a rt o f the devotee is w here this b u rn in g away takes place, and it
is in th es heart that K a li dw ells. T h e devotee makes her image in his heart
and u n cd e r her influence burns away all lim itations and ignorance in the
c re m a tiio n fires. T h is in n er crem ation fire in the heart is the fire o f k n o w l
edge, j-Fndndgni, w h ic h K a li bestow s.62
K a li *'s dsana (seat), w h ic h is none oth er than the supine body o f Siva
(som etiim es said to be a corpse or corpselike), sym bolizes that her devo
tees h a v e given up th eir entire lives for her, h avin g offered her th eir very
breath. H a vin g sacrificed themselves (their egos) to her, devotees die and
b e c o m e corpselike. It is o n ly then that K a li enters th e ir hearts, freeing
them firrom all w o r ld ly cares. K ali's standing on Siva signifies her bless
ing o f In e r devotees.63
Ano ther interpretation says that Siva represents the passive potential
o f crea-.tion. In the p h ilosop h y o f yoga he represents purusa (literally,
"male"33 > the un chan ging, unqualified aspect o f reality, w h ile Kali repre
sents tTne active prakrti (nature or the physical w orld ). In this interpreta
tion , K l a l l and Siva together sym bolize ultim ate r e a lity .64
A n o» 'th er interpretation o f K ali's standing on Siva, or engaging in re
verse s «exual intercourse w ith him (viparita rati),65 is that it symbolizes
m edita tive in v o lu tio n , by means o f w h ic h one "de-creates" the universe
in o rd esr to experience the blissful u n io n o f Siva and Sakti. T h e theme of
y o g ic "m ed itation "go in g against the stream," reversing the creative
p rocesses, is ancient. T h e in version o f trad itional male and female roles
in the 3 D aksina-kalI image m ight suggest this inverse process.66
T h e s garland o f severed heads represents the sounds o f the alphabet
and sym nbolizes Kali as s'abda brahman, the u n d e rly in g essence o f reality
as marMiifest in sound, particu larly the prim ord ial sound, om. Some texts
specify*' the garland o f heads or skulls to be fifty and to represent the fifty
Sanskr— it letters.67 F rom the various sound seeds (bijas), all creation pro
KALI 89
ceeds, and K a li is id en tified w ith this u n d e rly in g p o w er.68 H e r girdle o f

severed arms represents the destruction o f devotees' karma. T h e arms
sym bolize deeds, actions— karm a— and the b in d in g effects o f this karm a
have been overcom e, severed, as it w ere, b y K a li sddhand or d evotion . She
has blessed the devotee b y cu ttin g h im free from karm a.69
O th e r images or forms o f K a li reinforce these associations w ith u l t i
mate reality or ultim ate spiritual realization. G u h y a -k a li, w h o is described
as havin g sunken eyes, fearful teeth, a constan tly m o v in g tongue, m at
ted hair, and a large b elly, is replete w ith serpent ornam ents and c o m
panions. H e r sacred thread is a serpent; she is seated on a bed o f serpents;
the thousand-headed cosm ic serpent A n an ta is above her head; and she
is surrounded b y serpents.70 T h e sym bolism o f serpents is com plex, but
in this case it indicates K ali's cosm ic supremacy. L ik e V is n u , for exam
ple, she is protected b y A n an ta, w h ic h indicates that she is a p rim o rd ia l,
creative force. Serpents are also held to possess m ystic w isd om and great
w ealth , b oth o f w h ic h th ey obtain from th e ir association w ith the in te
rio r o fth e earth. T h e y are sym bols o f transform ation, b ein g able to shed
th e ir skins and becom e n ew beings. Serpents are lim in a l figures in that
th ey pierce different cosm ic zones, the earth and the u n d e rw o rld . As b e
ings w h o live both on the earth and in the earth, th ey m ove betw een cos
m ic planes and also betw een states o f being, betw een the realms o f the
liv in g and the dead. K a li is "at hom e" w ith these m ysterious, p o w erfu l,
lim in a l beings, w h ic h suggests her transform ative nature and power.
M a n y o fth e dhydna mantras o fth e different forms o f K a li also m en
tion her d rin k in g w in e or b lo o d , h o ld in g cups or em p ty skulls fille d w ith
w in e or b lo o d ,71 or b ein g intoxicated. S id dh a-kali drinks b lo od from a
sk u ll held in her left hand. G u h y a -k a li and Raksa-kali (sometimes called
M ahakali) sip w in e . Smasana-kali carries a sku ll fu ll o fw in e in h er rig h t
hand and is said to be intoxicated all the time. A lth o u g h there are sev
eral possible interpretations o fth is characteristic feature o f K a li, her i n
toxication suggests altered consciousness, perhaps the d aw n in g o f lib e r
ated consciousness, in w h ic h the restrictions and lim itations o f con ven tion
are overcom e.
T h e o v erw h elm in g presence o f death im agery in all depictions o fK a li
also m ight be interpreted as sy m b o lizin g the transform ative nature o f the
goddess, and hence her association w ith ultim ate know ledge, w isd om , and
enlightenm ent. W h a t is a m ore dram atic image o f radical change than
death, the greatest transform ation a hum an b ein g experiences? In associ
ation w ith the chopped heads and skulls that adorn almost all o f her forms,
the death im agery (corpses, crem ation grounds, severed b od y parts) sug-
KALI
gests that Kali stands at the threshold o f change, that she is the guide w ho
takes the aspirant fro m one state o f b ein g , one state o f consciousness, to
another— that she is the mistress o f change and transform ation.
T h e w ay in w h ic h K a li is w orshiped in the tantric trad itio n m ay also
suggest her association w ith ultim ate reality. A c c o rd in g to Swam i A n n a-
purnananda, tantric sddhand to K a 1i is applied or practical A d vaita Vedanta
(monism), in w h ic h one seeks to discern the u n d e rly in g id en tity between
on eself and ultim ate reality, brahman, represented by D aksin a-kali. In the
process o f un dertaking sddhand to K a li, one produces her image out o f
oneself, w orships it by id en tify in g w ith it, and then dismisses it back into
oneself. In this process (described in Part I), one ritu a lly and m entally
undertakes one's ow n death and destruction, after w h ic h one re-creates
the cosmos w ith K a li at the center. Such rituals as nydsa, in w h ic h one
suffuses one's body w ith the seed syllables o f the deities, thus id en tifyin g
w ith the different aspects o fth e cosmos, and bhuta suddhi, in w h ic h the
adept imagines the dissolution and re-creation o fth e cosmos, are ritual
devices w h ereb y one's lim ited , ego-centered id en tity is subverted. T h e
process aims at expanding the adept's id en tity so w id e ly and universally
that there is no sense o f "I" or "me" rem aining. T h e goal is to identify
com p letely w ith K a li, w h o is the sym bol o fth e absolute, beyond name
and form , beyond in d iv id u a lity and specificity.
In certain aspects o f K ashm ir Saivism, w h ic h m ight be described as
dynam ic idealism , the stages and rhythm s o f consciousness are affirmed
to be the ground o f reality and are identified w ith tw elve K alis. T h a t is,
K a li, in her differing forms, is sym bolic o f consciousness itse lf and ofthe
processes w h ereb y co gn itio n and know ledge take place. A s identical w ith
these processes, then , K a li is taken to be the innerm ost essence o f real
ity and the most appropriate sym bol o f that essence.72
Conclusion
Kali m igh t be th o u gh t o f as the goddess w h o sets the tone

for the rest o fth e M ahavidyas in tw o ways. First, she suggests a being
w h o is lim in a l in nature, w h o dw ells on the boundary o f society and
threatens, subverts, or challenges the status quo. For T antrism , she is an
appropriate sym bol o f rituals and m editative techniques that seek to con
front, appropriate, and overcom e forbidden, feared, "p o llu tin g " realities.
As the em bodim ent o fth e pollu ted , feared, and loathed, she can, if con
KALI 91
fronted b o ld ly b y the aspirant, grant lib era tio n , freedom from subser
vience to con ven tion ality.
Second, K a li m ight be thought o f as a sym bol o f ultim ate reality, an em
bodim ent o fth e highest truths. By in terp retin g her features and habits al
legorically and im aginatively, w h ic h is a w id e ly accepted and practiced ap
proach to understanding her, the adept can glimpse secrets that po in t to
certain central truths o fth e H in d u tradition. In this latter approach, Kali's
dramatic, often offensive, always shocking appearance is not necessarily to
be taken literally. H e r real m eaning is not obvious to the uninitiated; it re
veals itself o n ly to im aginative and sp iritu ally sensitive interpretation.
It is interestin g to note that most insiders, that is, the native H in d u s,
prefer to in terp ret K a li allegorically, w h ile most outsiders, that is, W e s t
erners, prefer to focus on h er surface attributes, appearance, and habits.
I do not th in k the tw o approaches contrad ict each other. In m any cases
they are com plem entary. It is clear, how ever, that m any H in d u s, even
tantric H in d u s, w h o are supposedly in ten t on subvertin g the m en tality
o fth e status quo, are u ncom fortable w ith interpretations o fK a lith a tto o
strongly emphasize her outrageous, sh o ck in g features and habits as c en
tral to her significance.
Tara
T h e G oddess U- 'ho G u id es through T roubles
In lists o f the M ahavidyas, T ara almost always follow s K a li.

T h is suggests a certain im portance in the group. Indeed, she is m ore like
K a li in appearance than any o fth e oth er M ah avidyas. As w e shall see be
low , interpretations o f her significance often com e close to those o fK a li.
Tara occupies a cen tral place in T ib e ta n B uddhism and to a great ex
tent plays the role o f a T ib e ta n n ational deity. In her B uddhist context,
she is almost always a ben evolen t, compassionate, gentle, p la yfu l youn g
w om an w h o indulges her devotees and never lets them com e to harm . In
her H in d u context, on the oth er hand, p a rticu la rly as one o fth e M a h a
vidyas, T ara is almost always fierce, often h o rrib le to b eh o ld , and p o
te n tia lly dangerous. A lth o u g h T ara also has fierce aspects in Buddhism
and ben ign ones in H in d u ism , she generally manifests gentle features in
the form er and fierce ones in the latter. H isto ric a lly , it is lik e ly that the
H in d u M a h a vid y a T ara developed from the B uddhist bodhisattva Tara
and that the H in d u preference was for her fierce manifestations.
Tara's Place in Buddhism
Tara seems to have been im portant in the B uddhist trad i

tio n first and to have becom e k n o w n in the H in d u trad itio n later. T h e
earliest reference to T ara, in Subandhu's Vasavadattd, w h ic h was proba
b ly w ritte n in the seventh century, puts her in a B uddhist context. The
reference occurs as part o fa pun and reads: "T h e L ad y T w ilig h t was seen,
TARA
devoted to the stars and clad in red sky, as a Buddhist nun [is devoted to
Tara and clad in red garm ents]."1
In Buddhist tantric m y th o lo g y and iconography, Tara belongs to the
fam ily o f the D h y an i Buddha A m oghasiddhi, but she is also related to
the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, w h o is in the fam ily o fth e D h yan i B u d
dha A m itabha. In one account o f Tara's o rigin , all the creatures o fth e
w orld begin to lam ent w h en Avalokitesvara is about to achieve nirvana
(final liberation and freedom from rebirth), w hich m eans he w ill leave
the w orld behind. H earing them , Avalokitesvara sheds a tear o f compas
sion for the suffering o f all beings. T h a t tear becomes Tara, w ho is thus
understood to be the essence o fth e essence o f com p assion .2 A s w e shall
see, Tara's essential nature in T ibetan Buddhism is that of a compassionate
savior w ho rescues her devotees from peril. H er inclusion in the Am itabha
fam ily therefore seems fittin g, since both A m itab h a and Avalokitesvara
are renow ned for th eir great compassion.
T ibetan Buddhists k n ow oth er legendary or m yth ological accounts o f
Tara's origin . O n e legend identifies T ara w ith the wives o fth e first great
Tibetan king, Songsten gam po ( 6 1 7 - 5 0 G.E.). T h e k in g h im self is said to
have been an incarnation o f Avalokitesvara, w h ile his C hinese w ife is said
to have been an incarnation o f G reen T ara and his Nepalese w ife an i n
carnation o f W h ite Tara (there are several different forms o f Tara in
Buddhism, as w e shall see).3 A n o th e r T ib etan legend, ancient and pre-
Buddhist in o rigin , says that the T ib etan people arose from the un ion of
a m onkey and a rock ogress. By the fourteenth century, however, w hen
Buddhism dominated T ib e t, the m on key had come to be identified w ith
Avalokitesvara, and the rock ogress, despite her lustful nature, w ith an
incarnation o f T a ra .4 A n interesting aspect o fth ese T ib etan legends is
that th ey associate Tara w ith the origins o fth e T ibetan people and the
Tibetan royal line. T h e y affirm that she is dear to the T ibetan people in
a special way. She is in a legendary sense th eir queen and m oth er.5
H isto rica lly, Tara was k n o w n in T ib etan Buddhism as early as the
eighth century, that is, around the tim e w h en Buddhism was introduced
to T ib e t from India. U n t il the tim e o f A tisa (eleventh century), h o w
ever, the w orship o f T ara does not seem to have been ve ry widespread
there. A tisa is usually associated w ith p o p u larizin g the cu lt o f T ara in
T ibet; biographical accounts emphasize the m any visions he had o f her
and his special devotion to her. A tisa is credited w ith translating a series
o f Sanskrit texts about T ara into T ib eta n . T h e texts were soon c ir c u
lated as a coherent cycle and came to be k n o w n by the name Cheating
Death .6 A n o th e r text that was to become popular in T ib e t was also
94 TARA
b ro u g h t there and translated in the eleven th cen tury, b y the sp iritu al

master D arm adra. Homages to the Tw enty-One Tdrds to this day is w e ll
k n o w n to most T ib e ta n s .7
D espite Tara's m any form s and functions it seems clear w h e re in lies
her extraord in ary po w er and appeal in the T ib e ta n context. She is ap
proached p r im a r ily as a savior, as a b ein g w h o specializes in dram atic ap
pearances w h en her devotees call on her in dire circum stances. She is of
ten said to rescue her devotees from such desperate predicam ents as b ein g
lost in an im penetrable forest, fo u n d erin g in a storm at sea, b ein g under
threat o f im m in e n t execu tion, or b ein g trapped and b ou nd in p r is o n .8In
m any fo lk stories T a ra appears at the request o f her devotees to snatch
them from the jaws o f d eath.9 Tara's com passion for suffering beings,
th en , is revealed p r im a r ily in her role as the cheater o f death. In this sense
her c h ie f blessing to her devotees is a lo n g life. O th e r stories featuring
T ara also emphasize that regular w orship o f T ara brings about lo n g e v ity .10
In T ib e ta n m onastic trad itions, w h en novices are in itia te d in to the cer
em onies in h o n o r o f T ara, the rituals are referred to as an "in itia tio n into
l i f e . " 11 U n lik e goddesses w h o are associated w ith life as em bodim ents o f
fe rtility , T ara is approached p r im a r ily as the one w h o protects, preserves,
and saves life. She is not a fe r tility goddess (although she does give her
blessing in this w ay from tim e to tim e)12 but a greatly compassionate b e
in g w h o cannot tolerate the suffering o f her devotees.
A lth o u g h Tara's p rim ary appeal in B uddhism seems to be as the cheater
o f death, the p ro lo n ge r o f life, and a ch arm in g , p la yfu l y o u n g g ir l, she
does have a v a riety o f form s, some o f w h ic h are fierce, even te rrify in g .
Homages to the Tw enty-One Tdrds, p ro b ab ly her m ost popu lar h y m n o f
praise, contains several verses that in vok e T a ra in fierce forms.
Hom age, Lady w h o annihilates the heroes o f M ara,

T U R E , the terrible lady,
slaying all enemies
b y frow n in g the brows o f her lotus face.
Hom age, Lady w h o strikes the earth w ith her hand,

w h o pounds upon it w ith her feet,
shattering the seven underworlds
w ith the sound H U M made b y her frow nin g brows.
Hom age, Lady w h o strikes w ith the feet o f T U R E ,

whose seed is the form o f the syllable H U M ,
shaking M ount M eru , Mandara, Kailasa,
and all the triple w o rld .13
TARA 95
A . particu larly fierce form o f T ara is T ara K u r u k u lla .14 She is described
as follows:
Homage and praise to her

w h o stands in the d an cin g pose
haughty w ith furious rage,
w ho has a diadem of five skulls,
w ho bears a tiger's skin.
I pay homage to the red one,
baring her fangs, whose body is frightful,
w ho is adorned w ith the five signs o f ferocity,
whose necklace is h a lf a hundred human heads,
w ho is the conqueress o f M a r a .15
Tara K urukulla's special pow er lies in her a b ility to subjugate and de
stroy evil spirits or one's personal enem ies.16T h r o u g h the rituals in w h ic h
K u ru k u lla is invoked , she comes to reside in the practitio n er h im se lf (the
texts almost always assume a male adept). T h e rituals thus require a strong
and accomplished adept, for K u ru k u lla is a potent force. T h e adept dresses
in red garments and visualizes h im selfta k in g on the form o fth e goddess.
T h e n he recites her m antra ten thousand tim es. T h e n he makes certain
offerings to her and asks h e r to subjugate the person or d em o n w h o is
the object o f the rituals.
W h e n these preliminaries are complete, w hen he has firm ly grasped

the v iv id appearance and ego of the goddess, the visualization is ready to
be performed. L igh t radiates forth from a H R I H in the practitioner's heart
and places the person to be subjugated, naked and w ith unbound hair, upon
a w in d mandala arisen from Y A M : that is, the seed o f w in d transforms
into the round shape sym bolic of the air element, and this w ind propels
forward the person to be subjugated; he is bound around the neck by a
noose radiated from the practitioner's— Kurukulla's— lotus flower, drawn
forward by an iron hook stuck into his heart, summoned by the strength
of the mantra, and laid down helpless upon his back before the practi
tioner's feet. If the person to be subjugated is male, the text adds, K u
rukulla's iron hook is stuck into his heart; if female it is stuck into her
vagina.17
O th e r fie r c e form s o f T a ra in B uddhism in clu d e M aham aya-

v ija y a v a h in i-ta ra ,18w h o is called T h e Blue S h e - W o lf ,15 and M ah acin a-
tara. M ahacin a-tara (also k n o w n as Ugra-tara) is described in both B u d
dhist and H in d u sources. H ere is an account from a B uddhist w o rk, the
Sddhanamdld:
,6 TARA
Th e worshiper should conceive him self as (Mahacina-Tara) w h o stan

in the Pratyalidha attitude [an aggressive pose in w h ich the left f o o t is put
forward], and is awe-inspiring w ith a garland ofheads hanging f r o m the
neck. She is short and has a protruding belly, and her looks are te r r ib le .
H er com plexion is like that ofthe blue lotus, and she is th re e -e y e d , one
faced, celestial and laughs horribly. She is in an intensely pleasant mood,
stands on a corpse, is decked in ornaments o f snakes, has red a n d round
eyes, wears the garments oftigerskin round her loins, is in you th fu l bloom ,
is endowed w ith the five auspicious symbols, and has a protruding ton gu e.
She is most terrible, appears fierce, w ith bare canine fangs, c a r rie s the
sword and the K artri in the two right hands and the Utpala and Kapala
[skull] in the two left. H er Jatamukuta [bound-up hair] o f one co il is brow n
and fiery and bears the image o f Aksobhya w ith in it.
Yasistha and Mahacina-tara
It is lik e ly that Tara first became im portant in I n d ia n B ud

dhism and then, after being introduced into T ib e t, assumed a c e n t r a l po
sition there. H er place in H in d u ism is not as prom in en t as it is in T i
betan Buddhism : she probably entered the H in d u trad itio n th r o u g h
Buddhist tantric influence. C lea r indications o f Tara's B uddhist a ffilia
tio n rem ain in H in d u sources. She is said, for example, to have A k s o
bhya set in her hair. A ksobhya, "the unperturbed one," is said to be an
epithet o f Siva, but it is also the name o f a Buddha. In the Rudraydmala
and Brahmaydmala, furtherm ore, T ara is sometimes called Prajnaparam ita
(the perfection o f w isdom ), w h ic h is d efin itely a Buddhist n a m e.21
T h e most c o n v in c in g testim ony to Tara's earlier Buddhist association
is a m yth that features the sage Vasistha's attempts to w orsh ip T a ra . O nce
upon a tim e, he did austerities for ten thousand years, but got no results.
He w en t to the god Brahm a and asked for a pow erfu l mantra th at m ig h
help him . Brahm a to ld h im about the glo ry o fT a ra . It is th ro u g h Tara's
power, he said, that he creates the w o r ld , V is n u protects it, and S iv a de
stroys it. She is in fin ite ly more glorious than m illio n s o f suns, she is the
source o f all light, and she reveals the Vedas. Brahm a then told V asistha
to recite the Tara mantra for success. Vasistha w en t to K a m a k h y a , the
famous goddess shrine in Assam, and un dertook Tara's w o rsh ip . A fter
o n e thousand years h e still w a s unsuccessful. A t this point th e s a g e b e
came angry and was about to curse T ara for her indifference. T h e w h o le
earth trem bled in fear, and even the gods were disturbed. A t th a t m o
TARA 97
ment Tara appeared in front ofV asistha. She told him that he had been
wasting his tim e because he did not understand her or k n ow h ow to w o r
ship her. She said that Vasistha did not k n ow her appearance in the form
o f Cm a-tara and that she could not be propitiated th rou gh yoga and aus
terities. " O n ly V isn u in the form o f Buddha know s m y form o fw o rsh ip ,"
she said, "and to learn this k in d o fw o rs h ip yo u have to go to C h in a ."
Tara then disappeared.
Vasistha w en t to T ib e t to find out w hat to do. N ear the Him alayas,
he had a v isio n o f the Buddha surrounded by m any beautiful girls and
intoxicated w ith w in e. T h e y w ere all naked, d rin k in g and carousing. V a
sistha was shocked and refused an in vitation to take part in the frolic. T h e n
a voice from the sky said to him : "T h is is the best w ay o fw o rsh ip in g Tara.
Ify o u w ant im m ediate success, y o u have to adopt this type o fw o rsh ip ."
Vasistha then too k refuge in V is n u in his form as the Buddha and asked
to be instructed in this m ethod. T h e Buddha revealed to him the kula
mdrga, a tantric type o f sddhand (spiritual practice), w a rn in g him that it
was very secret. A central feature o f this path is the ritu al o f the five for
bidden things. W i t h this ritu al, and on this path, one can live in the midst
o f good and bad things w h ile rem ain ing a lo o f from them , the Buddha
told h im . O n this path there is no need for trad ition al types o f rituals.
W orsh ip is m ental and not physical. A l l times are auspicious; n o th in g is
inauspicious; there is no difference betw een pure or im pure; there are no
restrictions on w hat one can eat or drink; w orship can be done any place
and any tim e; a frien d ly attitude tow ard w om en should be cultivated, and
worship o f w om en should be practiced.
R eceivin g this know ledge from the Buddha, Vasistha did the ritual of
the five forbidden things and became a ve ry pow erful sddhaka (religious
adept). He w en t to T a ra p u rto practice his new spiritual path. T h is place,
now k n o w n as T a ra p lth , is located in B irb hu m district in Bengal and is
the place w here the famous adept Bamakhepa ( 1 8 4 3 - 1 9 1 1 ) did his
sddhand. It is located near a crem ation g ro u n d .22
T h is m yth makes several im portant points. First, the proper w orship
o fT a ra is associated w ith the Buddha, w h o is understood to be a form of
V is n u .23 T h a t is, the m yth im p lic itly acknowledges that Tara w orship is
derived from Buddhism. Second, the type o fw o rsh ip is tantric, specifi
cally ofthe left-handed type featuring the ritual ofthe five forbidden things.
Third, Vasistha's going n orth to discover the true form and w orship o fT ara
suggests T ibetan influence. F ourth, the m yth mentions Kam akhya in A s
sam and Tarapith in Bengal as im portant centers, w h ic h im plies that w o r
ship o fT a ra in H in duism was strong and perhaps centered in eastern India.
98 TARA
T h e Fierce Tara o f H in d u ism
T h e r e are several form s o f T a ra d escrib ed in H in d u

sources, but n ow here do w e fin d the p la y fu l, ch a rm in g g i r l th a t d o m i
nates her ico n o grap h y in T ib e ta n B u d d h ism . N e a r ly e v e ry d e s c r ip tio n
ofTara in H in d u sources stresses h er fierce, often h o r r i f y i n g , appear
ance and rem inds us o fth e te r r ify in g T a r a K u r u k u lla a n d M a h a c in a - ta r a
ofthe B ud dh ist trad itio n . W h i l e T a ra is said to have b e n ig n an d c o m
passionate aspects in the H in d u setting (see b elow ), these te n d to be ov er
shadowed b y her te rrib le ones. T h e dhydna m antra for U g r a - t a r a from
thtMantra-mahodadhih describes her thus:
I meditate upon the D iv in e M o th e r o f the three w orlds, w h o is sittin g on

a w hite lotus situated in the centre o fth e waters en velo p in g th e entire
universe. In her left hands she holds a knife and a skull and, in her right
hands, a sword and a blue lotus. H er com plexion is blue, and she is be
decked w ith ornaments. . . . She is decorated w ith three b e a u tifu l serpents
and has three red eyes. H e r hair is bunched into a single p la it o f tawny
colour. H er tongue is always m oving, and her teeth and m o u t h appear
terrible. She is w earing a tiger skin around her waist, and her foreh ead is
decorated w ith ornaments o f w hite bone. Sage A ksobhya, in t h e form o f
a serpent, is situated on her head. She is seated on the heart o f a corpse,
and her breasts are hard. Thu s should one meditate on Bhagavah" Tara,
who is the mistress of all three w o rld s.24
Other forms o fT a ra are equ ally forb id d in g . T h e dhydna m a n tr a o fT a ra

in her form as N ila-sarasvati from the Tantrasdra is as fo llo w s:
I how to yo u m other Nllasarasvatl. Y ou give w ell-b e in g and au spiciou s

ness. Y ou are situated on the heart o f a corpse and are a d v a n c in g aggres
sively. Y o u have three fearful, bright eyes. Y o u carry a sku ll b o w l, scissors,
and a sword. Y o u r form shines like a b lazin g fire. G ive me refu g e . G ive
me golden speech. Please let you r gracious nectar drench m y h ea rt, re
mover o f pride. Y o u are decorated w ith snakes as ornaments, y o n wear a
tiger skin as a skirt, you rin g a b ell loudly, and wear a garland o f chopped
offheads. Y o u are frightening and remove fear.25
Another o f her dhydna mantras from the Tantrasdra d escrib es h er as

follows:
Tara should be conceived as em erging from a w hite lotus. She advances

with her left foot forward, and she is dreadful in appearance. She is short
in stature and has a protruding and lon g belly. She wears a garland o f skulls
Fig. 14. T ara, 1926, Jaipur, Rajasthan. A jit M ookerjee C o llectio n o f Tantric
i\rt, N ational M useum , Delhi.
TARA
and a tiger skin for a skirt. She is eternally young. H er forehead is deco
rated w ith a row o f five skulls. She has a lo llin g tongue; she is very dread
ful and has four arms in w h ich she carries a sword, a pair of scissors, a cut
head, and a lotus. She has a sm iling face. H er hair is in the form o fa mat
ted jatd (a braided knot) on w h ic h sits A ksobhya in the form o f a serpent.
H er com plexion is like that o fth e bright m oon. She has three eyes; she
stands on a blazing funeral pyre; her teeth are dreadful; she is adorned
w ith ornaments.26
Tara's d escrip tion and character in H in d u texts emphasize tw o im

portant and related features that are absent from the B uddhist Tara: (i)
she is stron gly associated w ith the goddess K a li, w h o m she closely re
sembles, and ( 2 ) she is often located in the crem ation ground. B oth of
these associations emphasize her fierce, te rrify in g nature and distinguish
her from the gentle forms o fT a ra that dom inate T ib e ta n Buddhism .
T h e sim ilarities in appearance betw een K a li and T ara are strik in g and
unm istakable, especially in the tw o most com m on images o f each go d
dess, D ak sin a-kali and U gra-tara. T h e y b oth stand upon a supine male
figure, often discern ible as Siva but sometimes said to be an anonym ous
corpse. Sometimes the figure th ey stand upon is b ein g consum ed in a cre
m ation fire. B o th goddesses are black, dark blue, or b lu e-black. B o th are
naked or wear m in im al clo th in g , sometimes a tiger skin .B o th wear a n eck
lace o f severed heads or skulls and a girdle o f severed arms. B oth are usu
ally shown in the crem ation ground. B oth have a lo llin g tongue, and b lood
oozes from th e ir m ouths. T h e ir appearances are so s trik in g ly sim ilar that
it is easy to mistake one for the other. Indeed, th ey are often said to be
manifestations o f each other; for example, in th eir thousand-name hym ns
they share m any epithets as w e ll as h avin g each other's names as epithets.
Tara, for example, is called K alika, U gra-kali, M ahakali, and B had ra-kali.27
T h e devotional p o etry o f Ramprasad Sen, an eig h teen th -cen tu ry B e n
gali saint, uses the names K a li and T ara interchangeably. A t tim e it seems
that Ramprasad favors the name T ara w h en ex p licid y referrin g to the go d
dess's more benign or gentle aspects, but this is not con sisten t.28
L ik e K a li, furtherm ore, T ara in her H in d u context enjoys b lo o d . In
her h ym n o f a hun dred names from the Mundamala-tantra, she is called
She W h o L ikes B lo o d , She W h o Is Smeared w ith B lo o d , and She W h o
Enjoys Blood S acrifice.29T h e Tard-tantra describes Tara's d elight in both
animal and hum an b lo od but says that the latter is m ore pleasing to her.
T h e b lo od o f devotees is to be taken from specified parts o f the body,
such as the forehead, hands, breast, head, or area betw een the eyebrows;
some ofthese areas m ay correspond to the different cakras, spiritual cen -
TARA
Fig. 15. Tara, by Molaram, late eighteenth century, Garwahl, Himachal

Pradesh. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares Hindu University, Varanasi.
ters w ithin the body (5.15). T h ro u g h o u t this text, the w orship o f Tara is
described as part o f left-handed tantric rites, in w h ic h w in e, meat, and
sexual u n io n figure prom in ently; in this respect also, Tara resembles K a li.
T h a t is, her w orship seems to play upon the pow er o fth e forbidden and
the attempt to transmute forbidden objects or acts into sp iritu ally trans
formative instruments.
L ik e K a li, T ara is also associated w ith Siva, although not as consis
ten tly as K a li is. T h e male figure beneath her feet is often identifiable as
Siva, and m any o f her names associate her w ith Siva. She is called, for
example: Siva (the fem inine form o f Siva), Sankara-vallabha and H ara-
vallabha (both mean "beloved o f Siva"), H ara-patn l (wife o f Siva), Dear
to Bhairava (Bhairava is a form ofSiva), and W ife ofM ah a b h airav a .5,,Tara
also w ears her hair knotted on top o f her head in ajatd, the style o f an
ascetic, w h ic h is the w ay Siva wears his. T h is associates her w ith the w o rld
o f asceticism and yogis, Siva's w o rld par excellence.
A lth o u g h w e find Tara lin k ed w ith Siva by her epithets and ic o n o
graphy, there are few m yths about her in H in d u texts, and scarcely any
102 TARA
that connect her w ith Siva. In the oral trad itio n , how ever, I have come
across a p a rticu la rly in trig u in g story about the tw o. T h e m yth begins w ith
the c h u rn in g o f the ocean. Siva has drunk the poison that was created
from the c h u rn in g o fth e ocean, thus saving the w o r ld from destruction,
but has fallen unconscious under its po w erfu l effect. T ara appears and
takes Siva on her lap. She suckles h im , the m ilk from her breasts c o u n
teracting the poison, and he recovers.31 T h is m y th is rem iniscen t o fth e
one in w h ic h Siva stops the ram paging K a li b y b ecom in g an infant. See
in g the c h ild , K ali's m aternal instincts come to the fore, and she becomes
quiet and nurses the infant S iv a .32 In b oth cases, Siva assumes the posi
tion o f an infant vis-a-vis the goddess. I have also been to ld that the par
ticu lar form o f Bhairava Siva associated w ith T ara is Batuk-bhairava, the
bachelor Bhairava (Siva), w h o is an adolescent. T h a t is, the oral trad ition
seems to see the relationship betw een T ara and Siva as that o f m other
and son as w e ll as that o f w ife and husband.
T ara in H in d u ism is also stron gly associated w ith the crem ation
ground. T h e figure she stands u pon is often said to be eith er a corpse or
a preta (ghost) and is often show n b ein g crem ated. In some depictions o f
T ara, crem ation fires are visib le in the background. Jackals are also of
ten show n. It is com m on for w orsh ip manuals to specify that T ara should
be w orshiped in the crem ation ground, usually in the dead o fn ig h t. Tara's
epithets also sometimes associate her w ith the crem ation ground. F or ex
ample, in b oth h er kvaca (a type o f in vo catio n that lite r a lly means "ar
mor") and her thousand-name h y m n , she is called Smasana-bhairavi (ter
rib le one o fth e crem ation gro u n d ).33 In this respect also, T ara resembles
K a li. T h e y b oth haunt crem ation grounds, and th e ir temples are often
established in or near them . K ali's most famous tem ple, K aligh at, is ad
jacent to one o fth e largest crem ation grounds in C alcu tta , and T a ra p lth
tem ple, prob ab ly the most famous o f Tara's tem ples, is sim ilarly located
next to a crem ation ground. A lth o u g h crem ation grounds are generally
b elieved to be sacred places in H in d u ism , and tem ples to oth er deities
m ay be established in or near them , K a li and T ara are consistendy asso
ciated w ith such sites. Indeed, T ara is sometimes said to be the fire o fth e
crem ation pyre itself, the personified expression o f this awesome, r e l i
giously po w erfu l sym bol.
D espite the variation s in sequence found am ong lists o f the
M ahavidyas, K a li and T a ra are almost in variab ly named as first and sec
ond, respectively. T h e re is little doubt that this signifies th eir p ree m i
nent position in the group, p a rticu la rly insofar as th ey are described in
ve ry sim ilar terms. T h a t is, it seems that Tara's p o sition as second o n ly
TARA
to K a li in im portance is d ire ctly related to her b eing so sim ilar to K a li in

appearance. If K a li in her form as D aksin a-kali is taken to be the h ig h
est expression o f w isd om (vidya), lib era tin g know ledge, w h ic h m any texts
im p ly and contem porary inform ants insist upon, then T ara, listed just
after K a li and appearing so m uch like her, must be a close approxim a
tion o f that highest tru th . W e m ight th in k o fT a ra as K ali's first, least-
diffused, least-refracted em anation, an expression o f ultim ate tru th that
is ve ry close to the o rig in a l totality. O r w e m ight th in k o fT a r a as the
penultim ate stage in the progressive sojourn tow ard com plete dissolu
tion o fth e ego in its m ergin g w ith the absolute, the penultim ate stage in
the pralaya (cosmic dissolution) o f the ego, as it w ere. A m odern c o m
m entator says that "at the time o f pralaya, T ara becomes furious and
changes in to K a l i . " 34
T h e Symbolic Significance ofT ara
M o st o fth e sym bolic meanings associated w ith K a li apply

to T ara. Indeed, she appears to be a variant expression o f K a li, a kind red
spirit, as it w ere, w h o expresses the same truths as K a li, o n ly in a sligh tly
different form . She dominates the male figure associated w ith her. She
stands upon Siva or a male corpse, or she m others the infant Siva. L ik e
Kali, T ara suggests the preem inence or dom inance o f Sakti in a visio n
o f the cosmos that is constituted or pervaded b y Siva and Sakti.
L ik e K a li also, Tara is p rim a rily a lim in a l sym bol. She em bodies and
expresses realities that b elo n g to the edges o f the c iv iliz e d order or that
tend to be excluded as dangerous or p o llu tin g . L ik e K a li, she is naked or
dressed in anim al hides. H e r hair is disheveled, and she stands on , as op
posed to standing b y or k n e elin g before, her male associate. L ik e K a li,
she reverses the expectations o f the female role in m ale-dom inated
H in d u culture. She is unrestrained, w ild , and dom inant. A s p rim o rd ia l
power, she is un circum scrib ed and u n co n tro lled .
L ik e K a li also, she is id en tified w ith destruction. K a li is stron gly asso
ciated w ith the dissolution o f all things through the w earin g dow n b y time.
Tara, on the other hand, is m ore stron gly lin k ed to destruction b y fire.
She is often id en tified w ith the actual fires o f crem ation and thus repre
sents the final destructive but p u rifyin g force that marks the transition from
life to death or from one type o f existence to another. As the crem ation
fire, that is, she is more than just a destructive force: she is p u rify in g and
104 TARA
transform ative. As w e shall see below , there are creative and transforma
tive aspects to Tara's character. She is also id en tified w ith the excess heat
ofthe sun. A contem porary author says that T ara appears as the first man
ifestation o f creation after pralaya in the form o fth e sun. T h e primordial
sun burns extravagantly, w ild ly , and dangerously and must be tempered
w ith offerings o f grain. T ara represents its untam ed, excessive heat, which
can co m p letely d ry up the creation b y consum in g the sap o f life in all crea
tures.35 T h e same author points out that even the snakes that adorn Tara
are part of her destructive nature. By em ittin g poisonous gas at the end
o fth e w o r ld , th ey destroy i t . 36He also interprets the sku ll that Tara holds,
and sometimes drinks from , as an em blem o f her role as mistress of de
struction. A c c o r d in g to h im , the head is the p rim ary repository o f rasa,
the sap o f life. T ara consumes this in her destructive b en t.37
Tara's necklace o f skulls and girdle o f severed arms suggest the same
meanings as in the case o fK a li. T h e skulls (which are sometimes said to
correspond in n um ber to the n um ber o f letters in the Sanskrit alphabet)
p rob ab ly are meant to suggest the sounds o f the alphabet and to associ
ate T ara w ith s'abda brahman, the p rim o rid a l creative force in the form of
sound. T h e y almost surely also suggest her destructive aspect and are
meant to signify death. T h e girdle o f severed arms signifies her destruc
tion o f accum ulated karm a, w h ic h frees the in d iv id u a l from bondage to
samsara (the realm o f rebirth). H e r sw ord and scissors, like Kali's sword,
sym bolize her a b ility to cut th rou gh the fetters that b in d a person to ig
norance and lim ited consciousness. W i t h her sw ord she certain ly destroys,
but this destruction can be positive and transform ative. A contemporary
devotee o fT a ra understands the severed heads she wears as symbolizing
her elim in a tio n o f the m in d that is overw h elm ed b y ignorance or crip
pled w ith lim ited consciousness. "She does w ant to kill you— the false you,
the lim ite d personality w h ic h has accrued over so m any b i r t h s __W hen
she cuts o ff y o u r head, y o u r m in d becomes firm , u n w av erin g in its con
cen tration , w h ic h enables y o u to succeed."38O fth e girdle o f severed arms,
the same devotee says: "M o st people clothe themselves in th eir karmas,
and She wants to cut them off, rem ove them from y o u com p letely."39
T h e G en tler Side ofthe H in d u Tara
Several aspects o f Tara's icon o grap h y differ from Kali's,

some o f them suggesting a dim en sion to T ara that is less destructive and
TARA
more m aternal than the fierce T ara w e have looked at so far. Tara is said
to have large, fu ll breasts and to be "p o tb ellied ." It is not clear if she is
pregnant, but these features do suggest her m aternal character. O n e i n
form ant interprets Tara's large breasts and sw ollen b e lly as suggesting that
she represents the first im pulse tow ard creation and in d iv id u a tio n . K a li is
the v o id , nirguna brahman (ultimate reality w ith o u t qualities), as it w ere,
reality in its com plete, essential form , or pralaya (cosmic dissolution). Tara,
so closely resem bling K a li in most ways, but d ifferin g from her in the large
breasts and sw ollen b elly, has attributes o f creation. She is filled w ith the
universe, w h ic h is about to emerge from the v o i d .40C on versely, T ara m ay
be seen as the last stage ju st p rio r to dissolution, represented b y Kali. She
wears some clothes (K ali does not), suggesting less-than-com plete free
dom , for example. In either case, Tara is close to K a li, either as the first
step tow ard creation or the last stage p rio r to d isso lu tio n .41
D espite Tara's strong co n n ectio n w ith destruction , there are in d ic a
tions that she is understood as a creative, n o u rish in g, m aternal presence
as w e ll. T h is is most clear in her h ym n o f one thousand names. She is
called, for example, Jalesvari (mistress o f rain), Jagaddhatri (m other o f
the w o r ld , w o r ld nurse), P r t h iv i and V asudha (both mean "earth"),
V rksam ad hyani-vasini (she w h o dw ells in trees), Sarvavam ayi (she w h o
creates everyth in g), and She W h o L ikes Fresh F lo w e r s.42
T ara is also said to be a savior o f her devotees and in this respect re
m inds us o fth e T ib e ta n B uddhist T ara. In m any places it is said: "She
w h o takes on e across sanisdra, she is T a r a ." 43 A ccess to h e r is easy: h er
mantra, w h ic h has po w er to en ligh ten , is said to be accessible to all w i t h
out special in itia tio n or q u alification . She gives h er blessing rea d ily and
does not require her devotees to do puja (worship) (repetition o f her
name), or dhydna (m editation) or make any effort to w in her fa vo r.44 She
is called Sarhsaratarini (she w h o carries across the ocean o f samsdra),*'and
her name is said to be derived from the m eaning "to cross over," im p ly
in g that she helps beings cross the ocean o f ignorance to en lightenm ent.
Some icon o grap h ic representations show her w ith an oar in her hand,
em phasizing her role in ferry in g her devotees across the riv er o f samsdra.46
A contem porary author says: "She helps to cross over three types o f p ro b
lems: b o d ily , those associated w ith fate, and those associated w ith m ate
rial happiness. T h e m eaning o fT a r a is she w h o liberates, 'T h e L ib e r a
tor.' "47
Some texts describe T ara as liv in g on an island to w h ic h devotees are
taken b y boat. She h erself is sometimes said to be the c h ie f d eity in trans
p o rtin g them across the lake.
io6 TARA
There is a great hall called "manas" whose middle enclosure comprises

the nectar-lake. There is no w ay to get into it save the conveyance o f a
boat.There is the great sakti, Tara b y name, w h o controls the gate. T h ere
are many attendants ofT ara w h o are dark like the blue lotus and are sport
ing in the waters ofthe lake w ith thousands o f boats o f jewels. T h e y come
to this shore [presumably samsdra, or "this world"] and go back to the other
shore [presumably moksa or m ukti (the state or condition o f liberation from
rebirth), or Tara's heaven]. T here are m illions ofboat-w om en underT ara
w ho are in the prim e o fyo u th . T h e y dance and sing the most sacred fame
o fth e goddess. Some hold oars and others conches in their hands. T h e y
are drin kin g the nectar-water o f the lake and going hither and thither on
hundreds o f those boats. O f these saktis w h o guide the boats and have
dark colour the c h ie f one is Tara, the m other w h o can calm the f lo o d s __
Thus Tara, the mother, surrounded b y various boats and herself occupy
ing a large boat, shines exceedingly.48
O n e o ft h e most dramatic H in d u images o f Tara's gender aspect is

found at T arap ith temple in Bengal, w here she is show n su ck lin g Siva,
w h o m she holds on her lap. T h e m yth in the oral trad itio n o f this tem
ple that explains this m aternal appearance o fT a ra is a variation and elab
oration o fth e story o f the sage Vasistha, w h o w en t to C h in a to find the
true m ethod o f w o rsh ip in g Tara. T h ere he found devotees w o rsh ip in g
her w ith rites using w om en , meat, and intoxicants. A c c o rd in g to the
T a ra p ith trad itio n , the Buddha, after in itia tin g Vasistha in to this left
handed tantric w orsh ip, instructed h im to return to India to practice his
new sddhand. He was instructed to go to Bengal, to the v e ry place, in fact,
w here T a ra p ith was subsequently established near the D w araka River.
T h e Buddha, w ith his superior m ystical insight, k n e w this spot to be sa
cred to Tara. Vasistha positioned h im self on a seat o f five hum an skulls
and proceeded to recite the T ara mantra three hundred thousand times.
T ara was pleased w ith his sddhand and appeared to h im . She offered h im
a boon , and he requested that she reveal herself to h im in her m aternal
aspect, as a m other su ck lin g Siva at her breast, the image the Buddha had
described to h im . She manifested this form to Vasistha, and it then turned
to stone; this became the central image o f T arap ith te m p le.49
T h e stone image of Ugratara w h ich was seen by Vasistha had actually ex
isted before that time. The eye of Satl (some say the third or spiritual eye)
w h ich fell to earth at Tarapith turned to stone and sprang up in the form
ofthe image w h ich Vasistha saw. T h is statue relates to the story o f Siva
(as Nllakantha) having saved Creation by d rin kin g poison w h ich had
emerged from the ocean after it had been churned. He was stricken w ith
burning in the throat from the poison, w h ich caused his throat to turn
Fig. 16. Tara o f Tarapith, contemporary lithograph.
io8 TARA
blue [hence he is called N ilakantha, "blue throat"]. To relieve burning,

Sakti offered Siva her breast, w h ich he took and was relieved .50
As w e have already indicated in a few instances, Tara's te rrify in g or

fierce aspects also m ay be interpreted in positive ways that con fo rm to
h er role as "the liberator." T h e crem ation fire that she represents or of
ten stands in is said to sym bolize the b u rn in g o f the dross o f one's past
karm a, the p u rify in g o f one's m in d o f ignorance, the b u rn in g away o f
attachm ents.51 H e r scissors and sw ord are said to represent her role in
c u ttin g th rough the bonds that keep people in ignorance and self
delusion. T h e severed heads represent the destruction o f false ideas and
self-enchantm ent. H e r standing on a corpse represents, accord in g to one
m odern com m entator, her "triu m p h over calam ities."52
In short, although Tara's appearance and habits in itia lly seem to be
almost to tally te rrify in g and fearsome, she has a gentler side. She is a sav
io r w h o takes special care o f her devotees, and in this respect she reflects
the personality o ft h e gentle T ara o f T ib e ta n B uddh ism . T h e H in d u
Tara's means o f h elp in g her devotees are m ore abrasive and frig h ten in g
than those o f the T ibetan Buddhist Tara, but the end resu lt— lib era tion —
is sim ilar. T h e H in d u T ara tends to shock her devotees in to lib era tin g
know ledge, w h ile the T ib e ta n T ara overw helm s them w ith compassion.
W o rsh ip ofTara at Tarapith
A lth o u g h the H in d u Tara is not as w id e ly w orshiped as K a li

or L aksm i, there are several temples dedicated to her in N o r th India
and N ep a l. C om pared to Chinnam asta, Bagalam ukhi, M a ta rig i, and
D hum avatl— M ahavidyas w h o receive barely any p u b lic w o rsh ip — Tara
has a fa irly flo u rish in g tem ple cult. Perhaps her most famous tem ple is
at T ara p ith in B irb h u m district o f rural Bengal. T h e tem ple is not par
tic u la rly large, and the flo w o f w orshipers is modest, but the tem ple and
d eity are w id e ly k n o w n , and T a ra p ith is reputed to be a v e ry pow erfu l
center ofgoddess w orship. T h e temple's fou n d in g m yths, its type o f w o r
ship (w h ich includes b lo od offerings), the hym ns sung there, the powers
o f the nearby tank, and the inhabitants and rituals o f the adjacent cre
m ation ground com bine to give a good picture o fT a ra w orship.
T h ere are tw o m yth ical traditions that te ll ofthe o rig in o fth e T arapith
tem ple. T h e first is the story about the sage Vasistha. T h e second con-
TARA 109
cems the w e ll-k n o w n story o f the dism em berm ent o f Sati's corpse and
the estab lish m en t o f th e s 'akta pithas ("seats ofsakti. "places sacred to g o d
desses) throughout India. W h e r e v e r a piece o f h er b od y fell, a center o f
goddess w orsh ip was established. A c c o r d in g to the T a ra p ith m y th , Sati's
third , or spiritual, eye fell to earth at the place w here the tem ple is n ow
located. It was this sacred p ith a that the Buddha saw w ith his m ystical v i
sion and to w h ic h he directed Vasistha. These tw o m y th ical traditions,
then, com bine to associate the tem ple w ith the Satl m y th , and hence an
all-India goddess n etw ork , and w ith left-handed tantric w orsh ip brought
from the n o rth , the source o fB u d d h ist T ara w orship.
T h e cen tral image o fT a ra depicts her n u rsin g Siva and thus em pha
sizes her m aternal, protective, and n o u rish in g aspects.53 Tara's presence
in a busy tem ple, w here she is w orshiped w ith trad itio n al rituals on a reg
ular basis, also m itigates the fierce aspect that is dom inant in her H in d u
m anifestation. As the center o f an active tem ple, she is carefu lly tended
by priests and approached ro u tin e ly w ith petitions from her devotees. She
holds court in her tem ple and dispenses favors to the faithful like an u n
derstanding m other. In her aspect as the n u rsin g m oth er and as the c e n
ter o f attentive priests and devotees w h o are regu larly servin g and sup
p licatin g her, Tara at T ara p ith has a dom esticated quality. T h e tank
adjacent to the tem ple also emphasizes her benign aspect. T h is "tank o f
life" is reputed to have the po w er to restore the dead to life and to heal
most maladies. P ilg rim s ro u tin e ly bathe in it before and after w orship o f
the goddess in the tem ple.
Tara's b en ign , m aternal aspects are also em phasized in d evotion al p o
ems associated w ith T arap ith and often sung there b y w orshipers. A s in
the case o f Bengali K a li d evotion , these poems exp loit the m etaphor o f
the goddess as m oth er and cast the devotee in the role o f her lo v in g , de
pendent c h ild , w h o m she cannot deny. T h e fo llo w in g poem b y G y an
Babu, the organizer o f an asrama (ashram) in T a ra p ith , is a good exam
ple o f this genre.
C om e, come to Tarapith,
If you want to see " M a ,"
Here you w ill get the touch of your own Mother,
There is no doubt about it.
Here there is no distinction o f caste,
Because m y Ma is the M o th er o f the universe,
O nly call out "Ma, M a,"
M other w ill place you on her lap.
Com e here and see,
TARA
M o th e r sitting w ith spread lap,

To relieve the burn ing sensation o f poison,
She is breast-feeding N llakantha ["blue throat," i.e., Siva],
If you come here yo u w i l l see Vamakhepa,
T h e M other's darling son.
He ate w ith jackals and the gods,
C a llin g them his brothers,
To give rice to the hungry,
T h e m other is callin g her children ,
W h e rev er you may be,
C om e, come, come h ere.54
Tara's fierce aspect and her association w ith left-handed tantric sddhand
w ith its often fearsome rites, h ow ever, reveal them selves in the practice
o f b lo o d sacrifice at the tem ple and the im portance o ft h e nearby cre
m ation groun d . H e r frig h te n in g aspect is also seen in the m etal image o f
her that is usually available to w orshipers for darsan (view ing). T h is three-
fo o t-ta ll image recalls the dhydna mantras o f U gra-tara cited above. She
has four arms, wears a garland o f skulls, and has a lo llin g tongue. She is
fierce in appearance, and w h ile this is not the p rim o rd ia l image around
w h ic h the tem ple was b u ilt (that image b ein g equated w ith the rough
stone im age), it is the one that most w orshipers see.
B lo o d sacrifices are offered to T a ra daily. N o r m a lly tw o or three goats
are offered each day, but on festival days, such as D u rg a Puja and K ali
Puja, one hun d red fifty to tw o h u n d red goats m ay be sacrificed. T h e an
imals are almost always offered to the goddess b y in d iv id u a l worshipers
as part o f a v o w that the goddess will be given a sacrificial victim in re
tu rn for some favor she has done for the devotee. Before b ein g slain, the
animals are bathed in the tank to p u rify them . T h e w orshipers also u n
dergo p u rifica tio n rituals in the tem ple p rio r to the sacrifice. T h e ani
mals, almost always goats, are k ille d at a sacrificial p it near the temple-
W i t h i n the sandy enclosure is a tw o -p ro n g ed stake that holds the animal
firm w h ile a priest decapitates it in one b lo w w ith a special sw ord. After
it has been k ille d , a b it o fb lo o d is taken in a pot and offered to the im
age in the tem ple. T h e sacrificial p it itse lf is revered b y w orshipers; some
dip th e ir fingers in the b lo o d o f a freshly k ille d anim al and m ark their
foreheads w ith i t . 55
In icon o grap h ic representations and descriptions o fT a ra , she typically
stands on a corpse, w h ic h often lies on a crem ation fire. In her most pop
ular H in d u form s she haunts crem ation grounds and is associated w ith
death and destruction . A n im portant elem ent o f the religiou s atmosphere
TARA
at Tarapfth is the large crem ation ground or crem ation grove, located
near the tem ple. H e re is w h ere the B en g a li saint B am akhepa (or
Vam akhepa in Sanskrit) (i 8 4 3 - 1 9 1 1 ) liv ed and u n d ertook his spiritual ex
ercises for several decades p rio r to his death. H is name m ay be translated
as the mad or cra zy (khepa) fo llo w e r o f the left-handed path (vdmd means
"left"). Indeed, he behaved like a lu n atic, w h ic h is often said to be one of
the marks o f a saint.56 L egend says that, after Bam akhepa had been m ed
itating on T ara for a lo n g tim e in the crem ation groun d, surrounded by
corpses, funeral pyres, and jackals, T ara appeared to h im in a burst of
flam es in her dreadful form and then too k h im to her breast.57 A trad i
tion at Tarapfth says that Bam akhepa was an in carn ation ofTara's fierce
husband, Siva, in his form as Bhairava. L ik e Bhairava, the legend says,
Bamakhepa was fierce and mad on the outside but fu ll o f m ercy on the
in sid e.58
T h e crem ation ground has been a site o f tantric sddhand for genera
tions and continues to be so used today. Several sddhakas d w e ll m ore or
less perm anently in the crem ation groun d, w h ic h is prob ab ly an ancient
trad ition, and w an d erin g sddhakas often visit it for extended periods. It
is a place w here smasdna sddhand (spiritual practices appropriate to c re
m ation grounds) and s 'ava sddhand (spiritual practices u sin g a corpse) m ay
be perform ed. It is in clu d ed on the itin era ry o f m any p ilgrim s to Tarapfth
and is an integral part o f the sacred com plex. It reinforces the them e ap
parent in m uch T ara icon o grap h y that she favors crem ation grounds and
that it is appropriate to propitiate her there.
T ripura-sundari
S h e W^ho Is L ovely in the Three W 'orlds
Tripura-sundari, w h o also appears in lists o f the M ah a

vidyas under the names Sodasi, L alita, Kam esvari, Srividya, and Raja-
rajesvari, is often cited th ird , after K a li and T ara. She is also sometimes
said to be, along w ith K a li and Tara, an ddi (prim ordial) M ahavidya, w h ich
suggests that she occupies a h ig h place in the group, that she, like them ,
represents a com plete visio n o f rea lity .1 A c c o rd in g to other sources, she
represents the penultim ate visio n o f enlightened consciousness, a stage
o f consciousness suffused w ith sattvic qualities but lackin g the com plete
ness o f fu lly enlightened consciousness, represented by K a li, w h ic h is be
yon d all q uality and form , nirguna.'
H ex dhydna mantra describes her as follow s: "She shines w ith the lig h t
o f the risin g sun. In her four hands she holds a noose, a goad, arrows,
and a b o w ."1 F u rth er details o f her appearance are found in the famous
h ym n in her praise, the Lalitd-sahasrandma, w here she is said to be seated
on a throne like a queen (names 2 and 3 ) , to w ear jewels (names 13 and
14 ), to have the auspicious marks o f a m arried w om an (names 1 6 - 2 5 ) ,
and to have heavy breasts and a th in waist (name 3 6 ) ; the crescent m oon
adorns her forehead, and her smile overw helm s Siva, h im self the lord of
desire (Kama) (name 2 8 ) . She has as her seat the corpses of Brahma, V isn u ,
Siva, and Rudra (name 2 4 9 ) and is attended by Brahma, V isn u , Siva,
L aksm i, and Sarasvati (name 6 1 4 ) .
She is often depicted icon ograp h ically as seated on a lotus that rests on
the supine body o f Siva, w h ic h in turn lies on a throne whose legs are the
gods Brahma, V isn u , Siva, and Rudra. In some cases the lotus is grow in g
out o f Siva's navel. In other cases it is grow in g from the Sri cakra, the yantra
112
TRIPU R A-SU N D ARI
Fig. 17. Tripura-sundari, byM olaram , late eighteenth century, Garwahl,

Himachal Pradesh. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares Hindu University, Varanasi.
of T rip u ra-s u n d a ri. In this re n d erin g of the goddess, she is self-e m erge n t,
as the Sri cakra is identical w ith the go dd ess h e rse lf (see b e lo w ). In one in
stance she is said to sit on Siva's lap in his form as K am esvara, "lord o f d e
sire."* T h e Vamakesvara-tantra says that T rip u ra-s u n d a ri dw ells on the
peaks o f th e H im alayas; is w o r s h ip e d by sages and h e av en ly n ym ph s; has
a b o d y like pure crystal; wears a tiger skin, a snake as a ga rland around her
neck, and her ha ir tied in ajata; holds a trident and drum ; is decorated
w ith j ew els, flowers, and ashes; and has a large bull as a v e h i c l e .5
T h e Saundaryalahari and the Tantrasara‘ describe her in detail from
he r hair to her feet. T h e Tantrasara dhydna mantra says that she is illu
m in ated by the jew els o f t h e c row n s o f B rahm a and V i s n u , w h ic h fell at
her feet w h e n t h e y b o w e d d o w n to w o r s h i p h e r.1 It is in te re s tin g to note
that in the Tantrasara she is not associated w ith Siva in any o b v io u s way,
as she is in o th e r descriptions.
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
M y th o lo g y and Characteristics
Tripura-sundari (Sodas!) was a ve ry w e ll-k n o w n and im

portant tantric goddess before she was grouped w ith the M ahavidyas. She
occupies a p rom in en t position in both K a sh m iri and South Indian
Tantrism . She has been w orshiped from a ve ry early period in South In
dia, w here she is central in a m ovem ent o f considerable sophistication
and popularity, the Srividya cult. A lth o u g h she is often described in an
th rop om orph ic fashion, her cult, w h ic h still flourishes th rou ghou t India,
but p articu larly in the South, centers on w orship o f and m editation on
her mantra, the Srividya mantra, and her yantra, the Sri cakra. T h is w or
ship is done almost exclusively in private and in tantric fashion.8
T h e earliest reference to Srividya (the form o fth e goddess as mantra)
is in the T a m il w o rk Tirumantiram, by T iru m u la r, w h o lived in the sev
enth cen tury C.E. By the n in th century, the cu lt o f Srividya was mentioned
in Sanskrit w orks, and several texts celebrating her are attributed to the
great ph ilosopher from South India, Sankara (788-820). Several text- in
w h ic h Tripura-sundari is featured appeared about the same period in
Kashm ir, w here she became a significant goddess. O f particular note is
the Vamakesvara-tantra, w h ic h attracted several im portant com m en
taries. D u rin g the thirteen th and fourteenth centuries, the cu lt o f Srividya
expanded greatly in both K ashm ir and South India, w ith several notable
commentaries being w ritten on earlier works. H er cu lt eventually became
popular in Bengal, w ith certain n orth ern variations, and n ow her w or
ship and fame have spread th rou gh ou t India.
Despite the tendency o f Srividya w orship and ritual practice to remain
private and esoteric, there are popular hymns to the goddess w ith a strong
devotional flavor. T h e Navavaranakirthis by M uttusvam i, a composer of
classical K arn atik music, contain some famous examples, and in actual
practice such hym ns are sung in public, outside an esoteric tantric setting.5
A lth o u g h there are not m any temples w here Tripura-sundari is w or
shiped in anthropom orphic form , she has become identified w ith certain
im portant goddesses in South India. H er presence in m any temples is
marked by the Sri cakra, rather than an anthropom orphic image. Some
times another goddess will be shown associated with the Sri cakra, thus iden
tifyin g her w ith Tripura-sundari, whose essential form is identical w ith the
Sri cakra. A t the temple o f the famous South Indian goddess M in aksi of
M adurai, for example, coins are sold depicting M in aksi in anthropom or
phic form on one side and the Sri cakra on the other. Pictures o f M inaksi
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
standing above a Sri cakra are also sold there. A n o th e r example is the god-
jess A kh ilan d esvari o f T iru c h ir a p p a lli, w h o is show n w ea rin g Sri cakrasas
earrings.10In o th er cases the appearance o f a p a rticu la r goddess m a y b e so
similar to Tripura-sundari's that it is difficult not to associate or identify
the two. T h is is the case w ith the goddess Kamaksi o f K anchipuram , whose
depictions differ from those o f Tripura-sundari in o n ly very m inor ways.
The Sri cakra is also shown in Kamaksi's iconography."
In Varanasi there is a tem ple to Rajarajesvari, a com m on epithet of
Tripura-sundari. It is said that she has the pow er to attract people and that
one can feel the p u ll o f her strength w h en taking her dars'an (view ing her
image). No one is strong enough to spend the n igh t in her tem ple, and
after awhile she drives people crazy w h o stay in her presence. H e r priests
do not last long. I was told that she is an unm arried goddess, but there is
a lirigam outside her tem ple, suggesting the presence o f Siva. T h ere is also
a Rajarajesvari temple in the village o f Bangaramu in U tta r Pradesh. T h e
garbha grha housing the image is flanked by tw o Siva lirigams. T h e image
o f the goddess holds weapons and is o f a dark com plexion. T h e supine
figure o f Siva lies in front o f it. Painted panels on the front o f her throne
show five male deities, each seated on a lotus w ith different numbers of
petals. Brahma, V is n u , and Siva are distinguishable and may represent the
legs o f the throne on w h ic h the goddess sits, a com m on theme in her de
scriptions, w here the gods are said to support h e r.12
I also have been told o f a tem ple to Harhsesvari-devi, an epithet of
Tripura-sundari, in the village o f Bansberia near H o o g h ly in Bengal. T h e
temple is six stories tall, and the central image is o f Tripura-sundari, w h o
sits on a lotus that emerges from the navel o f Siva, w h o is rec lin in g on
another lotus that in tu rn rests on an image o fth e Sri cakra. T h ere are fif
teen black lirigams in the tem ple and a sixteenth that is w h ite. T h e six
teenth may sym bolize Tripura-sundari as Sodasi, "she w h o is the sixteenth"
or "the one w h o goes beyond or includes the fifteen lunar tithis" (lunar
days; see below). T h e temple also has three staircases, one on the rig h t of
the image, another on the left, and a th ird descending into the tem ple.
1 hese probably represent the three nddis (veins or arteries) o f kundalini
yoga and, taken together, the w h ole o f reality. A tem ple o f sim ilar design
to Tripura-sundari is cu rren tly under construction in V aran asi.13
T ripura-sundari is also an im portant goddess in the N ep a li to w n o f
Bhaktapur. T h ere she is associated w ith a group o f goddesses called the
Astamatrkas, the "eight m others." These eight goddesses, each o f w h om
has a shrine, o rpitha, form a protective circle around the c ity o f Bhakta-
Pur. In the center is TriDura-sundari's shrine. As the n in th and central
n6 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
goddess ofthe group, she is understood to be preem inent am ong the oth
ers, to be the supreme goddess.14 It is also interesting to note that among
the Astamatrkas are tw o o fth e oth er M ahavidyas, K a li and L a k sm i.15
T h e central tale in the m y th o lo g y o f T ripura-sundari concerns her de
feat o fth e dem on Bhanda. A c c o rd in g to this m yth , Siva destroyed Kama
the god o f love, w h en he sought to distract Siva from his m editation. Sub
sequently, one o f Siva's ganas (com panions or fo llo w ers) makes an image
o f a man from Kama-deva's ashes. T h is man then appeals to Siva to teach
h im a pow erful mantra, w h ic h Siva o b lig in g ly does. By recitin g the
mantra, one gains h a lf the m igh t o f one's adversary. Siva also grants the
man rulership o f the w orld for sixty thousand years. Siva praises the man
w ith the words "Bhand! B hand!" ("G ood! G oo d !"), but because he was
born from Siva's anger w h en he burned up Kam a, he turns into a dan
gerous, w rath ful dem on. He builds a c ity riv a lin g in g lo ry the c ity ofthe
gods ruled over by Indra. W h e n Bhanda attacks Indra, Indra, at the bid
ding o fth e sage Narada, calls on Tripura-sun dari for help. Indra also in
structs his allies to propitiate the goddess by offerin g her th eir ow n flesh
and blood w ith V ed ic rites. A t the end ofthese rites the goddess appears
and agrees to help the gods. In the m eantim e, the sixty thousand years
granted to Bhanda to rule the w o rld have expired.
W i t h Indra's c ity still under siege, the gods arrange the marriage o f
Siva and Tripura-sundari. A fte r some tim e the goddess, w ith her female
associates (saktis), goes o ff to b attle B handa and his arm y. T rip u ra -su n d a ri
produces m any weapons from the noose and goad that she carries in her
hands. Bhanda is amused by the arm y o f females and predicts that they
w ill be as ineffective in battle as the nam e o f th e ir leader, L alita (soft and
delicate), suggests. Tripura-sun dari and her army, however, tu rn out to
be superior to Bhanda and his army. In the course o f the battle the two
c h ie f protagonists, T ripura-sundari and Bhanda, produce various beings
from their bodies. Bhanda creates a num ber o f demons that are w e ll know n
in H in d u m ythology, and Tripura-sundari counters b y b rin gin g forth a
corresponding d eity or avatdra to defeat the dem on. Bhanda, for exam
ple, creates H iranyakasipu. L alita in tu rn produces Prahlada, w h o in the
w e ll-k n o w n Vaisnava m yth defeats H iranyakasipu. Bhanda brings forth
Ravana, and Tripura-sundari creates Rama from one o f her fingernails.
In the course o fth e b attle B h an d a also creates M ah isasu ra. T h e goddess
responds by prod ucing D urga, w h o is ornam ented w ith jew elry given to
her by m any male gods. D urga th en slays M ahisasura, as she does in the
famous Devi-mdhdtmya. F inally, the goddess defeats Bhanda him self. A f
ter the battle, the gods, led by Kama-deva's w ife, Rati, im plore T ripura-
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
sundari to restore the god o f love, w h o m Siva had destroyed. She does
so, and desire is restored to the w o r ld . T h e gods praise her in u n is o n .16
T h e m yth establishes certain central characteristics for T rip u ra-su n -
dari. H er p rim ary role is to protect the w e ll-b e in g o fth e gods and cos
mic stability. She h erself is the source ofseveral o fV isn u 's avatdras, w h om
she creates to defeat particu lar demons in the battle w ith Bhanda.
Tripura-sundari is said to have oth er forms, actually referred to as
avatdras. These include the goddesses K a li, K u m a ri, C an d ika, Bharati,
and G a u r i.17 T h is m yth , and oth er passages enum erating her different
manifestations created to sustain the w o r ld , establish Tripura-sundari as
a transcendent cosm ic guardian, the source o f w e ll-k n o w n deities and
avatdras, the great d irector behind the scenes, the ultim ate overseer of
the cosm ic processes. In the Lalitd-sahasrandma she is called She from
W hose Ten Fingernails Spring the Ten Forms o fV is n u (name 8 8 ). T h e
same text gives her names that emphasize her role as a w arrior, for ex
ample, She W h o Slays Dem ons (name 3 1 8 ) , She W h o G rants Boons to
W arriors (name 4 9 3 ) , R u ler o fA rm ie s (name 6 9 1 ) , She W h o Is W o r
shiped by W a rrio rs (name 7 7 7 ) , and M o th e r o f W a rrio rs (name 8 3 6 ) . In
short, the m yth and hym ns to her depict T ripura-sun dari as a great bat
tle queen sim ilar to D urga and u n derlin e her role as guardian o f cosm ic
order.
C om p lem en tin g her role as a w a rrio r are Tripura-sundari's royal char
acteristics. In the Lalitd-sahasrandma she is w orshiped by kings (name 3 0 5 ) .
She takes pleasure in ru lin g (name 6 8 6 ) and subdues all the w orlds (name
6 9 8 ) . O n e o f her most popular epithets is Rajarajesvari, "queen o f kings."
A n oth er o f her names, Sri, associates her w ith sovereignty. H ow ever, she
is distinguished in m any ways from the goddess, also called Sri, w h o is
Visnu's consort, and is more com m on ly associated w ith Siva, as w e shall
see below.
O n a more cosm ic scale, Tripura-sun dari undertakes the three p r in
cipal cosm ic functions o f creation, m aintenance, and destruction. She e i
ther performs these functions by h erself or creates and directs Brahma,
V isn u , and Siva in these roles. In the Saundaryalahari, the entire universe
is formed from a tin y speck o f dust from her foot. From that speck Brahma
fashions the universe, w h ic h V is n u , in his form as V asu ki, the m any
headed serpent, can barely support (v. 2 ) . In the Lalitd-sahasrandma, she
sits on the five corpses o f Brahma, V is n u , Rudra, Isvara, and Sadasiva
(name 2 4 9 ) . In the hym n o f a thousand names to her in the Vdmakesvara-
tantra, she is called M istress o f A l l , M o th e r o fth e W o r ld , and M o th e r o f
the V ed a s.18
n8 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
She is the quintessence o f auspiciousness (sauhhdgya) and in this r

spect resembles the goddess S ri, V isn u 's consort. She is described, ofte
in great d etail, as la v ish ly adorned w ith ornam ents and fine c lo th in g . Sh
is said to give a ll blessings, grant a ll desires, em b od y p u r ity (suddhd), an
be calm , peaceful, and c o m p le te ly suffused w ith sattvic q u a litie s .19
T rip u ra -su n d a ri is also often described as ex trem ely attractive, beau
tdful, and e ro tic a lly in c lin e d . T h e Lalitd-sahasrandma details her charm
from head to foot (w . 13-51), and the m ajo rity o fth e Saundaryalaharii
sim ila rly p reo ccu p ied w ith her attractive appearance. She is often said
give desire, to suffuse the creation w ith desire, and to be the actual foi
o f desire— that is, the god o f desire, K am a-deva— or his w ife , R ati. In th
Lalitd-sahasrandma she is called T h e D esirable O n e (name 3 2 1 ) , She W h
Is F ille d w ith E rotic Sentiments (name 3 7 6 ) , She W h o se Form Is the De
sire o fW o m e n (name 4 5 4 ) , She W h o Causes E m otion (name 4 6 6 ) , Sh
W h o E nchants (name 5 6 2 ) , She W h o s e F o rm Is Sexual D esire (nam
7 9 6 ) , and She W h o Overflow s w ith Desire and Pleasure (name 8 6 3 ) . Th
Saundaryalahari says that K am a, the god o f love, w h o bew itches the w h o l
w o r ld , received his pow ers b y a glance from the goddess (v. 6 ) . It is als
said there that a w o r n -o u t old m an, u g ly and sluggish in the arts o f love
can be restored to sexual attractiveness and v ig o r b y her glance (v. 13 )
T h e Praparicasdra-tantra says that her w o rsh ip has such an am orous e f
feet that celestial females such as gandharvas, yaksas, and siddhas com e t
the sddhaka "w ith g a zelle-lik e eyes, b reath in g h eavily, th e ir bodies qu iv
erin g . . . and m oist w ith the p e arly sweat o f passion; and th r o w in g awa
th e ir ornam ents and le ttin g th e ir clothes fall from about them , b o w them
selves before h im and offer to do his w ill." 20 T h e several names that as
sociate or id en tify her w ith the female sexual organ in her thousand-nam
h y m n in the Vdmakesvara-tantra21 also suggest the erotic character o fth
goddess.
In the Kdlikd-purdna, B ala-trip u ra-su n d ari (youn g g ir l w h o is beauti
fill in the three w orlds) is said to be the sym bo l o f beauty and sexuali
and is worshiped by adoring a liv in g girl in either the right- or left-handed
tantric m an n er.22 T h e Yogini-tantra enjoins the devotee to contem plate
the image o f a naked sixteen-year-old g ir l and to th in k o f each part o f
her b od y b ein g assim ilated to his o w n .23 In the Tripurd-rahasya, T rip u ra
creates nine s'aktis, several o fw h o m have erotic associations: K am esvari,
B hagam alim (havin g a garland o fy o n is), N ity a lin n a (always m oist), and
B herunda (pregnant), for exam p le.24
Such names also suggest Tripura-sundari's association w ith fe r tility and
grow th . T h e Lalitd-sahasrandna calls her She W h o Is V it a lit y (name 7 6 7 ) ,
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
She W h o G ives L ife (name 7 8 3 ) , and She W h o se Form Is L ife (name

7 8 4 ) - T h e hym n o fh e r thousand names in the Vdmakesvara-tantra calls
her T h e M o th e r W h o Oversees B ir t h .25 She is often associated w ith the
earth itse lf and is said both to create and u ph old it. Related to her nature
as the pow er u n d e rly in g v ig o r and grow th is her association w ith n o u r
ishment and food. In the Lalitd-sahasrandma she is called M a h l and Dhara,
both m eaning "the earth" (names 7 1 8 and 9 5 5 ) , and is identified w ith
nourishm ent (name 4 4 4 ) and food itse lf (name 6 9 9 ) . She is also called
Jagaddhatrl, "w o rld nurse" (name 9 3 5 ) .
For the most part, Tripura-sundari is characterized by names and fea
tures that emphasize her beautiful, auspicious, pure, fertile, and gracious
nature and that associate her w ith w ealth , royal power, the protection
o f the order ofdharm a, and the defeat o f demons. She is often described
as the patient, obedient w ife o f eith er Siva or V is n u . O th e r features of
Tripura-sundari, however, suggest aspects o fh e r nature that deviate from
this portrait. In places she is said to be frightenin g, w ild , and perhaps dan
gerous. A lth o u g h none o fh e r p rin cipal names (Tripura-sundari, Srividya,
Sodasi, L alita, or Rajarajesvari) suggests this aspect o f the goddess, there
is no d en yin g its presence in m any o f the texts that describe her. In c o n
trast to the usual descriptions o f T rip u ra-su n dari as clothed in radiant
garments and g lo w in g jewels are passages in the Vdmakesvara-tantra w here
she is naked or clo th ed in anim al hides and wears her hair in ajata, an
ascetic's k n o t.26 She carries a skull, wears ashes, and has a snake as a n eck
lace; she has a large and lon g tongue, fearful fangs, disheveled hair, and
the form o f a sk eleto n .27
In m any ways she resembles K a li, w ith w h o m she is sometimes id e n
tifie d .28T h ere is even a m yth explainin g the id en tity o f Tripura-sundari
and K a li. In the Prdnatosini(piobably w ritte n in Bengal in the seventeenth
century), w e are told that once upon a tim e Siva referred to K a li b y her
name in front o f some heavenly damsels w h o had come to visit, c allin g
her "K a li, K a li" ("Blackie, B lackie"), w h ic h she took to be a slur against
her dark com plexion . She left Siva and resolved to rid herself o f her dark
com plexion th ro u g h asceticism. Later, the sage Narada visited Kailasa
and, seeing Siva alone, asked w here his w ife was. Siva com plained that
she had abandoned h im and vanished. W i t h his y ogic powers N arada dis
covered K a li liv in g n orth o f M o u n t Sum eru and w en t there to see if he
could convince her to return to Siva. He told her that Siva was th in k in g
°f m arrying another goddess and that she should return at once to pre
vent this. By n ow K a li had rid herself o f her dark com plexion but did not
v,t realize it. A r r iv in g in the presence o f Siva, she saw a reflection ofh er-
120 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
self w ith a lig h t com plexion in Siva's heart. T h in k in g that this was an
other goddess, she became jealous and angry. Siva advised her to look
more carefully, w ith the eye o f know ledge, te llin g her that w hat she saw
in his heart was herself. T h e story ends w ith Siva saying to the trans
form ed K a li: "As yo u have assumed a ve ry beautiful form , beautiful in
the three w orlds, y o u r name w i l l be T ripura-sundari. Y o u shall always re
m ain sixteen years old and be called by the name Sodas!."25
T h e Names
Tripura-sundari, Sodasi, and Lalita
T h e texts dealing w ith T ripura-sundari often reflect on the

significance o fh e r names, w h ic h are usually th o u gh t to h old hidden or
m ystical meanings. These reflections e lic it further aspects o f her char
acter and additional associations w ith ideas and themes in H in d u p h i
losophy, m ythology, and spiritual practice. T h e names that receive the
most attention are Tripura-sun dari, Sodasi, and L alita.
T h e name Tripura-sundari, whose most obvious and apparent m ean
in g is "she w h o is beautiful in the three w orlds," ty p ic a lly prompts spec
ulation con cern in g various triads k n o w n to H in d u philosophy, m y th o l
ogy, and sddhand (spiritual practice). In the process o f associating
Tripura-sun dari w ith these triads, the texts often im p ly that she is id en
tical w ith ultim ate, essential, or com plete reality in one w ay or another.
T h e Kdlikd-purdna gives several interpretations in this ve in . She is called
T rip u ra, the text says, because she is id en tical w ith the triangle (trikona)
that sym bolizes the y o n i and that forms her cakra (see below ). T h e t r i
angle in the S rividya cult, as w e shall see, is a p rim o rd ia l form from w h ich
the creation proceeds and is clearly related to the generative pow er of
the y o n i. She is called T rip u ra also because her m antra (discussed below)
has three clusters o f syllables. H ere T rip u ra is id en tified w ith the alpha
bet, from w h ic h all sounds and w ords proceed and w h ic h is often u n
derstood to occupy a prim ord ial place in tantric cosm ology. She is three
fold, furtherm ore, because she expresses h erself in Brahm a, V is n u , and
Siva in her roles as creator, m aintainer, and destroyer o fth e universe. She
is threefold also because she represents the subject (mdtd), instrum ent
(mdna), and object (meya) o f all things. H ere again she is identified w ith
reality expressed in terms o f speech, w h ic h involves a speaker, w hat is said,
and objects to w h ic h the w ords refer.30
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
Trie Kamakald-vildsa (w . 13-40) speculates that T rip u ra -su n d a ri is

O-iple faceted because she represents three kinds or colors o f bindu (seed
»r essence): red, w h ite , and m ixed. T h is p ro b ab ly refers to sexual fluids:
„ d being female sexual flu id ; w h ite , semen; and m ixed, the u n io n o fth e
pvo." T h e m eanin g here is that the goddess represents b oth o fth e sex
ual polarities in the universe and th e ir u ltim ate u n io n . T h e same text says
that she is triad ic because she has her abode in Soma, Surya, and A g n i,
that is, in the m o o n , sun, and fire. She is thus all-pervasive and a ll-
inclusive, as are lig h t and fire. F u rth er, the text speculates, she is triad ic
because she is id en tified w ith the three p r in c ip a l goddess pithas, or sa
cred centers: K am arupa, Jalandhara, and P u rn a g iri. She is trip le natured
also because she em bodies the three p r in c ip le pow ers o f icchd s'akti (w ill),
jnana s'akti (consciousness, k n ow led ge), and kriya s'akti (doing, a ctio n ).32
In his com m en tary on the Lalitd-sahasrandma, Bhaskararaya says that
the goddess is called T rip u ra -su n d a ri because "she is old er than the three
ptrsons (Brahm a, V is n u , and R u d ra )."33 He also says that the goddess is
triple natured because she is id en tified w it h the three m ain channels o f
the subtle b o d y in kundaliniyoga that represent cosm ic to t a lity .34 Bhas
kararaya com m ents fu rth er on the trip le nature o fth e goddess: "T h ere
are three Devas, three Vedas, three fires, three energies, three notes
(svaras), three w o rld s, three abodes, three sacred lakes, three c a s t e s _
W h atever in the w o r ld is th ree fo ld , such as the three objects o f hum an
desire, all these, O d ivin e one, re a lly b elo n g to y o u r n a m e."35 Sivananda
says that the goddess is trip le natured because she "has the nature o f Siva,
Sakti, and A tm a n ." 36
T h e name Sodasi seems to be o f less interest to com m entators, but
there is some sp eculation on its h id d en significan ce. L ite r a lly , the name
means "she w h o is sixteen." It is com m on for deities to be described as
eternally sixteen years o ld , w h ic h is considered the m ost b eau tifu l and
vlgorous hum an age. T h is is exactly h o w the .name is in terp reted in the
my t h , recounted above, in w h ic h Siva renames the transform ed K a li b oth
Tripura-sundari and Sod asi.37 T h e name is also u n derstood to m ean "she
wh o has sixteen (good) q u a litie s."s'M o r e esoterically, the name can mean
me sixteenth" or "she w h o is the sixteenth." In this case it p ro b ab ly refers
to the phases o fth e m o o n , the lu n ar tithis, o f w h ic h there are fifteen in
me b rig h t h a lf o f the lu n ar m o n th (sukla paksa) and fifteen in the dark
h alf (krsna paksa). T h ese tithis are often p erson ified as goddesses. A s the
sixteenth, Sodasi is that w h ic h is b ey o n d the phases, or the rh yth m s o f
tone. O r she m ay be u n derstood as the ad d itio n al elem ent that lends to
• in d iv id u a l tithis the im petus to w ax and w ane, the re a lity that u n d er-
i22 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
lies cosm ic rhythm s and im pels the cosmos along an o rd e rly course,
the cusp o f the lunar phases, she is the m ysterious elem ent that transcends
and yet encompasses all th in g s .39 "T h e ad dition o f a sixteenth element
to an established set o f fifteen is analogous to the ad dition o f a fourth el
em ent to established triads. T h e 'sixteenth' elem ent d eliberately plays on
the sym bolism o f'p lu s one,' that is, a set ofth ree or fifteen plus one more
e l e m e n t __T h e sixteenth elem ent, like the fou rth in a set o f threes, sub
sumes and encompasses the others as w e ll as com pletes the sym bolic pat
tern o f m ean in gs."40
T h e name L a lita , "she w h o is lo v e ly ," "the lo v e ly one," is also said to
have un iversal, cosm ological, or m ystical significance. Bhaskararaya says:
T h e wise say, "The w ord lalita has eight meanings, nam ely brillianc
manifestation, sweetness, depth, fixity, energy, grace and generosity; the
are the eight human qualities." T h e Kdma-sdstra says: L alita means erotic
actions and also tenderness; as she has all the above-mentioned qualities,
she is called L alita. It is said also, "T h o u art rig h tly called L alita for thou
hast nine divine attendants [in the Sri cakra, see below] and your bow is
made of sugar-cane, y ou r arrows are flowers, and everything connected
w ith you is lo vely (lalita).
It seems clear that com m entators on the m eaning o f Tripura-sundari's

names begin w ith the assumption that she is the highest reality, or reality
itself, and find in her epithets m ystical meanings that affirm this. W hether
she is called L a lita , Sodasi, T ripura-sun dari, or one o f several other com
m on names, she is the cosm ic queen from w h o m everyth in g originates, in
w h o m ev eryth in g inheres, and b y w h o m ev eryth in g w i l l be dissolved.
T h e Srividya Mantra and the Sri C a k r a
T h e goddess Tripura-sundari's id e n tity w ith the Srividya

m antra and the Sri cakra yan tra have been elaborated b y theorists o f the
S rivid ya cult. W h i l e w e m igh t be tem pted to refer to the S riv id y a mantra
as her m antra, and the Sri cakra as her yan tra, as sym bols in sound and
diagram o f the goddess w h o m w e im agine in an th rop om orp h ic form>
practitioners o f the cu lt insist, on the contrary, that the m antra is she*
that the cakra is she, h erse lf.42 Indeed, th ey say that the anthroponior'
p h ic image o f the goddess, the d eity described in m yths and praised ip
hym ns, w h o has characteristics and a p h ysical appearance and w h o u°
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
dArtakes actions and plays roles, is a gross form that, to some extent, hides
hibj- essential nature. In the v ie w o f the S rivid ya cult, this ph ysical, an
th rop om orph ic aspect o f the goddess is her sthula form , w h ic h is c o n
sidered crude com pared to her illu m in ative (s'iiksma) and supreme (para)
manifestations, w h ic h in tu rn are id en tified w ith her forms as m antra and
cakra, resp e ctiv ely .43
Both mantras and yantras are cen tral to T a n tric sddhand. H o w ever,
Tripura-sundari, in the S rivid ya cu lt, expresses m ore c le arly than any o f
th»e other M ahavidyas the im portance o f mantras and yantras in the w o r
ship and con cep tu alization ofthese goddesses. It is appropriate, then, to
d w ell here in more detail on the significance o f m antra and yantra b y an
alyzin g h o w th ey express and relate to T rip u ra-su n dari. T h e first po in t
that must be em phasized is that the m antra and yantra are affirm ed in
the cult to be unm ediated revelations, not hum an or c u ltu ra l constructs.
N o r are th ey partial revelations: th ey are not sim p ly clues to, or aspects
of, the transcendent goddess. T h e y are the goddess in her purest, h ig h
est, most intense form . W e m igh t th in k o fth e m antra and the yantra as
forms o f grace. T h a t is, the goddess has given these com plete expressions
o f herself to certain sp iritu a lly advanced people in the S riv id y a cult.
A s explained in P art I, the m antra and yantra are n ot p u b lic. T h a t is,
although th ey m ay be available to the u n in itiated (the m antra is n o w avail
able in p rin t in m any places, and the yantra is displayed in m any books
and tem ples),.their p o ten cy depends upon th eir b ein g transm itted to i n
d ivid ual adepts b y sp iritu al masters (gurus). F o r u n in itia ted or sp iritu ally
unqualified people to recite or devote themselves to the m antra or yantra
is ineffective; the goddess's rea lity and in h eren t po w er w ill not be rea l
ized. Bhaskararaya says: "T h e d evotion o f the inept to the external os
tentation [of the srividya], b ein g w ith o u t aptitude for w hat is necessary,
is like a b od y in w h ic h life has perished, or a puppet from w h ic h the strings
are d etached ."44
B ecom ing sp iritu a lly qualified to benefit from the in h eren t po w er o f
the goddess in her m antric (or yantric) form demands extended spiritual
preparation under the guidance o f a guru, d u rin g w h ic h the adept learns
t h ' significance o fth e m antra (and yantra). T h e po w er o fth e m antra r e
m ans latent unless the p ra ctitio n e r understands its special, sacred sig
nificance. It is d u rin g preparation for in itia tio n that the guru co m m u n i
cates this to the student. T h is in stru ctio n , w h ic h introduces the adept to
" a “ elite form o f sp irituality, lin k e d to the concept o f favorable karm a ac-
qv>ked over the course o f countless previous b ir th s ," 45 culm inates in an
elaborate ritu al in w h ic h the master transmits the S rivid ya m antra to the
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
M-
Fig. 18. Tripura-sundari w ith the Sri yantra, contemporary lithograph.
student. T h is ultimate revelation o f the goddess makes her fu lly accessi

ble to the initiate. A t this point the guru may also give the initiate a p h y '
ical form o f the Sri cakra for his or her personal use in sddhand.
In learning the significance o f the mantra, the student first comes to
appreciate that the mantra (or yantra) is a full expression of the goddess-
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
B egin n in g w ith this assum ption, the adept is then prepared to appreci
ate the esoteric or m ystical meanings o f the in d iv id u a l parts o f the mantra
(or yantra) and its overall correspondence to oth er sym bols or expres
sions ofu ltim a te rea lity in the H in d u trad itio n . T h a t is, the student, u n
der the in stru ction o f the guru, learns to discern in the m antra e *ery as
pect and dim en sion o f cosm ological, spiritual, and existential tru th . A t
in the case o ft h e goddess's nam es, so here the h id d e n m eanin gs o fth e
sacred expression are elaborately draw n out. Each syllable o fth e mantra,
each line and angle o f the yantra, is infused w ith m eaning (or suffused
w ith m eaning, depending upon one's po in t o f view ) and is gradually ab
sorbed b y the spiritual adept in his or her on go in g d evotion and use o f
the mantra. O n e w a y o f th in k in g about the mantra as con tain in g all re
ality, accord in g to Bhaskararaya, is to th in k o fth e m antra as a seed c o n
taining in po ten tial form the entire or fu ll-g ro w n plant. "As a banyan tree
is found in its seed, so [the mantras] contain ev eryth in g and are c o m
p le te."46 C re a tio n proceeds from seed mantras to language (especially
Sanskrit), to oth er languages (w h ich , accord in g to B rahm anical trad itio n ,
all derive from Sanskrit), to other sounds, and fin a lly to all sounds in c re
ation. T h ro u g h o u t the w h o le cosmos, then, the seed mantras exist as the
essential form or p o w er o f reality.
To give an example o f h o w the S riv id y a m antra is interpreted as c o n
taining the fullness and essence o f ultim ate reality, let us see h o w those
in the trad itio n o f the Srivid ya cu lt discern in the S rivid ya m antra the
presence o f the G a y a tri m antra, the m antra from the Rg-veda in praise
o f the sun, "the most h o ly passage o f that most h o ly scrip tu re ."47 T h e
Srividya mantra consists o f fifteen syllables that have no lite ra l m eaning:
ka, e, i, la, hrim, ha, sa, ka, ha, la, hrim, sa, ka, la, hrim. T h e G a y a tri, on
the other hand, consists ofm a n y m ore than fifteen syllables and has a l i t
eral m eaning: it praises the sun. Bhaskararaya finds that each syllable o f
the Srivid ya m antra contains one or several syllables from the G a ya tri
and, therefore, that the G a y a tri inheres in the S rivid ya m antra. He lists
the correspondences b y associating specific sounds in the tw o mantras;
for example, ka = tat, e = savitur varenyam, i = bhargo devasya dhi-, and so
on through both m antras.48T h e S rividya m antra is also d ivid ed in to three
parts, or three peaks (kutas). Just as cosm ological, m ystical, or m editative
triads are found hidden in the name T rip u ra-su n dari, so each peak o fth e
mantra is com pared to a cosm ological, spiritual dynam ic. T h e r e is the
peak concern ed w ith the po w er o f speech, the peak concern ed w ith the
Pow er o f desire, and the peak concern ed w ith the u n d e rly in g s'akti ofth e
cosmos. Brahm a, V is n u , and Siva; the m oon , the sun, and fire; the three
126 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas) — these and oth er triads are id en tified with
the three peaks. In this w ay the triple-peaked m antra is seen to corre
spond to the cosmos, or the cosmos is seen to inhere in the three parts
o f the m an tra.49
T h e mantra is also held to have six esoteric or m ystical meanings
(artha). Bhaskararaya describes them as follow s: the first is that the mantra
is id en tica l w ith the supreme goddess, Trip u ra-su n dari; the second is that
the mantra is id en tica l w ith the five basic elem ents and the th irty-six
tattvas (categories o f creation); the th ird is the id e n tity o fth e self (atman),
the guru, and Siva, w h ic h are represented b y the three "peaks"; the fourth
is the id e n tity betw een the m antra and the planets, the senses and th eir
objects, and the m aterial and spiritual w orlds; the fifth is that the mantra
is related to the cakras in the body; and the sixth is that u ltim a tely all is
one, that the mantra and ev eryth in g to w h ic h it is com pared coinhere in
an indivisible u n ity .50
In extricab ly related to the Srivid ya m antra and eq u ally cen tral to the
Srivid ya cult is the Sri cakra, the yantra form o f the goddess T rip u ra -
sun dari.51 T h e yantra is to be h eld in the m in d or w orshiped in a p h y s i
cal m anifestation. L ik e the m antra, the yantra is not an abbreviated or
schem atic representation o fth e a n th rop om orph ic goddess. T h e Sri cakra
is the goddess herself in com plete, unm ediated form ; it fu lly contains and
expresses her. L ik e the m antra, the Sri cakra is the self-revelation, the self
expression o fth e goddess in her most essential form . A s the svarilpa (own
form) o f the goddess, w h o encompasses all o f reality, ev eryth in g inheres
in the Sri cakra; all o f reality and the v e ry nature o f rea lity can be read in
terms o f it. If w e th in k o fth e m antra as the expression o f ultim ate real
ity (brahman) in the form o f sound, th en w e can th in k o fth e Sri cakra as
the ve ry form o f brahman in schem atic or visu al form . T h e cakra is es
sen tially made up o f nin e triangles, five p o in tin g dow n w ard and four
p o in tin g upw ard (in some cases five are p o in tin g upw ard and four are
p o in tin g dow nw ard), w h ic h overlap each oth er and create m any sub
sidiary triangles; these in turn are located w ith in an eight-petaled lotus,
w h ic h in tu rn is w ith in a sixteen-petaled lotus; the lotuses are sur
rounded b y four circles; and the w h o le is enclosed w ith in four gates o f
triple lines. In the v e ry center o fth e Sri cakra is a dot, the bindu.
T h e Sri cakra expresses the essential nature o f ultim ate rea lity as the
in teraction and m utual coinherence o f Siva and Sakti, male and female,
p o ten tia lity and actuality. T h e bindu in the center represents their ab
solute u n io n and id en tity, w h ile the rest o fth e cakra represents th e ir evo
lu tio n in to the cosmos. T h e five d o w n w a rd -p o in tin g triangles represent
TRIPURA-SUNDARI
Sakti, w h ile the u p w a rd -p o in tin g triangles represent Siva. T h e y overlap

to represent the m in g lin g , in teractio n , and m utual influence o f these tw o
powers. T h e predom inance o f Sakti in this ren d erin g o f the cakra im plies
her dom inant position in the creation. E ach petal o f each lotus has a p re
siding female deity. T hese s'aktis are attendants or guardians o f the c en
tral deities, Siva and Sakti in u n io n in the bindu. T h e re are also attendant
deities at the outer gates w h o are often associated w ith siddhls, spiritual
or magical powers or perfections acquired b y the sddhaka in his or her
spiritual sojourn. In general, the siddhis associated w ith the outerm ost
deities are the least p o w erfu l and least d ifficu lt to acquire, w h ile those
associated w ith the inn erm ost deities are the m ost d ifficu lt to acquire and
the most sp iritu a lly p o ten t.52
T h e Sri cakra can be read from the center to the outer gates, or c o n
versely from the outer gates to the center. In the form er case, one im ag
ines the creation o fth e w o r ld as one moves from the center outw ard. T h is
sequence is called srstikrama. O n e identifies on eself w ith the expanding
creation and understands one's spiritual prowess and awareness to be ex
panding along w ith the cosmos. In the reverse process, the sddhaka im ag
ines the gradual dissolution o f the cosmos and its rein tegration in to the
bindu, w h ic h is w ith o u t name and form . T h is sequence is called
samhdrakrama, and in the course o f it one im agines one's ow n dissolution
and gradual rein tegration into the O n e represented b y the bindu. In both
cases the Sri cakra is read as a schem atic ren d erin g o f one's ow n spiritual
journey. In eith er case, the exercise, w h ic h is undertaken ritu ally, is held
to be sp iritually transform ative.
In the S rivid ya cu lt, the S rivid ya m antra and the Sri cakra are in te r
preted as tw o different expressions o f the same goddess. In b oth cases it
is affirmed that the goddess h erself is fu lly expressed and that each ex
pression, mantra and yantra, reveals the essential dynam ics o f cosm ic evo
lution and dissolution. In a ritu al context, the m antra and yantra are i n
terconnected and reinforce each other. It is fair to say that the goddess
Tripura-sundari is most inten sely and co m p letely revealed in the Srivid ya
cult w h en a sp iritu a lly mature adept, in v o k in g her m antra w h ile im p li
edly understanding its subtle meanings, im agin atively or in actuality c o n
structs the Sri cakra.
It is clear that the w ay in w h ic h the oth er M ahavidyas are presented
ln many tantras and tantric com pendium s also puts a p rem iu m on th eir
mantras and yantras. Each o fth e goddesses is in tim a te ly connected w ith
these expressions and is appropriated ritu a lly in a ll her po w er b y means
“fthese "devices." T h e cen tra lity ofm antra and yantra in the w orsh ip o f
i2 8 TRIPURA-SUNDARI
Tripura-sundari and specifically in the Srividya cult should not be taken

as idiosyncratic. T h e ir use is typical oftantric sddhand. The emphasis on
mantra and yantra also underlines the fact that Tripura-sundari, and th,
other Mahavidyas as w ell, are on ly fully realized, understood, and ex
pressed existentially by individual sddhakas in ritual contexts. The god
desses are born, as it were, by means of sddhand. T h eir reality is inextri
cably connected w ith the ritually induced experiences of their devotees.
Bhuvanesvari
S h e W^hoseBody I s the XY-'or/d
H er com plexion is ve rm illio n in color. She has three eyes and wears a
crow n resplendent w ith jewels. She has the disk o f the m oon on her brow
and has a sm iling face. H er breasts are high and firm. In her tw o hands
she holds a red lotus and a b o w l filled w ith jewels. She is very peaceful
and amiable. H er right foot rests on a jeweled jar. In this w ay one should
meditate upon the supreme m other goddess.1
She is the color o f ligh tn in g and is seated on a red lotus. She has three
eyes and is naked. She is adorned w ith pearls of many colors. She has
tw enty arms in w h ich she holds a sword, spear, club, disc, conch, bow, ar
rows, scissors, trident, mace, garland, and makes the boon -con ferrin g ges
ture and the assurance gesture. She has a sm iling face.2
Origin Myth
T h e o n ly m y th I have found that m entions the o rig in or

emergence o f Bhuvanesvari appears in a contem porary H in d i source. It
says that in the b egin n in g the sun, Surya, appeared in the heavens. Rsis
(sages) offered soma (a sacred plant) so that the w o r ld m ight be created.
T h e sun then created the three w orlds (lokas or bhuvanas). A t that time
Sodasi (Tripura-sundari) was the m ain pow er, or s'akd, th ro u g h w h o m
Surya created them . H a v in g created the w orlds, or h avin g em pow ered
the sun to do so, the goddess assumed an appropriate form and pervaded
and directed the triple w o r ld . In this form she became k n o w n as B h u
vanesvari, "mistress o fth e w o r ld ." T h e author also says that Bhuvanesvari
Fig. 19. Bhuvanesvari, nineteenth century’. Jaipur, Rajasthan. A jit M ookerjee
Co llectio n o f T an tric Art, N ational M useum . D elhi.
BHUVANESVARI 131
remains unm anifest u n til the w o rld is created. T h a t is, Bhuvanesvari is

particularly associated w ith the visible, created w o r ld .3T h e m yth also em
phasizes that Bhuvanesvari is a form o f Sodasi (Tripura-sundari).
Bhuvanesvari as the Embodiment

ofthe Physical W orld
M o re than any o fth e other M ahavidyas, w ith the possible

exception o f Kamala, Bhuvanesvari is associated and identified w ith the
earth, the creation in general, and the u n d e rly in g energy that brings it to
be and pervades it. She embodies the characteristic dynamics and co n
stituents that make up the w o rld and that lend creation its distinctive char
acter. In this sense, as w e shall see, she is identified w ith the mahdbhutas
(the basic physical elements) and prakrti (nature or the physical w orld).
H er name itself stresses this, Bhuvana (mistress o fth e w orld), as do sev
eral o fh e r epithets, such as M aham aya, Sarvesi (mistress o f all), Bhuvanesi
(a synonym for Bhuvanesvari), Sarvariipa (she whose form is all), V isvarupa
(she whose form is the w orld ), She W h o M akes A l l the W o rld s, She W h o
D w ells in the Five Basic Elem ents, She W h o M akes the Basic E lem ents.4
T h e Bhuvanesvari-stotra praises her as the form ofthe five bhutas (elements)
and as the m oon and the sun.5 H e r hundred-nam e h ym n from the
Rudraydmala says that she is each o f the five basic elem ents.6 T h e Devi-
bhdgavata-purdna says that the universe rests on Bhuvanesvari, arises from
her, melts away into her, and, w h ile it exists, is identified w ith her. B h u
vanesvari is also identified with prakrti.7T h e w o rld is said to emerge from
her as a w eb emerges from a spider or as sparks emerge from fire.8 O th e r
M ahavidyas are associated w ith the physical w o rld and creation, particu
larly in their thousand-name hym ns, as w e ll as w ith the cosm ic rhythm s
o f creation, maintenance, and destruction, but this emphasis is the most
sustained and consistent in regard to Bhuvanesvari.
Bhuvanesvari does not seem to have had a widespread cu lt o fh e r ow n
p rior to being incorporated into the M ahavidyas. Some early sources re
fer to her, however, or to goddesses very like her. T h e Praparicasdra-tantra,
for example, w h ic h is attributed to Sankara, and if not actually w ritten
by him is probably a quite early South Indian tantric text, extols the god
dess Prapancesvari, "mistress o fth e fivefold w o r ld ." T h e description o f
her closely resembles that o f Bhuvanesvari in later literature. A t one point,
for example, the text says that she has the luster o f a thousand risin g suns,
B 11U VAN VAR]
Fig, 2 0 . Bhuvanesvari, by Bhatuk Ramprasad. Printed w ith the permission of

Dr. Bhanu Shanker M ehta, Varanasi.
wears the crescent m oon on her head, holds a noose and a goad, and makes
the gestures o f g iv in g boons and b esto w in g fearlessness (11.16). T h e b ija
mantra (seed mantra) of this goddess is also the same as Bhuvanesvari's,
nam ely, brim . In tantric p h ilo so p h y and practice the b ija m antra is the
goddess h erself in her most essential and com plete form , so the id en tity
BHUVANESVARI
o f the goddess o f the Prapancasdra-tantra and the later goddess B h u

vanesvari is im p lied (although the bija m antra hrim is used for oth er god
desses besides these two). Prapaiicesvari is u n d o u bted ly an early expres
sion o f B huvanesvari, or at least her prototype.
Prapanca, the term used in this text for " w o r ld ," refers to the fivefold
(prapanca) nature o fth e creation, that is, the five basic elem ents— ether,
fire, water, w in d , and earth — w h ic h constitute the ph ysical creation. T h e
name Prapancesvari, "she w h o is mistress o fth e fivefold w o r ld ," associ
ates the goddess w ith the m aterial creation and thus withprakrti. As prakrti
this goddess is ta n g ib ly present in the ph ysical w o rld ; indeed, she is the
w orld. H e r reality is im m ediate and her presence im m anent and acces
sible. A hym n in praise o f Prapancesvari in the Prapancasdra-tantra stresses
this id en tification w ith the p h ysical w o r ld .9 She is called Pradhana (the
receptacle o f all matter), P ra k rti, and She W h o Is the F orm o fth e E le
mental W o r ld (v. i ) . 10 In one place she is praised as each o f the five ele
ments (bhutas) and its correspon din g ph ysical sense (indriya): "Obeisance
to Thee in the form o f sound and ether, / Salutation to T h ee in the form
o f touch and air, / O beisance to T h ee in the form o f sight and fire, / Salu
tation to T h ee in the form o f taste and water, / O beisance to T h ee in the
form o f earth w ith its q u ality o f sm ell" (v. 5)." She is further praised in
v iv id ly concrete terms as manifest in "ear, skin, eyes, tongue and nose,
and in the form o f m ou th , speech, arms, legs, organs o f excretion and
generation" (v. 6).12 She is also praised as manifest in m ountains, oceans,
stars, islands, and even the netherw orld s (v. 1 8 ) . She is, in short, the go d
dess w h o is "the form o fth e w h o le U n iverse: W h o pervadest a ll" (v. 6).13
In her m anifestation as a M a h a vid y a , Bhuvanesvari is often described
in three forms that are v e ry sim ilar in appearance. T h e y have different
com plexions, how ever: gold, red, and b lu ish . As these three forms p ro b
ably correspond to the three gunas that make up the fabric o f m aterial
creation, th ey suggest in another w ay Bhuvanesvari's id en tifica tio n w ith
the m aterial w o r l d .14
T h e Cosmic Queen
Prapaiicesvari and her later m anifestation as Bhuvanesvari

*• ■goddesses whose pow er and rea lity go b eyond the ph ysical creation
'tself. T h e y are also id en tified w ith that from w h ic h the ph ysical creation
Proceeds and that w h ic h governs the ph ysical creation. T h e y are the
BHUVANESVARI
source o f all and that in to w h ic h all dissolves at the end o fth e cosm ic c y
cle. T h is aspect o f Prapancesvari-Bhuvanesvari's character is often ex
pressed in terms o f her overseeing the three cosm ic functions o f creation,
m aintenance, and destruction. She is the cosm ic queen, she w h o pervades
the creation and from w h o m it emerges and in to w h o m it even tu ally dis
solves. H e r h y m n o f praise in the Rudrayamala says that she is the m other
o f B rahm a, V is n u , and Siva and the cause o f th e ir forms and functions,
that is, the cause o f creation, m aintenance, and d e stru c tio n .15In her th o u
sand-name h y m n from the Rudrayamala, she is called She W h o Is the
Cause o f M ahapralaya (the great cosm ic d issolu tion ).16In the Prapancasdra-
tantra, Siva says in h er praise: " W h a te v e r is kn ow ab le, is she herself. T h is
m ovable and im m ovable w o r ld d u rin g the mahapralaya goes to rest in
h e r ." 17 She is also called Jagaddhatri, "she w h o nurses the w o r ld ," or "w orld
n u rse ."18 T h e Devi-bhdgavata-purdna says that she directs and upholds
e v e r y th in g .19 T h a t is, she is the source o fth e v ita lity that pervades the
p h ysical creation as w e ll as b ein g id en tica l w ith the creation itself. A par
tic u la rly dram atic image o f Bhuvanesvari's cosm ic role occurs in the
Mahdtanira, a Vaisnavite tantra: she is the fig leaf that supports V is n u w h en
he lies on the cosm ic ocean duringpralaya.20
B huvanesvari not o n ly nourishes the creation, she protects it. She does
this b y assuming various form s to com bat dem onic forces and preserve
or restore cosm ic order. H e r thousand-nam e h ym n from the Rudrayamala
calls her the slayer o f M ahisasura, the slayer o f Sum bha and N isu m bh a,
the destroyer o f Raktabija, and the destroyer o fM a d h u and K a ita b h a ,21
roles that associate her w ith the Devi-mdhatmya and the dem on -slaying
p ro tecto r o f the cosmos, D u rg a , w h o incarnates h erse lf in appropriate
forms to m ain tain the w elfare o f the w o r ld . In the same h y m n , B h u
vanesvari is also lin k e d to the three goddesses w h o are associated w ith
the cosm ic functions, the sdkta version o fth e male trimurti: Sarasvaff (cre
ation), L aksm i (m aintenance), and K a li (d estru ction ).22
T h e Bija M antra Hrim
In her role as creator and pervader o f the cosmos, B h u

vanesvari is often id en tified w ith Sarasvaff, p a rticu la rly as the goddess of
speech. She is called V agesvari, "mistress o f sp eech,"23 and is id en tified
w ith s'abda brahman, "u ltim ate rea lity in the form o f sound. T h a t is, B h u
vanesvari is id en tified w ith the created order and w ith its essence as sound.
BHUVANESVARI
A n analysis o f Bhuvanesvari's bija m antra, hrim, illustrates her em

bodim ent o f creation and the stages in the creative process and also shows
the cen tra lity o f bija mantras for all o f the M ahavidyas. W e are in the
habit o f referrin g to the bija m antra as b elo n g in g to a particu lar goddess,
but in fact, as was made clear in the case o f S rivid ya (see the chapter on
Tripura-sundari), the bija m antra is the goddess herself, and her p h y s i
cal, an th rop om orp h ic image is considered h er sthula, or gross form , a re
fracted or im perfect representation ofh er. W e are so used to th in k in g o f
a d eity in ph ysical, anth rop om orp h ic form , and so unused to th in k in g o f
one as a sound, that it is unnatural for us to lo o k to the bija m antra as the
essential m anifestation o fth e goddess. In tantric p h ilo so p h y and sddhand,
how ever, the mantra has p r io r ity over the p h ysical image o fth e goddess.
It is not surprising, therefore, to find com m entaries or analyses that elab
orate the entire cosmos in terms o f a given mantra. It is sim p ly assumed
that the m antra, w h ic h is the goddess herself, contains all o f reality, that
the m antra is the cosmos in its essential form . T h e lite ra l translation,
"seed," m ay m islead us; "essence" w o u ld be better, for in tantric thought,
the cosmos represents a refraction o f the essential b ein g o f the goddess,
w h ic h is the m antra itself. A seed is o n ly realized or com pleted in the
grow th o f a tree, but in the tantric view , the m antra is already com plete,
the em erging cosmos a natural and necessary effect, or em anation, o fth e
mantra. W e can thus appreciate the great secrecy w ith w h ic h mantras are
guarded in tantric trad itio n . T h e m antra is ultim ate po w er and creativ
ity, the essential revelation o f the goddess herself, indeed, the goddess
herself made accessible to the sddhaka.
T h e exp lication o f Bhuvanesvari's bija m antra (hrim) is the subject o f
chapter 4 o fth e Prapancasdra-tantra. T h ere w e find each o fth e four c o m
ponents o f the mantra— ha, ra, i, and m (bindu)— interpreted as basic
phases or constituents o fth e cosm ic creative process. D ifferen t letters o f
the alphabet are said to proceed from each o fth e four com ponents o fth e
mantra, along w ith certain deities and certain aspects o fth e p h ysical c re
ation. T h e creation proceeds from the m antra on three levels: sound,
deities, and the ph ysical creation. W i t h i n the ph ysical creation, fu rth er
more, the creative pattern repeats itse lf in the m aturation o fth e em bryo.
T h e letters o f the alphabet are said to have a threefold character— solar,
lunar, and fiery — and to correspond to the goddess in her th reefold as
pect o f sun, m oon , and fire.25 T h a t from w h ic h all emanates, the m antra
itself, is referred to as the paramdtman, the supreme or transcendent self
°r soul. In the ph ysical creation, the goddess is the sun from w h o m the
planets and constellations derive. In terms o f sound she is the G a ya tri
136 BHUVANESVARI
mantra, the most sacred verses ofthe Vedas. She is also said to be kwidalini
sakti and as such is the en ergizin g elem ent o f the hum an organism that
is awakened in sddhand or in the recitation o f mantras. She is said to sleep
in the mulddhdra cakra and as kundalinixa rise up th ro u g h the cakras, break
ing the knots w ith in them and liberating the w orsh ip er.26 Letters (sounds),
deities, and the physical constituents o f the creation, then, are in e x tri
cably associated in the creative process that emerges w h en the bija
mantra hrim is uttered. From the tantric perspective, o f course, all ofthese
emanations— sound, deity, constituents o fth e m aterial w o r ld , aspects o f
the hum an organism— are subsidiary to the m antra itself, to the goddess
herself, w h o is com plete and self-contained.
T he Bhuvanesvari Yantra
Yantras have an im portant place in the w orsh ip o f all of

the M ahavidyas. As m entioned above, the Sri cakra, the yantra particu
lar to Tripura-sundari, is considered id en tical w ith the d eity in question.
A lth o u g h the yantras o f differing deities vary in design, and th ou gh the
deities and powers represented m ay also vary, the overall structure and
logic o f the yantra, p articu larly am ong the M ahavidyas, are consistent.
S im ilarly, the overall purpose o fw o rsh ip in g the yantra, the w ay in w h ic h
it is w orshiped, and its role in tantric sddhand are also consistent among
the M ahavidyas.
To understand the context in w h ic h the M ahavidyas are w orshiped, it
is im portant to look in detail at yantra sddhand (the construction and w o r
ship o f a yantra), and Bhuvanesvari's m ay be taken as representative. It is
sim pler than some (such as the Sri cakra) and more com plex than others.
It com bines the basic shapes and patterns o f the other yantras and de
picts a series o f deities and powers that are com m on to m ost o fth e other
M ahavidyas. T h e m ethod o fw o rsh ip in g the Bhuvanesvari yantra also is
typical and can be extended, in most o f its features, to all o f the other
M ah avid ya yantras. I w ill therefore give a detailed description ofthe B h u
vanesvari yantra from the Tantrasdra as an example ofth is aspect o f M a h a
vid y a w o r sh ip .27
In the center o f the yantra one is to im agine a bindu, a spot, dot, or
"seed," or the seed syllable o f Bhuvanesvari, hrim, but in actual pictures
o fth e yantra the center is usually blank. A ro u n d the center are tw o i n
te rlo c k in g or superimposed triangles, one p o in tin g dow n and the other
BHUVANESVARI
up. Together th ey form a six-pointed star. A ro u n d these triangles is a c ir

cle w ith eight petals (an eight-petaled lotus), and around this another lo
tus o f sixteen petals. T h e outerm ost boundary o f the yantra is a three-
lined rectangular frame con tain in g four gates or entrances.
In overall design, the yantra is intended to represent the emergence
o fth e cosmos from the center to the edges, so its details are usually given
from the m iddle outw ard. T h e bindu sym bolizes the con ju n ctio n o fS iva
and Sakti in harm onious tension. It m ay also represent ambikd s akti and
s'd n td s'ak tic o n jo in e d (discussed b elo w ). T h e bija m an tra is the goddess
herself in her essential being. W h e n the bindu or the mantra begins to
expand, pulsate, or vibrate (all three terms are sometimes used), the first
th in g that appears is a po in t w here tw o em erging polarities com bine in
harm onious tension; this is follow ed by tw o additional pairs com in g into
being, each o f w h ic h creates another point. These three points form the
first, innerm ost triangle and are are called pithas (seats). T h e three pairs
are iccbd s 'akti (the p o w er o f w ill) and v a m a sakti (the l e f t w a r i l powtr);jlldnn
s akti (the pow er o f know ledge) and jyesthd s'akti (the elder power); and
kriya sakti (the pow er o f action) and raudrd s'akti (the fierce pow er). T o
gether these three pith as represent the triple nature o f creation as will or
desire (icchd), know ledge (jridna), and action (kriya), w h ic h is a com m on
schema in T antrism . A fou rth pair, form in g a fo u rth pitha, is to be im ag
ined in the m iddle o fth e trian gle (this is ambika sakti and s'dn tds 'akti), and
together the fo u r pithas are said to represent the four Mahapfthas, or
places sacred to the goddess, on the Indian su b contin en t— Kamarupa,
Jalandhara, P u rn ag iri, and U d d iya n a — w h ic h m ark the four "corners" o f
India. T h e d o w n w ard -p o in tin g triangle, representing the y o n i, also may
be thought of as the goddess Sakti, the upw ard-p ointin g one as Siva; over
lapping each other, the tw o triangles are said to be Sakti and Siva in u n io n
or sexual embrace. T h e d ow n w ard -p oin tin g triangle also m ay be thought
o f as creation or em anation (or exhalation), the u p w ard -p o in tin g one as
dissolution (inhalation), and the tw o together as sy m b o lizin g the basic
rhythm o f the cosmos.
O n the eight petals o f the in n er lotus are the fo llo w in g goddesses, be
gin n in g in the east (at the top o f the diagram) and going clockw ise to
ward the south: Jaya, V ija y a, A jita , Aparajita, N ity a , V ila s in i, D o g d h ri,
and G h ora; in the m iddle is M arigala. F ou r goddesses stand at the four
cardinal directions around the in n er pericarp o fth e in n er lotus: Gagana
(east), Rakta (south), K aralika (north), and M ahoccusm a (west). A t the
six apexes o fth e triangles in the center are the fo llo w in g divin e pairs, be
gin n in g in the east and going clockw ise tow ard the south: G ayatri and
138 BHUVANESVARI
Brahm a, S aitri and V is n u , SarasvatT and R udra, Sri and D h anapati (K u -

bera), R ati and K am a, and P u sti and Ganesa. A t the interstices o fth e i n
n er circle at the n o rth and south are San kh an id hi (w ealth o fth e co n ch ,
that is, the sea) and P ad m an id h i (w ealth o fth e earth).
O n the tips o f the eigh t petals o f the in n er lotus are the fo llo w in g
goddesses, b e g in n in g in the east and go in g clo ck w ise tow ard the south,
most o fw h o m are form s o fR a ti: A nariga-ku su m a (east), "w h o longs for
u n io n w ith K am a"; A n ariga-kusum atura (southeast), "w h o rea lly longs
for u n io n w ith K am a"; Anariga-m adana (south), K a m i-d e v i; A n ariga-
madanatura (southwest), Bhuvana-pala (west), "w h o protects the w o r ld " ;
A n a rig a -ve d ya (n orthw est), "w h o is k n o w n b y K am a"; Sasti-rekha
(north), "crescent m o o n ," s ig n ify in g an adolescent g ir l; and G agana-
rekha (northeast), "m oon crescent," sig n ify in g a prepubescent g ir l. If
these forms o fR a ti are read in reverse order, th e y m ay im p ly the trans
form ation o f a y o u n g g ir l in to a sexually m ature w o m a n . It is n ot clear
w h y m aturation should fo llo w the co u n terclo ck w ise d ire ctio n , w h e n the
em ergence o f the cosmos takes place in clo ck w ise fashion in the c o n
stru ctio n or em ergence o f the yan tra.
In the eight spaces betw een the eigh t in n er petals o f the lotus are the
followings'aktis, b eg in n in g in the east and go in g clo ck w ise: Anariga-rupa-
d evi, A nariga-m adana-devi, B h uvana-vega-devi, Bhuvana-palika-devT,
Sarva-sisira-devi, Anariga-vedana-devT, and A nariga-m ekala-devi. Several
ofthese goddesses are also forms o fR a ti. In the sixteen petals o fth e outer
lotus there are the fo llo w in g s'aktis, b e g in n in g in the east and proceedin g
clo ck w ise to the south: K a ra lin i (dreadful), V ik a r a lin i (very dreadful),
U m a , Sarasvati, S ri, D u rg a , Usas, L ak sm i, S ru ti, S m rti, D h r ti (the po w er
o f support), Sraddha, M e d h a (m erit), M a ti (right discernm ent), K a n ti
(beauty), and A r y a (n o b ility ).
In the outer rectangle, at the four gates and the four corners, are the
fo llo w in g deities: Indra (east), A g n i (southeast), Yam a (south), N i r r t i
(southwest), V aru n a (west), V a y u (northw est), Soma (north), and Isana
(northeast). B rahm a is betw een the east and northeast and A n a n ta b e
tw een the west and southwest, representing, perhaps, the ze n ith and the
u n d e rw o rld . T h e ten Lokapalas (guardians o f the directions) and th eir
vahanas ("vehicles," usu ally animals) and weapons are also spread around
this outer perim eter. T h e ir weapons are the vajra, s'akti, danda, khadga,
p ds 'a, arikusa, gada, sula, padma, and cakra.
Yantras are used in different religiou s contexts for different reasons.
A yan tra m ay be in scribed on a silver, gold, or copper plate and be set up
for w o rsh ip in a tem ple or in a private h o m e. G enerallypM /a done to such
BHUVANESVARI
a perm anent form o fth e yantra is o fth e sixteen-part type. In that case
the yantra is w orshiped as a w h o le, as the goddess herself, and not in all
its particulars. T h e yantra also m ay be constructed on paper and, w ith
some personal m odifications made by a com petent guru, be w o rn on the
body as an am ulet or as a portable murti (image) o f the goddess for pu r
poses o f w orship.
T h e yantra is also used for in d iv id u a l tantric sddhand. In this case the
general aim o fth e sddhaka is "to id en tify w ith the deity, in this case B h u
vanesvari, and in d oin g so to obtain the powers that are in her sto re."28
In this type o f puja, the yantra is w orshiped in each o f its in d iv id u a l parts.
T h a t is, each o fth e s'aktis, goddesses, or deities is in d iv id u a lly w orshiped
b y the in vocation o f a mantra, in this case, often the Bhuvanesvari
mantra. T h e w orship o fth e yantra itse lf is preceded b y rituals o f p u r ifi
cation that includ e banishing in im ic a l spirits and in v o k in g guardian
deities. T h e sequence in w h ic h the elements in the yantra are invoked
m ay vary, and the actual w orship m ay be either m ental (in w h ic h case the
yantra is im agined to reside in the sddhakas heart) or outward and phys
ical. In the Tantrasdra and Sdkta-pramoda, the Bhuvanesvari yantra is de
scribed from the center outw ard, and the deities are in vok ed in c lo ck
wise order. T h a t is, the yantra represents the emergence o f the cosmos
in a spiraling, clockw ise fashion. T h e in vo catio n and w orsh ip o fth e d if
ferent elements, then, reiterate the creation o fth e w o rld .
T h ere is some in d icatio n , how ever, that the yantra (or at least the
yantras o f some o f the other M ahavidyas) m ay be w orshiped from the
outside inw ard, and in a cou nterclockw ise, in w a rd ly spiralin g order. In
the Mantra-mahodadhih, for example, the T ara yantra is w orshiped from
outside to inside, although each layer or coverin g is w orshiped in a c lo ck
wise d ir e c tio n .25 For the C hinnam asta yantra, w orsh ip is prescribed from
outside to inside. "W o rsh ip o f Chinnam asta D e v i should begin from the
outer-m ost coverin g and proceed in an inverse o rd e r."30 In such cases the
theme o f "going against the stream" comes to m ind . In classical yoga,
the p ractitioner de-creates the various elements o fprakrti, going against
the natural rhythm s o f creation, in an attempt to still or transcend the
lim itations o fth e physical w o rld . Classical yoga is the process o f dissolving
the creation in order to transcend it.
T a n tric yoga aims to unite the practitio n er w ith the deity. W h e n w o r
ship proceeds from the outside o fth e yantra to the inside, w e m igh t th in k
o fth e sddhaka as d istillin g or red u cin g the creation to a single point, the
central bindu or seed m antra o fth e goddess. H a vin g thereby concentrated
th e god d ess's essence, th e ad en t then identifies with that
BHUVANESVARI
T h e basic shapes and design o fth e yantra are significant. T h e tria n

gle and lotus dom inate the yantras o f all ten M ahavidyas, and in this re
spect the B huvanesvari yantra is typ ica l. T h e triangle, p a rticu la rly w h en
p o in tin g d ow n w ard, is a sym bol o f the y o n i and sym bolizes creation, gen
eration, and rep rod u ction . T h e lotus, too, is a creative sym bol in Indian
r e lig io n and in T an trism also represents the y o n i. It is often a sym bol o f
the liv in g cosmos, w h ic h is understood to be organic in nature. T h e blos
som ing lotus is liken ed to the m aturin g, em erging cosmos. As the seat of
a d eity or spiritual being, the lotus also denotes spiritual a u th ority and
com m and, spiritual perfection , pu rity, and completeness. B oth the t r i
angle and the lotus can be understood as female sym bols o f gro w th , em er
gence, and life energy.
T h e outer layers or coverings are the same in a ll the M ah avid ya
yantras, square or rectangular. These outer coverings, w h ic h constitute
the four gates or means o f access to the in terio r, are in h ab ited b y armed
male deities. In general structure, th en , the yantra has a m ale-dom inated,
square outer perim eter, w ith in w h ic h is a fem ale-dom inated, circular, and
triangular center. T h e in n er petals and points are dom inated b y female
beings, and m any o f th em , p a rticu la rly in the Bhuvanesvari yantra, are
forms o f R a ti, consort o f K am a, the god o f desire. T h a t is, the in n er d y
namics o fth e yantra are female orien ted and erotic, w h ile the outer lay
ers or coverings (dvaranas) are male oriented and associated w ith weapons.
W e m igh t th in k o fth e overall structure o fth e yantra as presenting a v i
sion o f the w o r ld in w h ic h an armed, m ale-dom inated exterior protects
a fem ale-dom inated in te rio r that is sexually dynam ic. A t the v e ry center,
o f course, is the bindu, w h ic h represents female and male (Sakti and Siva)
in harm onious tension or balance.
Bhuvanesvari's Beauty,
Attractiveness, and Symbols
Bhuvanesvari's beauty is m en tion ed often. T h e Tantrasdra

describes her as h avin g a golden com p lexion and a beautiful face, framed
w ith flo w in g hair the c o lo r ofb lackbees. H e r eyes are broad, her lips fu ll
and red, her nose delicate. H e r firm breasts are smeared w ith sandal paste
and saffron. H e r waist is th in , and her thighs, buttocks, and navel are
lovely. H e r beautiful throat is decorated w ith ornam ents, and her arms
are made for em bracing. Siva is said to have produced a th ird eye to v ie w
BHUVANESVARI 141
her more th o ro u g h ly .31 In her hundred-nam e stotra (hymn) in the Sdkta-

pramoda, she is said to be a beautiful y o u n g g ir l, to have a sm ilin g face,
and to have an attractive sexual organ. She is said to be the triangle itself
(the schematic representation o fth e y o n i) .32
T h e beauty and attractiveness o f Bhuvanesvari m ight be understood
as an affirm ation o fth e physical w o rld . Sdkta and tantric th o u gh t and
practice do n ot denigrate the w o rld or consider it illu so ry or delusory, as
do some other aspects o f Indian thought. T antra has a strong strain of
w o rld affirm ation, w h ic h insists that u n d e rly in g all o f rea lity is the
power, the s'akti, o f ultim ate reality. T h e physical w o r ld , the rhythm s of
creation, maintenance, and destruction, even self-infatuation and the han
kerings and sufferings ofth e hum an con d itio n , are all affirmed to be B hu-
vanesvari's play, her exhilarating, joyous sport.
Bhuvanesvari never ceases to attend to the w o rld , and this is the rea
son, one author states, that she has three eyes.33 She nourishes the w o rld
that she oversees and protects. Indeed, she is said to be food itself, on
w h ic h all creatures depend. H e r sm ilin g face reveals her gracious a tti
tude tow ard the w o rld and all those creatures w h o depend upon her for
sustenance.34 T h e gestures o f con ferrin g boons and rem ovin g fear also
express her gracious attitude tow ard the w o rld , p articu larly tow ard her
devotees.
T h e goad and noose held by Bhuvanesvari suggest co n tro l. A c c o r d
ing to an inform ant in Varanasi, the goad means that she controls evil
forces or in n er hindrances, such as anger, lust, and any obsession that i n
terferes w ith spiritual developm ent. T h e noose, according to the same
inform ant, sym bolizes the different b o d ily sheaths that hide, and th ere
fore bind, the spiritual essence o f a person, the dtman. T h e goddess th ere
fore helps discipline the devotee w ith her goad, w h ile at the same time
she is the pow er that masks one's true iden tity. She is both liberatin g
know ledge and mdyd; she both gives liberation and w ith h o ld s it. A n o th e r
source interprets the goad, the noose, and the tw o hand gestures (con
ferring boons and fearlessness) in terms o fth e stages in spiritual endeavor,
sddhand: the noose and goad help sddhakas co n tro l th e ir indriyas (sensory
perceptions), and w h en this is accom plished th rou gh her grace, they
achieve fearlessness and receive blessings from her. D harm a, or proper
m oral behavior, is also a form o f co n tro l, and Bhuvanesvari uses it to guide
people. In this sense her noose and goad m ay sym bolize d harm a.35
T h e red lotus and jew eled d rin k in g b o w l fu ll o f jewels that she holds
are symbols o f grow th and w ealth . T h e jewels represent abundance and
riches, w h ile the lotus represents the v ig o r in h eren t in the liv in g w o rld .
i ,2 BHUVANESVARI
Fig. 2 1. Bhuvanesvari, by Molaram, late eighteenth century, Garwahl,

Himachal Pradesh. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares H indu University, Varanasi.
Bhuvanesvari also wears the crescent m oon on her forehead, w h ic h , ac

co rd in g to an inform ant in Varanasi, represents the pow er o f rep len ish
m ent. T h is sym bolizes that Bhuvanesvari is the in n er essence o fth e cre
ated w o r ld , w h ic h empowers it to continue to reproduce itse lf endlessly
w ith renew ed vitality.
L ik e m any deities, and spiritual masters, Bhuvanesvari sits on a lotus.
T h is suggests a com m anding position and also the seat from w h ic h cre
ation sometimes takes place. Brahm a, for example, sits on a lotus g ro w
in g from V isnu's navel, and from this pow erfu l and dynam ic seat he cre
ates the w o r ld . Tripura-sun dari, sim ilarly, sits on a lotus and represents
the creation as w e ll as the cause o f creation. T h e lotus seat sym bolizes
spiritual mastery and triu m p h as w e ll: perfection that is grounded in the
w o rld like the roots o f a lotus, and y et transcends mat w o r ld . It is a sym
b ol o f authority, purity, and transcendence. Bhuvanesvari is called She
W h o W anders in the P hysical W o r ld , but she is also called, in the same
h ym n , She W h o W anders in the V o i d . 36 She is the w o r ld but also tran
scends it, as its source and as its container at dissolution.
BHUVANESVARI
D e v o tio n to Bhuvanesvari, finally, is said to b rin g the devotee auspi

ciousness, the pow er o f attracting and c o n tro llin g others, the pow er o f
vak siddhi (according to w h ic h an yth in g one says happens), and v ic to r y
over enemies. In this respect, her w orship emphasizes gaining m aterial
success and w ell-b e in g , w h ic h is appropriate for a goddess w h o is so
strongly id en tified w ith the ph ysical w o rld .
Chinnamasta
The Setf-Decapitated Goddess
V ic to r y to the light ofthe w orld, giver o f a good ending to the universe,

to her whose forehead is lovely w ith charm ing locks.1
I meditate upon the Goddess Chinnamasta w ho is seated in the centre of

the Sun's disk and holds in her left hand her ow n severed head w ith gap
ing mouth, her hair is dishevelled and she is drinking the stream of blood
gushing out from her ow n neck. She is seated on Rati and Kamadeva who
are engaged in sexual dalliance, and she is rejoicing w ith her friends Dakini
and Varnini.2
She stands in an aggressive manner w ith her leg put forward. She is h o ld
ing her ow n severed head in one hand and a sword in the other. She is
naked and happily drinks the blood that gushes from her headless body.
She has three eyes and is adorned w ith a blue lotus at her heart. One should
meditate on Chinnamasta, w ho has the complexion o f a red hibiscus flower.
She stands on Kama and Rati, w ho are joined in sexual intercourse. To
her right is V arn in i, w ho is possessed by rajas guna, w ho is white in color,
w ith loose hair, and w ho holds a sword and a skull cup. She happily drinks
the blood gushing from the devi's severed neck. On her left is D akin i, who
also drinks blood flow ing from Chinnamasta's headless body. She is pos
sessed b y tamas guna and enjoys the w o r ld in its state o f dissolution. O ne
should meditate on this goddess w ho bestows blessings on her devotees.3
Possible Prototypes
Chinnam asta does not have a widespread independent cult

in H in d uism and does not seem to have had a very developed history p rior
T/l/l
. 22. Chinnam asta, contem porary lithograph.
146 CHINN AM ASTA
to her appearance as one o fth e M ahavidyas. L ik e T ara, how ever, she also
appears in tantric B uddh ism , w here she is k n o w n as V a jra -y o g in i (dis
cussed below ). A lth o u g h w e are unable to find early references to C h in -
namasta or evidence o f an early cult associated w ith her, certain goddesses,
or images o f female beings, have been suggested as her prototypes b e
cause o f some p e cu lia rity th ey share w ith her, such as b ein g headless,
naked, b lo od th irsty, or v io le n t.4
Several examples have been discovered in India o f nude goddesses
squatting or w ith th e ir thighs spread to display th eir sexual organs. These
figures, some ve ry ancient, usually depicted in stone bas-relief, often have
th e ir arms raised above th eir bodies and are headless or faceless. T h e ir
headless c o n d itio n is not the result o f subsequent damage but an in te n
tion al part o fth e image. T h e com b in ation o f n u d ity and headlessness, it
has been suggested, m ay indicate that Chinnam asta had an ancient p ro
totype in In d ia.5 T h e arresting icon o grap h ic feature o f these images is
th eir sexual organs, w h ic h are op en ly displayed. If the headlessness o fth e
figures suggests death or self-destruction, it lacks the force o fth e C h i n
namasta ico n . M o re lik e ly , the headlessness o f the nude figures sim ply
focuses attention on th e ir generative p h ysio lo g y and creativity. A lth o u g h
the C hinnam asta image includes an emphasis on sexual activity, life , and
n ourish m ent (discussed b elow ), the cen tral icon o grap h ic characteristic
o f the goddess is her sh o ck in g self-decapitation.
O th e r nude goddess figures have been suggested as possible prototypes
o f Chinnam asta. O n e o f these is the fierce, w ild goddess K o tav i. K o tav i
is usually associated w ith battlefields and is sometimes in clu d ed am ong
the lists o f M atrkas.6Sometimes she is an opponent o fV is n u , and the Visnu-
purdna (5 .3 2 - 3 3 ) and Bhdgavata-purdna (10.63.20) describe her as n ak ed,
disheveled, and o f such disgusting appearance that V isn u has to tu rn his
head away from her lest he becom e incensed b y her. In this m y th she tries
to protect the dem on Banasura, w h o is her son in the Bhdgavata-purdna
account. A lth o u g h descriptions o f K o ta v i emphasize her n u d ity and w ild
appearance, she seems quite different in character from Chinnam asta. H e r
typ ical haunt is the battlefield, not the crem ation ground (although both
are places o f death), and she seems to be a fierce demoness whose prim ary
role is to terrify or distract enemies d u rin g battle. H e r character is usu
a lly m alevolent. Chinnam asta's character is fierce, but not necessarily
m alevolent, and although in her thousand-name h y m n she is associated
w ith the b attlefield ,7 she is rarely show n there in her iconography.
A South Indian h u n tin g goddess called K orravai is sim ilar in name and
character to K o ta v i. She is fierce, b lo od th irsty, and w ild . She receives
CHINNAMASTA
blood sacrifices and haunts the battlefield, where she grants victory. A gain ,
it has been suggested that she m ay be another expression o f the type of
goddess that inspired C hinn am asta.8 Chinnam asta, however, is not usu
a lly described as a w a rrio r goddess, and w hat rivets the view er's atten
tio n is her self-decapitation. A lth o u g h in her thousand-nam e hym ns
Chinnam asta is said to like blood, and at her few shrines and temples she
receives blood sacrifices, the emphasis w ith C hinnam asta, u n lik e K o rra -
vai, is n ot so m uch on her dem anding and receivin g blood as on her g iv
in g her ow n blood to her devotees.
T h e re are, in fact, m any goddesses and spirits in the H in d u trad ition
w h o haunt battlefields, are nude, fierce, and bloodthirsty, or have a strong
association w ith fertility, all o fw h ic h relate to aspects o fth e goddess C h i n
namasta. Chinnam asta, how ever, seems to be the o n ly goddess w h o de
capitates h erself in order to n ourish her devotees.
Origin Myths
I have discovered four accounts o f Chinnam asta's o rigin

or emergence. T h e first tw o are in w ritten texts and are ve ry similar, w h ile
the th ird and fourth, both ve ry brief, I have found o n ly in oral versions.
V ersio n i is found in the Prdnatosim-tantra, w h ic h in tu rn attributes
the story to the Ndrada-pdncardtra.
O ne day Parvati w ent to bathe in the MandakinI River ... w ith her at
tendants, Jaya and Vijaya. A fter bathing, the great goddess's color became
black because she was sexually aroused. A fter some time, her two attendants
asked her, "G ive us some food. W e are hungry." She replied, "I shall give
you food but please wait." After awhile, again they asked her. She replied,
"Please wait, I am thinking about some matters." W aitin g awhile, they im
plored her, "You are the mother ofth e universe. A child asks everything
from her mother. T h e mother gives her children not only food but also cov
erings for the body. So that is w h y we are praying to you for food. You are
know n for your mercy; please give us food." H earing this, the consort of
Siva told them that she would give anything w hen they reached home. But
again her two attendants, D akini and V arnin i, begged her, "W e are over
powered w ith hunger, O M other ofthe Universe. G ive us food so w e may
be satisfied, O M ercifu l O ne, Bestower of Boons and Fulfiller of Desires."
H earing this true statement, the m erciful goddess smiled and severed
her head w ith her fingernails. As soon as she severed her head, her head
fell on the palm of her left hand. Three bloodstreams emerged from her
148 CHINNAMASTA
throat; the left and right fell respectively into the mouths ofh er flanking
attendants and the center fell into her m outh. A fter perform ing this, all
were satisfied and later returned home. (From this act) Parvati became
know n as Chinnam asta.5
T h e second version o f the o rig in o f Chinnam asta is also from the

Prdnatosim-tantra, w h ic h in this case attributes the story to the Svatantra-
tantra. T h e story is told by Siva:
I shall te ll you ofthe emergence o f Chinnamasta. In the K rta Yuga on

M t. Kailasa, the best o f mountains, Mahamaya was engaged in Mahavrata
w ith me (sexual intercourse). A t the time o f m y seminal emission, she ap
peared fierce and from her body two s'aktis emerged w ho became her two
attendants know n as D akin i and V arn in l. O ne day Candanayika w ith her
two attendants w ent to the bank ofthe Puspabhadra River. W h e n it was
noon, her hungry attendants asked Candika, "Please give us food." H ear
ing this, the sm iling and auspicious Candika looked in all directions and
severed her head. W ith the left bloodstream, she satisfied D akin i, w ith
the right one, she satisfied V a rn in l and from the center one, she drank her
ow n blood. A fter playing in this way, she replaced her head on her body
and assumed her original form. A t dusk, they returned home. W h e n I saw
her pale appearance, I suspected that she was abused by another. T h is in
furiated me. From this anger a portion of me arose and became know n as
Krodha Bhairava. T h is happened on the day o fV lra ra tri. Thus C h in n a
masta was born on V lr a r a tr i.10
T h is version is also to ld in the Saktisamgama-tantra (w h ich attributes it

to the Prdnatosini-tantra), but w ith a few additional details. A c c o rd in g to
this text, the goddess was in reverse sexual intercourse w ith Siva (she was
on top), and she dism ounted Siva before he ejaculated. H er attendants
appeared w h en she w en t outside. T h is text says that at the river the god
dess and her attendants played in the w ater for some tim e. T h e rest of
the story is the same as the Prdnatosini accoun t."
A th ird version was to ld to me by Rama Shankar T rip a th i o fth e KasI
V isvan ath tem ple in Varanasi, w h o said that it had been told to him b y a
friend o f his w h o is a tantric sddhaka. In a w ar between the gods and
demons, the gods realized th ey cou ld n ot w in , and so th ey prayed to
M ahasakti, the G reat Goddess, for help. She was pleased w ith th eir prayer
and asked Pracandacandika to help them . A fte r k illin g all the demons,
Pracandacandika rem ained enraged and cut o ffh e r ow n head and drank
her ow n blood. Pracandacandika is the first name given to Chinnam asta
in her thousand-name h ym n in the Sdkta-pramoda.
Swam i Sadhananda Sastri, a s'dkta practioner in Varanasi, told me the
CHINNAMASTA 149
fourth version. Chinnam asta appeared, he said, after the gods and demons
churned the ocean. Chinnam asta too k the dem ons' share o f the result
ing amrta (the nectar o f im m ortality) and drank it herself. T h e n she k illed
h erself b y cu ttin g o ff her ow n head, to deprive the demons o f th e ir share
o f im m ortality. T h is is h o w she enabled the gods to achieve th e ir supe
rio r position.
Implications ofthe O rig in M yths
These o rig in m yths h ig h lig h t certain themes that are im

portant in in terp retin g C hinnam asta. L ik e several oth er M ahavidyas, she
is associated w ith Siva. In the first tw o stories, she is said to be Parvati.
She also acts ind epen d en tly o f Siva or dominates h im . In the second
version o f the story, she engages in reverse sexual intercourse w ith him
and dismounts h im before he ejaculates. T h ere is no exp licit m en tion o f
tension betw een the tw o (although this m igh t be im plied in her dis
m ou n tin g Siva before he ejaculates), but she is depicted as dom inant
sexually.
In the th ir d version o f h er em ergence, C hinn am asta slays demons
for the benefit o fth e w o r ld . A com m on them e in goddess m yth ology,
as in the Devi-mdhdtmya, stresses the im potence o f the male deities, w h o
must call on the goddess for help. C hinn am asta assumes the protective
role o f an avatdra. In this particu lar case, th o u gh , she is described as be
co m in g so enraged that she loses c o n tro l and cuts o ff her o w n head.
T h is them e o f a goddess gettin g out o f c o n tro l after battle, usu ally be
cause she is intoxicated from d rin k in g the blood o f her victim s, is also
fam iliar. K a li sometimes dances in a d ru n ken fren zy after battle and has
to be b ro u g h t to her senses by her husband, Siva. T h e Saptamatrkas
(seven mothers) w h o help D u rga defeat Sum bha and N isu m b h a in the
th ird episode o f the Devi-mdhdtmya also are said to dance w ild ly after
killin g demons and b ecom in g d ru n k on th e ir b lood (8 .6 2 ).12 In version
3, Chinnam asta is understood as an am bivalent figure. She is pow erfu l
and effective in b attle, able to defeat the dem ons and rescue th e gods,
but she is dangerous. W h e n h er fu ry is unleashed, it can be in d is c r im
in a tely destructive, indeed, self-destructive. In this account C h in n a
masta is n ot d ire c tly connected w ith Siva. She is m ore clo sely connected
w ith D urga, K a li, and the M atrkas and w ith the them e o f preserving
cosm ic order.
CHINNAMASTA
In the fourth account o f Chinnamasta's o rig in , the them e o f m ain

ta in in g cosm ic stability by com bating demons remains central. But this
version introduces the them e o f self-sacrifice. In version 3 the goddess
decapitates h erself inadvertently, in a fit o f frenzy, w h ile in version 4 she
does so as a gesture o f self-sacrifice for the gods. H e r action here is rem
iniscent o f Siva's saving the w o rld by d rin k in g the poison stirred up at
the ch u rn in g o f the ocean. In both cases a d eity acts selflessly to protect
the w o rld , at the cost o f personal harm .
T h e first tw o accounts emphasize m aternal self-sacrifice. In both ac
counts, the reason for Chinnam asta's act o f self-decapitation is the
hunger o fh e r tw o com panions. A lth o u g h in itia lly she tries to put them
off, eventually she feeds them on her blood, w h ic h she releases by cu t
tin g o ff her o w n head. In dem anding to be fed, the com panions address
her, in the first account, as M o th e r o fth e U niverse, ch allen gin g her to
satisfy them . W h a t is strik in g about the m yth is that she chooses to feed
them , n ot from her breasts, but w ith her blood, released in an act o fv i-
olence. Instead o f d rin k in g her m aternal m ilk, th ey d rin k her life blood.
C lo s e ly related to the them e o f self-sacrifice in the first tw o versions
is the them e o f nourishm ent. These accounts stress the hunger o f her
com panions. T h e y look to her for satisfaction, w h ic h th ey receive in dra
m atic fashion. T h e m yths tend to d ow n play the vio len ce or drama o f
her cu ttin g o ff her ow n head. In both accounts, after havin g a nice meal,
w h ic h Chinnam asta h erse lf partakes o f by d rin k in g from the m iddle
stream o f blood, she puts her head back on, and th ey all go hom e. T h e
o n ly aftereffect seems to be that she has acquired a som ewhat pale c o m
plexion , w h ic h upsets Siva. T h e story is m a in ly about hunger and its sat
isfaction. T h e self-sacrificin g, n o u rish in g in ten t o f C hinnam asta is em
phasized by P. Pal: "T h e obvious im p lic a tio n here is o fp rim a l sacrifice
and renew al o f creation. T h e goddess sacrifices herself, and her blood,
d run k b y her attendants, renews or resuscitates the universe. . . . T h e r e
fore beheading her ow n head is a tem porary expedient to provide food
and appears to be a m ore san gu in ary m a n ifestatio n o f the goddess as
Sakam bhari [she w h o bears vegetables] and A n n apu rn a [she w h o is full
o f fo o d ]."15
T h e o rig in (or emergence) m yths o f Chinnam asta tou ch on several
themes that are significant in her sym bolism and w orsh ip. O th e r im
portant themes in her iconography, how ever, are not m entioned in her
myths. H e r iconograp hy and w orship, although elaborating on some o f
the themes above, also suggest new ones that further en rich her religious
significance.
CHINNAMASTA
Head Offerings
T h e Chinnam asta icon is dom inated b y severed heads. P ar

tic u la rly arresting is the goddess's o w n severed head, w h ic h she h erself
has cut off. H e r tw o com panions, D a k in i and V a r n in i (sometimes referred
to as Jaya and V ijaya), standing on eith er side o f her, are also often h o ld
in g severed heads. A l l three heads are ty p ic a lly on platters o f the type
used in m akin g offerings. In fact, the im agery o f offerin g a head is u n
mistakable in m any icon o grap h ic representations o f Chinnam asta.
A n im a l sacrifice is fa irly com m on in the H in d u trad itio n , and the ty p
ical w ay o f k illin g the v ic tim is to decapitate it. Indeed, since the V ed ic
period (when anim al sacrifice to b oth male and female deities was c o m
m on), most b lo o d sacrifices have been to goddesses. In contem porary
H in d u ism , w h ic h inh erits a trad itio n that is m any hundreds o fy ea rso ld ,
b lo od sacrifice almost in varia b ly is associated w ith certain goddesses.
D a ily sacrifices are made at m any goddess tem ples, usually o f goats and
chickens. In almost all cases, the animal's head is cut o ff and offered to
the image o fth e goddess, often on a platter. H in d u texts sometimes m en
tion hum an sacrifice, and there are examples o f its h avin g been done in
the past fo r c e rta in goddesses.14
T h ere is also a trad ition o f v o lu n ta rily offerin g one's head to a goddess.
T h e eleven th-cen tury C.E. T a m il text Kalingattuparanicontains a gruesome
d escription o f a K a li tem ple in South India: "L ik e the roaring sound o f
ocean waves, the shouts o f heroes offerin g their heads in return for the
bestowal o f boons w ere ech o in g all over the area."15 In another passage
from this text, "the process o f offerin g a head is portrayed. T h e sacrificer
cut his head at the bottom o fth e neck and placed it on the hands o fK a li.
T h e head thus presented sang the greatness o f K a li w h ile the rem ain ing
trunk stood saluting the G od d ess."16 In Pallava sculpture particularly, but
elsewhere as w e l l , 17 the theme is quite com m on , although w h eth er the
sculptures depict actual devotional suicide b y self-decapitation is not cer
tain. In Ksemendra's Brbatkdtkamanjari, a washerm an and his b ro th er-in -
law cut o ff their heads in a fit o f devotional fervor to the goddess G au ri.
A n in scrip tion dated 9 9 1 C.E. from the Kannada area tells o f a loyal sub
ject named Katega, w h o offered his head to the goddess Gundadabbe to
fu lfill a v o w w h en the k in g succeeded in fathering a s o n .1' In the T a m il
epic Silappadihdram, the goddess A iy a i, w h o is w orshiped b y hunters, re
ceives blood sacrifices and accepts the blood that flows from the severed
heads o fh e r d e v o te e s.19
i>2 CH IN NAM ASTA
T h ere is also a story associated w ith the Jvalam ukhl temple in H im a ch al

Pradesh that features a head offerin g. A devotee o f the goddess Jvalam ukhl
nam ed D h y a n u w ish ed to visit her tem ple but was p ro h ib ited b y the em
pero r A k b ar, w h o claim ed the goddess had no pow er. T h e em peror p er
m itted D h y a n u to proceed if he agreed to leave his horse b eh in d and p er
m it Akbar to kill it. I f the goddess was able to revive the horse, Akbar said,
he w o u ld spare D hyanu's life. D h y a n u accepted the challenge. A k b a r d u ly
k ille d his horse and locked the b o d y in a room . A t Jvalam ukhi's tem ple,
D h y a n u did d evotion to the goddess, but she did not appear or answer his
pleas to prove her po w er to the em peror. In desperation, D h y a n u decided
to offer his o w n head to the goddess. T a k in g a sw ord, he was about to cut
o ff his head, w h e n she appeared and granted h im the boon o f restoring
his horse to life. In some versions o fth e tale, D h y a n u actually cuts o ff his
head, w h ic h the goddess subsequendy restores. T h is is the versio n u sually
show n in pictures, D h y a n u k n e elin g in front o fth e goddess, offerin g her
his head on a platter. Just outside the entrance o f the B ajresvari-devi tem
ple in K angra is a sculpted head said to be that o f D h y a n u . A large tableau
in a recessed n iche o fth e tem ple also depicts this in cid en t. D h y a n u kneels
before the goddess h o ld in g his severed head in his tw o hands. T h e prac
tice o f cu ttin g out one's tongue, I was to ld , is done to this day at Jvalam ukhl
tem ple. Just as the goddess restored D hyanu's head, so she is supposed to
restore the devotee's tongue in reco g n itio n o fh is or her d evotion .
A story sim ilar to D hyan u 's is associated w ith the M a ih a r-d e v i tem ple
near A lla h ab a d in U tta r Pradesh. O n ce u pon a tim e, there was a w resd er
w h o w ish ed to achieve suprem acy in his chosen v o ca tio n . He p rop itiated
the goddess for a lo n g tim e, but she d id n ot appear to h im . In despera
tion and d ete rm in atio n , he cut o ff his o w n head as a fin al act o f d evotion
to her. T h e goddess th en appeared and, pleased w it h his d ev o tio n al s in
c erity, reattached his head.
In the C h in n am asta ic o n , the them e o f d evo tio n al head o ffe rin g to a
goddess is, o f course, reversed. It is the goddess w h o offers h er head to
her devotees, w h o in tu rn som etim es seem to be o ffe rin g heads to her.
T h e self-d ecapitating im pulse is attribu ted to the goddess h e rse lf rather
than to h er devotees.
Heads as P o w er Objects
T h e C h in n am asta ico n raises questions about detached

CHINNAMASTA
o f other M ahavidyas. K a li, Tara, and others often w ear garlands o f sev
ered heads or skulls. Tara's crest is decorated w ith skulls. K a li and Tara
n early always h o ld a freshly severed head in one hand. T h e heads are of
ten said to have belonged to enemies w h o w ere k ille d by the goddess in
question. But sometimes th ey are said to represent the letters o f the a l
phabet, p a rticu la rly w h en the heads num ber fifty or fifty-tw o and are
threaded as a garland around a goddess's neck. As sounds or letters th ey
are sometimes referred to as matrkds, "m others." T h e y give b irth to the
creation in the form o f sound, that is. T h e y are also said to represent, es
p ecially in the case o f K a li and Tara, w h o h o ld heads in th e ir lo w er left
hands, the chopped o ff bonds that prevented a sddhaka from achieving
spiritual success.
Heads, or more usually skulls, are also co m m o n ly used in tantric
sddhand. T h e crem ation ground at T arapfth in Bengal is h ig h ly favored
by tdntrikas, p artly because o f the ready availab ility o f both skulls and
corpses (as m any as 6 0 percent o f the dead here are buried rather than
cremated). O n e scholar comments:
T h e disruption o f graves [the same ground is used repeatedly for burials]

also leads to the digging up o f many human skulls. Munddsanas, or seats
on skulls, are the most favoured asanasforTantric sddhand, and their avail
ability in a place heightens the attraction to sddhakas. In Tarapith about
ten sad/jus o f various kinds reside in and around the cremation ground, some
o f w hom collect the skulls for use in their daily routines. M ost have five
neatly arranged skulls in their huts, each decorated w ith flowers and a tilaka
(coloured m arking between the eyebrows, or sockets in this case). One sadhu
had built an entire w all ofhis hut out of skulls using mud as mortar, and
another wandered about the village w ith a skull as a begging b o w l.21
It seems clear th at in some sense skulls and severed heads are p o w e r

objects con tain in g special qualities, particu larly for ritu al purposes. T h e ir
use in icon o grap h y to represent letters or sounds, the "seeds" from w h ic h
all creation proceeds, is no doubt connected to the head and m outh as
the source o f language or sound. T h e head as the c h ie f o f the body's parts
also houses the person's essential being. W it h o u t the head, a person is
w ith o u t id en tity. T h is is made clear in stories con cern in g transposed
heads in w h ic h the id en tity o f the person follow s the head, not the rest
o f the b o d y .22 In som e cases devotees m ay use sku lls as seats, b o w ls , or
ritual im plem ents, in im ita tio n o f Siva h im se lf as K apalika, "the one w h o
bears a sk u ll." In this case, the skull represents som ething p o w erfu lly p o l
luted, because in Saivite m y th o lo g y the skull is that o f Brahm a, w h om
Siva has decapitated. It represents the heinous crim e o f Brahm acide and
sticks to Siva's hand u n til, after eons, he atones for the a ct.2' Skuhs and
CHINNAMASTA
severed heads also m ay represent "the forbid d en ." T h e y are "out o f

place," lim in a l objects. T h e y b elong som ewhere else, w ith a body. T h e y
are "out o f bounds," w h ic h is w here tantric sddhakas w ant to get. T h ere,
"out o f bounds," sddhakas can transform themselves, unham pered by so
cial lim its and constraints.
T h e chopp ed -off head also may represent liberation , a particular state
o f expanded, awakened consciousness. T h is in terpretation is particu larly
likely in the Buddhist context, w hich w e w ill discuss below.
O vercom ing Desire
A n o th e r particu larly strik in g feature o f the Chinnam asta

ico n is often m entioned in her dhydna mantras and stotras: she stands on
the copulating couple Kam a and Rati. Kam a (whose name means "sex
ual desire") and Rati (whose name means "sexual intercourse") are almost
always shown havin g sex w ith Rati on top, the same position K a li assumes
w ith Siva. T h e y are usually show n ly in g on a lotus, but sometimes on a
crem ation pyre. T h ere are tw o quite different interpretations o f this as
pect o f Chinnam asta iconography. O n e interpretation understands it as
a sym bol o f co n tro l o f sexual desire, the oth er as a sym bol o f the god
dess's em b o d im en t o f sexual energy.
C e r ta in ly the most com m on interpretation o f Chinnam asta's stand
ing (or sometimes sitting) on Kam a and Rati is that she is defeating w hat
they represent, namely, sexual desire, sexual energy, sexual force. She sym
bolizes self-con trol, w h ic h must be achieved before undertaking suc
cessful yogic practice. Swam i Annapurnananda o fth e Ram akrishna M ath
in Varanasi told me that Chinnam asta sacrifices h erself to her devotees
in a great act o f love for them and is able to do this because she has over
come or con trolled sexual and selfish desires, as is sym bolized by her
standing on Kam a and Rati.-'4 She represents yo gic co n tro l and repres
sion o f sexual energy. In her hundred-nam e h ym n in the Sakta-pramoda,
she is called YoginI (female yogi) and Yoganirata (she w h o practices
yoga).25 T h e same hym n also calls her M adanatura (she w h o cannot be
overcom e b y K am a),26 suggesting her co n tro l o f sexual desire. In her
hym n ofone-thousand names, she is called Yogam argapradayin! (she w ho
bestows the yo gic path, name 7 4 5 ) , Yogagamaya (follow er ofyoga, name
7 4 7 ) , Yogam ayl (she w h o embodies yoga, name 7 5 1 ) , and Yoganan-
dapradayini (she w h o gives bliss th rou gh yoga, name 7 5 0 ).”
CHINNAMASTA 155
O n e com m entator on this aspect o f the Chinnam asta ico n has argued
that her w orsh ip is p a rticu la rly appropriate for those in the m ilitary. A n
effective w a rrio r must overcom e lust and the desire to indulge in sexual
play before co m m ittin g h im s e lf to battle. In battle, he must cultivate an
attitude o f self-surrender so that he can give his life freely for the ben e
fit o f others. B oth ofthese themes are em bodied in Chinnam asta, he says.
H e r c o n tro l o f lust is represented b y her standing on Kam a and R ati, and
her perfectio n o f self-surrender, fearlessness o f death, and self-sacrifice
for others is seen b y her cu ttin g o ff her ow n head to feed her h u n gry co m
p an ions.28 T h e same com m entator says that d evotion to Chinnam asta is
both dangerous and rare. It is dangerous because it demands m uch ofthe
devotee, nam ely, ren o u n cin g sexual desire and cu ltiv a tin g self-surrender
for the benefit o f others. He also says that o n ly those o f h eroic nature
w orship Chinnam asta, and those o f h eroic nature are p a rticu la rly apt to
be found in the m ilita r y .29 H e r n udity, accord in g to this com m entator,
represents truthfulness and heedlessness, y ie ld in g on eself to danger for
others. T h e w orsh ip er o f C hinn am asta perfects self-co n tro l, i f not self
an n ih ila tio n , and in this w a y becomes a v e ry effective w arrior. H e r th o u
sand-name h y m n , in fact, calls her R anotkantha (battle cry, name 7 6 8 ) ,
Ranastha (battlefield, name 7 6 9 ) , and Ranajaitri (victorious in w ar, name
7 7 2 ).30 It also calls her the slayer o fvariou s demons.
Sexual V itality
A quite different in terpretation o f the presence o f Kam a

and R ati in the Chinnam asta ic o n emphasizes that the goddess is b eing
charged w ith the sexual po w er o fth e cop u latin g couple. O n the analogy
o f a lotus seat co n fe rrin g its qualities and po w er on a deity, C hinnam asta
m ay be th o u gh t o f as a cq u irin g the sexual en ergy o f the cop u latin g c o u
ple upon w h o m she stands or sits. Surging up th ro u g h her body, w h ic h
is usually described as a naked, sixteen-year-old girl's, that energy gushes
out o f her head in the form o f b lo od to feed her devotees and replenish
herself. In this interpretation the cop u latin g couple is not opposed to the
goddess but an integral part o f a rh yth m ic flo w o f energy sym bo lized b y
sex and b lo o d .
R e in fo rc in g this in terpretation are images or descriptions o f C h in n a
masta sittin g, rather than standing, on R ati and K am a (figure 2 3 ) . In
this type o f image, it is less lik e ly that Chinnam asta is to be understood
156 CHINNAMASTA
Fig. 2 3 . Chinnamasta, by Bhatuk Ramprasad, early twentieth century. Printed

w ith the permission o f Dr. Bhanu Shanker Mehta, Varanasi.
as overco m in g or suppressing the copu lating couple. In still other ren

derings o f Chinnam asta, she is show n squatting above Siva, having sex
ual intercourse w ith him (figure 2 4 ) . In these images Kam a and Rati have
been replaced w ith Siva. It is clear that Siva is not being suppressed, de
feated, or overcom e. T h e goddess is on top o f h im , to be sure, but this
CHINNAMASTA 157
is typ ical in tantric im agery, in d ica tin g the p r io r ity o fth e goddess; there
is no suggestion o f y o g ic suppression o f sexual desire. Siva is not b eing
suppressed b y the goddess; he is b ein g en ergized b y her.
T h e sexual themes in Chinnam asta's iconograp hy are reinforced b y the
fact that klim, the seed syllable o f the d eity K am a, the god o f sexual lust
(and also, appropriately, the seed syllable ofK rsn a), features in C h in n a
masta's mantra: "S rim h rim k lim aim V ajravairocaniye hum hum phat
svaha."32 It is equally relevant to note that the in v o catio n o f this mantra
is said to attract and subjugate w o m e n ." Chinnam asta's erotic nature is
also suggested in some o fth e names contained in her hu n d red - and th o u
sand-name hym ns. In her hundred-nam e h ym n she is called K am esvari
(goddess o f desire, name 7 6 ) , Kam arupa (she whose form is desire, name
7 9 ) , and Karnakautukakarini (she w h o creates the eagerness o f desire,
name 8 1 ) . 3 In her thousand-nam e h y m n she is called M ad on m atta-
svarupini (she whose form is intoxicated w ith delight, name 7 2 5 ) , Ratiraga-
v iv r d d h in l (she w h o is engaged in the realm o f rad [sexual intercourse or
desire], name 7 6 2 ) , and Puspayudhadhara (she w h o holds a flow er weapon
[that is, w h o is like Kam a-deva, the god o f lust], name 896).”
Symbol ofthe L iv in g Creation
T h e C hinnam asta ico n conveys the idea o f rea lity as the

coinciden ce o f sex and death, creation and destruction, g iv in g and tak
ing. Chinnam asta is prob ab ly the most stu n nin g representation in the
H in d u pantheon o fth e tru th that life, sex, and death are part o f an i n
terdependent, u n ified system. O n e w r ite r says: "She sim p ly represents
the con tin u ed state o f self-sustenance o f the created w o r ld in w h ic h are
seen continuous self-destruction and self-renew al, in a c y c lic o rd e r."36
T h e stark contrasts in this icon o grap h ic scenario— the gruesome decap
itation, the copulating couple, the crem ation ground, the d rin k in g o f fresh
b lood , all arranged in a delicate, harm onious pattern— jolt the view er into
an awareness o f the truths that life feeds on death, is n ourished b y death,
and necessitates death and that the ultim ate destiny o f sex is to perp etu
ate m ore life, w h ic h in tu rn w i l l decay and die in order to feed m ore life.
A s arranged in most renditions o fth e ic o n , the lotus and the copu latin g
couple appear to channel a po w erfu l life force in to the goddess, w h o is
standing or sittin g on the back o fth e copu latin g w om an. T h e couple e n
jo y in g sex con vey an insistent, v ita l urge to the goddess; th ey seem to
is8 CH INNAM ASTA
Fig. 24. Chinnam asta, by M olaram , late eighteenth century, Garwahl,

pum p h er w ith en ergy. A n d at the to p , like an o v e rflo w in g fo u n ta in , her

b lo o d spurts from h er severed n eck, th e life fo rce le a v in g her, b u t stre a m
in g in to the m o u th s o f h er d evo tees (and in to h er ow n m o u th as w ell) to
n ou rish and sustain th e m . T h e cycle is stark ly p o rtra yed : life (the coup le
m a k in g lo v e ), death (the d e cap itate d g o d d ess), and n o u ris h m e n t (the
fla n k in g y o g in is d rin k in g h er b lo o d ).
C e rta in o th er fie rce H in d u go d d esses, such as K ali, sever the heads o f
oth ers to n ou rish th e m selv e s, or d e vo tee s o ffer heads and b lo o d to the
go d d esses. T h e o ffe rin gs m ay be v o lu n ta ry (in the case o f d evo tees) or
in v o lu n ta ry (in th e case o f sacrificial v ic tim s ), but the m essage is clear
that such go d d esses like, and p ro b a b ly n eed, b lo o d . T h e s e g o d d esses, re p
re sen tin g the v ita l fo rces o fth e co sm o s, n ee d re gu lar n o u rish m e n t; sa c
rificin g o n e s e lf to th em is a w ay o f a c k n o w le d g in g that one is o b lig e d to
give life b a ck to th e m becau se one has re ce iv e d life from th em . T h is im
a gery co n ve ys the tru th th at such g o d d esses are ever h u n g ry, as K ali's
lo llin g to n g u e in d ica te s, and dem an d b lo o d in o rd er to be satisfied.
CHINNAMASTA
T h e Chinnam asta image reverses some o f these m otifs but u ltim ately
teaches sim ilar truths. She sim ply represents the alternate phase o f an
ever-recurrin g sequence. T h e cosm ic process— the rhythm s o f creation
and destruction, the universal econ om y— is a harm onious alternation o f
g iv in g and takin g, o f life and death. K ali's need for b lo o d , or conversely
the ever-fecund, ever-b ou n tifu l nature o f goddesses such as A n n apu rn a
or Sataksi, represents o n ly one aspect o f the process o f g iv in g and tak
ing. C hinn am asta sh o ck in g ly presents both aspects together and in such
a w a y that the v ie w e r can grasp the interconnectedness o f the different
stages in the process. Chinnam asta takes life and v ig o r from the co p u
lating couple, then gives it away lav ish ly b y cu ttin g o ff her ow n head to
feed her devotees. Such is the w a y o f a w o r ld w here life must be sustained
b y organic matter, w here m etabolism is m aintained o n ly b y ingestin g the
corpses o f oth er beings.
The Upward Flow of the Kundalini
T h e Chinnam asta ico n also suggests certain aspects o f

kundalini yoga, in w h ic h sp iritu al energy is awakened, traverses the sub
tle body, pierces the different centers o f en ergy called cakras in its ascent
to the top o f the skull, unites w ith Siva in the thousand-petaled lotus cakra,
and then creates a flood o f nectar that flows d ow n w ard , d ren ch in g the
p ractitio n er in bliss. C hinn am asta, in her hym ns and stotras, is id en tified
or associated w ith the kundalini and this process o f spiritual ascent. She
is called, for example, Susumnasvarabhasinf (she w h o understands the
sound o f the susumna nadi [the cen tral chan nel up w h ic h the kundalini
travels], name 8 0 3 ) , Sahasradalamadhyastha (she w h o is established in the
thousand-petaled lotus, name 8 0 4 ) , and SahasradalavarttinI (she w h o
abides in the thousand-petaled lotus, name 80 5).”
A contem porary author is ex p licit in his id en tifica tio n o f Chinnam asta
w ith this process, sp ecifically w ith the awakened kundalini s'akti. He says
that there are knots in the b od y called granthis that keep a person weak,
ignorant, and sorro w fu l. T h e y are located in the cakras. W h e n the
kundalini is awakened, she rises throu gh the cakras and cuts these knots,
freeing the person from th eir b in d in g effects.38
T h e Chinnam asta ico n can be understood as a dram atic representa
tion o f this yo gic process. In this in terpretation , the copu lating couple,
Kama and R ati, represent the awakened kundaliniin the muladhara cakra.
i6 o CHINNAMASTA
L ik e Kama and R ati, the kundalinihusbeen aroused. N o rm a lly , sheAeeA

curled up there in the form o f a serpent. She is roused b y tantric yogjc,*_
ercises, such asjapa m antra, nydsa, and puja. T h is also m igh t be thought
o f as the first aw akening o f one's spiritual consciousness in preparation
for a spiritual ascent that will result in infinitely expanded awareness, The
b lo od spurting from Chinnam asta's severed throat represents the upvard-
flo w in g kundalini that has b rok en th rou gh all the knots (granthis) ofthe
cakras and has cleared the central passage, the susumndnadi. H e r severed
head, w h ic h she holds in her left hand, in this interpretation represents
transcendent consciousness (see also the Buddhist interpretation below).
T h e po w er o fth e u p w a rd -flo w in g kundalini, the po w er o fth e rising spir
itual consciousness, hits the topm ost cakra, the thousand-petaled lotus,
w ith such force that it blow s her head rig h t off, that is, it transforms all
con ven tion al, habitual, lim ited m ental structures. T h e three jets o f down
w a rd -flo w in g b lo od go in g into the three m ouths, her o w n and those o f
her tw o flanking com panions, represent the flow o f nectar that drenches
the sddhaka after the u n io n o f kundalini and Siva in the topm ost cakra.
A n o th e r related in terp retation o f C hinn am asta and her tw o flan king
figures, D a k in i and V a r n in i, is that th ey represent the three principal
channels, the nddis, in the subtle sp iritu al body. C hinn am asta, the cen
tral figure, represents the opened and flow ing susumnd nadi
achieved by
means o f spiritual techniques, w h ile D a k in i represents the idd nS$“ A
V a r n in i thepirigald nadi.39
It is tem p tin g to see in the C hinn am asta ico n a fu rther p o ssib ility "”
la te d to th e in terpretation o fita s a s y m b o lo fth e risin g iu / ic ia ij/ ij. A c ° m''
m on theme in H in d u sp iritu a lity is the reten tion o f semen as n e C 'ss*,A
for spiritual aw akening and m atu rity or as a sym bol o f sp iritu al p r o f
T h e idea is often expressed in terms o fr e d ire c tin g sexual en ergy u P * slA
instead o f d ow n w ard. T h e retained semen becomes sp iritu a lly p o t e A“ A
ergy, b y means o f w h ic h a male gains expanded consciousness, spiAl
pow ers, and en lightened awareness.“
But w hat m ight be the female equivalent o f this? In some cases, A •1A
strual b lo od is seen as the corresp on d in g sexual fluid o f w o m en 0$ «
release as an expression o f sexual pow er, sim ilar to the release o f s c AA. '
In some Indian traditions, the flo w o f m enstrual b lo o d is b elieved
n ify that a w om an is fertile and desirous o f sex. If m enstrual b lo o d A
equivalent o f male semen for a w om an , then the reten tion o f m er»‘
b lo o d m igh t also result in sp iritu al aw aken ing and pow er. W h A
w om an becomes pregnant, m enstrual b lo od ceases to flow , and x$ j
suit o fth e retained b lood is dram atically evident: a n ew b ein g is io A
CHINNAMASTA 161
inside her. A n o th e r dramatic result o f retained m enstrual blood and preg

nancy is the creation o f m ilk in the breasts. It is as if the blood has been
transformed into m ilk. M ig h t not the C hinnam asta image represent the
generation o f spiritual pow er in a female, the risin g o f the kundalini, by
means o fth e reten tion o fh e r sexual fluids and the transform ation ofth em
into n ou rish in g fluid?
Chinnamunda and the

Buddhist Meditative Tradition
C hinnam asta is prom in en t in tantric Buddhism and p ro b

ably was k n o w n in Buddhism before her appearance in H in d u is m .42 B u d
dhist materials usually refer to her as C h in n am u n d a or as a form o f Vajra-
y o g in l or V ajra-varahl, but she is clearly identifiable as C hinnam asta. She
has decapitated herself, holds her severed head in her left hand, and is
feeding her head and tw o flanking female attendants w ith three jets of
blood from her severed neck. As in H in d u iconography, she and her co m
panions are naked, have disheveled hair, and w ear garlands o f skulls.
U n lik e the H in d u d ep ictio n o f Chinnam asta, how ever, she is n ot show n
standing or sittin g on a copu lating couple.
C ertain stories con cern in g B uddhist spiritual masters suggest that
C h in n am u n d a in the tantric Buddhist context sym bolizes spiritual ac
com plishm ent, especially the a b ility to c o n tro l the "in tern al w ind s" or
the kundalini power. T h is is clear in the story o f tw o female devotees o f
Krsnacarya, M ek h a la and Kanakhala. T h e tw o w ere sisters and resisted
the attempts o f th eir parents to m arry them off. Instead th ey retreated
from the w o rld to become Buddhist spiritual practitioners. U n d e r the
guidance o f Krsnacarya, th ey soon mastered the most d ifficu lt spiritual
accomplishments. Subsequently, w h ile try in g to convert Lalitacandra, the
k in g o f Bengal, to Buddhism , Krsnacarya asked the tw o girls to chop o ff
th eir ow n heads to demonstrate th e ir spiritual m astery and impress the
k ing. T h e y did so and then danced o ff on a heavenly path th ro u g h the
sky. F o llo w in g this incident, m any spiritual practitioners tried to repeat
this feat. Indeed, according to the story, V ajra-varahl h erself appeared in
a self-decapitated form , thus len d in g the practice a certain prestige.43
A n o th e r Buddhist story describes a female adept's self-decapitation as
a magical spiritual power. In the story, a w om an devotee o f Padmasam-
bhava tells o f an in cid en t from one o fh e r past lives. O n ce upon a tim e,
i62 CHINNAMASTA
she displeased her father, w h o was a k in g, and he sentenced her to severe

punishm ent. She told h im , how ever, that he need not in flic t punishm ent
on her, as she w o u ld do so herself. She thereupon decapitated h erself w ith
a golden razor and w alked around the c ity h o ld in g her head. T h e c i t i
zens o fth e to w n called her C h in n a m u n d a .44
In the Trikdyavajra-yogini, a Buddhist text dealing w ith the w orsh ip o f
C h in n am u n d a, the goddess is interpreted, in ty p ic a lly M ahayana B u d
dhist fashion, as a sym bol o f compassion w h o destroys w o r ld ly suffering:
"T h e red blood w h ic h gushes from her severed neck sym bolizes co m
passion and she drinks for peace. She extinguishes the sufferings o f the
w orlds, destroys the four Maras, and severs w ith her scim itar the m en
tal d ifficu ltie s."45 A lth o u g h the text does not specifically relate the theme
o f compassion to C h in n am u n d a feeding her tw o female com panions w ith
her ow n blood, its emphasis on her compassion calls to m ind the H in d u
stories about Chinnam asta's o rig in , in w h ic h she decapitates h erself as
the d irect result o fh e r starving devotees' plea for food.
G etting Rid of False Consciousness
It is tem ptin g to interpret the Chinnam asta icon , p a rticu

la rly the central feature o f self-decapitation, in terms o f rem ovin g false
notions, ignorance, and lim ited consciousness. T h e iconograp hy and the
m yths that refer to it are unanim ous in asserting that the v io le n t act does
not result in the death or destruction o f the goddess. Indeed, the B u d
dhist sources emphasize the m agical or spiritual a b ility in volved in be
in g able to cut o ff one's head w ith o u t destroying oneself. P articu la rly in
the Buddhist materials, the themes o f offering one's head to a goddess
and o fth e goddess's self-sacrifice are weak. T h e p rin cip a l interpretation
seems to focus on self-decapitation as a spiritual or m editative ability. It
is rarely stated in either H in d u ism or Buddhism that this a b ility is re
lated to getting rid o f false notions, although this is im plied w h en the
self-decapitation is associated w ith the aw akening o f the kundalini. O n e
Buddhist text, how ever, e x p lic itly links cu ttin g o ff one's head and gain
in g spiritual w isdom . T h e tale concerns a disciple o f M ila rep a , G am -po-
pa, and his attempts to gain en lightenm ent.
Thereupon Gam-po-pa set up his hermitage three miles removed from

Milarepa's cave and began meditating. A fter six weeks, he had visions; the
CHINNAMASTA 163
first day the Buddha appeared, the second day a mandala, and so on. Each
tim e, he reported his visions to M ilarepa, w ho kept on saying, "It is n o th
ing! Go back to your practise." A fter a few more weeks, Gam -po-pa had
a v iv id vision o f all six worlds, and naturally he thought that he had hit
the mark. He ran to M ilarepa to report, but M ilarepa was at the time sleep
ing. T h e excited meditator woke up the master, and narrated the w o n
derful vision. M ilarepa m erely said, "Let me sleep! I am not a scholar like
you. But I know that the Prajnaparamita says all this is mere illu sion. I
suggest that you go back and practise!" Gam -po-pa, crestfallen and frus
trated, returned to his m editation. A t length, he dreamt one day that he
had cut o ff his ow n head and that he saw it ro llin g down the h ill. T h e r e
after there were no more visions, for the root of "atmagraha" [egoism]
was cut off.46
In b oth H in d u ism and B uddh ism , false consciousness represents the

obstacle to lib era tio n or en lightenm ent. To awaken, to becom e e n lig h t
ened, to realize the u n d e rly in g nature o f reality, is to overcom e an ego-
centered v ie w o f the w o r ld , accord in g to w h ic h the in d iv id u a l is at the
center o f the universe and reality is understood as specially arranged to
be at the ego's disposal. To be ego ridden is to be under the v e il o f mdyd
(self-infatuation). T h e image o f cu ttin g o ff one's ow n head m ight be taken
as a dram atic ren d erin g o fth e en ligh tenm ent process: the adept or d evo
tee com p letely destroys false consciousness b y "decapitating" h im self or
herself, gettin g rid o fh is or her ow n ego-ridden m in d , w h ic h was the
hindrance to a true apprehension o f reality.
W o rsh ip of Chinnamasta
T a n tric manuals such as the Sdkta-pramoda, Tantrasdra, and

Mantra-mahodadhih give the details for w orsh ip o f C hinnam asta, just as
for all M ahavidyas and oth er deities. T h e in vocation o f her m antra, the
m editation on her form , the con stru ction and w orsh ip o f her yantra, and
so o n , are m ore or less the same as fo r the o th e r goddesses in the grou p .
It is easy to get the im pression that her w orship is not m uch different
from w hat is prescribed for oth er deities and that it m ight be as w id e
spread. T h e usual rewards for her w orsh ip are cited: poetic speech, w e l l
being and security, c o n tro l over one's enemies, the a b ility to attract o th
ers (specifically w om en), the a b ility to influence kings, and liberation
(moksa or makti).
164 CHINNAMASTA
In fact, how ever, w orsh ip o f C hinnam asta, at least at the p u b lic level,
is extrem ely rare. It is probably also u n com m o n at the private level. T h is
is n ot so surprising, given Chinnam asta's p articu larly fierce nature. In her
hundred-nam e h ym n , for example, she is called: M ah abh im a (great ter
rib le one, name 3 ) , Candesvari (fierce goddess, name 5), Candam ata (mo
th er o f fierce beings, name 6 ), M ahacanda (great fierce one, name 8 ),
K ro d h in I (w rathful one, name 1 2 ) , K rod haru p a (w rathful in form , name
1 4 ) , K opatura (afflicted w ith rage, name 1 7 ) , Pretasana (who sits on a
ghost, name 3 1 ) , G h oraru p a (o fterrific form , name 3 7 ) , G h o rattista(ter
rific to behold, name 3 8 ) , G h orarava (having a te rrific roar, name 3 9 ) ,
Raktapanaparayana (gulping b lood continuously, name 6 1 ) , BhairavT
(form idable one, name 6 6 ) , Bhutabhairavasevita (served by fierce ghosts,
name 6 8 ), and D rstisam harakarinl (she w h o causes destruction by her
glance, nam e 9 9 )." H er thousand-nam e stotra invokes m any more nam es
in a sim ilar vein: M ahabhayarikari-d evi (very frig h te n in g goddess, name
1 9 ) , Bhayarupa (who has a fearful form , name 2 2 ) , G horagh u rgh u rn ad im
(whose fierce roar is frigh ten in g, name 1 8 2 ) , Ghorasattva (who em bod
ies fierceness, name 1 8 9 ) , G h orattattvam ayi-d evi (the goddess w h o em
bodies a fierce form , name 1 9 9 ) , G horam an trayuta (who is w orshiped
w ith a fierce mantra, name 2 0 9 ) , N aram ansapriyanitya (who is always
pleased w ith hum an flesh, name 6 2 2 ) , Nararaktapriyasada (who is always
pleased w ith hum an blood , name 6 2 3 ) , Pretasananivasini (who lives
among ghosts, name 6 4 2 ) , Lom am ansaprapujita (who is w orshiped w ith
body hair and flesh, name 8 1 0 ) , and P alalad ipriyan itya (who is always
pleased w ith m eat, nam e 930).*'
Some other M ahavidyas are also fierce, p articu larly K a li and Tara, and
D h u m avatl is cle arly a goddess w ith m any inauspicious connotations and
associations. Chinnam asta, th o u gh , seems to have the strongest reputa
tion for being a dangerous goddess to w orship or approach, and her m any
fierce epithets indicate this. She has exceedin gly few tem ples or shrines,
and it is often said that those w h o do w orsh ip her must be eith er yogis
or w o r ld renouncers or o f a p articu la rly h eroic nature. T h e o n ly shrine
I have been able to find to C hinnam asta in the Varanasi area, w h ic h is a
veritable ocean o fH in d u temples, is ve ry small and located in the n o rth
east corn er o f the com pound o f the D urga tem ple in Ramnagar (across
the Ganges R iver from Varanasi). T h e pujari (priest) there told me that
the goddess is o n ly w orshiped by tdntrikas and that w h en she is w orshiped
the sddhaka uses a corpse. T h e shrine is said to have been b u ilt by a tdntrika
from M adras. T h e goddess's image is o f w h ite m arble, and she is flanked
by the usual tw o figures (see figure 2 5 ) . T h ere are also temples o f C h in -
CHINNAMASTA 165
Fig. 2 5 . W h ite marble image o f Chinnamasta in a shrine in the compound o f

the Durga temple, Ramnagar. Photograph by H illary Rodrigues.
namasta in Bihar. O n e is located on top o f a hill, N an dan Parvat, n o r th

east o fV a id y a n a th .49A n o th e r is located in R anch i, w here there are shrines
to all ten M ahavidyas. T h ere are shrines to each o fth e other M ahavidyas,
in clu d in g C hinnam asta, at the K am akhya-d evi tem ple at Kam arupa in
A ssam .5"1 have also been told o f a C hinnam asta tem ple in V ish n u p u r in
W est Bengal at w h ic h d aily w orsh ip takes place.
C hinnam asta generally is n ot casually approached, and some texts i n
dicate that this m igh t be because o fth e in h eren t dangers o f her w orsh ip.
T h e Bhairava-tantra, as c ite d in the Sdkta-pramoda, says in referen ce to
Chinnamasta's w orship: " W h o e v e r perform s this w orsh ip w ith o u t m ed
itating on Chinnam asta, the G oddess will sever one's head and d rin k one's
b lo o d ." 51 T h e Sdkta-pramoda also distinguishes betw een the w orsh ip o f
Chinnam asta by renouncers and householders,52 im p ly in g that there are
different styles o fw o rsh ip and that renouncers pursue a more heroic path.
Indeed, m any people have told me that o n ly those o f p articu larly heroic
nature dare w orsh ip Chinnam asta.
166 CHINNAMASTA
T h e Saktisamgama-tantra stipulates w h ic h path is appropriate for

w o rsh ip in g each o fth e M ahavidyas. C hinnam asta is to be w orshiped by
the left-handed path alo n e.53 T h e o n ly oth er goddess to be so w orshiped
is B hairavl. T h e others are to be w orshiped by the right-handed path or
b y both paths. A consistent them e in tantric texts is that o n ly those w ith
the nature o fth e vira (hero) are qualified to undertake sddhand ofth e left
handed type and that those w h o are not qualified should not attempt it.
L eft-handed w orship o f Chinnam asta involves sexual intercourse w ith a
w om an w h o is not one's w ife, according to both the Mantra-mahodadhih-*
and the Sdkta-pramoda,55 T h e Sdkta-pramoda also says that, in m aking fire
offerings to Chinnam asta, one should offer her meat and w in e at n ig h t.56
In conclu sion , C hinnam asta has few shrines or temples and is proba
b ly w orshiped in tantric fashion by a few p articu larly brave individuals
w h o are bold enough to engage this fearsome deity.
Bhairavi
T h e F ie r ce O n e
She has a lum inous com plexion like a thousand risin g suns. She wears
silken red clothes and a garland o f severed heads. H er breasts are smeared
w ith blood. She has four arms: in tw o o fh e r hands she holds a rosary and
a book, and w ith her other two hands she makes the gestures o f assurance
and conferring boons. She has three eyes that resemble large lotuses. On
her forehead is the half-m oon and on her head a jeweled crow n . She
smiles.1
She is b rillian t like the rising sun and wears the m oon crest on her head.
She has three eyes and is lo vely in her various ornaments. She is the de
stroyer o f enemies. She wears a garland of freshly severed heads that are
still vo m itin g blood. She wears red clothes. She has ten hands and carries
a trident, small drum , sword, club, bow, arrows, noose, goad, book, and
rosary. She is seated on a corpse thron e.2
A H y m n in Praise o f Bhairavi
I have been unable to find any m yths c o n c e rn in g the o r i

gin or em ergence o f B h airav i, w h ic h is surprising in v ie w o fh e r w id e
spread p o p u la rity in N e p a l. A s a w a y o f in tro d u c in g her m ultifaceted n a
ture, therefore, it m ay be h elp fu l to quote a re lativ ely early h y m n in her
praise from the Sdradd-tilaka (this n in th -c e n tu ry C.E. text is attributed to
Laksm ana D esiken d ra, the gu ru o fth e te n th -cen tu ry K a sh m iri p h ilo s o
ph er Abhinavagupta).
167
Fig. 2 6 . Bhairavi. Ajit Mookerjee Collection of Tantric Art, National Museum,
Delhi.
BHAIRAVI 169
You are so subtle that the gods cannot describe you. You are the source of
the w orld and have no beginning. You have three eyes, a beautiful face, and
four hands in w h ich you hold a book and a rosary and w ith w h ich you make
the signs o f assurance and giving favors. Y ou are the source of speech, of
everything graceful, the source ofthe universe itself. You wear the moon
as a crest in your hair and have a w hite complexion like the autumn moon.
You hold a jar of amrta [immortality nectar] and make the gesture o f ex
position/teaching. W h e n Siva and V isnu are worshiped, you are there to
be worshiped as w ell. You are also Brahma, where speech abides. Y o u are
the nature o f consciousness; you control the vital air, and by granting y o
gic powers you defeat the six kinds of passions: sexual lust, greed, delusion,
intoxication, jealousy, and anger. Siva, having obtained half o f your body
[in his half-man/half-woman form], was then empowered to create the
w orld. T h e w orld cannot be created w ithout you. A fter worshiping you,
the wives o f the siddhas [heavenly beings] become red eyed because o f d rin k
ing too much w ine. T h e y sing your names along w ith the kinnaras [heav
enly beings]. W e worship you w ho as the coiled serpent (kundalini) goes to
the city of Siva after passing along the susumnd nadi making all the lotuses
bloom [an allusion to the awakening and rising ofthe kundalini, represent
ing consciousness]. W e worship you w ho are bathed w ith a flow o f nectar.
You are the source of all Vedas; your form is consciousness itself. You are
the creator ofthe w orld in the form o f sound and meaning. Y o u maintain
the w orld by your power as the sun, and you dissolve the w orld in your
form as fire. Narayanl, G auri, and Sarasvati are also your names.3
T h is h ym n emphasizes the cosm ic aspect o f B hairavi, not her fear

some nature (w h ich is m entioned in later texts and suggested in her name
itself, "the fierce one"), nor her role as the consort o f Bhairava (a fierce
form o f Siva, w h ic h is also im plied in her name). T h e h ym n p rim a rily
describes B hairavi in a position o f cosm ic preem inence: as overseeing or
em pow ering the three male deities usually associated w ith creation, m ain
tenance, and destruction or as assuming these roles herself. She is not a
consort but is independent o f the gods and transcends them . T h is is a
com m on emphasis in m any goddess texts and hym ns, especially those per
tain in g to the M ahavidyas.
T h e h y m n also emphasizes her beauty and pow er to cause erotic ex
citem ent. H eaven ly beings are intoxicated by w orsh ipin g her, and her face
and form are described as beautiful. On the other hand, she is said to c o n
tro l passion as w e ll as arouse it. T h r o u g h yoga, she gives the po w er to
overcom e w o r ld ly passions. She is also cast in the role o f revealer and
teacher. She creates the Vedas, the source o f all know ledge and w isdom ;
she is shown m aking the gesture o f teaching and is said to carry a book.
T h e hym n also identifies Bhairavi w ith kundalini s'akti and th ereby w ith
BHAIRAVI
the in h eren t pow er o f awakened consciousness that is cultivated in tantric

sddhand (spiritual practice). In this respect she is affirmed to exist inw ardly,
as the inh eren t spiritual pow er that can be aroused in an in d iv id u a l by
means o f m editation or other spiritual techniques or rituals. T h is aspect
o f B hairavi com plem ents her transcendent, cosm ic aspect, len d in g her
an inten sely im m anent presence.
T h e Goddess of Destruction
A t the close o f the h ym n from the Sdradd-tilaka w e hear

ofBhairavT's destructive aspect: at the end o fth e cosm ic cycle, in her form
as fire, she dissolves the w o r ld . As the un iverse-en ding fire, she resem
bles Siva in his form as the destroyer. H e r destructive nature, though, is
a ve ry m in o r them e in the Sdradd-tilaka h ym n . Some recent interpreta
tions, how ever, focus on Bhairavi's name, "the fierce one," on her asso
ciation w ith fierce forms o f Siva, and on her often fierce appearance.
O n e scholar interprets B hairavi as a female version o f Siva in his de
structive form as K ala-bhairava, in w h ic h he punishes people both l i v
in g and dead. He notes that K ala-bhairava is clo sely associated w ith
Yam a, lord o f death, w h o lives in the south, and says this is w h y Siva is
also k n o w n as D aksin am u rti, "whose form faces southw ard." K ala-
bhairava's consort, he says, is Tripura-bhairavT, w h o is constan tly o c c u
pied w ith destroying the three worlds; hence her name, "she w h o is fierce
in the three w o rld s." C re a tio n and destruction are the tw o essential as
pects o f the universe, w h ic h is c o n tin u a lly subject to th e ir alternating
rhythm s. T h e tw o are equally dom inant in the w o rld and indeed de
pend upon each other in sym biotic fashion. B hairavi embodies the p r in
ciple o f destruction. T rip u ra -b h airav i arises or becomes present w h en
the b od y declines and decays, w h ic h is a natural, in evitab le, and ir r e
sistible force. She is also evid ent in self-destructive habits, such as eat
in g tdmasic food (food h avin g a q u ality associated w ith ignorance and
lust) and d rin k in g liquor, w h ic h w ear d ow n the body and m in d . She is
present, he says, in the loss o f semen, w h ic h weakens males. A n ger, jeal
ousy, and oth er selfish em otions and actions strengthen BhairavT's pres
ence in the w o r ld . Righteous behavior, conversely, makes her weaker.
In short, she is an ever-present goddess w h o manifests h erself in , and
embodies, the destructive aspects o f the w o rld . D estru ction , how ever,
is n ot always negative, this interpreter says: creation cannot continue
w ith o u t it. T h is is most clear in the process o f nou rish m ent and m e
B H AIRAVI 171
tabolism , in w h ic h life feeds on death; creation proceeds by means o f

transform ed energy given up in d estru ction .4
A second contem porary author interprets BhairavT in a sim ilar vein .
A c c o rd in g to this w riter, BhairavT is iden tical w ith K alaratri, a name of
ten associated w ith K a li that means "black n igh t [of destruction]" and
refers to a particularly destructive aspect o f K a l i . She is also identified
w ith M ahapralaya, the great dissolution at the end o f a cosm ic cycle, d u r
ing w h ic h all things, having been consumed by fire, are dissolved in the
formless waters o f precreation. She is the force that tends tow ard disso
lu tion . T h is force, furtherm ore, w h ic h is actually BhairavT herself, is pres
ent in each person as one gradually ages, weakens, and finally dies. D e
struction is apparent everyw h ere, and therefore BhairavT is present
everyw h ere.5
BhairavT's fierce, terrible, or destructive nature is emphasized in some
o f her descriptions; for example, she is said to w ear a garland o f freshly
severed heads that gush b lo o d o v er h er breasts and to be seated on a
corpse (see the dhydna mantra o f Rudra-bhairavT, preceding note 2
above). T h is aspect o f BhairavT is also m entioned fa irly often in her th o u
sand-name hym n from the Vtsvasdra-tantra, w here she is called E xtrem ely
T errib le (Ghora-tara), B lack N ig h t (Kalaratri), Fierce O n e (Candl), She
W h o Creates Fear and A w e , W h o Has a T errib le Face, W h o Has the
Face o f a G host, W h o A rises from the B ody o f a C orpse, W h o L ikes
B lood, W h o D rin k s B lood , W h o D estroys the Body, and W h o Is the
Cause o f M ahapralaya.6T h is hym n also often identifies her w ith the sun
and fire, w h ic h m ay have destructive functions but are not specifically
m entioned as destructive forces w h en she is associated w ith th e m .7 She
is said to d w ell in crem ation grounds (Smasana-vasinI, Smasanalaya-
vasinT) and to have a corpse as a seat (Savasana).8 H e r th o u san d -n am e
h y m n in the Sdkta-pramoda says th at she sits on a corpse, eats th e flesh
o f a corpse, is fond o f flesh, drinks blood, and destroys those w h o c r it
icize the offerin g o f b lood (perhaps the Vaisnavas). She is also called
K otaraksi, "whose eyes are sunken" (probably from being em aciated),5
w h ic h associates her w ith the terrible forms o f K a il and C am unda, w h o
are often described as having sunken eyes. In short, BhairavT is stron gly
associated w ith destruction, is often said to have a fierce, terrib le, fright
ening nature, and is fond o f meat and blood . In N ep a l, the "BhairavT o f
N a w a k o t ... is believed ann u ally to disseminate awal (malaria) in the
TrisulT V a lle y low lands, sparing o n ly those w h o adequately appease
her."'« In these respects, she fu lfills the promise o f her name, B hairavi,
"the fierce one."
BHAIRAVI
T h e Goddess o f M a n y Forms
B h airav i has several d istin ct form s, some o f w h ic h have

separate mantras and yantras in tantric manuals. O th e r goddesses am ong
the M ahavid yas have m ore than one form , b u t none has as m any as
B h airav i. T h e Tantrasdra describes tw elve separate forms o f B h airav i, and
taken together th ey suggest a m u ltifaceted goddess, a goddess w h o is
c e rta in ly not lim ite d to b e in g the em bod im en t o f d es tru c tio n ." T h e
names o f several o fh e r form s stress that she gives a range o f blessings.
As Sam patprada-bhairavl she gives riches, as Sakalasiddh i-bhairavi she is
the one w h o grants every p e rfe ctio n , as B hayavidhvam sini-bhairavT she
destroys a ll fears, as C aita n ya -b h airav i she gives aw akened consciousness,
as B huvanesvari-bhairavi she is present in creation and engenders g ro w th ,
as Kam esvari-bhairavT she k ind les sexual desire and grants sexual g ra ti
fication, and as A n n a p u rn esva ri-b h a ira vi she gives food. T h ese last tw o
forms deserve some com m en t, as th e y present such a stron g contrast to
the destructive aspect that tends to dom inate h er character.
K am esvari denotes a form o f B h airav i w h o is mistress o f Kam a-deva,
the god o f sexual desire, nam ely, R ati (whose name means "sexual in te r
course"). A s K am esvari, she em bodies sexual desire and lends to creation
its d istin ctive q u ality o f b ein g pervaded b y the m utual attraction o fth e
sexes. O n e o fh e r dhydna m antras, that ofSam patprada-bhairavT, says that
she is intoxicated w ith her y o u th , and m ost descriptions o fh e r, despite
h er associations w ith d estru ction , say that she is attractive, y o u n g , and
shapely. BhairavT's association w ith sexual desire and fu lfillm e n t is m e n
tion ed often in h er thousand-nam e hym ns. In the Sdkta-pramoda, for ex
am ple, she is called She W h o Is F o n d o f Sem en and M e n stru a l B lo o d
and She W h o Is W o rsh ip e d b y T h ose W h o W o r s h ip w it h S em en .12 In
her thousand-name hym n in the Visvasdra-tantra, she is called L o v e ly O ne,
She W h o s e F o rm Is Sem en, W h o P roduces Sem en, W h o G ives L o v e ,
W h o E njoys Sexual Intercourse, W h o Is D ear to K am a, and W h o
Dwells in the Y o n i."
A t one p o in t, the Tantrasdra says that BhairavT is the co n so rt o f K am a-
deva and stipulates that the adept im agine and in te r io riz e the five d if
ferent forms o fth e love god w ith the co rresp o n d in g five form s o f R ati,
his c o n s o rt.14BhairavT is also w orsh ip ed th ro u g h bdnanydsa (nydsa is a r it
ual b y means o f w h ic h one d ivin izes the b od y w ith mantras and mudrds).
In bdna nydsa, the adept places the five flo w er arrow s o f K am a in the fin-
27- Bhairavi on Siva. Ajic Afookerjee Collection o f Tantric Art, National
iseum, Delhi,
BHAIRAVI
E ach o fth e flow er arrows produces an in to x ica tin g em o tion o f love and
desire, such as excessive agitation, a m eltin g sensation, an irresistible at
traction to another, and stu p efaction .15
Arm apurnesvari-bhairavi reveals a quite different dim ension o f Bhairavi
b y id en tify in g her w ith the w e ll-k n o w n goddess A n n apu rn a. A n n apu rn a-
devi, the goddess "w ho is filled w ith food," is stron gly associated w ith Siva
and a dom estic setting. She is a goddess o f the k itch en , as it w ere, whose
basic fun ction is to satisfy the hunger o fh e r husband, and b y extension,
as he is Pasupati, "lo rd o f creatures," to satisfy the hunger o fa li creatures.
BhairavT's fearsome aspects are here com p letely submerged. T h e dhydna
mantra from the Tantrasdra describes her thus:
She is golden in color and wears the m oon crest on her forehead. She is
covered w ith nine kinds o f jewels and is dressed in m ulticolored clothes.
She has three eyes, w h ich are w ide and long, and golden jarlike breasts.
She is w ith Pancamukha-siva [Siva having five faces], w h o is w hite in color
and has a sm iling face and a blue throat. He wears an animal hide and ser
pents for clothing, and he shines like the kunda flow er [a bright w hite blos
som] . L o o k in g on the goddess, he dances in delight. She is pleasing in ap
pearance and wears a golden girdle that adorns her fu ll buttocks. She is
givin g food to Siva. F lan kin g her are the goddesses Sri and B hum i [god
dess o fth e e a rth ].16
T h e presence o f Sri and B h u m i in the com pany o f A n n apu rn esvari is

significant; th ey are b o th stron gly id en tified w ith V is n u . A lth o u g h A n -
napuma-devT is w e ll k n o w n as the consort o f Siva, or a form o f his c o n
sort, A n n apurn esvari is associated w ith a range o fV a isn a vite deities. In
con stru ctin g her yantra p h ysica lly or m entally, in ad dition to in v o k in g
Sri and B h u m i, the adept invokes oth er deities associated w ith V is n u :
V araha, N arayana, and Kam ala. T h e w orsh ip er prays to them for p le n
tifu l food so that he or she can p rovide for o th ers.17 T h e presence o fth e
V aisnava deities, w h o are gen erally ben ign and concern ed w ith w o r ld ly
blessings, as opposed to Saivite deities, w h o have m ore pron ou n ced as
cetic tendencies, is prob ab ly m eant to u n d erlin e Annapurnesvari's nature
as a beneficent p r o v id e r .18
Cosmic Dimensions
B hairavi has facets and epithets that assert her cosm ic im

portance, if not supremacy. A com m entary on the Parasurdma-kalpasutra
BHAIRAVI
says that the name BhairavT is d erived from the w ords bharana (to c re
ate), ramana (to protect), and vamarta (to em it or d isgo rg e).19 T h e c o m
m entator, that is, seeks to discern the in n er m eanin g o f BhairavT's name
b y id e n tify in g her w ith the cosm ic functions o f creation, m aintenance,
and d estruction . T h e image o fth e basic cosm ic r h y th m as one o f in h a l
in g and exh alin g is perhaps suggested b y the com m entator's use o f the
term vamana and m ay reflect the K a sh m ir Saivite emphasis on the
rh yth m o f b reathin g as a m etaphor for the nature o f ultim ate reality, w h ic h
alternately reveals or emanates its e lf and th en w ith d raw s and obscures
itself.
In her thousand-nam e h y m n from the Visvasara-tantra, BhairavT has
several names that id en tify her w ith p h ilo s o p h ic a l or cosm ic absolutes.
She is called Param esvari (mistress o f all), Jaganmata (m other o f the
w o rld ), JagaddhatrT (w orld nurse or she w h o nourishes the w o rld ),
Param a (she w h o is the highest), P arabrahm asvarupini (she w hose form
is the highest brahman), and SrstisarhharakarinT (she w h o is the cause of
creation and d estru ctio n ).20T h ese names, lik e her m any form s, em pha
size that she is a com plete goddess, as it w ere, not just a goddess associ
ated w ith destructive energy.
Dhumavati
T h e W 'ldon' Cioddess
Dhumavati is ugly, unsteady, and angry. She is tall and wears dirty clothes.
H er ears are ugly and rough, she has long teeth, and her breasts hang down.
She has a long nose. She has the form of a widow. She rides in a chariot
that has a banner on top decorated w ith a crow emblem. H er eyes are fear
some, and her hands tremble. In one hand she holds a w in n ow in g basket,
and w ith the other hand she makes the gesture of conferring boons. Her
nature is rude. She is always hungry and thirsty and looks unsatisfied. She
likes to create strife, and she is always frightful in appearance.1
Dhumavati has two hands, w h ich hold a skull bow l and a spear. H er com
plexion is black, she wears ornaments made of snakes, and her dress is made
o f rags taken from the cremation ground.2
The goddess should be imagined in the follow ing way. H er complexion

is like the black clouds that form at the time o f cosmic dissolution. Her
face is very w rinkled, and her nose, eyes, and throat resemble a crow's.
She carries a broom, a w inn ow in g fan, a torch, and a club. H er face has a
venomous expression. She is very old, and she wears the plain clothes of
a mendicant. She has disheveled hair, and her breasts are dry and w ith
ered. She is w ithout mercy. She frowns.3
N ir r t i , Jyestha, and Alaksmi
D hum avati is barely k n ow n outside the M ahavidyas. If she

had an independent cu lt p rior to her in clu sion in the group, w e know
n oth in g about it. H ow ever, D hum avati bears strikin g sim ilarities to
Pig. 28. Dhum avati, contem porary black and white drawing.
178 DHUMAVATI
certain goddesses w h o appeared v e ry early in the H in d u trad itio n and

w h o had cults or m yths p rio r to and separate from the M ahavidyas; some
con tem p o rary authors id en tify D h u m a va ti w it h th em . In particular,
D hu m avati is said to be the same a s N ir r t i, Jyestha, and A la k s m l.4A l l three
o f these goddesses, as w e shall see, are inauspicious, dangerous, and
avoided b y people.
N i r r t i is k n o w n in the earliest V e d ic text, the Rg -veda, as a dangerous
and inauspicious goddess. Just one h y m n m entions her ( 1 0 .59), and its
con cern is to seek p ro te ctio n from her or to ask that she be d riven away.
She is equated w ith death, bad lu ck , and destruction. T h e h y m n sums up
N irr ti's nature v e ry w e ll. A fte r four verses asking the gods for renew ed
life, w ea lth , food, glorious deeds, y o u th , and co n tin u ed lo n g life , the f o l
lo w in g refrain is in voked : "L et N i r r t i depart to distant places." T h a t is,
N i r r t i is id en tified w ith the opposites o fth e blessings sought: she is de
cay, need, anger, cow ard ice, decrepitude, and death.
L ater V e d ic literature describes N i r r t i in m ore d etail and m entions
her more frequendy than does the Rg-veda. She is said to be dark, to dress
in dark clothes, and to receive dark husks as her share o f the sacrifice,5
although one passage says that she has golden lo ck s.6 She lives in the
south, the d ire ctio n o fth e k in g d o m o fth e dead,7is associated w ith p a in ,8
and is repeatedly given offerings w ith the specific in te n tio n o f keep ing
her aw ay from the sacrificial rituals and from the affairs o f people in gen
eral. N i r r t i continues to be k n o w n in the later H in d u trad itio n . H e r na
ture has not changed; she is s till associated w ith negative qualities and
bad luck.
T h e goddess Jyestha also appears ve ry early in the H in d u tr a d itio n .9
She seems to have enjoyed a quite widespread cu lt d u rin g some periods.
M a n y images o f her have been fou n d , and d u rin g the seventh and eighth
centuries she seems to have been w id e ly k n o w n in South In d ia .10In ph ys
ical appearance she bears some sim ilarities to D hu m avati. She is described
as h avin g "large pendulous breasts descending as far as her n avel, w ith a
flab b y b elly, th ic k thighs, raised nose, h anging lo w er lip , and is in co lo u r
as i n k . " 11 She is black, or sometimes red, holds a lotus and a w aterpot,
and sometimes makes the sign o f p ro te ctio n . She wears m any kinds o f
ornaments, as w e ll as a tilaka (an ornam ental m ark on her forehead), w h ic h
identifies her as a m arried w om an. H e r h air is usu ally braided and p iled
on top o f her head or w o u n d around her head. She has a banner d ep ict
in g a crow . Sometim es a c ro w stands next to her. She rides a d on key or
is draw n in a ch ariot b y lions or tigers. She carries a b r o o m .12
A c c o r d in g to the Liriga-purana, she was b o rn w h en the gods and
DHUMAVATI
demons churn ed the ocean to obtain the nectar o f im m o rtality. She was
given in m arriage to the sage Dussaha, w h o soon discovered that his u n
attractive w ife cou ld not bear the sound or sight o f any k in d o f pious ac
tivity. W h e n he complained to V isn u , V isn u told Dussaha to go w ith his
w ife o n ly to places w here inauspicious things occur— hence Jyestha'spop
ular epithet A la k s m l, "she w h o is inauspicious." A m o n g the places specif
ic a lly m en tion ed as appropriate residences for her are homes w here fam
ily members quarrel and elders eat food w h ile disregarding the hunger
o f th eir c h ild r e n . E ven tu ally Dussaha abandoned Jyestha. She com plained
to V is n u that she cou ld not sustain h erse lf w ith o u t a husband, and he d ic
tated that she w o u ld be sustained b y offerings from w o m e n .13 A lth o u g h
the text does not say so, it is prob ab ly understood that Jyestha w ill not
enter the homes o f those w h o propitiate her. It is also significant, as a
lin k betw een Jyestha and D h u m avati, that h er name means "elder" or
"eldest." D h u m a va ti, as w e shall see, is usu ally show n as an o ld w om an.
A la k sm l, the th ird goddess w ith w h o m D h u m avati is id en tified b y c o n
tem porary authors, is m en tion ed as early as the Sri-sukta, a v e ry early
h ym n in praise o fth e goddess Sri. In that h y m n , S ri is asked to banish
her sister, A la k s m l (w. 5, 6, and 8 ) .14A la k s m l is said to appear in such i n
auspicious forms as need, poverty, hunger, and thirst. L ak sm i, or S ri, is
her exact opposite, and the tw o do not d w e ll in the same place at the same
tim e; b y th e ir natures th ey are incom p atible and are unable to exist w here
the oth er is present. A la k s m l is described as "an old hag r id in g an ass.
She has a b room in her hand. A c ro w adorns her b an n er."15 T h e c ro w
and the b roo m , as w e shall see, are associated w ith D hu m avati.
T h e contrast betw een A la k s m l and L ak sm i is dram atically evident in
the festival o f D iv a li (also k n o w n as D fpavall) and the rituals and prac
tices leading up to it. T h e ghosts o f the dead are said to retu rn d u rin g
the three days before D iv a li, w h ic h takes place in the autum n on the n ight
o f a n ew m o o n .16 T h e dem on B ali emerges from the u n d e rw o rld to rule
for three days, and goblins and m alicious spirits are abroad, in c lu d in g
A la k s m l.17 P eople invoke L aksm i to drive these spirits away and lig h t
lamps to frigh ten the demons. In general, e v il spirits are exorcised, es
p ecia lly A la k sm l, w h o is b elieved to have reigned on earth d u rin g the past
four m onths, w h e n the gods w ere sleeping. In addition to the ligh ted
lamps, w h ic h A la k s m l dislikes, people bang pots and pans or play on i n
struments to frigh ten her o ff.18 O n another occasion in Bengal, an im
age o f A la k s m l is made and cerem on iou sly disfigured b y cu ttin g o ff her
nose and ears, after w h ic h an image o f L ak sm i is installed to signify the
triu m ph o f good lu ck over bad in the fu tu re .19
l8 o DH UM AVATI
In reading descriptions o f D h u m a va ti, it is clear that she shares m any

characteristics w ith N ir r ti, Jyestha, and Alaksm l. Like N ir r ti and Alaksm l,
she is associated w ith p o verty and need, or is said to be po or herself; w ith
hunger and thirst, or is said to be constan tly h u n gry and thirsty; and w ith
inauspicious things and bad lu ck. L ik e N i r r t i and Jyestha, she is som e
times said to have a dark com p lexion . L ik e Jyestha and A la k sm l, she is
said to have a banner w ith a c ro w on it and, sometimes, to carry a broom .
L ik e Jyestha, she causes quarrels and has a bad temper. A n d fin ally, like
A la k sm i, she is described as an o ld hag and is said to rule d u rin g the four
m onths p rio r to s'ukla ekddas'i (the eleven th day o fth e w a xin g m oon) o f
the m on th o f K a rtik , the date w h en V is n u wakes up after a fou r-m onth
sleep. D u r in g the four m onths w h e n V is n u is asleep, the soul lacks its
usual luster, and auspicious events, such as w eddings, are not p erfo rm ed .20
W h il e the sim ilarities betw een D h u m a va ti and these three goddesses
are unm istakable, and sometimes strik in g , and w h ile it is lik e ly that some
m odern w riters are consciously pattern ing D hu m avati on them , especially
A la k sm l, there are some im portant differences betw een D h u m a va ti and
her prototypes. O n e o f the most d istin gu ish in g and consistent features
o f D h u m a va ti is that she is a w id ow . Jyestha is m arried and has a tilaka
and braided hair, signs o f a m arried w om an. I have found no m en tion o f
N ir r ti or Alaksm i as widows.
D h u m a va ti is also described as u g ly m ore often and m ore consistently
than the other three goddesses. H e r breasts are d ried and w ith e red , her
face is nasty and w r in k le d , her teeth are croo ked or m issing, her hair is
gray and disheveled, and her clothes are d irty and w o r n .21 A lth o u g h the
oth er goddesses are c ertain ly not said to be attractive, there is a stronger
insistence on D hum avati's unattractive appearance in most w ritte n de
scriptions o f her.
D h u m a va ti is also described as fierce, frig h te n in g , and fond o fb lo o d ,
characteristics that are not em phasized in descriptions o fth e oth er three
goddesses. D h u m a va ti, for exam ple, crushes bones in her m ou th , and the
sound is aw ful. She is also said to make the noises o f drums and bells,
w h ic h are frig h te n in g and w a rlik e. She wears a garland o f skulls, chews
the corpses o f the demons Canda and M u n d a , and drinks a m ixture o f
b lo od and w in e .22 H e r eyes are glarin g red, stern, and w ith o u t tender
ness. She carries Yama's buffalo h o rn in her hand, sy m b o liz in g death. She
dw ells w ith w id ow s, in ru in ed houses, and in w ild , u n c iv iliz e d , danger
ous places such as deserts.23 A lso , u n lik e the oth er three goddesses,
D h u m a va ti is related to Siva, albeit in d ir e c tly in some cases, and to his
spouse Sati.
DHUM AVATI 181
F in ally, D hum avati is not id en tified w ith these three goddesses in c o n

texts w here one m igh t expect it. For example, in her nama stotras (hymns
in v o k in g her m any names), w here she is id en tified w ith num erous other
goddesses, the names o f N i r r t i , Jyestha, and A la k sm i are not in clu d ed , a
remarkable om ission. D h u m avati, as w e shall see, also has certain im
portant positive characteristics and is interpreted by some as an effective
sym bol or pow er for ach ievin g spiritual know ledge and lib era tio n . N on e
o f the oth er three goddesses has such positive aspects.
D hum avati, then, probably stands in a trad ition o f inauspicious god
desses, like N irrti, Jyestha, and Alaksm l, w h o sym bolize the more diffi
cult and painful aspects o f life and reality generally. It is also possible, even
likely, that D hum avati has been consciously m odeled on these three god
desses. T h a t she is "the same," h o w e ver, seems to m e to be an exaggera
tio n , particularly in lig h t o f some o f her characteristics that th ey do not
share and in lig h t o fh e r positive aspects in the context o fth e M ahavidyas.
Origin Myths
T h e re are tw o m yths that te ll o f Dhum avati's o rig in , and

th ey suggest significant aspects o fh e r character. T h e first says that she
was b orn w h en Sari burned h erself to death on her father's sacrificial fire
or was burned on that fire after she com m itted suicide by w illin g her ow n
death. D hum avati was created from the smoke o f Sati's b u rn in g body.
"She emerged from that fire w ith blackened face; she appeared from that
sm ok e."24 B orn in such circum stances, em bod ying both the m ood o fth e
insulted, outraged goddess Sati at the tim e o fh e r death and her funeral
smoke, D hum avati has, in the words ofthe priest at the D hum avati tem ple
in Varanasi, "a sad fram e o f m in d ." In this version, then, D h u m avati is a
form o f Sati, indeed the physical continu ation o fh e r in the form o f smoke.
She is "all that is left o f Sati": sad smoke.
T h e second m yth that tells o f Dhumavati's o rig in says that once, w hen
Siva's spouse Sati was d w ellin g w ith him in the Him alayas, she became ex
trem ely hun gry and asked h im for som ething to eat. W h e n he refused to
give her food, she said, "W ell, then I will just have to e a ty o u ." T h ereu p on
she swallowed Siva. He persuaded her to disgorge h im , and w h en she did
he cursed her, condem ning her to assume the form o fth e w id o w D h u
m avati.25 In this m yth , D hum avati is associated w ith Siva. She represents
an aggressive, assertive aspect o f Sati. W h e n Siva does not acquiesce to
182 DHUM AVATI
her w ish , she turns on h im and consumes h im . T h is echoes the them e in

the o rig in m y th o f the M ahavidyas as a group, in w h ic h the goddesses
are form ed w h en Sati is thw arted b y Siva and she grows angry. T h e m yth
underlines D hum avati's destructive bent. H e r hunger is o n ly satisfied
w h en she consumes Siva, w h o h im se lf contains or creates the w o r ld . O n e
author, co m m en tin g on her perpetual hunger and thirst, w h ic h is m en
tion ed in m any places, says that she is the em bodim ent o f "unsatisfied
desires."26 T h e m y th also emphasizes that D h u m a va ti as a w id o w is i n
auspicious. T h is is com pounded b y the fact that she has also been cursed
and rejected b y her husband. H e r status as a w id o w in the m y th is c u r i
ous. She makes h erse lf one b y sw a llo w in g Siva, an act o f self-assertion,
and perhaps independence. O n the oth er hand, she does not assume the
form o f a w id o w u n til Siva curses her.
Symbol of Inauspiciousness as Transformative
T h e re can be no question that D h u m avati is a figure w h o

v iv id ly sym bolizes all that is c o n v e n tio n a lly affirm ed to be inauspicious.
She is often show n sittin g in a chariot that has n o th in g to p u ll it, and she
is a w id ow . In the context o f H in d u society, she is a w om an going now here,
the ultim ate sym bol o f all that is u n lu ck y, unattractive, and inauspicious.
She is a n ob o d y socially; she has no place; she does not fit. T h e crow ,
w h ic h appears as the em blem on her banner or atop her ch ariot or as her
m ount (vdhana), is a carrion eater and sym bol o f death. Indeed, she her-
selfis sometimes said to resemble a crow . T h e Prapancasdrasdra-sarhgraha,
for example, says that h er nose and throat resemble a cro w 's.27 She lives
in crem ation grounds and is so depicted in a p a in tin g o fh e r b y a c o n
tem porary Varanasi artist (figure 3 1).- In this pictu re she is surrounded
b y four crem ation fires; on top o f each one sits a crow . H e r thousand-
name h y m n says that her house is in the crem ation ground, that she sits
on a corpse, wears ashes from the crem ation ground, and blesses those
w h o haunt crem ation grou n d s.29 She also wears a dress taken from a
corpse in the crem ation g r o u n d .” She is said to be the em bodim ent of
the tamasguna, the aspect o f creation associated w ith lust and ign oran ce.31
H e r thousand-name h ym n says that she likes liq u o r and m eat,32 b oth of
w h ic h are tdmasic. A c c o r d in g to a scholar o fT a n tr is m in Varanasi,
D h u m avati is "the aspect o f reality that is old , ugly, and unappealing. T h e
M ahavidyas are supposed to represent the d iversity o f reality, so w e have
DHUM AVATI 183
in female form the you n g and beautiful forms and the u g ly and fearsome
form s."35 D hum avati is generally associated w ith all that is inauspicious:
she dw ells in areas o fth e earth that are perceived to be desolate, such as
deserts, in abandoned houses, in quarrels, in m ourning ch ild ren , in hunger
and thirst, and particu larly in w id o w s .34
T h e inauspicious, if not dangerous, overtones o f D hum avati as a w id o w
also m igh t be suggested by the Nepalese b e lie f in boksis, a class o f dan
gerous, in im ica l spirit beings w h o possess w idow s. To becom e a boksi it
is necessary for a w om an to sacrifice her husband or so n .35 W id o w s are
here associated w ith the m urder o f th e ir husbands and sons, w ith w illfu l
e v il. T h e y are understood as b rin gin g about th e ir ow n inauspicious c o n
d itio n by despicable acts or as being vulnerable to possession by e v il spir
its w h o will prom pt them to undertake such acts. W id ow s, b y d efin ition ,
are suspect as dangerous beings w h o are lik e ly to cause trouble and w ho
therefore should be avoided. As the divine w id ow , the sym bolic w id o w
par excellence, D hum avati is to be feared.
L ik e the three inauspicious goddesses to w h o m she is sometimes c o m
pared or w ith w h om she is sometimes identified, it seems that D hum avati
is p rim a rily a being to keep at bay. Indeed, the m ajority o f people are ad
vised not to w orship her, and m arried people, in particular, should keep
her at a distance.36T h a t anyone w o u ld approach her, w orship her, or c u l
tivate a relationship w ith her seems, at first glance, h ig h ly u n lik ely.
In several places, how ever, it is said that she grants siddhis to those w h o
w orship her, that she rescues her devotees from all kinds o f trouble, and
that she grants all rewards and desires, in clu d in g ultim ate know ledge and
liberation . T h e details for her w orsh ip are stipulated, and it must be as
sumed that at least some adepts w orship her and cultivate a rapport w ith
her, indeed, seek to become un ited w ith her and to realize her presence
in themselves according to the logic o f tantric sddhand.
A n in k lin g o f Dhum avati's positive aspect is suggested in a com m ent
made to me by a priest serving the Dasamahavidya panda! (a tem porary
shelter for w orship) on S. N. Banerjea Street d u rin g K a li Puja in C a l
cutta. A fte r te llin g me that she is a vision o f old age and decay— that she
is n early blin d and has loose, w rin k le d skin, sagging breasts, and no
teeth— and that furtherm ore she looks fierce, he said that inside she is
tenderhearted. T h e priest at the D hu m avati tem ple in Varanasi, Panalal
G osvam i, after te llin g me about all the inauspicious aspects o f the go d
dess, and em phasizing that she should not be approached by happ ily m ar
ried men like me, said that she gives "an yth in g the devotee wants," w h ic h
he said was unusual am ong deities. He also said that her w orship instills
I84 DH UM AVATI
a feelin g o f w a n tin g to be alone and a distaste for w o r ld ly things. In this

v e in , he said, her w orsh ip is appropriate for w o r ld renouncers. He also
said that D hu m avati is partial to un m arried people and to those w h o have
been w id o w ed . He insisted that o n ly un m arried people co u ld w ithstand
her great po w er and successfully spend a n ig h t alone in her tem ple. For
a m arried person to do this, he said, w o u ld result in death.
T hese com m ents are suggestive. A c c o r d in g to this priest, D h u m avati
attracts and p ro b ab ly encourages and reinforces a certain k in d o f in d e
pendence, or solitariness, that is experienced outside m arriage. W h e th e r
this solitariness im plies and affirms independence is n ot clear. It is im
portant to rem em ber, th o u gh , that the highest stages o fth e sp iritu al quest
in m any trad itio n al H in d u texts can o n ly be undertaken alone, after the
aspirant has left hom e and fam ily. It is also im portan t to realize that m any
o f the most pious H in d u s one sees today in India are w id o w s w h o have
vo w ed to spend the rest o f th e ir lives u n d ertak in g pilgrim ages to sacred
centers or p erfo rm in g religious rituals at such sites. In most respects these
w om en are liv in g the life o fth e traditional H in d u w orld renouncer. In
deed, one text says that D h u m avati wears a "dress lik e a m en d ican t's."57
T h e priest's com m ent that D h u m avati in stills a distaste for w o r ld ly
things also relates to the highest stages o fth e sp iritu al quest in trad itio n al
H in d u ism . T h e w o r ld ren ou n cer seeks to achieve a frame o f m in d that
does not covet the com forts and joys o fth e w o r ld ly life, a frame o f m ind
in w h ic h he or she is conten t w ith w hat comes to hand, w ith m in im al
food, c lo th in g , and shelter. L ik e D h u m avati herself, w h o in the form o f
smoke is ever m o v in g , never s till, the trad itio n al sannyasi wanders the
w o r ld , never rem ain in g in one place for m ore than a few days.
W h y D h u m avati in p articu lar m igh t be effective in in s tillin g these
kinds o f feelings or b rin g in g about a frame o f m in d that is in d ifferen t to
the w o r ld is perhaps explained in the same w ay as the sym bolism o f the
goddess K a li and the lo g ic that underlies the parica fatten ritu al (the r it
ual o f the five forbid d en things): D h u m avati is able to inculcate in d if
ference to the w o r ld because she so un am biguously reveals the negative
aspects o f life. L ik e K a li, w ith w h o m she is sometimes id e n tifie d ,58 she
forces her w orshipers to acknow ledge the in h eren t m iseries o f existence
and thus encourages an indifferen ce to or distaste for the w o r ld . In the
lo g ic o f the. parica tattva ritu al, accord in g to w h ic h it is sp iritu a lly trans
form ative to co n fro n t w hat is forbid d en , D h u m avati m ay be understood
as a dram atic sym bo l o f all that is so cia lly rejected. To seek to id en tify
w ith her b y u n d ertak in g her w o rsh ip is to partake o fth e "fo rb id d en " and
to realize that it is p r im a r ily a m anifestation o f false hum an categories,
D H UM AVATI 185
that u n d e rly in g w hat is th o u gh t to be pure and im pure, auspicious and

inauspicious, is a u n ity that transeends such artificial dich otom ies. B e
y o n d desire for w o r ld ly blessings, b eyon d avoidance o f w h at is thought
to be p o llu tin g and dangerous, is indifference to these distinctions, is the
know ledge o fth e ultim ate, w h ic h is w ith o u t name and form .
In a m ore positive v e in , as a socially m arginal b ein g for w h o m w o r ld ly
concerns are past, D h u m avati encourages spiritual aw akening. A lth o u g h
others m ay consider the w id o w unfortunate, she is free to undertake
spiritual pursuits, such as p ilgrim age, that w ere d ifficu lt or im possible in
her younger, socially responsible days. F or w om en whose marriages prove
oppressive, the w id o w m ay be a lib e ra tin g figure. L ik e the trad itio n al
w o r ld renouncer, she is outside society and free o f its constraints and
obligations.
D h u m avati is often said to be manifest in M ahapralaya, the great
dissolution o f the universe at the end o f the great cosm ic age. In the
Praparicasdrasdra-samgraha she is said to have a com p lexion that is "black
like the accum ulated clouds d u rin g d isso lu tio n ."39In her thousand-name
hym n she is called She W h o se F orm is Pralaya, W h o Is O c cu p ie d w ith
Pralaya, W h o Creates and Causes Pralaya, and W h o W a lk s A b o u t in
P r a la y a O n e author says that she appears at the end o f tim e, w h en even
M ahakala, Siva him self, has disappeared. Since she is alone, she appears
as a w id o w and in this form represents "the P o w e r o fT im e , outside T im e
and Space."41 A n o th e r scholar says that D h u m avati "personifies the de
struction o fth e w o r ld b y fire, w h e n o n ly smoke from its ashes rem ain s."42
B eyond name and form , beyon d hum an categories, alone and in d iv is i
ble, as the great dissolution, she reveals the nature o f ultim ate k n o w l
edge, w h ic h is formless and know s no divisions in to good or bad, pure
and im pure, auspicious and inauspicious.
T h e Dhumavati Temple in Varanasi
D h u m a va ti temples are few and far betw een. In Varanasi

I visited one o f these rare temples on several occasions.43 A lth o u g h the
central image there is covered w ith c lo th in g , the priest assured me that
it represents D h u m avati. He described her as a w id o w , rid in g a chariot;
in three o fh e r hands she holds a w in n o w in g fan, a broo m , and a pot, and
w ith the fou rth she makes the fear-not mudrd. T h e image is ofblackston e
w ith large eyes and red lips. She receives as offerings the usual things,
186 DH UM AVATI
such as flowers and fru it, but also likes liq u or, bhang (a. form o f hashish),
cigarettes, and meat. B lo od sacrifices are perform ed occasion ally at this
tem ple. She does not like offerings b u rn t in a fire that is not sm okey, so
the priest said he is always careful to create a lot o f smoke. She also likes
smoke from incense, offerings, and crem ation fires. Sm oke attracts her
because it suggests destruction. She herself, the priest said, exists in the
form o f smoke, and lik e smoke she drifts everyw h ere at w i l l.
P ain tings o f the oth er M ahavid yas adorn the in n e r w alls, although
some have been effaced. MatarigT, C hinnam asta, Sodasi, B huvanesvari,
and B agalam ukhi s till rem ain. T h e priest said the tem ple exists on the
spot (pttha) w here a piece o f SatT's b od y fe ll to earth and was founded a
lo n g tim e ago b y the sage D hurvasa, w h o had an irascible disposition,
appropriate for a devotee o f D h u m a va ti, w h o causes such ira s c ib ility in
those w h o w orsh ip her. T h e priest said that the goddess tends to be in a
sad frame o f m in d and is quarrelsom e, that her lips are red because th ey
are covered w ith b lo o d , and that she is the same as Smasana-kali (K a li
w h o lives in the crem ation ground). T h e priest said that w o r ld ren o u n c
ers and tantrikas w orsh ip at this tem ple and im p lie d that D h u m avati is
partial to them . He also insisted that m arried people, lik e me, should not
cultivate a relationship w ith D h u m a va ti, as she produces in her devotees
a desire to be alone, inappropriate for a m arried person; she has an affin
ity for un m arried people. T h e priest him self, how ever, is m arried and has
five children .
D espite the priest's com m ents about the ty p ica l w orshipers b eing
single and the goddess p referrin g this, the regular flo w o f visitors to the
tem ple on the occasions w h en I was there consisted p rim a rily o f m arried
men and w om en ; I saw ve ry few w id o w s, though one m igh t assume that
w id ow s w o u ld feel a special affin ity to this goddess. It is d ifficu lt to im ag
ine that people w h o attend the tem ple do not, on occasion, ask for the
usual w o r ld ly favors: ch ild re n (male c h ild re n , usually), good fortune, a
good marriage partner for th e ir c h ild re n , success on exams and in b u si
ness, and so on. Indeed, the priest adm itted that most o fth e regular w o r
shipers are locals and that stories o f the goddess's grace are com m on
am ong these people.
As the priest described D hum avati's lo cal significan ce, it became clear
that she plays the role o f a guardian deity, or villa g e deity, w h o looks af
ter the people o fh e r locale first and forem ost and whose lives she sup
ports w ith w o r ld ly blessings. It is also in terestin g to note that a Siva
lirigam is en shrined d ire c tly b eh in d the image o f D h u m a v a ti, im p ly in g
the presence in the tem ple o f Siva and all that he represents. W h e n I
DHUM AVATI 187
asked about the lirigam, I was told that, although it represents Siva, it does
not indicate that he is m arried to D hum avati. It is an independent shrine
that arose at the same tim e that the D hu m avati tem ple appeared. It is
also interesting to see that both inside and outside the tem ple are images
o fa lio n , the vehicle (vdhana) o fD u rg a in her various manifestations. T h e
lirigam and the lio n associate D hum avati w ith the creative male pow er o f
Siva and the dem on-slaying, dharm a-supporting role o f the goddess.
These tw o aspects o f D hum avati, as Siva's consort and as a m anifestation
o fD u rg a , are both clearly present in her ndma stotras, w here m any e p i
thets id en tify her w ith Parvati or Sati or as a slayer o f demons.
T h e priest at her tem ple said that D h u m avati appears in m any forms
and read me sections o fh e r hym ns to illustrate this. In the m o rn in g she
appears as a you n g m aiden, at n oon as a m arried w om an (her image was
usually draped in a red sari, the co lo r for a m arried wom an), and in the
evening as a w id ow . In this pu blic tem ple cult, it is clear that D hu m avati
has taken on an approachable character. She is no lon ger sim ply the i n
auspicious, dangerous goddess w h o can be approached o n ly by heroic
tantric adepts. H ere she is a n eigh b orh ood d eity w h o favors and protects
those w h o live near her and seek her shelter and blessing. Indeed, a be
n ign, approachable, even auspicious facet o f D h u m avati is clear in her
thousand-name h ym n . She is frequ ently said to bestow favors, and in
m any pictures o fh e r she makes a b oon -co n ferrin g gesture. H e r th o u
sand-name h y m n says that she lives in the m idst o f w om en and is w o r
shiped b y w om en (w . 80-81), and her hundred-nam e hym n says that she
bestows children (v. 16).**
Unusual Portraits of Dhumavati
A m o n g the m any pictures I have seen o f D hu m avati and

the m any descriptions I have read o f her, three relatively recent paint
ings are strik in g, suggesting facets o fth e goddess that are n ot u sually ap
parent. O n e painting is b y the eigh teen th -cen tu ry painter M o la ram o f
H im ach al Pradesh (figure 2 9 ) , another is from an eigh teen th -cen tu ry i 1-
lum inated N ep a li m anuscript (figure 3 0 ) , and the th ird , done around
ioi5 > is b y a Varanasi artist, Batuk Ramprasad (figure 31).
M olaram 's painting o f D h u m avati shows her on a chariot being pulled
b y tw o enormous birds. A lth o u g h th ey are n ot crows, th e ir hooked beaks
suggest carrion-eating birds, perhaps buzzards or vultures, w h ic h w o u ld
188 DHUM AVATI
Fig. 2 9 . Dhumavati, by Molaram, late eighteenth century, Garwahl, Himachal

Pradesh. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares H indu University, Varanasi.
be appropriate to Dhum avati's generally inauspicious associations. She

holds a large w in n o w in g basket in her left hand, and her rig h t hand is
raised, perhaps in the gesture o f co n ferrin g boons. She has fangs, and her
tongue lolls out in the fashion o f K a li and Tara. N o n e o fth is is unusual
for D hum avati (except for the lo llin g tongue). W h a t is strik in g about the
picture is the elaborate ornam entation ofthe goddess. She wears bracelets,
earrings, armbands, a necklace, and a pendant. She also wears elegant
clothes. H er breasts are not pendulous but h ig h and round. She is por
trayed as yo u n g and fu ll o f life. H er appearance contrasts sharply w ith
descriptions o fh e r as ugly, w ith ered , and w earin g the soiled clothes o f a
widow.
T h e N ep a li painting ofD h u m a va tiis equallyuncharacteristic, ifw etak e
the descriptions in her dhydna mantras to be norm ative. In this striking
picture, D hum avati stands, legs apart as if striding, on a peacock, w h ich
in turn rests oh a lotus. She is naked except for a necklace o f pearls and a
circle o f pearls c ro w n in g her hair. H er y o n i is clearly exposed. H er breasts
are h igh and not pendulous. H er hair is lig h t in color and elaborately
Fig. 30. Dhumavati and her yantra, Nepali M anuscript. Bharat
Kala Rhavan, Renares Hindu University, Varanasi.
DHUMAVATI
braided. She is lo o k in g at h erselfin a m irror, w h ic h she holds in her left

hand. She is en circled b y a rin g o f fire, w h ic h is a typ ical feature o f N ep ali
iconography and m any represent crem ation fires. T h is image bears no sim
ilarities to any o f Dhum avati's dhyana mantras w ith w h ic h I am familiar.
In this image she conveys a rather e ro tica lly a llu rin g presence.
In the p ain tin g b y Batuk Ramprasad, D h u m avati is again pictu red in
a style that deviates m arkedly from her dhyana mantras and from most
depictions o fh e r w ith w h ic h I am fam iliar. She is dressed in w h ite and
sits astride a huge crow . S u rrou n d in g her are w hat appear to be crem a
tio n fires, w ith a cro w sittin g on top o f each one. H e r com plexion is black,
and she holds a trident, sw ord, w in n o w in g fan, and b o w l in her four hands.
H e r breasts are som ewhat pendulous. A g a in , w hat is strik in g is that she
is h ea v ily adorned w ith ornam ents— bracelets, armlets, anklets, toe rings,
earrings, a nose rin g , necklace, and pendant— and is w ea rin g an elegant,
diaphanous upper garm ent and a gold-hem m ed lo w e r garm ent, h ard ly
the dress o f a w id ow .
W h a t m igh t be the significance o f these paintings? It is possible that
there is another trad itio n , w h ic h I have not been able to find, in w h ic h
D h u m avati is not a w id o w and is not described as u g ly and clo th ed in
soiled, w o r n garments. B arrin g this, a plausible in terp retation o f the
paintings m ight w e ll relate to the reputation o f w id ow s as dangerous to
m en. A ttra ctive y o u n g w id ow s, w h o in most upper castes are prevented
from rem arryin g, are considered p a rticu la rly threatening. Because her
husband has died, the w id o w is a w om an w h o has lost her social id en tity,
at least from the po in t o f v ie w o fth e H in d u law books. F ro m the male
perspective, she is a social m isfit, and if she is attractive and s till in her
ch ild b ea rin g years, she represents a tem ptation. She m igh t also be u n
derstood to have strong, unsatisfied sexual longings, p a rticu la rly in lig h t
o f the claim made in m any (male authored) texts that females are sexu
a lly insatiable. In short, the w id o w is understood to be sexually tem pt
in g to males. A saying popular in Varanasi captures this: " W id o w s , bulls,
stairs, and Sannyasis / If y o u can save y o u rself from these, / for yo u awaits
the lib e ra tio n o f K a s h i." 45 W id o w s here are put on a par w ith such n o
torious dangers in Varanasi as w an d erin g bulls, dilapidated stairs at the
b ath in g ghats, and unscrupulous "h o ly m en ."
H in ts that D h u m avati possesses sexual attractiveness and allure can
be found in her thousand-name h ym n . She is said to give enjoym ent (v.
1 0 ) , to be com p letely beautiful (v. 1 5 ) , to be lo v e ly (v. 2 0 ) , and to be doe
eyed (v. 7 1 ) . She is also said to create dance and to be a leader o f dancers
(w . 7 6 -7 7 ) and to be adorned w ith n ew garlands, clothes, and ornaments
DHUMAVATI
Fig. 3 1 . Dhumavati, by Bhatuk Ramprasad, early twentieth century. Printed

w ith the permission o f Dr. Bhanu Shanker M ehta, Varanasi.
(w. 77-78). She is also called She W h o se Form Is Rati (either Kam a-
deva's w ife or, literally, "sexual intercourse," v. 8 2 ) and is said to enjoy
sexual intercourse, to be present w here sexual a ctiv ity is, and to be o c
cupied w ith sex (w. 81-83). She is also said to have disheveled hair, w h ich
suggests a certain w ildness, perhaps sexual w ildness (v. 8 ) , to like liqu or
and to be intoxicated (w. 87-88), to be w orshiped by intoxicated people
192 DHUM AVATI
(v. 1 1 2 ), and to partake constantly in the five forbidden things (panca

tattva) (v. 02).**
H e r generally ugly, decrepit, inauspicious, cranky, cron elik e nature,
then, is tem pered or even offset b y oth er qualities suggested in this hym n.
In particular, she is said to be beautiful and to have erotic pow er, aspects
o f D hum avati that are featured in the three paintings. W h ile these c o n
trasting qualities m ay reflect the com m on tend en cy to portray a goddess,
p a rticu la rly in her thousand-nam e h y m n , as "com plete," as h avin g m any
facets, both terrible and b en ign , the m en tion o f erotic qualities m ay also
suggest the sexual appeal, and perhaps sexual danger, o f w id ow s.
Bagalamukhi
The P aralyser
In the middle ofthe ocean is a pavilion o f jewels w ith an altar inside it.
On the altar is a lion throne on w h ich the goddess Bagalamukhi is seated.
H er com plexion is com pletely yellow , perfectly yellow , and she wears a
yellow dress, yellow ornaments, and a yellow garland. I call to m ind she
w ho holds the tongue o f the enemy in her left hand and a raised club in
her right hand.1
She has assumed a serious mood and is maddened w ith intoxication. H er

brilliance reflects the golden hue ofher body. She has four arms and three
eyes and is seated on a lotus. On her forehead is the crescent moon, w hich
is yellow in color. She wears yellow clothes, has high, firm breasts, and
wears golden earrings.2
Origin Myths
I have found three m yths co n cern in g the o rig in o f Ba

galam ukhi. A c c o rd in g to the first m yth , once upon a tim e in the K rta
Yuga a cosm ic storm threatened to destroy the universe. M a n y creatures
w ere k ille d , and V is n u , w h o was re c lin in g on the cosm ic serpent, Sesa,
was h im s e lf disturbed. He w e n t to a sacred pond named H arid ra
(turm eric) and un dertook austerities to find a solu tio n to the problem .
(V isnu h im selfis often called Pitam bara, "he w h o wears y e llo w clothes.")
He prayed to T rip ura-su n dari, w h o appeared and lit up the entire w o rld
w ith her presence. She brou ght forth Bagalam ukhi, w h o sported in that
pond o f tu rm eric and then calm ed the storm w ith her great powers.
ICH
i 94 BACiALAM UKHI
Fig. 32. Pitambara (BagalamukhT), by Bhatuk Ramprasad, early twentieth

century. Printed with the permission o f Dr. Bhanu Shanker M ehta, Varanasi.
She is also k n o w n as Pitam bara-devi because she appeared in a lake of

tu rm eric.3
In the second m yth , a dem on named M adan un dertook austerities and
w o n the boon o f vdk siddhi, accordin g to w h ic h an yth in g he said came
about. He abused this siddhi by k illin g people. Enraged b y his m ischief,
BAGALAMUKHI
the gods w orshiped Bagalam ukhi. She stopped the demon's rampage by
taking h old o f his tongue and stilling his speech. Before she could kill
him , how ever, he asked to be w orshiped w ith her, and she relented. T h a t
is w h y he is depicted w ith her.4
T h e th ird m yth touches on the origins o f both Bagalam ukhi and
D hum avati. O n ce upon a tim e, Siva was liv in g on M o u n t Kailasa w ith
Parvati. She became so h u n gry that her body was racked w ith pain. She
com plained to Siva, asking him for som ething to eat: "O Siva," she said,
"give me some food. I am fam ished." Siva told her to be patient and w ait
a bit, after w h ic h he w o u ld give her anyth in g she w anted. But having said
this, Siva ignored her and w en t back to doing yoga. She appealed to him
again, saying that she was desperate for food. He again asked her to w ait
aw hile. She protested that she could not w ait, that she was starving to
death. W h e n he still was uncooperative, she put Siva h im self into her
m outh to devour h im . A fte r a little w h ile smoke began to issue from
Parvatfs body. T h is smoke was hex may a (magic pow er o fillu sio n ). T h e n
Siva emerged from Parvati and said: "L isten , O Goddess, a w om an w i t h
out a husband, as yo u just w ere, is called a w id o w and must strip herself
o f the adornments and marks o f a m arried w om an. T h a t w om an, you ,
w ho left her husband by sw allo w in g him , w i l l be k n o w n as Bagalam ukhi.
A n d the smoke that cam e from her w ill be k n o w n as the goddess
D hu m avati."5
These three m yths are so dissim ilar that it is d ifficu lt to th in k o f them
as variants o f each other. T h e y seem to represent three different m ed i
tations on Bagalamukhl's o rig in . In the first m yth , Bagala is associated
w ith V is n u and plays a role sim ilar to one o fh is avatdras. T h a t is, a cos
m ic crisis arises, and V isn u initiates action to meet it. Bagala emerges to
restore cosm ic stability. T h is m yth does not o v ertly emphasize her a b il
ity to stun or paralyze (stambhana), for w h ic h she is famous, but the s till
ing o fth e storm does im p ly this power. T h e m yth also promotes the su
p erio rity o f a goddess over an em inent male deity, in this case V isn u , by
im p ly in g that he cou ld not deal w ith a situation and had to sum m on the
goddess for help.
In the second m yth, Bagala is again propitiated by the gods (the im
plication is that the male deities c o lle ctiv e ly petition her) to rescue the
world from a power-crazed dem on whose ve ry words can kill and destroy.
She stops the demon's rampage by grasping his tongue, preven ting him
from further speech. She is almost always portrayed in this act. In this
m yth her pow er to paralyze is exp licit and stressed. She is often said to
give the pow er o f paralyzing the movem ents and activities o f enemies.
io6 BAGALAMUKHI
She is also said to be the giver o f vdk siddhi, the po w er o f superior speech
b y w h ic h all opponents can be defeated. In this m y th , b y stopping the
demon's tongue, she exercises her p ecu liar po w er over speech and her
p ow er to freeze, stun, or paralyze.
In the th ird m y th , Bagala is cast in the fam iliar role o f Siva's w ife. As
in the version o f the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas as a group in w h ic h Sati
challenges Siva to a llo w her to attend her father's sacrifice even thou gh
Siva has not been in v ite d , so here P arvati and Siva are at odds. P arvati is
h u n gry and wants to eat at once, w h ile Siva, apparently in d ifferen t to her
hunger and im patience, puts her o ff and ignores her, or at least ignores
the in ten sity o fh e r need. A s in the Sati m y th , P arvati d ire ctly challenges
Siva: she satisfies her hunger b y eating h im . A lth o u g h the denouem ent
o fth e story asserts Siva's prim acy b y h avin g h im , in effect, curse P arvati,
con d em n in g her to assume the forms o f Bagalam ukhi and D h u m avati,
Parvati's pow er over Siva is dram atic and m em orable. T h e m yth also hints
at the m eaning ofB agalam ukhi's name, w h ic h m a y b e translated as "she
w h o has the head or face o f a crane." L ik e a crane, she sw allow ed w h ole
w hat she ate— her husband— and perhaps this is w h y she is called
B agalam ukhi.
T h e Names Bagalamukhi and Pitambara
O n e o f Bagalam ukhi's m ost-used epithets is Pltam bara-

d evl. B oth names are strik in g ly d istin ctive, suggesting p ecu liar and par
ticu lar characteristics. T h e significance o f the names is far from clear,
how ever. T h e name B agalam ukhi prob ab ly means "she w h o has the face
o f a crane" or "the crane-faced one" (from Sanskrit baka, "crane"). In
deed, some scholars describe B agalam ukh i as h avin g the head o f a crane.6
She is in fact show n w ith the head o f a crane in at least one p a in tin g I
have seen, w hich has been identified as from Kangra, about the year 1800.'
O th e r sources, how ever, say that she has the head o f a d u ck 8and the nose
o f a parrot.9
Some assume that the name is a co rru p tio n and that the o rigin al m ean
in g had n o th in g to do w ith her h avin g a b ird face. Rama Shankar T r i-
pathi o fth e Kasi V isva n a th tem ple in Varanasi told me that her name is
actually V a lg a m u k h l (valga means "bit" in Sanskrit) and that the name
refers to her a b ility to co n tro l one's enemies. Just as a b it in a horse's m outh
controls it, so through the po w er o f B agalam ukhi one can c o n tro l o th
BAGALAMUKHI
ers. A n o th e r inform ant agreed that her name o r ig in a lly was V alg am u k h i
but said that valga means "to paralyze" and refers to Bagalam ukhi's g iv
ing the siddhi o f stambhana, "paralysis."10
W h a t is tro u b lin g about in terp re tin g Bagalam ukhi's name as m ean
ing "crane faced" is that ico n o g ra p h ica lly she is rarely show n w ith a b ird
head. In the Bagalam ukhi tem ple in B ankhandi in H im a ch a l Pradesh, a
framed picture o f Bagala hangs just outside the garbha grha. In this im
age, she sits on a crane that is attacking the dem on w ith its beak and claw.
A second crane is fly in g to the attack. In another image the p a v ilio n in
w h ich she sits is decorated w ith swans." T h e re are examples o f other
H in d u goddesses h avin g b ird heads. Some o fth e six ty -fo u ryoginis, for
example, are said to have b ird heads: parrot, haw k, peacock, eagle, p i
geon, or o w l. O th e r goddesses are associated w ith birds as th e ir vahanas
(vehicles). SarasvatT is associated w ith a swan, M atarigi w ith a parrot,
D hum avati w ith a crow , and LaksmT w ith an o w l. But in the scene o fh e r
afflicting the dem on, Bagala is almost always depicted a n th ro p o m o rp h i
cally and w ith o u t any b ird sym bolism . It is also d ifficu lt to interpret her
name as a co rru p tio n o f valga, m eaning eith er "b it" or "to paralyze," as
she is never show n em p lo yin g a b it, and the d erivation o f "paralyze" from
valga is e ty m o lo g ic a lly dubious.
Perhaps the best w e can do is speculate on the significance o fh e r name,
taking all o f the above opinions into account. B agalam ukhi is stron gly
associated w ith supernatural or m agical pow ers, the a b ility to im m o b i
lize and attract others. Such un can n y abilities m ay be associated w ith
birds, w h o perceive m ore acutely than humans. T h is is the in terp reta
tion o f at least one author, w h o says that crow s, for exam ple, give ad
vance in fo rm ation o f people's a r r iv a l.12 T h e crane, in its a b ility to stand
absolutely s till w h ile h u n tin g , is a sym bol o f intense co n cen tratio n . In
this sense, the crane is an appropriate sym bol o f the y o g i ." T h e crane
also seems to be able to attract p rey to itse lf by rem ain in g m otionless. It
>s perhaps these kinds o f perfections or "m agical pow ers" that B a
galamukhi possesses and gives to her devotees. T h e parrot, on the oth er
hand, w h ic h in at least one case is said to be the type o f bird's head
Bagalamukhi possesses, m igh t suggest her a b ility to grant vdk siddhi, the
Power to make ev eryth in g come true that one says (the ve ry po w er w ith
w h ich the dem on M ad an caused such trouble in the w o r ld that B a
galamukhi destroyed him ).
T h e attempt to in terp ret Bagalam ukhi's name as im p ly in g her a b ility
10 rein in an enem y b y means o f a b it also stresses her association w ith
m* g ic a l powers o f c o n tro l. E ven i f the etym o lo gy is m istaken, it u n d er
B A G A L A M U K H I
lin es this asp ect o f h e r cult. T h e im a g ery o f the bit also su g g e sts the them e
o f m o u n tin g and rid in g an o th er b ein g, a co m m on im age in sh am an istic
p o sse ssio n . T h e id ea here is th at one b e in g (usually a spirit) co n tro ls or
p o sse sse s an o th er a s a rid er c o n tro ls and p o sse sse s a h o rse. T h e im age o f
m aste ry or co n trol is vivid here. It m ay be th at B agalam u k h i is invoked
to aid a w o rsh ip er in g a in in g p o sse ssio n o f or co n trol over an o th er b e
in g or spirit.
B ag alam u k h i is also often know n a s Pltam bara-devT, "sh e who is
d ressed in y ellow .” She is often said to like yellow , to be dressed in y el
low, and to p refer yellow o fferin gs. In h er pujdpa.ddha.ti (in stru ctio n s for
her w o rsh ip ), the w o rsh ip er is d irected to offer h er yellow ite m s w h en
ever p o ssib le , to w ear yellow clo th es w hile w o rsh ip in g her, to sit on a y e l
low g a rm en t, and to u se tu rm eric b e a d s (which are y ellow ) w hen d o in g
japa (repeated recitatio n s) o fh e r m a n t r a .1* In h er updsand paddhati, or sp e
cial pujd , u se o f yellow is c o m p u lso r y .15 H e r tem p les are often p ain ted
yellow . T h a t is, the n am e P ltam b ara-d e v I reflects a strik in g feature o f h e r
cult and w o rsh ip . U n lik e the n am e B agalam u k h i, which d o e s n ot seem
to have any o b v io u s co n n ectio n w ith h er w orsh ip and cu lt, P ltam b ara-
devl is born out in p ractice. T h e p ro b le m with th is ep ith et, how ever, is
u n d e rstan d in g the sign ifican ce o f yellow for this p articu la r g o d d e ss. T h a t
she likes yellow , w ears yellow , and p refers yellow offerin gs is so m eth in g
m o st texts and in fo rm an ts m en tio n . T h e re a so n , how ever, is rarely c o m
m en ted u pon .
M a h a n t R am a Sh an kar T rip ath i told m e th at w om en in South India

w ear yellow and th at it is an au sp icio u s color. H e also su g g e sted th at y el
low sy m b o lizes the sun and go ld . H e said th at the lust for m o n ey p a r a
lyzes p e o p le (hence B agalam u k h i’s ab ility to p araly ze) and th at the sigh t
o f yellow , which re p re se n ts g o ld , h as the sam e effect. I have also been
told th at yellow is the co lo r o f ripe grain and fire, the form er su g g e stin g
ab u n d an ce and the latter purity. T h e fo u r y u g a s , or w orld a g e s, have the
follow in g co lo rs: K rta, w h ite; T re ta , yellow ; D v a p a ra, red ; and K ali,
b la c k .16 In th is sy stem , yellow is n ext to w hite in ex cellen ce, a s the y u gas
declin e in p u rity from the K rta, w hich is the b est, to the K ali, w hich is
the w orst. T h e five bhutas, or elem en ts o f creation (earth, fire, w ater, w ind,
and sp ace ), are den o ted by co lo rs and sh apes. E arth is d e sign ate d a s y el
low. T h is m ay im ply th at P ltam b ara-d evI is asso ciated with the earth and
w orldly b le ssin g s. B agalam u k h i’s y an tra, interestin gly , show s tw o sq uares
su p erim p o se d on each oth er at an a n g le , which m ay also im ply h er a s s o
ciation w ith the earth , the sq u are b e in g the sh ape for the earth e le m e n t .17
T u rm eric is also asso ciated with m a rria g e , p articu larly in South India.
"T u rm e ric , w hich gives the yellow colo u r, is p ar excellen ce the co lo u r

and sy m bol o f m a rria g e in the south (and in o th e r p arts o f In dia a s well)
g e n e ra lly .” ■* A lth ou g h yellow seem s au sp icio u s or p u re in m o st o fth e se
c a se s, its exact relation to B agalam u k h i re m ain s o b scu re.
Magical Powers
M o re than any o f t h e oth er M a h a v id y a s, B agalam u k h i is

associated with m agical p o w ers, w hich are so m etim es referred to as siddhis,
"a c c o m p lish m e n ts” or " p e r fe c tio n s . ” 19 A m o n g h e r ep ith ets in h er hym n
o f a th o u san d n am es are She W ho G iv e s the E ig h t Siddhis, She W ho
G iv es M a g ic a l and M y stical P o w ers (rddhis and siddhis), and She W ho
G iv es All Siddhis.20T h e in v o catio n w ritten arou n d the ed g e o f an am u let
co n ta in in g her yan tra in the Tantrasdra. re a d s: ” 0 B aga la m u k h i, p le a se a r
re st the speech o f w icked p e o p le , p araly ze th eir faces, fix th eir to n g u e s
and d e stro y th eir in te lle c t. ” 21 At the end o f h e r stotra (hym n) in the
Rudraydmala, it is said th at th o se w ho w o rsh ip h er will b e ab le to m ake
th eir en em ies d e a f and d u m b , d e stro y th eir in te llig e n c e , and turn their
w ealth to poverty. W o rsh ip in g h er will also m ake h o stile p eo p le friendly
tow ard the a d e p t .22 O n e au th or says th at B agalam u k h i is w o rsh ip ed to
gain co n trol ov er on e’s e n em ie s, to p araly ze o th e rs, to attract o th e rs, to
b rin g a b o u t the death o f an oth er, to co u n ter the influence o f t h e p la n
ets, to get w ealth , and to win co u rt c a s e s .23 H e r p ara ly z in g p o w e r ap p lies
to m o tio n , th o u g h t, and in itiative. In the hym n o fh e r h u n d red n am es in
the Rudraydmala, she is called She W h o se F orm Is the P o w er to P a ra
lyze and She W ho P a r a ly z e s .2* She gives the ab ility to stupefy. She also
gives the p o w e r o f forceful and in te llig e n t speech by w hich on e can d e
feat any o p p o n e n t, no m atter how b r illia n t.25
In the Sdnkhydyana-tantra she is co m p a red to the B rah m astra, the m is
sile o f B rah m a, a su p ern atu ral w eap on u sed by the g o d in w a r.26 In fact,
one o f h er m o st co m m o n ep ith ets is She W ho Is the F o rm o f the
B rah m astra (B ra h m a stra -ru p in l).27T h e SdriMiydyana-tantru also h as a sp e
cial section ab o u t w o rsh ip in g h er for the acq u isitio n o fm a g ic a l p o w e r s .2’
In so m e texts, specific recip es for w orsh ip are given for the different siddhis
so u gh t from B agalam u k h i. If, for ex am p le, one w ish es the siddhi o f maruna
(the p ow er to kill an en em y by sim p ly w illin g it), on e sh ould m ak e a b u rn t
offerin g. In th is c a se , th o u g h , the sacrificial fire sh ould b e the fire o fth e
crem atio n g ro u n d . In th is fire one sh ould offer m u stard oil and the b lood
200 B A G A L A M U K H I
Fig- 33 - Bagalamukhi, by Molaram , late eighteenth century, Garwahl,

o f a she-buffalo. For uccdtana (upsetting or ru in ing a person) one should

burn the feathers o f a crow and a vu ltu re, and so on for the oth er siddhis .29
A con tem p o rary author tries to explain the nature o f the siddhis
Bagalam ukhi bestows on her devotees b y com parin g them to the ability
o f certain anim als to detect the presence o f other creatures in situations
w here human beings w ould not be able to. T h e y seem to have either
m ore-acute senses or extrasensory perception. He explains that every liv
in g creature gives off subtle w aves that pervade its w hole body and per
meate the environ m ent it occupies. T h e s e waves linger for aw hile after
the departure o fth e creature w ho made them , he claim s, and can be d e
tected by dogs and crow s, for exam ple. Bagalam ukhi bestows such heigh t
ened sensory abilities on her devotees, and with them her devotees can
overcom e, outw it, and control other p e o p le .30
In the case o f each o f the M ahavidyas, and indeed in the case o f al
m ost every H indu deity, rewards can be expected from correct and sin
cere w orship. Sim ilarly, in the ancient m editative tradition o f H induism ,
go in g all the w ay back to the earliest texts on yo ga , one finds the as
sumption that w orld ly benefits, rewards, and special pow ers m ay be
BAGALAMUKHI
achieved th ro u gh m e d itatio n . T h e s e are the eigh t siddhis, in fact. T h a t

B agalam u k h i sh ould be a sso cia te d with such p ra g m a tic and p ractical r e
w ards and a c c o m p lish m e n ts, th e n , is n eith er su rp risin g n o r u n u su al; it
is m erely explicit. P o sitive or n egativ e in te rp re ta tio n s can b e p laced on
this asp ect o f B agalam u k h i. O ne au th or says th at she "re p re se n ts the u gly
side o f liv in g c re atu re s, like jealo u sy, h atred and cru elty . ” 31 A n oth er in
form ant, also by co in cid e n ce a m on k o fth e R am ak rish n a order, says that
B agalam u k h i’s p o w e rs o f stam b h an a ’’p araly zin g,” re p re se n t h er co n trol
over the fiveprdnas (breath s) in sid e u s. ’’ She co n tro ls the vital b re ath ; she
co n q u ers the to n g u e , w hich m ean s self-co n tro l over g re e d , sp eech , and
t a s t e . ” 32 In d e ed , we find in B agalam u k h i’s ep ith ets re fere n ces to both her
pow er to give w o rld ly en jo y m en t and h er p ow er to g ran t w isd o m , know l
ed ge , and lib eratio n . In h er th o u sa n d -n a m e hym n, for ex am p le, she is
called She W ho G iv es Moksa to A ll, She W ho Is the B e sto w er o fU lt i-
m ate L ib e ratio n , and She W ho G iv es W is d o m .33 O n the o th e r h an d, she
is also called She W ho B esto w s U ltim a te E n jo y m en t, G iver o fW e a lth ,
and G iver o f t h e P le asu res o f D h a rm a and Artha (p o w e r ) .3*
B agalam ukhi’s association s with sexual desire and p leasu re p ro b ab ly can
be u n d ersto o d a s p art o f h e r b esto w in g the pow er o f a ttractin g oth ers, in
clu din g sexually a ttractin g th em . Several o fh e r ep ith ets in h er th ou san d-
nam e hym n asso ciate h er directly with kdma, ’’sexual d e sire ,” or the god
o fsex u al d e sire , K am a-d ev a. She is called , for exam ple: She W ho D w ells
W h ere T h e r e Is Sexual D e sire , W ho L ik es Sexual D e sire , W h o se F orm
Is Sexual D e sir e , W h o se E y es A re Full o fD e s ir e , W ho G ives Sexual D e
sire, and W ho T a k e s P leasu re in Sexu al P la y .35 A n oth er strin g o f epith ets
a sso ciates and identifies her with the fem ale sexual o rgan : She W h ose
F orm Is the Y oni, W ho D w ells in the Y oni, W h o se F orm is the Litigant
and Y oni, W ho H a s a G arlan d o f Y on is, W ho Is A dorned with Y on is, W ho
E n jo y s the U n io n o fth e Lirigam and Y oni, W ho Is W orsh ip ed with the
Liiigam and Y on i, and W ho Is A b sorb ed with the Lirigam and Y o n i.36
Sava Sadhana
In m an y d e p ictio n s o f B agalam u k h i and in so m e o f her

dhyana m an tra s, she is sittin g on a c o r p s e .37 A hym n to h er in the
Rudraydmala, for ex am p le, d e sc rib es h er a s h avin g h er seat on a platform
set in the m id d le o f t h e o cean o f nectar. T h e th ro n e is d e co rate d with
red lo tu ses, and she sits on the co rpse o f an enem y she h as killed and tossed
on to the t h r o n e .3’ At the sam e tim e , she is p u llin g the to n g u e o f a man

or a b eastlik e creatu re. T h is co m b in a tio n o f the g o d d e ss seated on a
co rp se w hile p u llin g the to n g u e o f a d em o n su g g e sts certain featu res o f
sava sadhana (spiritual p ractice u sin g a co rp se ), w hich is d escrib ed in som e
tantric texts.
T h e p re se n c e o f co rp se s in the ic o n o g ra p h y and w o rsh ip o f several o f
the M a h a v id y a s is strik in g. K a li, T a r a , B a g a la m u k h i, C h in n a m a sta ,
M atarigi, and B h airavi are often p ictu re d or d escrib ed a s sta n d in g or
seated on a co rp se or zpreta (gh ost). O th e rs, such a s D h u m avatl, alth ough
n o t seated or stan d in g on a c o rp se , are so m etim e s said to b e su rro u n ded
by funeral p y res or to b e w o rsh ip ed in crem ation gro u n d s. T h is a sso c i
ation w ith c o rp se s can be in terp re ted in several w ays.
F irst, m an y in form an ts say that the co rp se is th at o f a d em o n w hom
that p articu lar g o d d e ss h as defeated in co m b at. T h is in terp retatio n is u su
ally cast in the fram ew ork o fV a isn a v ite avatdra m y th o lo gy : the g o d d e ss
e m e rg e s to p ro te c t the co sm ic o rd er by k illin g a dem on who h as u su rp ed
the g o d s. T h e m yth o f B agalam u k h i’s origin th at featu res the dem on
M ad an su p p o rts this exp lan atio n .
S ec o n d , the co rp se m a y b e said to re p re se n t ig n o ra n c e or the p assio n s
th at the g o d d e ss h a s defeated or co n tro lled . Sw am i A n n a p u rn a n a n d a , for
ex am p le, exp lain ed the dem on and co rp se in the B ag alam u k h i im a g e as
the b o d ily rh yth m s b e in g m aste re d by y o g ic co n trol.
A third in terp re tatio n is that the co rp se re p re se n ts the m ale p ole in
the Siva-Sak ti vision o f reality, in w hich the m ale ten d s tow ard the static
and the fem ale tow ard the dyn am ic. T h is is exactly how the im a g e o f
D ak sin a-k ali is u su ally in terp reted . She re p re se n ts the u n d erly in g rhythm
and p ow er o f the creatio n , w hich in v ig o ra te s and em p o w ers all b ein gs
and re p re se n ts life itself, w hile the ’’co rp se ,” Siva, re p re se n ts the u n
ch an gin g , im m o b ile , eternally blissful asp ec t o f reality.
T h e c o rp se also m igh t b e in terp re ted a s a referen ce to sava sadhana
(spiritual en d e av o r e m p lo y in g a c o rp se ), w hich is d escrib ed in detail in
several tan tric texts. T h e Tantrasdra o f K rsn a n a n d a A g a m a v a g ls a 39 d e
scrib es th is p ra ctic e a s follow s: T h e sddhaka is to take care , first o f all, to
select the rig h t lo catio n , the rig h t tim e , and the p ro p e r type o f co rp se
w ith w hich to u n d ertak e th is w o rsh ip . A d eserted h o u se , the b an k o f a
river, a m o u n tain , a sacred p la c e , the ro o t o f a bilva tre e , a fo rest, and a
c rem atio n gro u n d are all re co m m en d e d a s su itab le. T h e b e st tim e is said
to be the eigh th lu n ar tithi (a lu n ar day ), b rig h t or dark, on a T u e sd a y
n igh t. T h e co rp se itse lf sh ould b e in tact and should b e lo n g to a y o u n g
m e m b e r o fth e C an d a la caste (a low caste) w ho drow n ed , co m m itte d sui-
Fig. 3 4 - Bagalamukhi, contemporary lithograph.
cide, or was killed by a spear, lightning, a snake, or on the battlefield fac

in g the enemy. T h e sadhaka should avoid u sin g the corpse o f a person
w ho was very attached to a spouse, lived an im m oral life, was prom inent,
or died o f fam in e."
T h e sadhaka takes the corpse to the place o f w orship, reciting a mantra
20. B A G A L A M U K H I
to purify it as he d o es so (let u s assu m e the a d e p t in the follow in g ritual

is a m ale). H e offers the co rp se three h an d fu ls o f flow ers and m ak es o b e i
san ce to it saying: "You are the lord o f all h eroic p e rso n s, lord o f kulas,
b lissfu l, you are the form o f A n an d a-b h airav a (a form o f Siv a), and you
are the seat o fth e g o d d e ss. I am h eroic m yself, and I bow to you. P lease
arise for the p u rp o se s o f m ak in g m y w o rsh ip o f C an d ik a fru itfu l. ” *1 T h e
sadhaka. b a th es the co rp se with p erfu m ed w ater w hile u tte rin g m an tras,
then m ak es a b ed o f kus'a g ra ss and p la ce s the co rp se on it with its head
tow ard the east. H a v in g put som e b etel nut in the co rpse’s m o u th , he turns
the co rp se ov er and sm ears sandal p aste on its b ack , m ak in g a sq uare in
the m idd le o f w hich he draw s a y an tra with an e igh t-p etale d lo tu s and
four gates. H e p u ts a w oolen cloth over the y an tra, and if the co rp se m oves
he sp its on the co rp se. H e then w o rsh ip s the g u a rd ia n s o fth e d irection s
and the sixty-fouryoginis with v e g etab le offerin gs. N e x t he w o rsh ip s the
s'ava dsana (corp se seat) and sits on it, m o u n tin g it a s he w ould a h o r s e .*2
H e e x p re sses h is in ten tion (sankalpa), say in g w hat he d e sire s a s a resu lt
o fth e w o rsh ip . H e then ties the co rp se’s h air in to a knot. N e x t he m ak es
offerin gs to the deity, p la cin g them in the m outh o fth e co rp se. G e ttin g
o ff the c o rp se , he b in d s its feet w ith a silken cord and draw s a trian gle
arou n d th em . R e m o u n tin g the co rp se , he p re sse s its h an d s firm ly down
on the kusa g ra ss, p r a c tic e s prdnaydma (breath c o n tro l), and m e d ita te s on
his gu ru and the deity in his h eart, re p e a tin g the deity’s m an tra fearlessly.
W h ile d o in g so , he scatters m u stard and se sam e seed s in all directio n s.
A gain g e ttin g dow n from the co rp se , he tak es seven step s an d , re tu rn
in g, re p e a ts the deity’s m an tra. I f he h ears a voice ask in g him to m ake
so m e o fferin gs, he sh ould reply: ’’ N ext tim e I shall offer an elep h an t and
o th e r th in gs. ” T h e n he sh ould say: ’’ W ho are you and w hat is y ou r n am e?
P lease give m e a b le ssin g .” A fter th is, he u n b in d s the feet o fth e co rp se,
b ath es it, and b u rie s it or p lace s it in a b o d y o f water.
It is n ot clear in th is d e scrip tio n o f s'ava sddhand exactly w hom the

sadhaka m jg h t be w o rsh ip in g and w h om he m igh t b e try in g to co n trol.
At so m e p o in ts it seem s clear th at he is p ro p itia tin g the co rp se its e lf or
the co rp se a s the seat or location o f a deity. At oth er p o in ts it seem s a s if
he is try in g to co n trol the co rp se or the sp irit th at m ay in h ab it it. T h e
im a g e o f m o u n tin g the co rp se in the fashion o f rid in g a h o rse is p a r tic
u larly vivid and re m in d s on e o f p o sse ssio n cu lts, such a s v o o d o o , in which
sp irits are said to m o u n t th ose w h om they p o sse ss. T h e ty in g o f the
co rp se’s feet and the p re ssin g dow n o f its h an ds seem to in d icate th at the
sadhaka is try in g to co n trol or tam e the co rp se or the co rp se’s spirit.
It is also n o t clear w h ose vo ice a d d re sse s the sadhaka in this co rp se rit

B A G A L A M U K H I 205
ual It m igh t b e the deity w h ose m an tra he is re citin g , or the sp irit o fth e
co rpse, or sipreta or bhuta (gh ost) asso cia ted with the co rp se.
T h e Tantrasdra. m e n tio n s an o th er p o ssib ility : a g o d d e ss n am ed K arn a-
p isacl, who lives in the h eart o f a c o rp se . She favors the successful sadhaka
by co m in g in visib ly to him and w h isp e rin g in his ear the co rre ct answ er
to any q u estio n . T h e text says: "A sce n d in g her, g e ttin g h er p ow er, he [the
sadhaka) can go anyw here and see the p ast, p re se n t, and fu tu re . ” *3 P e r
haps this deity is su m m on ed or co m m a n d e d by sava sadhana and it is she
w hom the asp iran t seeks to co n tact th ro u gh this rite. K a rn a-p isacI is also
described and d iscu sse d by a c o n te m p o ra ry tan tric p ra c titio n e r a s a d e
ity w hom on e en co u n te rs in the crem atio n gro u n d and from w h om one
m ay obtain k n o w led ge o f the p re se n t and p ast.** T h is deity h as clear
sh am anistic o v erto n es. A cen tral th em e in sh am an ism is the acq u isitio n
o f a spirit w ho gives the sh am an special or m ystical k n o w led ge from the
spirit w orld. Both in sava sadhana and in the p ro p itiatio n o f K a rn a -p isa c I,
it seem s th at the sadhaka is in tereste d in ga in in g acc ess to such a s p ir it .*5
It is in co o p e ratio n w ith, or th ro u gh the pow er of, this spirit that the adept
co m es to p o sse ss m agical p ow ers for o v erc o m in g , c o n tro llin g , or d e
feating his e n e m ie s .*6 T h is is the p o ssib le co n n ectio n betw een B a g a
lam ukh i, who is so co n siste n tly asso cia ted with g ra n tin g m agical p o w ers,
and sava sadhana.
T h e im age o f B agalam u k h i seated on a co rp se w hile p u llin g the ton gu e

o f an "en em y " m igh t also relate to the th em es ev id en t in sava sadhana. A
descriptio n o f sava sadhana by a c o n te m p o ra ry ad e p t often m e n tio n s the
p ossib ility o fth e co rp se re vivin g or b e c o m in g a g g re ssiv e . T h is p a rtic u
lar sadhaka stre sses the im p o rta n c e o f re m a in in g fearless in such c ir
cu m stan ces and facin g and o v e rc o m in g the co rp se , the co rp se’s sp irit, or
the sp irit p o sse ssin g the co rp se. D e sc rib in g his own exp erien ce with th is
ritual, he tells how he w as in stru cte d to deal w ith the ev en tu ality o fth e
corpse b e c o m in g en liven ed. ’’T h e old m an had w arn ed m e th at if she [the
co rpse w as a y o u n g fem ale] tried to get up I sh ould knock h er dow n and
pin her firm ly. ” *7 H e w as also w arned th at the co rp se often b eg in s to grow l
and scream at the sadhaka who is seek in g to co n tro l i t .* ’ In T ib e ta n B u d
dh ist tan tric co rp se sadhana jchod rites) the a d ep t is w arn ed th at if the
co rpse co m es to life it m u st b e su b d u ed , w hich m ay involve b itin g o ffits
p ro tru d in g to n g u e before the g h o st can d evou r the a d e p t .*9
T h e ’’ en em y ” th at B a galam u k h i b ea ts so m e tim e s h as anim al c h a ra c

te ristics, w hich m ay su g g e st its g h o st or sp irit n atu re. A p ain tin g in a p r i
vate co llectio n in B h arat K ala Bhavan in V aran asi sh ow s B agalam u k h i
p u llin g the h air o f a dem on w ho h as a tail and a dark co m p lex io n (see fig
ure 3 2 ). In an o th er p ain tin g o f B agalam u k h i in B h arat K ala B h avan , the

dem on she a b u ses is m o n k ey like in a p p earan ce (see figure 3 3 )* I* m a y b e
th at the d e p ictio n o f B agalam u k h i seated on a co rp se w hile afflicting a
"d e m o n ” is m e an t to su g g e st th at she o v e rc o m e s or co n tro ls the co rp se’s
sp irit, w hich h as been revived or su m m o n ed by m ean s o f tantric rituals
such a s s'a r a sadhana.. By b rin g in g the sp irit u n d er h er co n tro l, she b e
c o m es the m istre ss o f m agical p o w e rs, a s d o es the sadhaka w ho w o rsh ip s
her.
T h is analysis o f co rp se im agery also m igh t b e relevan t to oth er M ah a
vidyas. K ali and T a r a are often said to stan d or sit on co rp se s, C h in n a
m a sti so m etim e s stan ds on a co rpse b e in g co n su m ed in a funeral pyr
and D h u m avatl is so m etim es pictured in crem ation groun ds. T h is is a strik
in g asp ec t o fth e M ah av id y as and b eg s for in terp retatio n . In sava sadhana
it is specified th at the co rp se sh ould b e fresh , for then the spirit o f the
dead p erson is still nearby. T h e gh o st o fth e co rp se h as n ot been settled
and lin ge rs in the lim in al area betw een life and death. It still dw ells in the
land o fth e liv in g, n o t b e in g able to d e p art for the land o fth e dead un
the app rop riate sraddharituals have been perform ed . In this sense, the spi
o fth e dead p erso n is a p o te n tia l preta or bhuta, an u n h ap p y spirit that can
cau se tro u b le for the living. T h e sp irit o f a p erson recen tly k illed, e s p e
cially if the death h as been v iolen t, is a p ree m in e n t exam ple o f a lim inal
bein g, a b ein g betw ixt and betw een iden tities, realm s, structured c o n te x ts.50
Such a spirit, like pretas and bhutas, w ho are stuck p erm an en tly betw een
w o rld s, d o es n ot b elo n g anyw here. T h e y are o u tsid e all stru ctu res.
V icto r T u rn e r h as argu ed that m an y re lig io u s ritu a ls, b eliefs, and p r a c
tices seek to create lim inal situ atio n s or to tran sform h u m an b e in g s into
lim in al fig u re s. T h e reason for th is, he a rg u e s, is th at tra n sfo rm atio n o f
c o n scio u sn e ss or identity, w hich is the goal o f m an y ritu als and b eliefs,
can n ot take p lace easily, if at all, w ithin the stru ctu res o f the n o rm al w orld.
In m an y c u ltu re s, for exam p le, in itiation ritu als often take p lace o u tsid e
the n o rm al con fin es o f so ciety — in the b u sh , the w o o d s, or sp ecially p r e
scribed p la c e s— in lim in al sp ace. T h e ritu a ls often u se the im a g e ry o fre -
birth to sp eak o fth e aim o fth e rite s, w hich is to tran sfo rm the in itiates.
Sim ilarly, p erh ap s, tantric rituals aim at tran sform in g the aspirant, aw ak
en in g in him or h er an expanded co n scio u sn e ss and the acq u isitio n o f a
new identity. An ap p ro p riate p lace to u n d ertak e such ritu als is the cre m a
tion gro u n d , the lim inal p lace p ar excellen ce. T o associate or identify with
a fresh c o rp se , to em p lo y one a s a ’’seat” for ritual p u rp o se s, or to court
the co m p an y o f gh o sts and tro u b leso m e sp irits, en han ces the lim inal c o n
text o fta n tric ritu a ls, in stillin g them w ith tran sform ative poten tial.
Bagalamukhi Temples
S h rin es d e d icated to B agalam u k h i are n o t very co m m o n ;

h er w orsh ip is u n d ertak en p rim a rily th ro u gh in d iv id ual sa d h a n a w hich
do es n o t req u ire a p u b lic sh rine or tem p le. I h ave, how ever, h eard o f and
visited a few B a g a la m u k h i-P lta m b a ra tem p les.
O ne is in the old p art o f V aran asi, n o t far from M a n ik arn ik a G h at.
T h e tem p le is attach ed to a p riv ate h o u se , and I w as told by the p rie st
there th a t it w as a "p rivate te m p le ” b u t open to the p u b lic. T h e im a g e o f
the g o d d e ss is n o rm ally k ep t h id d en , w hich is typical in g o d d e ss tem p les.
T h is one is co vered w ith clo th in g and a silver m ask. T h e p rie st told m e,
how ever, th at the im a g e u n d ern eath d e p icts B ag alam u k h i in h er fam il
iar form , n am ely, p u llin g the to n g u e o f a dem on and a b o u t to strike him
with a clu b. T h e p rie st said that the g o d d e ss gives th e siddhis o f d e ta ch
m ent and mdrana (the ab ility to kill by sim p ly w illin g it). H e did n o t m e n
tion stamhhana, w hich is the siddhi u su ally a sso cia te d w ith B agalam u k h i.
T o the rig h t o fth e g o d d e ss is an im a g e o f Siva and on h er left an im a g e
o f G a n e sa. T h e statu e o f a cro u c h in g lion faces the g o d d e ss , w hich is ty p
ical in g o d d e ss tem p les. P ictu res o f the ten avatdras o f V isn u h an g in the
ad jo in in g hall, and o u tsid e the te m p le , on the p o rch , are la rg e p ain tin g s
o f G a ru d a and K rsn a. T h e g o d d e ss, th en , h as stro n g a sso c ia tio n s at this
tem p le w ith b oth Siva and V isn u . T h e la rg e p ain tin g o f G a ru d a , P aksa-
raja (the k in g o f b ird s), m ay b e sign ifican t in lig h t o f B agalam u k h i’s a s
so ciation w ith the cran e, alth o u gh the p rie st did n ot co m m e n t on this a s
so ciation . A c c o rd in g to the p rie st, tantrikas do n o t w o rsh ip at this tem p le,
and bait (blood offerin gs) are n o t offered th ere. It is u sed p rim arily by
ordinary h o u seh o ld ers and resid en ts o f the area. T h e san dals o f the fou n d
in g mahant (ch ief tem p le p riest) are p ro m in en tly en sh rin ed in the hall
a d jo in in g the m ain san ctu ary th at h o u ses the im age o f the g o d d e ss. N o n e
o fth e o th e r M a h a v id y a s is en sh rin ed or depicted at th is te m p le , and the
g o d d e ss’s asso ciatio n w ith this g ro u p is n ow h ere in ev id en ce.
A n o th er tem p le to B agalam u k h i is lo cated in B an k h an d i, H im ach al
P rad esh . B an k h an d i, ’’w here the arrow split the g ro u n d ,” so n am ed b e
cau se lo n g ago a sadhu estab lish ed a sp rin g by re p e a te d ly ja b b in g an ar
row into the g ro u n d , is a sm all tow n , and the tem p le is located o u tsid e
it in the w o o d s. A c c o rd in g to the tem p le p rie st, the g o d d e ss cam e from
T ib e t, w h ere she had killed d e m o n s w ho w ere a ssa u ltin g her dev o tees.
T h e trad itio n th at B agalam u k h i cam e from the n orth is in te re stin g and
is su p p o rted by her p o p u larity in N e p a l. T h e k in g o f K a n g ra b ec am e the
g o d d e ss’s devotee and estab lish ed h er w o rsh ip th ere. Since th at tim e, the
p riest said, she h as been the p ro tec tiv e deity o fth e area. T h e p rie st said
th at the tem p le w as ’’four or five h u n d red y ears o ld .” T h e g o d d e ss gran ts
all desires and gives p rotection from all h arm and b lesses p eo p le w ith ch il
dren (all stan d ard fun ction s o f a g o d d e ss). She is u n m arrie d , acc o rd in g
to the p rie st, and th ere w as no sign o f a lirigam n o r any im a g e o f a m ale
co n sort. T h e p rie st said th at h er vdhana is so m etim e s a cran e, and indeed
a fram ed p ain tin g in the tem p le show ed B agalam u k h i seated on on e. T h e
crane is a tta c k in g the dem on w ith its b eak , and an o th er cran e is flying to
join in. T h e p rie st said th at the g o d d e ss lik es yellow , w hich is the co lo r
o f a cran e’s b eak . T h e en tire te m p le , in sid e and ou t, is p ain ted yellow.
T h e actual im a g e o fth e deity, w hich the p rie st assured m e re se m b led in
detail the d e sc rip tio n s o fth e g o d d e ss in h e r dhydna m a n tra s, w as n o t v is
ible excep t for the h e ad , w hich w as o f ro u g h , b lack stone.
T h e m o st fam o u s tem p le to B agalam u k h i is at D a tiy a in M ad h y a
P rad esh , w hich I have n ot visited . It w as estab lish ed so m etim e in the
1 9 3 0 s by a sadhu w ho even tu ally b ec am e known as P u ja Sw am i. B a g a
lam ukhi w as his ista devata (chosen d e ity ), and he estab lish ed h er im age
to ben efit In dia, w hich at th at tim e w as in the th ro es o f the In d ep en d en ce
m ovem en t. P atrio tism rem ain ed a stro n g th em e in the sadhana o f this
fou n d er p rie st, and I have been told th at he u n d e rto o k special w orsh ip
to invoke B agalam u k h i’s p ow er o f stambhana aga in st the en em ies o f In
dia (both in tern al and extern al) on several o c ca sio n s. An im a g e o f D h u
m avatl is also installed at th is tem p le, and it seem s clear that B agalam ukhi’s
asso ciatio n w ith the M a h av id y as is em p h asized th ere. A c c o rd in g to one
re p o rt, left-h an d ed tan tric w orsh ip o f D h u m av atl tak es p lace at this
sh rine, alth ou gh the fou n d in g p rie st did n o t p ractice it him self. T h is sam e
d escrip tio n says th at B agalam u k h i’s im a g e is beautiful and she is a sso c i
ated with m aterial b le ssin g s and w elfare, w hile D h u m avati’ s im a g e is te r
rible and she is asso cia ted with d e str u c tio n .51
M atarigi
The Outcaste Goddess
She is seated on a corpse. H er clothes and all her ornam ents are red. She
wears a garland o f gunja seeds [a sm all forest seed ]. She is sixteen years
old and has full breasts. She holds a skull and a sword in her two hands.
She should be offered leftovers [uccista].’
She is blue in color and has the disc o f the m oon on her forehead. She has
three eyes, is seated on a jew eled throne, and is adorned with jeweled or
nam ents. She has a very thin w aist, and her breasts are round and firm.
She has a sm iling face and holds a n oose, a sw ord, a goad, and a club in
her four h an d s.2
She is seated on an altar and has a sm iling face and a greenish com plex
ion. She is w orshiped by god s and dem ons. A round her neck is a garland
of kadamba flowers. H er hair is lon g, and the disk o f the m oon adorns her
forehead. She p erspires slightly around her face, which m akes her m ore
beautiful and bright. Below her navel are three horizontal lines [from the
folds ofh er skin] and a thin vertical line o f fine hair. She wears a girdle of
jeweled ornam ents, as well as bracelets, arm lets, and ear ornam ents. H er
eyes are intoxicated. She represents the sixty-four arts, and she is flanked
by two p a rro ts.3
Intimations of Matarigi in a Buddhist Tale
In the Divydvaddna, a B u d d h ist co llectio n o f sto rie s c o n

cern in g p rev io u s lives o fth e B u d d h a th at w as p ro b a b ly w ritten arou n d
2 5 O-3 OO C .E ., th ere is a tale o f a h u n ter k in g n am ed M atariga and his
dau gh ter. C ertain d etails o f the story b ear such a strik in g sim ilarity to
209
M AT A N G I
Fig- 35 - Matarigi, by Bhatuk Ramprasad, early twentieth century. Printed with

the permission o f Dr. Bhanu Shanker M ehta, Varanasi.
later ch aracteristics o fth e g o d d e ss M atarigi's nature and m yth o logy that

it is relevant to m ention it a s a p o ssib le in tim ation , or very early version ,
o f the M ah av id y a g o d d ess.
O nce upon a tim e, the Buddha's d isciple A nanda w ent ou t b e g g in g for
food. A fter g e ttin g so m e, he becam e thirsty. H e saw a girl draw ing w a
ter from a w ell, app roach ed her, and asked for w ater. T h e girl answ ered:
M ATANG1
” M y n am e is Prakrti [nature], and I am a C an d a la [a very low c a ste ], the

d au g h te r o fM ata rig a . Should I give you w a te r ? ” A n an d a rep lied : ” 1 am
n ot ask in g w h at y ou r caste is, I am on ly ask in g for w ater.” H e to o k w a
ter from her, and a s he drank Prakrti ad m ired his y ou thful b o d y and b e
cam e fascin ated by him . H er d esire for him grew, and she y earn ed to have
him a s h er h u sban d.
A fter A n an da had returned to the m onastery, Prakrti asked her m other,
M ah av id y ad h ari (she who is skilled in the g re at m a n tra s), i f she w ould
attract A n an d a to her by the a p p ro p ria te ritu als and m an tras. H e r m o th er
h esitated : she feared trou b le from the local k in g, w ho w as a devotee o f
the B u d d h a, and she also d o u b ted w h eth er h er m agic co u ld o v ercom e
the p ow er o fth e B uddha to p ro te c t his d iscip les. At first she refused her
d au gh ter, b u t w hen Prakrti th reaten ed su icide if she could n ot have
A n an d a, h er m o th er agreed to try to cap tu re him b y m agic. T h e m o th er
clean ed an area n ear h er h o u se , b u ilt an altar, offered up flow ers in the
fire on the altar, and b egan to re cite m an tras to attract A n an d a to her
dau gh ter. So ad ept w as sh e, and so pow erful the m a n tra s, th at she was
able to h arn ess the forces o fth e lig h tn in g and rain to help her.
By h er m a g ic, A nan da’s h eart b ecam e agitated a s he re m em b ere d
P rak rti’s ch arm , and he left the m o n aste ry to seek h er out. A s he a p
p ro ach ed P rak ro ’s h o m e, h e r m o th er saw him c o m in g and in stru cted
Prakrti to beautify h e rse lf and p rep a re a b ed for lo v e m a k in g , w hich she
did. A rriv in g th e re, A n an da stood n ear the m o th er’s altar and b eg an to
w eep. H e prayed to the B u d d h a to rescu e h im , and the B u d d h a, aw are
o f his p red ic am en t, nullified the p ow er o fth e C an d a la w o m an ’s m an tras.
A n an d a b ecam e calm and retu rn ed to the m onastery.
W hen Prakrti discovered that the B u dd h a had o v erc o m e h er m o th er’s
m a g ic, she w ent h e rse lf to the B u d d h a, who asked w h at she w an ted. She
w as frank and said th at she d esired A n an d a for h er h u sb an d . T h e B u d
d h a told h er th at the only w ay she could share A n an d a’s co m p an y w as to
b ec o m e a nun herself. P rak rti, se ein g the sh o rtsig h te d n e ss o fh e r crav
in g for A n an d a, and im p ressed with the teach in gs o fth e B u d d h a, agreed
to be in itiated as a nun. H e r hair w as cut off, and she w as given the sim ple
g arb o f a B u d d h ist nun.
A fter P rak rti’s en tran ce into the B u d d h ist order, the B u d d h a told her
a story th at p u t the attractio n b etw een her and A n an d a in p e rsp e ctiv e .
O n ce in the p ast, T risarik u w as k in g o f ele p h an t h u n ters (M a ta rig a -ra ja ).
H e had a so n , S a rd u la k a rn a , for w h om he w ish ed to find a su itab le b rid e .
T risariku heard o f a B rah m an ’s dau gh ter, n am ed P rak rti, w ho he th o u g h t
w ould be su itab le for his so n , so he set out to a rra n g e a w e d d in g. H e
M A T A N G I
traveled with an en to u ra g e o f h is m in iste rs and his m an y d o g s. W hen the

B rah m an saw th at T risariku w as an ele p h an t h u n ter o f low ca ste , he was
disdain ful o f him and rejected his p ro p o sa l for a m a rria g e . In a su b se
q u en t co n v e rsa tio n , how ever, T risarik u im p re sse d him w ith his vast
k n o w led ge o f sp iritu al m atters and the arts and scien ces. T h e Brahm an
relen ted and allow ed the m a rria g e to take p lace.
T h a t B rah m an ’s d au gh te r w as the sam e Prakrti w ho in th is life desired
A n an d a, the B u d d h a said. And T risariku ’s son, S a rd u lak arn a, w as A nan da
in that life. T h is exp lain ed the m u tu al attractio n o fth e p air in this life.
A nd the ele p h an t-h u n ter k in g, the B u d d h a said, w as he him self.*
T h is story, w hich w as m ad e p o p u la r in re cen t tim es by R ab in d ran ath
T a g o r e ’s story Canddiikd, h as several in trig u in g p o in ts th at are relevan t
to ou r co n sid era tio n o fth e M ah av id y a g o d d e ss M atarigi. F irst, the h e ro
ine’s father is n am ed M a ta rig a , and in the story o f h er p re v io u s b irth , her
father-in-law is said to b e k in g o fth e ele p h an t h u n ters (M atariga-raja).
In the co n text o fth e M a h a v id y a s, a s we shall see, M atarigi is often said
to be the d a u g h te r o fM a ta rig a , w ho is eith er a sage or a hunter. S eco n d ,
the h eroin e is o f low c a ste , a C an d ala. T h is is an im p o rta n t, i f n ot ce n
tral, feature o fth e g o d d e ss M atarigi. T h ir d , the h eroin e’ s n am e , P rak rti,
w hich m ay b e tran slate d a s ’’n a tu re ,” iden tifies h er w ith the ju n g le , the
fo re sts, and h u n tin g cu ltu re, again an im p o rta n t asp ec t o fth e late r g o d
d e ss. F o u rth , rites aim ed at a ttra ctin g an o th er p erso n and fo rc in g him to
do on e’s will are an im p o rta n t p art o f the story and rem in d u s o f M atarigi’ s
p ow er to attra ct and co n trol o th e rs. A nd , fifth , the n am e o f M atarigi’s
m oth er, M ah av id y ad h ari (she w ho is skilled in the g re at m a n tra s), and
h er u se o f m ag ical p ow ers to in fatu ate A n an d a, relate the story to the
M ah av id y as.
We do n o t have the g o d d e ss M atarigi in th is early B u d d h ist tale. W h at
we p ro b a b ly have is a so urce th at co n trib u te d to the even tual em erg en ce
o fth e g o d d e ss. T h e story co n tain s early in tim a tio n s o fth e late r g o d d e ss.
O rigin Myths
T h e r e are several m yths c o n ce rn in g the origin or a p p e a r

ance o f M atarigi, and taken to g e th e r they tell u s a go o d deal ab o u t the
type o f g o d d e ss she is. A s will b e a p p a ren t, so m e o fth e th e m es and d e
tails o fth e B u d d h ist tale o f Prak rti, the d a u g h te r o fM a ta rig a , also show
up in th ese m yths.
M AT A N G I
T h e first m yth d e a lin g with M atarigi’ s origin is found in the Sakti-

samgama-tantra and co n ce rn s the a p p earan ce o f U cc ista -m a ta rig in i, one
o fM ata rig i’s m o st co m m o n form s. O n ce u pon a tim e , V isn u and L ak sm I
w ent to v isit Siva and P arvati. V isn u and L ak sm I gave Siva and Parvati
fine fo o d s, and so m e p ie ces d ro p p e d to the g ro u n d . F ro m th ese rem n an ts
arose a m aiden en dow ed w ith fair qu alities. She ask ed for leftover food
(uccista). T h e four d e ities offered h er th eir leftovers as prasdda (food m ade
sacred by h av in g been tasted by d e ities). Siva then said to the attractive
m aiden: " T h o se w ho re p e a t y o u r m an tra and w o rsh ip y o u , th eir a ctiv i
ties will be fruitful. T h e y will b e able to co n trol th e ir en em ies and o b
tain the o b jects o f th eir d e sire s.” F rom then on this m aiden b ecam e known
a s U ccista -m a ta rig in i. She is the b esto w e r o f all b o o n s .5
T h e secon d version o fM a ta rig i’s origin is found in the Prdnatosint-
tantra. O n ce u pon a tim e, Parvati w as seated on Siva’s lap . She said to
him that he alw ays gave her an y th in g she w an ted and th at now she had
a d esire to return to h er father’s h o m e for a visit. W ou ld he co n sen t to
her v isitin g h e r father, H im a lay a , she asked? Siva w as n ot h ap p y ab ou t
gran tin g h er th is w ish b u t ev en tu ally co m p lied , say in g th at if she did n ot
co m e b ack in a few d ay s, he w ould go th ere h im se lfto ask for h er return .
Parvati’s m o th er sent a cran e to carry P arvati b a ck to h e r fam ily h o m e.
W h en ’ sh e did n ot return for so m e day s, Siva d isg u ise d h im se lf a s an o r
n am en t m ak er and w ent to H im alay a’s h o u se. H e sold shell orn am en ts
to Parvati and th en , seek in g to test her faith fu ln ess, asked th at she have
sex w ith him a s h is p ay m en t. Parvati w as o u tra g ed at the m erch an t’s r e
q u est and w as read y to cu rse h im , b u t then she d iscern ed with her y ogic
in tu ition th at the o rn a m e n t v e n d o r w as really h er h u sb a n d , Siva. C o n
ce alin g h er k n o w led ge o fh is tru e identity, she rep lied : ”Y es, fine, I agree.
But n ot ju st n ow .”
Som etim e later, Parvati disgu ised h e rse lf a s a hun tress and w ent to Siva’s
h o m e, w here he w as p rep a rin g to do even in g prayer. She danced th ere,
n ear M an as L ak e. She w ore red cloth es, and her b o d y w as lean, her eyes
w ide, and her breasts large. A d m irin g her, Siva asked: ’’ Who are y o u ? ” She
replied: ” 1 am the dau gh ter o f a C an dala. I’ve com e here to do p e n an ce .”
T h e n Siva said: ” 1 am the one who gives fruits to th ose who do p e n an ce .”
Say in g th is, he took her han d, kissed her, and p rep ared to m ake love to her.
W hile they m ade love, Siva h im se lf w as ch anged into a C an dala. At this
p oin t he recogn ized the C an d ala w om an as his wife Parvati. A fter they had
m ade love, Parvati asked Siva for a b o o n , w hich he gran ted . H er requ est
w as this: ”As you [Siva] m ade love to m e in the form o f a C andalinI [Candala
w o m an ], this form will last forever and will b e known a s U ccista-can dalin l.
M A T A N G I
O n ly after p erfo rm in g suitable w orsh ip to this form will you [Siva] b e w o r

sh iped and y o u r w orsh ip be m ad e fru itfu l.” 6
T h e third m yth th a t deals with M a tarigi’s origin is from the Svatantra-
tantra. O n ce u p o n a tim e M atariga u n d e rto o k au steritie s in o rd er to gain
the p ow er to su b d u e all creatu res. H e p e rsiste d in h is ascetic exercises
for th o u sa n d s o f y ears until finally, in a b u rst o f b rig h t lig h t, the go d d e ss
T rip u ra -su n d a ri ap p eared before h im . She em itted b rillian t rays from her
ey es, and the g o d d e ss K ali em e rg e d . K ali then to o k on a green ish c o m
plexio n and a ssu m ed the form o f R aja-m atarigin l. W ith the help o f this
g o d d e ss, M atarig a w as able to realize h is desire to co n tro l all c r e a tu r e s.7
A fourth sto ry co n ce rn in g the creatio n o fM a ta rig i, told to m e by an
in fo rm an t in V a ra n a si, is asso cia ted w ith a sm all tem p le d e d icated to
K au ri-b ai, a form o f M atarigi, lo ca ted in a low -caste area o f V aran asi. A c
co rd in g to th is m yth , K au ri-b ai (w hose n am e asso cia tes h er w ith the
cow rie shell) w as Siva’s sister. She w as p articu la rly fastid io u s and w as p r e
o c cu p ied , in a h ig h -ca ste B rah m an so rt o f way, w ith p u rity and p o llu tio n .
She w as an n oyed w ith Siva, w ho h ad m an y h ab its th a t she co n sid ered
d isg u stin g , such a s sp en d in g tim e in the crem ation g ro u n d , im b ib in g in
to x ican ts, and a sso c ia tin g w ith g h o sts and g o b lin s. H e w as co m p le te ly
in c o n sid era te o fh e r atte m p ts to k eep th e ir h o u se p u re and w ould often
track ash es from the crem atio n gro u n d into h er fresh ly clean ed h o u se.
A fter Siva m arrie d P arvati, Parvati m ad e p o lite ov ertu res to K a u ri-b ai,
in v itin g h er to v isit th em . K a u ri-b ai, how ever, refused all th ese friendly
g e stu re s, c o m p la in in g b itterly to P arvati a b o u t Siva’s d isg u stin g h ab its.
Finally, like a g o o d w ife, Parvati to o k u m b ra g e at the ab u ses b e in g leveled
at h er h u sb an d and cu rsed Siva’s siste r to b e reb orn in an u n to u ch ab le
co m m u n ity and to spen d h er en tire life th ere. And so she w as reb orn in
the u n to u ch a b le area o f V aran asi and in such p o llu ted circu m stan ce s
found h e rse lf very unhappy. She w ent to Siva, the lord o f V aran asi (K asi
V isv an ath a), w ho gave her the b o o n th at p eo p le on p ilg rim a g e to V aranasi
w ould have to w o rsh ip at h er shrine b efo re th eir jo u rn e y could b e c o n
sid ered c o m p le te .’
T h e G od d e ss W ho Prefers Pollution
In th ese oth erw ise d issim ila r m y th s, several im p o rta n t

th em es are em p h asized th at seem cen tral to M atarigi’s ch aracter. T h e first
m yth stre sses M atarigi’s a sso ciatio n w ith leftover food , w hich is n o rm a lly
M ATANGI
F ig . 36. Matarigi, Nepali Manuscript. American Institute o f Indian Studies,

Ramnagar.
considered highly p ollu ting. Indeed, she h erself actually arises or em erges
from §iva and Parvati's table scrap s. And the first th in g she ask s for is s u s
tenance in the form o f leftover food (uccista).’
N o t only d oes M atarigi req u est uccista in this story, b u t texts d escrib in g
h er w orsh ip specify that d evotees should offer h er uccista with th eir hands
and m o u th s stained with uccista; th at is , w o rsh ip ers should be in a state
o f p o llu tio n , h av in g eaten and n ot w a s h e d .10T h is is a d ram atic reversal
216 M A T A N G I
o fth e u su al p r o to c o ls for the w o rsh ip o f H in d u d e ities. N o rm a lly , d e v o

tees are careful to offer p articu la rly p u re food or food th a t the d e ity e s
p ecially lik es. A fter the deity has eaten it (con su m ed its sp iritu al e sse n c e ),
the food is retu rn ed to the w orsh iper. T h is leftover food (uccista, alth ou gh
it is n o t called th is) is referred to a s prasada (g race). T h e ritual give-an d -
take in th is case em p h asize s the in ferio r p o sitio n o f the d e v o te e, w ho
serves the d e ity and acc ep ts th e deity’s leftover food a s so m e th in g to be
ch erish ed . In the case o f M a ta rig i, w o rsh ip e rs p re se n t h er w ith th eir own
h igh ly p o llu te d leftover food and are th e m se lv e s in a state o f p o llu tio n
w hile d o in g so. In on e ca se , a d e v o te e offers U c c ista -m a ta rig in i a p iece
o f clo th in g stain ed w ith m e n stru al b lo o d in o rd er to win the b o o n o f
b e in g able to attra ct s o m e o n e .11 M e n stru a l b lo o d is re g a rd e d in alm o st
all H in d u tex ts and co n tex ts a s ex trem e ly p o llu tin g , and m e n stru a tin g
w o m en are fo rb id d en to en ter te m p le s or oth erw ise serve the d e ities. In
the case o f M a ta rig i, th ese strict ta b o o s are d isre g a rd e d , in d e e d , are
flaunted.
W o rsh ip m a n u a ls also sp ecify th at no fa stin g is re q u ire d b efo re w o r
sh ip in g M a ta rig i, alth ou gh it is often d esirab le in the case o f o th e r deities;
th at vow s o f any type are n o t n e c e ssa ry in se ek in g h er b le s sin g (d evo tees
ty p ically a g re e to p erfo rm so m e p io u s d e e d , such a s fa stin g or m a k in g
a p ilg r im a g e , in retu rn for a deity ’s fav o r); and th at w o rsh ip e rs n eed n ot
o b serv e any ritu a ls o f p u rification p rio r to h er w o rsh ip . Sim ilarly , an y
on e m ay re cite h er m an tra, even th o se w ho are n o t in itia ted or who
w ould n o t be c o n sid e re d qu alified to u n d ertak e any o th e r g o d d e ss’s
w o r s h ip .12
In a so ciety such a s th at o fh ig h -c a ste H in d u s, w ho are p ro b a b ly the
au th o rs o fm o s t o fth e texts c o n ce rn in g M a ta rig i, p re o c c u p a tio n , indeed
o b sessio n , with p u rity and p ollu tio n d o m in a tes alm o st every facet o f daily
life. K e e p in g track o f w hat is clean and w hat is u n cle an , w ho is clean and
who is n o t and u n d er w hat c irc u m sta n c e s, and how clean one is o n e se lf
at any given tim e and in any given c irc u m sta n ce , b e c o m e s o p p ressiv e at
tim es. F o r such p u rity -m in d e d in d iv id u a ls, fu rth erm o re, p o llu ted p e r
sons and o b je cts m ay be re g a rd e d w ith fear b o rd e rin g on aw e, a s h avin g
the p ow er to co m p le te ly d evastate on e and m ake on e unfit for n orm al
social life. F o r so m e H in d u s, it is ex h ilaratin g, i f n o t sp iritu ally lib e ra t
in g, to in ten se ly em b race the fo rb id d en , to co m e to te rm s w ith it on ce
and for all and in so d o in g to o v erc o m e its hold ov er th em . U c c ista -
m atarigin i, a s the em b o d im e n t o fth e p o llu te d , is the g o d d e ss by m ean s
o f w h om on e can co m e d irectly to term s w ith p o llu tio n . A s su ch , she is
both p ow erful and lib e r a t in g .13
M A T A N G I
T h e O u tc a ste /L o w -C a ste G o d d e ss
T h e secon d m yth co n ce rn in g the o rigin o f M atarigi also

to u ch es on the th em e o fth e p o llu ted or forb idd en b y a sso c ia tin g the g o d
dess w ith C an d a la s and w ith h u n tin g cu ltu re, a s in the B u d d h ist tale o f
Prakrti. By d isg u isin g h e rse lf a s a C an d a lin I, Parvati assu m es the id e n
tity o f a very low -caste p e rso n , and by b e in g attracted to her, Siva allow s
h im se lf to be in ten se ly p o llu ted . Both d eities se lf-co n scio u sly and w ill
in gly asso cia te th e m se lv es w ith the p e rip h ery o f H in d u so ciety and cu l
ture. T h e C an d a la id e n tity is sacralized , a s it w ere, in the e stab lish m en t
o f the g o d d e ss U c c ista-ca n d a lin l. T h is g o d d e ss, a form o f M a ta rig i, su m s
up in her n am e the p o llu ted and the forb id d en : uccista and C an d a la , p o l
luted, d a n g e ro u s food and p o llu te d , d a n g e ro u s p e o p le .
In th is story, M atarigi is b o rn w hen Parvati a d o p ts a C an d a la identity.
T h e sto ry m ak es the p o in t th at P arvati h as a facet th at is o u tsid e n orm al
society ; in h er ch aracter is an "o th e r” id e n tity th a t tra n sg re sse s p r o p r i
ety and ca ste -b o u n d society. T h is affirm ation o f Parvari’s ’’forest” or
’’hunter” or ’’ C an dalin I” id en tity can actually be traced to the Mahabharata
( 3 .4 0 . 1 -5 )? w h ere A rju n a en co u n te rs Siva and P arvati in the gu ise o f
h u n ters in the H im a lay a s. G iven Siva’s stro n g id e n tity a s an o u tsid e r in
m an y tex ts, th is is n o t su rp risin g . T rad itio n ally , Siva and Parvati’s h om e
lies so m ew h ere o u tsid e n o rm al so ciety — in the fo rest, in the m o u n tain s,
a m o n g trib a l, lo w -ca ste , or o u tcaste p e o p le . T h is m yth re a sse rts th is a s
p ect o f th e ir m arital history.
T h e fourth v ersion o f M atarigi’ s o rig in , in w hich she is said to have
been Siva’s p u rity -m in d e d sister, cu rsed by P arvati to b e re b o rn in an u n
to u ch ab le co m m u n ity, also em p h asize s M atarigi’ s a sso cia tio n w ith p o l
lution and low caste s. In d e ed , a cen tral m e ssag e o f the m yth is th at an
un d ue o b se ssio n with p u rity can b e d a n g e ro u s and destru ctiv e. T h e m yth
also em p h asize s th at it can b e tra n sfo rm ativ e , in d ee d , even n ecessary , to
a sso ciate w ith th at w hich is p o llu ted or to w o rsh ip a d eity w ho is clo sely
identified w ith th o se w ho are o flo w caste. Siva and P arv ati, by im p lic a
tio n , are n ot a s p re o c cu p ie d w ith p o llu tio n a s K a u ri-b ai; Siva is even said
to m ak e c o n ta ct p u rp o se ly w ith p o llu tin g th in g s and p e o p le . A s K au ri-
b ai, th en , M atarigi is clearly identified with a g o d d e ss w ho lives a m o n g
low ca ste s in a p o llu ted e n v iro n m e n t and w ho earn ed th is d u b io u s d is
tin ction b y b e in g overly p re o c cu p ie d w ith av o id in g p o llu tio n .
M atarigi’s asso ciatio n with low c a ste s and p o llu tio n is also clear in the
w ays in w hich p o llu ted su b sta n ces are h an d led a m o n g certain co m m u -
218 M ATASfGl
n in es in N e p a l. T h e lo w e st g ro u p o f c a ste s in N e p a l, the P o re , in clu d es

sw eep ers, cle an ers o fla trin e s, and fish erm en . T h e s e castes have the im
p o rta n t jo b o f co lle ctin g and a cc u m u la tin g the p o llu ted and p o llu tin g
d etritu s o f o th e r c aste s and g e ttin g rid o f it. T h e y n ot on ly co lle ct p h y s
ically im p u re th in g s, such a s h u m an w aste , b u t are also th o u g h t to a cc u
m u late p o llu tio n asso cia ted w ith death and b ad luck. T h e y are requ ired
to live o u tsid e the v illage and in th is sen se define the b o u n d a ries o f " p u r e ”
society. T h a t so cie ty can n o t, in fact, fun ction w ith o u t th em : th ey p r o
vid e the valve th ro u g h w hich it rid s its e lf o fit s own p o llu tio n . T h is role
o flo w caste s is a co m m o n th em e in H in d u id e as o f caste and p o llu tio n .
W h a t is p articu la rly in te re stin g for o u r p u rp o se s is th at m e m b e rs o fth is
g ro u p o f caste s are also know n by the caste n am e M a t a r ig i.1*
In the N e p a le s e co n tex t, p o llu ted su b sta n ces and ite m s are also a s s o
ciated with sp ecial ro ck s called c/iw asasth at are set up at cro ssro a d s (a very
co m m o n lo catio n for g e ttin g rid o f d a n g e ro u s th in g s). R e m a in s o f sa c
rific ial an im al h e a d s offered to d e itie s, clo th es w orn b y p e o p le ju st b e
fore th ey d ie d , and o th e r such th in g s are d isp o se d o f at the chwasas. A c
c o rd in g to so m e p e o p le , the deity a sso cia te d w ith th ese chwasas ”is the
d a n g e ro u s g o d d e ss , M a ta rig i,” w ho is b eliev ed to co n su m e th e se d a n
g e ro u s m a t e r ia ls .15 L ik e the u n to u ch a b les a m o n g w hom she is fou n d , th at
is, she g e ts rid o f p o llu tio n by a cc e p tin g it a s an offerin g and in so d o in g
lives u p to h er n am e U cc ista -m a ta rig in i.
T h e seco n d v e rsio n o fM a ta rig i’ s o rigin also em p h asize s sexual te n
sion b etw een h u sb an d and w ife. It co n ta in s the fam iliar th em e (in s t o
ries o fth e M ah av id y a s) o fP a r v a ti (or S ati) ask in g Siva for p e rm issio n to
retu rn to h er p ate rn al h o m e and Siva’s re lu ctan ce to g ran t it. Siva, in d is
g u ise , seek s to te st and sedu ce h is own w ife, w hile she in turn d o es the
sam e th in g to h im . T h e y p re se n t th e m se lv es to each o th e r a s ’’the fo r
b id d e n ” an d , p e rh ap s in adv erten tly (it is n o t cle ar), m ake th em selves m ore
sexually a p p e a lin g to each other. Parvati ag re es to have sex w ith the o r
n am en t m e rch a n t, and Siva lu sts after the C an d a la h u n tress. O ne o fth e
cen tral te n sio n s in the story is the lure and attractiv en ess o f illicit sex. In
the panca tattva ritual, the w om an w ith w h om maithuna (sexual in te r
c o u rse) is p erfo rm ed is n o t on e’s wife and can be from a low caste. In
b oth th e story and the panca tattva ritu al, the p o w e r o f illicit sex is t r a n s
form ative in on e w ay or another. Siva is actu ally tran sfo rm ed into a
C an d ala in the act o f sex, w hile the sadhaka w ho p erfo rm s maithuna with
a lo w - c a ste w om an seeks spiritu al tran sfo rm atio n . T h e n am e M atarigi r e
in forces th is a sp e c t o fth e g o d d e ss a s ero tically pow erful. H e r n am e lit
erally m e an s ’’ she w h o se lim b s are in to x icated (with p a s sio n )” and m o st
co m m o n ly re fers to an im p a ssio n ed fem ale eleph an t.
M ATAN GI 119
Fig. 3 7 . M atarigi, contem porary lithograph.
M atarigi is clo sely identified w ith a goddess nam ed Savaresvari (m is

tress o fth e Savaras). T h e Savaras are a tribal people often m en tion ed in
Sanskrit literature, and th ey typify forest culture, life b eyon d the b ou n d
aries o f civilized s o c ie ty .“ Savaresvari is described as sixteen and short
in stature. She is en tirely clothed in leaves and w ears a garland o f gunja
seeds and earrings o f creepers. She holds a basket m ade o f vin es, is c o l
lectin g fruit w ith her rig h t hand, and is sm iling and s in g in g .” T h is g o d
dess, or this form o f M atarigi, puts into sharp focus one aspect o f
Matarigi", her association w ith the forest. In her thousand-nam e hym n
from the Nandyavarta-tantra, M atarigi bears several epithets that asso
ciate h er w ith Savaresvari. She is called She W h o L ives in the Forest,
W h o W alks in the F orest, W h o K n ow s the F orest, W h o E n joys the F o r
est (v. 4 ), and §avari (v. 103 ) .'' In her hun dred-n am e hym n from the
Rudraydm ala, she is said, like Savaresvari, to love m usic (v. 13 ) . ” In her
dbydna m antra in the Sdradd-tilaka-tantru, Raja-m atarigi is said to listen
to the chatterin g o f green parrots, to p lay a vfnd, to have paintings o f
leaves on her forehead, and to w ea r flow er garlands in her hair and conch
shells as e a rrin g s.2" She is also said to control all w ild an im als.2' T h is as
sociation w ith Savaresvari affirms and reinforces M atarigi's id en tity w ith
2 20 M ATANG1
the forest and with tribal cu ltu re, b oth o f w hich are stro n gly "o th e r” from
the p o in t o f view o fh ig h -c a ste B rah m an so c ie ty .22
T h e G od dess o fM a g ic a l Powers
T h e th ird sto ry p o in ts to an o th er asp ec t o f M a ta rig i,

nam ely, her asso cia tio n with m agical p o w e rs, p articu la rly the p ow er to
exert co n trol ov er oth ers. T h e sage M a ta rig a su b jects h im se lf to a u ste r
ities to gain th is p ow er, and M atarigi a p p ea rs a s a m an ifestatio n o f K ali
in o rd er to en ab le M atariga to realize h is w ish. L ik e o th e r g o d d e sse s
am o n g the M a h a v id y a s, p articu larly B aga la m u k h i, M a tarigi is w o rsh ip ed
in o rd er to gain certain m agical or psy ch ic p ow ers. In a p ray er in the
Mahdbhdgavata-purana, the M a h av id y as are typified a cc o rd in g to th eir
p ecu liar n atu res and p ow ers. T h e sadhaka. ask s to b e like C h in n am a sta
in sh o w in g g e n e ro sity to o th e rs, like B a g a la m u k h i in b a ttle , like
D h u m av ati w hen angry, in k in gly fu n ction s like T rip u ra -su n d a ri, in
tim es o f p e a c e like B h u v a n esv a ri, and in c o n tro llin g en em ie s like
M a ta r ig i.23 T h e Tantrasdra at several p o in ts says th at by m e d ita tin g u p o n ,
re citin g the m an tra of, or w o rsh ip in g M a tarigi one g ain s p ow er over o th
ers, the p ow er o f h av in g ev ery th in g on e says co m e tru e, and the pow er
o f attractin g p e o p l e .2*
T exts d evoted to the M ah av id y as often co n tain a section called prayog
vidhi, ’’ co n ce rn in g the acq u isitio n o f d e sir e s.” It is h ere th at the differ
ent ’’re c ip e s” are given for ach iev in g specific b en efits in return for w o r
sh ip in g the g o d d e ss in qu estio n . W h ile M atarigi is n ot at all u n iq u e in
term s o f b e in g ap p ro a c h ed for certain d e sire s, she is defin itely asso ciated
with a cq u irin g m ag ica l p ow ers and g ra n tin g favors. It is useful in g e ttin g
a m o re c o m p le te p ictu re o f M ah av id y a w o rsh ip to d iscu ss in so m e detail
th is asp ect o fh e r cult.
C ertain p relim in a ry rites are n e ce ssary before m a k in g the specific of
ferin gs to obtain w h at one w an ts. F irst, and o f essen tial im p o rta n c e , is
the em p o w erm en t o f the g o d d e ss’s m an tra (purascama), in th is case
M atarigi’s m an tra, w hich will b e an in d isp e n sab le p art o f su b se q u e n t rit
u als. T h e sadhaka em p o w ers the m an tra by p erfo rm in g the follow in g rit
u als: (i) re c itin g the m an tra itse lf ten th ou san d tim e s, ( 2) offerin g flow
ers m ixed w ith h o n e y and gh ee in a fire w hile say in g the m an tra one
th ou san d tim e s, (3 ) p o u r in g purified w ater (tarpana, often done for sp ir
its o f the a n c e sto rs) one h u n d red tim es w hile re citin g the m an tra, (4 )
M A T A N G I
sp rin k lin g w ater ten tim es w hile say in g the m an tra, and fin ally (5) offer
in g food to ten B rah m an s. T h e m an tra is now em po w ered and is referred
to as a siddha m a n t r a .”
T h e initial e m p o w erin g o fth e m an tra n eed n ot b e done every tim e it
is u sed . On su b se q u en t o c c a sio n s, the sadhaka. n eed on ly recite the
m an tra ten th ou san d or on e th o u san d tim es in o rd er to ’’re c h a rg e ” it, as
it w ere, re sto rin g it to its full pow er. N e x t is p erfo rm ed the w orsh ip o f
the pitha, or p la c e , within w hich the offerin gs will b e m ad e for the d e
sired b o o n s. After, the pitha h as been m ade p ure by b a n ish in g inim ical
sp irits and su m m o n in g p ro tectiv e d eities (the g u a rd ia n s o f the ten d i
re ctio n s), the g o d d e ss’s y an tra is duly co n stru cte d (eith er ph y sically or
m entally). On th is y an tra altar the sadhaka kin dles a fire. D e p e n d in g u pon
w hat it is the sadhaka w ish es, different elem en ts or co m b in a tio n s o f e le
m en ts are offered up in the fire, a cc o m p an ied by the re citatio n o f
M atarigi’s m an tra. S o m e tim e s certain tim es o f day or n ig h t, and so m e
tim es also sp ecial p la ce s, such a s crem ation g ro u n d s, river b a n k s, fo re sts,
or c r o ssro a d s, are specified a s the m o st effective for the p erfo rm an ce o f
the ritual. T h e follow in g tw elve ’’re c ip e s” are p rescrib ed :
1. \ihorma (fire sacrifice) is done w ith mallikd flowers (a sm all, w h ite,

fragran t flower— not ja sm in e ), the sadhaka will acq uire su ccess in
yoga.
If offerin gs o f bel flow ers are m a d e, the sadhaka will acq uire the
pow er to rule over o th e rs, kin gsh ip .
If offerin gs o f palds flow ers or leaves are m a d e, the sadhaka will a c

quire co n tro l over oth ers.
4 . I f an o th er type o f p lan t is u se d , d ise a se s will b e d estro y ed.
5 . I f nim tw igs w ith rice are offered up in the fire, the w o rsh ip er will
obtain g re at w ealth.
If mm oil and salt are offered , the sadhaka will b e able to d estro y
en em ie s, and his or h er store o f grain will in crease.
If salt alone is offered, the sadhaka will gain the p ow er to control

oth ers.
If tu rm eric p o w d er (which is b rig h t yellow and hence favored by

B agalam u k h i) is offered, the w o rsh ip er will acq u ire the pow er to
paraly ze oth ers (B agalam u k h i’s sp ecial pow er, stambhana).
9. I f eigh t different fragran t ite m s, in c lu d in g red and w hite sandal

p aste , saffron, and cam p h o r, are offered, the sadhaka will b e a t
M ATANG I
tractive to p e o p le . I f the m an tra is recited an ad d ition al on e h u n

dred tim e s and san dal p aste p u t on the w o rsh ip er’s fo reh ead , he or
she will b e c o m e attractive to the w h ole w orld.
10. I f salt m ixed w ith h o n e y is offered u p in the fire and the m an tra is
recited 108 tim es at n ig h t, the sadhaka will acq u ire the p o w e r to a t
tract oth ers.
11. I f the sadhaka m ak es rice p o w d er and w ith th is m ak es b re a d and

then eats it w hile re citin g the M atarigi m an tra, he w ill co n trol
w o m en . In th is case th ere is no homa offering.
12. Finally, any p erso n can b e m ad e the sddhaka's servant if the follow ing
rites are p erfo rm ed : In the d ark o fn ig h t p u t a con ch in a (p re su m
ably d e ad ) crow ’s sto m ach , w rap the crow in b lu e th re a d , and then
burn it on a crem atio n fire. M e d ita te on the ash es o f t h e b u rn ed
crow w hile in v o k in g M atarigi’ s m an tra one th o u san d tim es. A n y
one to w h om the ash es are given will b e c o m e the w o rsh ip er’ s se r
vant. N o homa acc o m p an ies th is re cip e , alth ou gh the b u rn in g o f
the crow on the crem ation fire m ig h t b e th o u g h t o f a s a fire offer
in g to M a t a r ig i.26
In the Tantrasara we are told th at at n ig h t, in a crem atio n g ro u n d or

at a c r o ssro a d s, the sadhaka sh ou ld offer fish , m e at, co ok ed ric e , m ilk, and
in cen se to M atarigi to acq u ire p o etic tale n t and v icto ry over en em ie s and
to b ec o m e a secon d B rh asp ati (the g o d s ’ p rie st-g u ru ). We are also told
in the sam e text th at to achieve the h ig h e st k n o w led ge o fth e sc rip tu res,
M atarigi sh ou ld be offered uccista, cat m e at, and g o a t m e a t .27 In the
Purascarydmava, K arn a-m atarigi is invoked in the h o p e th at she will w h is
p er in the sddhaka's ear the truth a b o u t so m e qu estio n p o se d by the
sadhaka.29We are told elsew h ere th a t th o se w ho recite M atarigi’s m an tra
one h u n d red th o u san d tim es, offer ten th o u sa n d flow ers in the sacrificial
fire, and w o rsh ip h er y an tra will get g re a t w ealth , will b e able to co n trol
an an gry k in g and his ch ild ren , will b e im m u n e to the tro u b le s cau sed by
evil sp irits, and will th em selv es b e c o m e like d eities. In th is c a se , to in
sure the su ccess o f th e ir sadhana, w o rsh ip e rs are cau tio n ed to refrain at
all tim es from c riticizin g w om en and to tre at th em like g o d d e s s e s .29
K am ala
The Lotus Goddess
She has a beautiful golden com plexion. She is b ein g bathed by four large
elephants who p our jars o f nectar over her. In her four hands she holds
two lotuses and m akes the sign s o f gran tin g boon s and givin g assurance.
She w ears a resplendant crown and a silken dress. I pay obeisance to her
who is seated on a lotus in a lotus p o stu re.1
L et K am ala protect u s by her wonderful side-glances that delight the heart

o fV isn u . She is seated on a lotu s, has a sm iling face, and with her four
h ands holds two lotuses and m akes the signs o f giving favors and g ran t
in g assurance. H er com plexion is like the brightn ess o f lightning. H er
breasts are firm and heavy and are decorated with garlands of p e a rls.2
She is resplenden t like the risin g sun and wears a b righ t m oon disc on her
brow. She is adorned with a crown and necklace o f jew els. She is bent down
due to the w eight o fh e r large b reasts, and in her hands she holds two lo
tuses and two bunch es o f rice shoots. She has three lotuslike eyes. She
w ears the kaustubba gem and has a sm iling face.3
T h e n am e K am ala m e a n s "sh e o fth e lo t u s ” and is a co m m o n ep ith et

o fth e g o d d e ss L a k sm i or Sri, w ho is said to ad o re lo tu se s and to b e l o
tu s eyed and su rro u n d e d by lo tu se s. In d e ed , K a m a la is n on e o th e r than
the g o d d e ss L a k sm i. She is u su ally listed a s the ten th and la st o f the
M ah av id y as. O f all g o d d e sse s in the M a h a v id y a g ro u p , K a m a la is the b est
know n and m o st p o p u lar and h as the o ld e st trad itio n o f w o rsh ip o u tsid e
the M ah avid ya context. H e r u sual p ositio n a s last in line o f the M ah avid y as
(which is often in terp re ted a s m e a n in g the le a st sign ifican t, or the lo w
est, in a sp iritu al hierarch y ) is in d ire ct c o n tra st w ith h e r im p o rta n c e o u t
side the g ro u p . C o m p a re d to K ali, w ho is u su ally n am ed a s the first of
Figr 3 8 . Laksmi, contemporary lithograph.
K A M A L A 225
the M a h a v id y a s, K a m ala is a g o d d e ss w ith a lm o st co m p le te ly a u sp icio u s,

b en ign , and d e sirab le q u alities. As we shall see below , she is asso ciated
or identified w ith a n u m b e r o f w orldly b le ssin g s th at p re o c c u p y hum an
b ein g s and th e ir o rd in ary re lig io u s p ractice: w ealth , p ow er, go o d luck,
and safety.
T h e Early H istory o f Sri
E a rly referen ces to K a m a la call h er Sri and co n siste n tly a s

sociate h er w ith p o sitiv e q u alities. In d eed , the n a m c S r i m ean s "a u sp i
c io u s.” F o r exam p le, in the Satapatha-brdhmana ( l l . 4 » 3 * l s n e is id e n
tified w ith fo o d , royal p ow er, luster, fortu n e, and beauty. H e r p ositive
q u alities and au sp icio u s n atu re are elab o rate d in the Sri-sukta, an early
hym n in h er p raise p ro b a b ly d atin g b ack to p re -B u d d h ist tim es.* She gives
w ealth and oth er d esired o b je cts to h er dev o tees (w. 1, 5> 1 0 , 1 4 )? * s b e a u
tiful and ad o rn e d with co stly o rn a m e n ts (w. 1,4? 6 , 1 3 )? and is associated
with fertility and grow th (w. 9? 11? 1 3 ) -
T h is hym n also a sso ciates Sri with the lotus and the eleph an t, both o f
w hich b ecam e central in her su b seq u en t h isto ry and su g g e st im p o rtan t a s
pects o fh e r character. T h e lotus seem s to have two general m ean in gs. First,
it is related to life and fertility.5 On a cosm ic scale, the lo tu s re p re se n ts the
entire created order. T h e co sm o s a s lotuslik e su g g e sts a w orld that is o r
gan ic, v ig o ro u s, and beautiful. It is the fecund v ig o r su g g e sted by the lo
tus that is revealed in Sri. She is the life force that p erv ad es creation.
S e c o n d , esp e cially in re lation to Sri, the lo tu s su g g e sts sp iritu al p u
rity, pow er, and authority. T h e lo tu s seat is a co m m o n th em e in H in d u
and B u d d h ist ico n o grap h y . G o d s and g o d d e sse s, B u d d h as and bod-
h isattv as, are typically show n seated or sta n d in g on a lo tu s. L ik e the lo
tu s, w hich is ro o ted in the m ud b u t w h ose b lo sso m s are u n co n tam in ate d
by it, th ese sp iritu al b e in g s are u n d ersto o d to tran scen d the earth ly lim
itatio n s o fth e w orld (the m ud o f existen ce, a s it w ere). Sri’s asso ciatio n
with the lo tu s su g g e sts th at she sy m b olizes a certain p erfectio n or state
o f refin em en t th at tran sce n d s the m aterial w o rld , y et is ro o ted in it.
Sri’s a sso ciatio n with the elep h an t su g g e sts oth er asp ec ts o fh e r ch a r
acter th at are ancient and p ersiste n t. O ne o f the m o st co m m on r e p re
sen tatio n s o f Sri sh ow s h er flanked by tw o elep h an ts th at are sh ow erin g
her with w ater from th eir tru n k s.6T h e ele p h an ts have tw o m e an in g s. A c
co rd in g to H in d u tra d itio n , ele p h an ts are related to c lo u d s and rain , and
226 KAMALA
hence fertility.7 Seco n d , elep h an ts su g g e st royal authority. K in g s kep t sta

b les o f e le p h an ts, w hich th ey ro d e in p ro c e ssio n s and u sed in m ilitary
cam p a ig n s. K in g s w ere also held re sp o n sib le for b rin g in g tim ely rains
and for the fertility o fth e land ge n e rally ; th e ir p o sse ssio n o f ele p h an ts is
p ro b a b ly re late d to th at ro le t o o .’
§ri-LaksmI's A ssociation with M ale Deities
§ri (also know n c o n siste n tly a s L a k sm i at a fairly early date

in h er h isto ry ) is a sso cia te d w ith several m ale d e ities, each o f w h om su g
ge sts a sp ec ts o f h e r ch aracter. O ne o f h e r earliest a sso c ia tio n s is w ith the
god S o m a, w ho is identified w ith p la n ts and v e getativ e vigo r. It is a p
p ro p ria te th at § ri-L a k sm I, who is also identified with the v itality o f p la n ts,
sh ou ld be lin k ed w ith h im .9 S o m e texts say th at Sri-L aksm l is the wife of
D h a rm a. T h e co n n ectio n h ere se em s to re late p ro p e r so cial co n d u ct
(dharm a) to o b ta in in g p ro sp e rity (sri).ie
M an y texts em p h asize that in h er re la tio n sh ip with ttie god In dra, royal
au th ority and fertility are c e n tr a l.11 In d ra’s p o litical fo rtu n es are d irectly
related to § ri-L a k sm i in several m y th s. W h en she dw ells w ith h im , he
p ro sp e rs p o litic a lly and econ om ically. W h en she a b a n d o n s h im , or lives
w ith one o f h is a d v ersarie s, he is b ereft o f royal au th o rity and w ealth . T h e
m yths m ak e it cle ar th at k in gly p ow er, auth ority, and p ro sp e r ity are d i
rectly related to §ri and th at w ith o u t h er a k in g can n o t s u c c e e d .12
§ rf-L ak § m fs a sso cia tio n w ith In d ra also u n d erlin e s h er id e n tity with
fertility and gro w th . T h e p air co m p le m e n t and re in fo rce each o th e r in
th is re sp e c t, a s he is stro n g ly id en tified w ith b rin g in g rain , a sy m b ol of
fertility, and h is favorite w eapon is the th u n d erb o lt. T h e r e also se em s to
be p h allic sy m b o lism in his id e n tification w ith the plow.
§ri-L ak$m I’s a sso cia tio n w ith the g o d K u b e ra is y et a n o th er exam ple
o fh e r iden tificatio n w ith w ealth and v e g e ta tiv e grow th and fertility. K u
b era is related to w ealth ; he is said to b e th e p o ss e ss o r and d istrib u to r of
w ealth and to p o ss e ss and gu ard the earth ’s tre asu re. H e is also said to be
lea d er o f the yaksas, creatu res w ho dw ell in the w o o d s and fo re sts and
p ro m o te the gro w th o f p la n t s .13
KAMALA 227
Sri-Laksm i and Visnu
Sri-L aksm i’s co n n ectio n w ith the g o d V isn u is one o f the

m o st im p o rta n t featu res o f h e r m y th o lo g y and cult. In H in d u m yth, th eir
asso ciatio n b e g in s a s a re su lt o fth e ch u rn in g o fth e o cean o f m ilk by the
go d s and d e m o n s, w ho seek th e elixir o f im m o rta lity (amrta). In the
p ro ce ss o f ch u rn in g, they stir u p d esirab le o b je cts and b e in g s, a m o n g
w hom is L ak sm i. T h e lovely g o d d e ss is gran ted to V isn u , w ho is the lead er
o fth e g o d s in th is m yth.
In H in d u tra d itio n , V isn u is stro n g ly asso cia ted w ith k in gsh ip . H e is
depicted a s a divine king. H is avatdras ("d esc en ts” or in carn atio n s) all serve
to u p h o ld the social and p o litica l o rd er and p ro m o te dh arm a. H e su p
p o rts rig h te o u s k in gs on earth , th ro u g h w h om he is said to u p h o ld so c i
e ty .1* L a k sm i, a s the em b o d im e n t o f royal auth ority, is a p p ro p ria te ly
linked to V isn u . W h ere she is p re se n t, ro yal au th o rity p ro sp e r s; w here
she is ab se n t, it w eak en s and d isa p p e a rs.
L a k sm i is often p o rtra y ed a s V isn u ’ s loyal, m o d e st, and lo v in g w ife.
She is d e sc rib ed a s o ccu p ied w ith d o m estic c h o re s, such a s c o o k in g ,15 and
is typically d ep icted a s su b se rv ien t to h er h u sb a n d . Ico n o grap h ically , she
is often show n m a ssa g in g V isn u ’ s feet and is m uch sm alle r than he. H e r
su bm issive p o sitio n is clearly conveyed in an im a g e from B ad am i, in which
he sits on a h igh sto o l w hile she sits on the gro u n d and lea n s on h im , her
rig h t h an d on his k n e e .16
In the P an cara tra sch ool o f th o u g h t, L a k sm i, a lo n g w ith V isn u , a s
su m es a cen tral co sm o lo g ic a l ro le. A lth ou g h V isn u is said to be the u lti
m ate reality, he is alm o st en tirely in active, stan d in g a lo o f from the c o s
m o go n ic p ro c e ss in w hich L a k sm i p lays an active r o l e .17 H e r co sm ic role
is p articu larly strik in g in the Laksmi-tantra, a p o p u la r P a n caratra text,
w hich says th at she sin g leh an d e d ly u n d ertak es the creatio n o f the u n i
verse with on ly o n e-b illio n th p art o f h e rse lf ( 1 4 .3 )* T h e text d escrib es
L ak sm i a s p e rv a d in g the en tire created o rd er and a s re g u la tin g the s o
cial and m o ral o rd ers a s w ell. In effect, in th is text she tak e s over the ro les
o f V isn u a s cre a to r o fth e u n iverse and re g u la to r o f d h a r m a .1’
L a k sm i p lay s a qu ite different, b u t im p o rta n t, ro le in the Sri V aisnava
sch ool o f Sou th In dia. In th is ca se , Sri (L ak sm i) h as a m in o r c o sm o lo g
ical p la ce , bu t a crucial role in the dev o tio n al e c o n o m y o f the school. She
is the m e d ia to r betw een d e v o te es and V isn u . T h r o u g h h e r grace d e v o
tees are allow ed to ap p ro ach the L o rd . She is d escrib ed a s an in d u lge n t,
fo rg iv in g m o th er w ho p le a d s the case o f d evotees to h er h u sb an d . In the
228 KAMALA
m y th o lo gy o f th is sch oo l, V isn u is u su ally d escrib ed a s a ju st, m ig h ty k in g

who d o es n o t to lerate im p u rity or sin , w ho is in clin ed to p u n ish d e v o
tees for the slig h te st offense. H is stern , righ teo u s ch aracter is balan ced
and m o d era te d by L a k s m i.19
T h e W orship of L ak sm i
It is q u ite likely th at L a k sm i is the m o st p o p u la r o f all

H in d u d eities. A sso cia te d a s she is w ith w ealth , p ro sp erity , g o o d luck, and
fertility, she is very a p p e a lin g and is know n in every co rn e r o fth e Indian
su b co n tin en t. She is as p o p u la r in the N o rth as in the S ou th and is as
w idely ad o red in cities a s in sm all v illa g e s. H e r im a g e s are everyw here.
Several an n u al festivals are given in h er honor. O f th e se , the D ivali
festival is the b e st know n and m o st w idely ce leb rated . T h e festival links
L a k sm i to th ree im p o rta n t and in te rre la te d th e m es: p ro sp e r ity and
w ealth , fertility and cro p s, and g o o d lu ck d u rin g the c o m in g year. D u r
in g this festival, m an y p e o p le , esp ecially m e rch an ts, w orsh ip th eir accoun t
b o o k s, in v o k in g L a k sm i to resid e in t h e m .20 F arm e rs are en join ed to w o r
ship th eir c ro p s a s im b u ed with L a k sm l’s p resen ce. C ow d u n g is also w o r
sh iped a s an e m b o d im e n t o f L a k sm l’s fecund p o w e r.21 L a k sm l’s a sso c ia
tion with g o o d lu ck in the co m in g y ear is stressed in in ju n ctio n s to gam b le
d u rin g D ivali. She is also called u p o n to drive aw ay h er siste r A lak sm i,
who is asso c ia te d w ith b ad luck and m isfo rtu n e.
Kam ala am ong the M ahavidyas
K am a la's role a m o n g the M ah a v id y a s is a re ce n t and m i

n or p art o f h e r cu lt and w o rsh ip in the H in d u trad itio n . U n lik e oth er
M a h a v id y as, such a s D h u m av atl, B a g a la m u k h i, and M a ta rig i, w ho are
b arely know n o u tsid e the M ah av id y a g ro u p , L a k sm i is an an cien t and ex
trem ely p o p u la r g o d d e ss, w o rsh ip ed th ro u g h o u t In dia in a v ariety o f c o n
texts and se ctarian m o v em en ts. In d e ed , h er in clu sion a m o n g the M a h a
vidyas is n o t easily exp lain ed , and h er p lace in T a n trism , the p rim ary
co n text o f the M a h a v id y a s, se em s so m ew h at ou t o f ch aracter. It is also
clear th at K am ala h as been selectively ap p ro p ria te d a s a M ah avid y a. T h a t
is, her ic o n o g ra p h y and h er d e sc rip tio n s in dbydna m an tras leave out c e r
KAMALA 229
tain a sp ects o fh e r ch aracter and m in im ize certain ro le s th at are im p o r

tan t in h er h isto ry and cult.
It is strik in g, for ex am p le, th at a s a M a h a v id y a K a m a la is n ever show n
ico n o g rap h ica lly or d e sc rib ed in h er dhyana. m an tras a s acc o m p an y in g
V isn u . H e m a y b e m e n tio n ed , a s in h e r dhyana m a n tra s from the Sdradd-
tilaka, w hich say th at she h as g la n c e s th at p le ase V isn u or is called the
b eloved o f V i s n u ,22 b u t for the m o st p art he is ab sen t. In th is re sp e c t, K a
m ala is a lm o st en tirely re m o v ed from m arital and d o m estic co n texts. H er
central ro le a s m e d ia to r betw een d ev o tees and V isn u in Sri V aisn avism
is co m p le te ly m issin g in h er M ah av id y a in carn atio n . She d o es n ot p lay
the ro le o f m o d el wife in any im p o rta n t way, and h e r asso ciatio n with
p ro p e r dh arm ic or social b eh avio r, eith er a s an exam p le o fit or a s the r e
w ard er o f it, is n ot im p o rta n t in the M ah av id y a context.
H e r association with eleph an ts p ersists. In M ah avid y a ico n o g ra p h y and
w ritten d e sc rip tio n s, she is ty pically flan k ed by two or fou r elep h an ts
p o u rin g w ater or n ectar on to her from gold en or jew eled co n tain ers. T h u s
the G aja-lak sm i m otif, on e o fh e r m o st an cien t a sp e c ts, re m a in s central
in h er M a h av id y a form . A s sy m b o ls o f so v ereign ty and fertility, the e le
p h an ts co n v ey L a k sm l’s asso ciatio n with th ese h igh ly d e sirab le q u alities,
w hich are often so u g h t after or m en tio n ed a s rew ard s in thephala stotras,
the h y m n s co n ce rn in g rew ard s (or ’’fruits” ) th a t co n clu d e m an y M a h a
v idya litu rgical texts.
K a m ala is >ften p ictu red or d escrib ed a s sittin g alone on a lo tu s in the
m id st o f a p o n d , with n eith er V isn u n o r eleph an ts. T h is is to b e expected
in the co n tex t-o f the M ah av id y as, w h ere a p rem iu m seem s to b e p u t on
the in d ep en d en ce o f the g o d d e sse s. F o r the m o st p art, the M ah avid y as are
seen a s pow erful g o d d e sse s in th eir own right. T h e ir p ow er and au th o r
ity do n ot derive from association with m ale deities. Rather, it is their pow er
th at p erv ad es the g o d s and en ab les them to p erform th eir co sm ic fun c
tio n s. W h en m ale d eities are sh ow n , th ey are alm o st alw ays in su p p o rt
in g ro le s (literally, a s w hen they are show n su p p o rtin g T rip u ra -su n d a ri’s
throne) and are depicted a s su b sid iary figures.
It is also in terestin g to n o te th at V aisnava co n n ectio n s do n ot dom in ate
K am ala’s in carn ation a s a M ah avid ya. A lth ough she is linked to V isnu from
tim e to tim e, she is rarely asso ciated with V aisnava avataras or th eir c o n
so rts, a s on e m igh t expect. She is rarely identified with Sita, R adha, or Ruk-
m ini, alth ou gh she is so m etim e s asso ciated with V arahi and V aisnavi, two
o fth e Sap tam atrk as (seven m o th ers), with which gro u p the M ah avid y as
a s a gro u p are so m etim e s linked. In fact, K am ala in her M ah avid y a form
seem s to be associated or identified as frequently with Siva or Siva’s c o n
23o KAMALA
sort a s she is with V isn u . H e r th o u san d -n am e hym n in the Sdkta-pramoda,

for exam ple, calls h er Siva, R au d ri, G au ri, She W h o se B liss Is Siva, She
W ho Is D e a r to the O ne W ho D o e s the Tdndava D a n c e , Sao’’, and K a p a ll.23
A gain , th is is in k ee p in g with the ten d en cy in M ah avid y a texts to a sso c i
ate the g o d d e sse s with Siva, and co n siste n t, to o , with the acco u n ts o fth e
o rigin s o fth e M ah av id y as, w hich u su ally feature Siva.
A s a M a h a v id y a, K am ala also h as b e c o m e a sso ciated w ith fearsom e
q u a lities, w h ich are a lm o st en tirely la c k in g in h er cu lt and w o rsh ip o u t
side th is co n text. H e r h u n d red - and th o u sa n d -n a m e h y m n s in the Sdkta-
pramoda, for ex am p le, call h e r K a la ra tri (a fearso m e n am e for K a li), She
W ho W ears a G arlan d o f Sk u lls, She W h o se F o rm Is V ery T e rrib le,
G h o ra (aw ful), B h im a (terrib le), a n d T a m a s I (d ark n ess; literally, "sh e who
is the tamasgunau).2* A lth ou g h b en ign and a u sp icio u s q u alities d o m in ate
h e r ch aracter a s a M ah av id y a, a fe a rso m e , d a n g e ro u s d im e n sio n is su g
g ested in th ese ep ith ets.
A n o th er featu re th at ch aracteriz es the M a h a v id y a K a m a la b u t is w eak
or ab sen t from her w o rsh ip and cu lt o u tsid e the M a h a v id y a s is h er role
a s a dem on slayer. O u tsid e the M a h a v id y a s, L a k sm i is stro n g ly a ss o c i
ated with b oth V isn u and D u r g a , w ho are the dem on slay ers p ar e x c el
len ce in H in d u m ythology. L a k sm i herself, how ever, d o es n o t take an a c
tive p art. She is p rim a rily a w itn ess to V isn u or his avatdras w hile they
slay d e m o n s or is display ed w ith D u r g a d u rin g D u r g a P u ja, w hen she is
said to be D u r g a ’s dau gh ter. T h e r e are fem ale V aisn avite g o d d e sse s who
slay d e m o n s in the Devi-mdhdtmya, n am ely, V aisnavl, V arah i, and N a ra -
sirhhi, b u t n on e o f th ese is d irectly iden tified with L a k sm i in th at text.
H e r h u n d red - and th o u san d -n am e h ym n s in the Sdkta-pramoda, how ever,
at tim es give h er epith ets th at directly identify her with the d e m o n -slay in g
go d d e ss D u r g a or on e o f D u rg a ’ s d e m o n -sla y in g h e lp e rs. She is called ,
for exam p le, S lay er o f M ad h u and K a ita b h a , Slayer o f S u m b h a and
N isu m b h a , and D u rg a . H er th o u san d -n am e hym n also iden tifies h er with
the fierce V aisn av a g o d d e sse s N arasirh h l and V a r a h i.25
A s in the P an caratra traditio n , w here L ak sm i assu m es a p reem in en t c o s
m ic ro le , several ep ith ets in h er n am e h y m n s in the Sdkta-pramoda e m
p h asize her elevated p ositio n a s a co sm ic queen or a tran sce n d en t p h ilo
soph ical a b so lu te. She is called , for ex a m p le, M o th e r o f the W orld,
C re a to r o f All the G o d s, M istre ss o f A ll, M a h asak ti, P ran asakti (the life
p rin cip le ), M a h a m ay a, She W ho Is Situ ated in the M id d le o f C o u n tle ss
U n iv e rse s, W h o se F orm Is the C re a tio n , W ho Is the C au se o f C reatio n ,
W ho Is w ith ou t S u p p o rt (that is, who su p p o rts everythin g else and alone
tran scen d s the n eed for su p p o rt), W ho Is the F orm o fH ig h e s t Spiritual
KAMALA 231
Fig. 39. Kamala, by Bhatuk Ramprasad, early twentieth century. Printed with
the permission o f Dr. Bhanu Shanker M ehta, Varanasi.
B liss , W ho Is the T h r e e Gunas (the con stitu en ts o f m atter), Wh o C reates

AH, W h ose Form Is E veryth ing, and several oth er such d e sig n a tio n s.26
K am ala is also identified in these nam e hym ns with several o f the other
M ah avidyas, m ost o f whom share few ch aracteristics with her and are n o
table for th eir fearsom en ess. She is called, for exam p le, M atarigi, D h u-
ma v a t i , T a rin I, B h adra-kall, M ah akali, and BhairavT.27
KAM ALA
In a p p ro p ria tin g the g re at and w idely w o rsh ip ed g o d d e ss S ri-L a k sr

as a M ah av id y a, the fo rm u lato rs o fth e M ah av id y a tan tric texts modifie
and tailo red h e r ch aracter, it se e m s, to m ake h er m o re su itab le to
gro u p . T h e y stressed her in d ep en d en ce from V isn u (as well a s any othe
m ale co n so rt w ith w h om she is lin ked o u tsid e the M a h a v id y a s), alth oug
she is n ot en tirely d isasso c iate d from h im ; th ey gave h er fierce attribute
and they co n n ecte d h er with Siva. She re tain s her ch aracter, no doub
She is defin itely re co g n iza b le a s S ri-L a k sm I, bu t h er p o rtra it h as bee
draw n selectively.
Finally, K a m a la's u su al p lace a s the tenth M ah av id y a d e se rv e s son
co m m en t. In a lm o st all lists o fth e M a h a v id y a s, K a m ala is the la st o ft
gro u p . I f th is p o sitio n is m ean t to co n vey h er su b sid iary or in ferio r ]
sition (or co nversely, h er su p erio r p o sitio n ) in the g ro u p , the texts then
selves do n ot c o m m e n t u pon it. In d eed , in th ose tan tric tex ts th at disc
and d escrib e K a m a la , sh e, like each o f the o th e rs, is h ailed as a g re a t gc
dess and id en tified with ab so lu te p h ilo so p h ica l p rin cip le s and transcen
dent co sm ic fu n ction s. H ow ever, every one o f m y in fo rm an ts in V arana
in terp re ted her ten th p o sitio n a s an in d ic atio n that she is in ferio r to
other M ah avid y as and represen ts realities that are distan t or o p p o site fron
K ali, w ho is taken to b e the u ltim ate or h ig h e st exp ression o f truth am or
the M ah av id y as.
A c o n te m p o ra ry s'dkta in fo rm an t co n tra sts tan tric re lig io n in
So u th , w hich he calls Sri kula, with tan tric re lig io n in the N o r th , whic
he calls K ali kula.. H e d e sc rib es Sri kula a s the w o rsh ip o f L a k sm i and i
seek in g w ealth and w orldly com fort. K ali kula, on the oth er h an d, is h e ro *
and b o ld ly co n fro n ts the d ark n ess, d e m a n d in g u ltim ate k n o w led ge,
is d escrib ed a s a g o d d e ss with w h om on e m u st stru g g le , L a k sm i as or
who p am p e rs h er devotees b u t u ltim ately is in c ap ab le o f g iv in g sue
su p rem e b le ssin g s a s lib e ratin g k n o w le d g e .2’
Sw am i A n n ap u rn an an d a o fth e R am ak rish n a M issio n in V aran asi a lsci
said th at K a m ala re p re se n ts a state o f co n scio u sn e ss p reo ccu p ied with m a |
terial w e ll-b ein g and security. T h a t is, she re p re se n ts the n o rm al state <
co n scio u sn e ss in a lm o st all p e o p le an d , a s such , the sta rtin g p o in t in thi
p ro c e ss o f sp iritu al m atu ration . K a m a la co n scio u sn e ss is w h at on e seek
to re strain , o v e rc o m e , and fin ally tran sce n d . K ali co n sc io u sn e ss, reprd
sented by the first o fth e M a h a v id y a s, is the u ltim ate goal.
PART III
Concluding Reflections
H a v in g focu sed on the M a h av id y as a s a g ro u p and on each

o fth e m in dividually, I w ould like to co m m e n t on a few p articu la rly strik
in g features or m o tifs and seek to answ er certain q u estio n s related to these
featu res.
C o rpses and C rem ation G rounds
C o rp se s are rem ark ab ly often a sso ciated with the M a h a

v id y a s, and crem atio n g ro u n d s seem to b e h igh ly favored a s p lace s in
w hich to w o rsh ip th e m . K a li, T a r a , B a g a la m u k h i, T r ip u r a -su n d a ri,
M atarig i, and B h airav i are all said to stan d or sit u pon co rp se s. K a li, T a r a ,
C h in n am a sta, and D h u m a v a ti are often d escrib ed or p ictu red a s dw ellin g
in crem ation g ro u n d s. On several o c ca sio n s the Mantra-mahodadhih stip
u lates th at sadhana (spiritual en d eav o r) sh ou ld b e done w hile sittin g on
a co rp se or on a p lace w h ere a co rp se h as re cen tly b een b u ried . F o r ex
a m p le , in an alm o st m atter-o f-fact way, the text says: "B rin g in g a co rpse
on a T u e sd a y or S a t u r d a y ,... b u ry it on e foot d eep in the gro u n d b e
neath the d o o r o fth e h o u se. T h e n , sittin g on th at s p o t , . . . p erfo rm 108
J a p a s [repetition s] every d a y . . . . T h r o u g h such a j a p a for eigh t day s the
[sadhaka, "a d e p t” ] b e c o m e s the lord o f vario u s S id d h is ["p erfection s,”
m agical p o w e r s ] .” 1 T h e sam e text, again , in stru cts the sadhaka a s follow s:
’’ Sittin g on a S avasan a [a co rp se seat] . . . the S ad h ak a sh ou ld b eg in the
J a p a at su n rise and co n tin u e it w ith o u t b re ak till the n ext su n rise.
C O N C L U D I N G R E F L E C T I O N S
T h ro u g h such a [process] the S ad h ak a b e c o m e s fearless and m aste r of

v ario u s S id d h is .” 2 In d isc u ssin g the e m p o w e rm e n t or p erfe ctio n o f
m an tra s, w hich is acc o m p lish ed p rim arily by re p e titio n , the Mantra-
mahodadhih says: ” A Sadh ak a w h o, sittin g on a co rp se , p erfo rm s one lakh
( 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) [repetition s] o f th is m an tra, his m an tra b ec o m e s p o ten t and all
his ch erish ed d e sire s are soon fulfilled.” 3 In d isc u ssin g the relative pow er
o f different ’’ se a ts,” the Mantra-mahodadhih d e sc rib es the komaldsana,
w hich u se s an ab o rte d fetus or the co rp se o f a five-year-old ch ild, and the
vistardsana, w hich is m ad e o f w oven g ra ss and ’’co n secrate d w ith a
c o r p s e .” *T h e Tantrasdra, a text devoted p rim a rily to the M a h a v id y a s, h as
detailed d e sc rip tio n s o f both s'ava sadhana (spiritual e n d e av o r with a
c o r p s e )5 and citd sadhana (spiritual en d eavor on a crem atio n p y r e ).6T h e s e
ritu als are n ot d e sc rib ed a s ap p licab le to a p articu la r g o d d e ss a m o n g the
M a h a v id y a s, so p ro b ab ly both tec h n iq u e s are a p p ro p ria te in the w o rsh ip
o f any, or at least several, o f the M ah av id y as.
It is im p o rta n t to reflect on th ese a sso cia tio n s if we w ish to com e to

an u n d e rsta n d in g o f certain in d iv id ual M a h a v id y a s and o f the g ro u p as
a w h ole. A s a g ro u p , th ey seem to b e asso cia ted with a type o f sp iritu a l
ity th at relies heavily on death im agery. T h is is p erh ap s m o st exp licit in
the case o f K a li, the first and m o st im p o rta n t o fth e g ro u p . B ut co rp se s
and crem atio n g ro u n d s are cen tral in d e sc rip tio n s o f several o fth e oth er
g o d d e sse s a s w ell, and w orsh ip o f n early all o f th em is said to be m o st ef
fective if u n d ertak en in a crem ation gro u n d .
It is te m p tin g to su p p o se th at th is death im a g e ry b e lo n g s to the a s
cetic, w o rld -d e n y in g vein o f H in d u ism , in w hich ren u n ciatio n o f w orldly
desire is cen tral. In such a co n text, death im a g e ry and death ritu als m ake
sense: th ey rein force the ren u n cian t’ s decision to p u rsu e sp iritu al lib e r
ation by g iv in g u p the lu res o f the w orld. M e d ita tio n u p o n death p u ts
w orldly p le asu res in a perspectiv e w here th eir attraction can b e m in im ized
or su b verted a lto g e th e r.7 And su rely c o rp se s and crefnation g ro u n d s do
p lay th is ro le in M ah av id y a sadhana.
T h e crem atio n gro u n d also p lays the ro le o f a ’’forbidden th in g ,” a
kind o f sixth tattva, w hich the h eroic sadhaka m u st co n fron t in o rd er to
glim p se the u n d erly in g n atu re o f reality, w hich is that all th in g s, no m a t
ter how p o llu ted or terrib le , are p ervad ed by s'akti (en ergy or p ow er) (see
the ch ap ter on K a li). T o m ed itate u p o n , to m ed itate in, or to live in a c r e
m ation gro u n d fun ction s a s a spiritu al test. In w hat h as been term ed the
"samddhi [heightened or intensified co n scio u sn e ss] o fh o r r o r ,” ’ the ad e p t
di scovers a d ista ste for the w orld, w hich e n co u ra g e s him or her to see
bey o n d or th ro u gh its lu res to u n d erly in g sp iritu al tru th s. T h e g o d d e ss
h e r s e lfis so m e tim e s d escrib ed a s p u ttin g the m ale g o d s th ro u gh sim ilar

te sts. In the Mahabhagavata-purdna, she a ssu m es a terrib le form to test
B rah m a, V isn u , and Siva. T o avoid lo o k in g at her, B rah m a tu rn s his head
away, and V isn u clo ses his eyes and p lu n g e s into the w ater. O n ly Siva is
able to co n tin u e to gaze on her, and for th is h eroic ab ility she gives him
the b le ssin g o f b e c o m in g a g re a t y o g i.9 In a sim ilar sc en a rio , the g o d d e ss
a p p e ars to the th ree m ale g o d s a s a ro ttin g co rp se. Siva th ink s h er stench
is fragran t in c en se, and he takes h er co rp se on his b re ast. T h e g o d d e ss
b le sse s him by p la c in g his lirigam in h er y o n i.10 T h e tan tric sadhaka is
te ste d , a s it w ere, in the crem atio n gro u n d . T h e ch alle n ge is for the sp ir
itu al a sp ira n t to be able to p erceiv e the p resen ce o fth e g o d d e ss even in
the m o st terrib le and p o llu tin g o b je cts and p lace s.
T h e r e is so m e ev id en ce th at crem atio n g ro u n d s are so m etim e s u sed
for in itiation into certain tan tric c u lt s .” In so far a s in itiatio n rites often
involve the sy m bolic death and reb irth o f the in it ia t e ,12 a crem ation
g ro u n d seem s an a p p ro p ria te ven u e. It is a p lace o f tra n sfo rm atio n , w here
p e o p le die to one m o de o fb e in g and are born to anoth er. It is the locale
o fth e g re a te st h u m an tra n sfo rm atio n , th at from life to death . I f the c a n
d id ate’s in itiatio n into a tan tric cu lt is m ean t to sign ify d ram atic tr a n s
fo rm atio n , the crem ation g ro u n d is a m o st su itab le p lace for it.
H ow ever, so m eth in g b ey o n d th is seem s to b e in volved in the u se o f
c o rp se s and crem atio n g ro u n d s, for it is often clear th a t p e o p le u n d e r
ta k in g th ese ritu als are h o u se h o ld e rs w ho have n ot re n o u n ced the w orld,
are n o t en g a g e d in ascetic p ra c tic e s, do n ot seem p rim a rily co n cern ed
w ith affirm in g the u n d erly in g divin ity o f the forb id d en or the p o llu ted ,
and are n o t u n d e rg o in g in itiatio n in to a tantric cult. It is also clear th at
the d e sire s th at m o tivate th is type o f sp iritu ality are often w orldly: pow er
over on e’s e n em ie s, k in gly authority, elo q u e n ce in sp eech , and so on. T h e
aim o f th is sadhana, th at is, se em s to b e, n ot so m uch to triu m p h over the
lu res o fth e w orld or even to see th ro u gh its illu so ry facade to its u n d e r
lying reality a s sakti, bu t rath er to gain su ccess and w ell-b ein g in the w orld.
C o rp se s and crem atio n g ro u n d s seem to function a s m o re than dram atic
re m in d ers o fth e tran sien ce o fw o rld ly existen ce and the futility o f p h y s
ical and m en tal d e sire s, and th u s a s a p p ro p ria te a c c o u tre m e n ts or c o n
texts for the sp iritu al q u est. T h e y also seem to function a s o b je cts and
p lace s o f p o w e r by m ean s o f w hich or in w hich e x trao rd in ary a ch ie v e
m ents m a y b e acco m p lish ed . P o w er seem s to accrue to the individual who
asso ciates with co rp se s and fre q u en ts crem ation g ro u n d s. W h y m igh t this
b e so?
It is c le ar th at texts d e sc rib in g the M ah a v id y a s and th e ir w o rsh ip as-
236 C O N C L U D I N G R E F L E C T I O N S
Fig. 40. T ara on Siva in cremation ground, contem porary lithograph.
sum e the existence o f a w orld o f spirits that is parallel to the physical w orld
and im p in ge s u pon it. T h is assu m p tio n p ersists in and to a g reat extent
d om in ates c o n tem p o rary H in d u ism in both its p o p u lar and its refined,
literary form s. T h e in h abitan ts o f this w orld in clu d e g o d s, g o d d e sse s,
rdksasas, asuras, vetdlas,yoginis, ddkinis, gandharvas, kinnaras, siddbas, bbutas,
pretas, p is ’dcas, ndgas, and oth er classes o f b ein gs that are n ot v isib le u n
der u su al co n d itio n s b u t th at ap p ear from tim e to tim e in the physical
w orld. All o fth e se b ein gs are m ore pow erful than hum ans or have som e
ability or cu n n in g th at su rp asse s n o rm al hum an ab ilities. T h e ir eru p tion s

into the visib le w orld o fh u m a n b e in g s can be ben eficial or h arm ful, u n
exp ected or w illed. E x a m p le s o f harm ful and u n exp ected eru p tio n s are
illn e sse s, bad luck, and acc id en ts. T h e s e are often attrib u ted to the a c
tio n s o f jbhutas and pretas (spirits o f the dead , g h o sts), b u t also to oth er
in im ical sp irits or d eities. Such eru p tio n s m ay re su lt from eith er bad
k arm a on the p art o fth e victim (who cau sed the d isease by w icked deed s
or th o u g h ts) or u n satisfied p a ssio n s or d esires on the p art o f the spirit
b e in g , who tries to fulfill them by p o sse ssin g the h u m an v ictim . M u ch
o f H in d u b e lie f and p ractice co n ce rn s w ard in g off or d e a lin g w ith such
in im ical in tru sio n s into h u m an affairs.
On the o th e r h an d , an o th er large p art o f H in d u ritual and p ractice d e
liberately seeks co n tact w ith th is in visible world for a variety o f p u rp o se s,
and it is in this context that m uch tantric ritual p ro b a b ly sh ou ld b e u n
d ersto o d . T an tric rituals in m an y cases are clearly aim ed at cro ssin g the
b arrier betw een the visib le and invisib le w o rlds, eith er by allow in g the
sadhaka to en ter the spirit w orld or by en ticin g or fo rcin g spirit b ein gs to
app ear in the v isible w orld. T h e goal o fth e sadhaka is often m ad e explicit:
to gain a b le ssin g , u su ally in the form o f som e kind o f pow er or ability,
from a b e in g in the spirit w o rld, u su ally a deity, often on e o fth e M a h a
vidyas. C o n ta c tin g the spirit w orld delib erately (as o p p o se d to b ein g co n
tacted by it u n expected ly ) is also assu m ed to b e b oth difficult and d a n
g e ro u s, and often terrifying. T h is is w here the im p o rtan ce o f co rp ses and
crem ation g ro u n d s b ec o m e s u n d erstan d ab le in tantric w orsh ip .
W h ere m igh t on e h o p e to co n tact the u n seen , sp iritu al w o rld? W h ere
m igh t the b arrier betw een the visib le and in visib le w o rld s b e m o st p e r
m eable? O ne p lace is certain ly the crem atio n gro u n d . It is w h ere all h u
man b e in g s even tu ally and in ev itab ly m ake co n tact w ith the spirit w orld
a s th ey p ass from life to death . In d e ed , to a g re at exten t th is is p recisely
w hat death is, the tran sitio n from on e m o d e o f b e in g to ano th er, from
that o f a p h y sical to a n on p h y sical bein g. T h e crem ation gro u n d is the
"term in al” w h ere such tra n sitio n s ro u tin ely take p lace. In th is se n se, it
rep resen ts a m o re -o r-le ss-p e rm a n e n t "o p e n in g ” to the sp irit w orld and
the b e in g s th at in h ab it it. It is a p la ce o f sp irit traffic, o f c o m in g and g o in g
from one w orld to a n o th e r.13 It is a lim in al p la c e ,1* betw ixt and betw een
w orlds, w h ere rad ical tra n sfo rm atio n s take p lace and co n tact betw een
w orlds is relatively co m m on .
C o rp se s, p articu larly o fth e re cen t d e ad , are v eh icles with w hich one
can m ove from one w orld to the other. A recen tly dead p e rso n , p a r tic u
larly i f the p ro p e r death ritu als have n ot yet b een d o n e, still h o v ers in the
p h y sical w orld w hile alread y h av in g b een tran sfo rm ed into a sp irit b e

in g. H e or she is a lim in al b e in g , with a foot in b oth w o rld s, a s it w ere.
H e or she is on the w ay to the "o th e r w o rld ” ; to ride th at p erso n ’s c o rp se ,
or oth erw ise asso ciate w ith or d o m in a te it, is to m ake th at tran sitio n also.
R e fere n ces to re vivin g or g a in in g co n trol ov er a c o rp se , or the sp irit that
in h ab its it, are n ot in frequ en t. T h e Uddisa-tantra gives m an tras for r e
viv in g a c o r p s e .15 T h e Kathdsaritsdgara also m e n tio n s re vitalizin g co rp se s,
g a in in g co n tro l ov er th em in o rd er to u se th em at w ill, and a cq u irin g the
ab ility to fly by e a tin g hu m an fle sh .16 E lsew h ere we read: ’’D ead and p u
trefy in g c o rp se s su b m e rg e d n ear crem atio n g ro u n d s are still b ro u g h t to
life by the force o f the sad h ak a’s m a n tra s, and m ad e to re n d er aid to
sad h an a and s id d h i.” 17T h e s e re fere n ces m ake clear th at a co rp se is a n u
m in o u s o b je c t p articu larly useful for m a k in g co n tact with the spirit w orld
and a cq u irin g p ow ers and ab ilities a sso ciated w ith sp irit b ein g s.
Skulls and Severed H eads
A n o th er re m ark ab le feature o fM a h a v id y a ic o n o g ra p h y is
the p rev ale n ce o f skulls and c h o p p e d -o ff h ead s. K ali, T a r a , C h in n am asta,
M a ta rig i, and B h airavi all w ear g a rla n d s o f sk u lls or severed h e a d s and
are often said to h o ld a freshly cut h ead or a skull in th eir h an d s. Skulls
also adorn T a r a ’s forehead and so m etim e s K ali's hair. So m e texts devoted
to w o rsh ip o f the M a h av id y as also p rescrib e skulls a s seats u pon which
effective sadhana m ay b e p erfo rm ed . T h e Mantra-mahodadhih stipu lates
th at the sadhaka sh ou ld b rin g a h u m an skull to a re m o te p lace in the
w o o d s, p urify it, bu ry it, and p erform w o rsh ip w hile seated on th at s p o t .1’
T h e m o st d ram atic exam ple o f a ch o p p e d -o ff h ead in the co n text o fth e
M a h a v id y a s, o f co u rse , is th at o f C h in n am a sta , w ho h as severed h er own
h ead. A lth ough I co m m en ted u pon the significance o f skulls and ch opp ed -
o ff h e ad s in the d iscu ssio n o f C h in n a m a s t a ,19 th e ir p revalen ce a m o n g the
M a h a v id y as g e n e rally d eserv es furth er co m m en t.
P e rh ap s the m o st ob v io u s in terp re tatio n o f th ese skulls and h e ad s c o n

cern s h ead o fferin gs. A nim al (and so m etim e s h u m an ) sacrifice w as fairly
co m m o n in the H in d u tra d itio n , and the ty pical w ay o f killin g the v ic
tim w as by d eca p ita tio n . D u r in g the V edic p e rio d , anim al sacrifices were
c o m m o n ly offered to m an y d e itie s; later, m o st b lo o d sacrifices w ere d i
rected to g o d d e sse s. In c o n te m p o ra ry H in d u ism , w hich co n tin u es a tra
dition th at is h u n d re d s o f y ears o ld , b lo o d sacrifice is still alm o st invari-
F'g 41 . Kill in cremation ground, Pahari painting. Ajit Mookerjee Collection
° f Tantric \ n . National Museum. Delhi.
p h y sical w orld w hile alread y h a v in g b een tran sfo rm ed in to a sp irit b e

in g. H e or she is a lim in al b e in g , with a foot in b oth w o rld s, a s it w ere.
H e or she is on the w ay to the "o th e r w o rld ” ; to ride th at p erso n ’s co rp se ,
or oth erw ise asso ciate with or d o m in a te it, is to m ake th at tran sitio n also.
R e fere n ces to re v iv in g or g a in in g co n trol over a co rp se , or the sp irit that
in h ab its it, are n ot in frequ en t. T h e Uddts'a-tantra gives m an tras for r e
viv in g a c o r p s e .15 T h e Kathdsaritsdgara also m e n tio n s re v italizin g co rp se s,
g a in in g co n tro l over th em in o rd er to u se them at w ill, and a cq u irin g the
ability to fly by ea tin g hu m an fle sh .16 E lsew h ere we read: ’’ D ead and p u
trefyin g c o rp se s su b m e rge d n ear crem atio n g ro u n d s are still b ro u g h t to
life by the force o f the sad h ak a’s m a n tra s, and m ad e to re n d er aid to
sad h an a and s id d h i.” 17T h e s e re fere n ces m ake clear th at a co rp se is a n u
m in o u s o b je c t p articu larly useful for m a k in g co n tact with the sp irit w orld
and a cq u irin g p ow ers and ab ilities asso cia ted w ith sp irit b ein g s.
Skulls and Severed H eads
A n o th er re m ark ab le feature o fM a h a v id y a ic o n o g ra p h y is
the p rev alen ce o f skulls and c h o p p e d -o ff h e ad s. K ali, T a r a , C h in n am a sta ,
M atarigi, and B h airavi all w ear ga rla n d s o f sk u lls or severed h e ad s and
are often said to hold a freshly cut h ead or a skull in th e ir h an d s. Sk ulls
also ad o rn T a r a ’s foreh ead and so m e tim e s K ali's hair. So m e texts devoted
to w orsh ip o fth e M a h av id y as also p rescrib e skulls a s seats u pon w hich
effective sddhand m ay b e p erfo rm ed . T h e Mantra-mahodadhih stipu lates
that the sadhaka sh ou ld b rin g a hu m an skull to a re m o te p lace in the
w o o d s, purify it, bu ry it, and p erfo rm w o rsh ip w hile seated on th at s p o t .1’
T h e m o st d ram atic exam p le o f a ch o p p e d -o ff h ead in the co n tex t o fth e
M ah av id y as, o f c o u rse , is that o f C h in n am a sta , w ho h as severed h er own
h ead. A lth ough I co m m en ted u pon the significance o f skulls and ch opp ed -
o ff h e a d s in the d iscu ssio n o f C h in n a m a sta ,19 th e ir p revalen ce a m o n g the
M a h av id y as g e n e rally d eserv es further co m m en t.
P e rh ap s the m o st o b v io u s in terp re tatio n o f th ese skulls and h e a d s c o n

cern s head o fferin gs. A nim al (and so m e tim e s h u m an ) sacrifice w as fairly
co m m o n in the H in d u tra d itio n , and the ty pical w ay o f k illin g the v ic
tim w as by d e cap itatio n . D u r in g the V edic p erio d , anim al sacrifices were
co m m o n ly offered to m an y d e itie s; later, m o st b lo o d sacrifices w ere d i
rected to g o d d e sse s. In co n te m p o ra ry H in d u ism , w hich co n tin u es a tra
dition th at is h u n d re d s o fy e a r s o ld , b lo o d sacrifice is still a lm o st in van -
ably a sso ciated w ith certain g o d d e sse s. At so m e g o d d e ss te m p le s, daily

sacrifices are m a d e, u su ally o f g o a ts and ch icken s. In a lm o st all ca ses the
an im al's h ead is cut o ff and offered to the im a g e o fth e g o d d e ss, often on
a platter. T h e Tantrasara d e v o te s a section to bait, "b lo o d sa c rifice ," and
m ak es it clear th at the p ro p e r m eth o d o f k illin g the victim (which a c
co rd in g to the text m ay b e a h u m an b ein g) is by d e c a p ita tio n .20 T h e
ch o p p e d -o ff h e ad s th at several o f t h e M a h av id y as w ear or sit u pon can
be th o u g h t o f a s sacrificial offerin gs. T h a t th ese h u m an h e ad s are always
m ale in M ah av id y a ic o n o g ra p h y is still reflected in c o n te m p o ra ry p r a c
tic e, w hich u se s m ale an im als a lm o st exclusively.
A n o th er in terp re tatio n o f skulls and severed h e ad s also seem s p o ss i
b le , how ever, and is m o re in line w ith the im p o rta n c e o f c o rp se s and c r e
m ation g ro u n d s in M ah av id y a w o rsh ip and ico n o grap h y . T h e severed
h ead (or sk u ll), esp e cially w hen w orn a s an o rn am e n t by one o f the
M ah av id y a g o d d e sse s, m igh t b e th o u g h t o f a s sym b olic o f tran sfo rm ed
co n scio u sn e ss. B y m ean s o f sp iritu al ex e rcises in the crem atio n gro u n d
and w ith co rp ses, the sadhaka seeks a direct en co u n ter with the spirit w orld
in o rd er to acq u ire p ow ers a sso ciated w ith sp irit b e in g s: su p erio r pow er,
or even o m n ip o te n c e ; exp an d ed k n o w led ge, or o m n isc ie n ce ; tra n sc e n
dence o f tim e and sp ace, in c lu d in g p re c o g n itio n and clairvoy an ce; and
the ability to ch an ge form at w ill, to b ec o m e sm all or ligh t, or to fly.21 In
sh ort, the ad ept seek s to tran scen d in so m e m an n er the lim ita tio n s o f the
ph y sical, earth -b o u n d hu m an co n d ition by d ire ct asso cia tio n with the
sp irit w orld.
T h a t th ese sp irit p ow ers often den o te tran sce n d en ce o f co rp o real lim

ita tio n s and the exp an sio n o f c o n sc io u sn e ss, the ability o f the c o n
sc io u sn e ss to drift free o fth e b o d y and ro am at will, su g g e sts a divorce
o f b o d y and m in d , the lib eratio n o f the m ind from the body. T h o se
ch o p p e d -o ff h e ad s and skulls m igh t be sy m b olic o f sadhakas w h o, by a
p articu lar go d d e ss's b le ssin g or th eir own efforts, have accom p lish ed these
feats. T h e y m ig h t be th o u g h t o f as sym bolic o f tran sfo rm ed c o n sc io u s
n ess in tw o w ays: F irst, they have ach ieved the statu s o f sp irit b ein g s by
h av in g d ied ; the th em e o f sym bolic death in m an y re lig io n s fun ction s in
ju st this way, nam ely, to d ram atically den o te a d rastic ch an ge in s t a t u s .22
Seco n d , the severed heads m ay den o te co n scio u sn e ss that h as transcended
the lim itatio n s o f p h y sical, w orldly existen ce: the m ind (sym b olized by
the h ead) h as left the b o d y and is no lo n g e r attach ed to or lim ited by it.
A co m m o n m o tif in the w orld's re ligio n s is the q u est by a spiritual m a s
ter to acq u ire tec h n iq u e s for tra n sce n d in g the hu m an co n d ition . T h e
sham an and the m ystic are exam ples o f this. Both u n d ertak e spiritual jo u r
neys to ach ieve an u n m e d iated and tran sform ative exp erien ce o f the spirit
w o rld, and to achieve it th ey m u st often u n d ergo a sy m b olic death and
d ism em b erm en t. T h e sh am an is often said to b e torn a su n d e r by sp iri
tual b e in g s, who then re co n stitu te his or her b o d y w ith in d estru ctib le
p ie c e s, sign ify in g a new, tra n sce n d en t co n d itio n . J u s t such a d ism e m
b e rm e n t w as d escrib ed by P agal H aran ath (b. 1 8 6 5 )? a B e n gali V aisnava.
W h ile trav e lin g in K ash m ir, he fell into a deep tran ce. C aita n y a , the fa
m o u s B e n gali V aisnava re form er, ap p eared to h im , divided his b o d y into
sixty-four p a r ts, and then p ro ce e d e d to clean and purify th em . W hen his
b o d y w as re a sse m b le d , H ara n a th had acq u ired m a g ica l, sh am anic p o w
ers, th at is, exp an d ed c o n s c io u s n e ss .23
M y stic s often p ass th ro u gh a "d a rk n igh t o fth e so u l,” in w hich they
feel a s if th ey have died, b efo re ex p erie n c in g the b liss o f u n ion with the
divine. In the crem atio n gro u n d , in a sso ciatio n with c o rp se s, tantric
sadhakas u n d erg o a sym bolic death b efo re en terin g the sp irit w o rld , where
they are re co n stitu ted a s sp iritu al b e in g s eq u ip p ed w ith sp iritu al pow ers
that go bey o n d the lim ita tio n s o f earth ly existen ce. T h e severed h eads
that the g o d d e sse s w ear m ig h t sign ify b oth the sym b olic death and the
tra n sce n d en t co n scio u sn e ss o f su ccessful sadhakas. T h a t all o f these
ch o p p e d -o ff h eads seem to w ear a lo o k o f p eace and satisfaction seem s
to confirm th is in terp re tatio n .
Sexuality and Awakened C onsciousness
M ah av id y a ico n o grap h y , m yth ology, w o rsh ip , and ritual

are d o m in ated by im p licit and explicit sexual sy m b o lism . Sexual in te r
course is exp licitly p o rtray ed in the dhydna m an tras and p o rtra its o fK a li,
C h in n am asta, and T a r a , 2* and m o st o f the in d iv id ual M ah a v id y a s are d e
scribed a s sexually attractive and pow erful. T h e m y th o lo g y co n cern in g
the origin o f certain individual M ah av id y a g o d d e sse s (for exam p le, C h in
n am asta and M atarigi) stre sses sexual ten sion . T h e y a n tras th at rep resen t
the M ah avid y as contain im p licitly sexual sy m b o ls, and the cen tral m e ta
phor o f aw ak en in g kundalini s'akti m ay be in terp reted a s the arou sal o f
sexual energy. It is also the case th at m o st o f the M a h av id y as m ay b e w o r
shiped th ro u gh th e panca tattva ritual, in w hich sexual in te rco u rse is the
cu lm in atin g act. T h e cen trality o f sexual im a g ery in M ah av id y a w orsh ip
"» d ico n o g ra p h y d eserves furth er co m m e n t and an aly sis at this poin t.
Sexual im a g ery in M ah av id y a m aterials m u st be related to the tantric
p h ilo so p h y and ritual th at are its p rim a ry re lig io u s con text. T h is im a g ery
can be u n d e rsto o d on several different, b u t re la te d , levels. On the m o st
a b stract level, sexual im a g e ry reflects the tan tric vision o f reality a s the
dyn am ic in teractio n and ten sio n betw een the two g re a t p rin c ip le s, Siva
and Satki. A s the b asic u n d erly in g p rin cip le s o f reality, the b asic c o m p o
n en ts o f the essen tial textu re o f the c o sm o s, Siva and Sakti o b v io u sly m ay
b e u n d ersto o d in a w ide variety o f w ays. Several so p h isticated p h ilo
so ph ical sy stem s have b een co n stru cte d on the m e a n in g and in te r p re ta
tion o f th e se tw o p rin cip le s, K a sh m ir Saiv ism p erh ap s b e in g the m o st
im p ressiv e. Siva and Sakti are p re se n t in the m u tu al attractio n and c o m
p le m e n tarity o fth e sexes. At the level o f h u m an existen ce and hu m an r e
la tio n sh ip s, they are in h ere n t and em b o d ie d in in d iv id ual m ales and fe
m ales. In the co n tex t o f T a n t r a , sexual attractio n , sexual b eh avio r, and
sexual in te rco u rse su g g e st the u n d erly in g textu re o f reality, w hich is the
m an ifestation o f the d y n am ic, e n erg etic, creativ e, and h a rm o n io u s in
teractio n o f Siva and Sakti.
At a m o re c o n crete, b u t still fairly c o d ed , level, sexual im a g ery suf
fuses the y an tras and mandalas a sso ciated with all o fth e M a h a v id y a g o d
d e sses (as it d o es tantric moiidola stru ctu re and sy m b olism gen erally ). T h e
d o m in an t form s o f the y a n tra — the trian gle and the lo tu s— b oth have se x
ual c o n n o ta tio n s. T h e tria n g le , p articu la rly w hen it is p o in tin g d o w n
w ard , is sym bolic o f the vulva. An u p w a rd -p o in tin g trian gle is so m etim e s
held to re p re se n t the p h allu s. W h en the two are su p e rim p o se d on each
other, a s in m o st o fth e y a n tras re p re se n tin g the in d iv id u al M a h a v id y a s,
th ey d e n o te sexual u n ion . A n o th er feature o f y an tra d esign is the p r e s
ence o f a sm all d o t, called a bindu, in the very cen ter o f the d iagram . T h is
dot is often said to re p re se n t eith er the two p rin cip le s o f Siva and Sakti
in u n ion or the m ale seed, p articu la rly w hen it is en clo sed in a d o w n
w a rd -p o in tin g tria n g le at the cen ter o f the y an tra. T h e lo tu s also h as se x
ual co n n o ta tio n s. It is often a sym bol o f g e n e ra tio n , th at from w hich all
creatio n p ro c e e d s or th at in w hich all creatio n is co n tain ed . As it o p en s
and b lo sso m s, the co sm o s em e rg e s. In th is sense it re p re se n ts the w om b
from w hich the w orld is born and m ay b e asso cia ted w ith the w om b or
sexual organ o f Sak ti, from w h om creatio n e m e rg e s and in w h om it is
co n tain ed .
T h e yan tras re p re se n tin g the M ah avid y as are also ch arged with a gro u p
o f p o w e rs— m ale and fem ale d e itie s— who are located at vario u s p o in ts
in the d esign . T h e sadhaka p lace s th ese p o w ers in the y an tra w hile eith er
d raw in g or im a g in in g it d u rin g sadhana. In m an y o fth e M ah av id y a y a n
tra s, the p etals o f the in n er lo tu s are ch arged w ith the p resen ce o f dif
feren t form s o fR a ti and K a m a , d e ities asso cia ted in p articu la r w ith se x

ual v itality and d esire. In ge n e ral stru ctu re, th en , the M a h a v id y a yan tras
m ay be u n d e rsto o d a s sch em atic re n d erin g s o f sexual im a g e ry and c o n
tain ers o f sexual pow er. As sch em atic re p re se n ta tio n s o f both the g o d
d e ss in q u estio n and the co sm o s generally, w hich she is held to em body,
the y an tra again e x p re sses the id ea that reality in its b asic n atu re is se x
u ally ch arged .
T h e y o n i, in turn , is in terp re ted a s a yan tra. It is said to co n tain , in e s
sential form , all a sp ects o fth e c o sm o s in m icro co sm . T h e Yoni-tantra, in
d e sc rib in g yon i puja, says th at the yoni is a m an ifestation o fth e D evi (the
G rea t G o d d e ss). T h e D ev i, fu rth erm o re, is said to m an ife st h e rse lf in the
form o fth e M ah av id y as. E ach o fth e M ah av id y as is identified w ith a dif
ferent p art o f t h e y o n i.25
In M ah a v id y a ico n o grap h y , sexual im a g ery is often explicit. K ali and
T a r a are so m etim e s show n c o p u la tin g with Siva; a co p u la tin g co u p le, u su
ally iden tifiable a s K am a and R ati, figu res in C h in n a m a sta and T a r a
ico n o grap h y . Sexual m otifs and activity also figure p ro m in e n tly in ce r
tain tan tric ritu als asso cia ted w ith the M ah av id y as. In thepanca makdra
or panca tattva ritual, the cu lm in a tin g act, the fifth makdra, is maithuna,
in w hich the sadhaka and his s'akti p erfo rm sexual in te rc o u rse . T h is act as
d escrib ed in the Tantrasara is h ig h ly ritu a liz e d .26 It in vo lv es the careful
purification o f m an y elem en ts and a len gth y w orsh ip by the sadhaka o f
his fem ale co m p an io n (the text is w ritten from the m ale p o in t o f view ).
Som e in te rp re te rs have su g g e sted th at the p rim ary aim o fth e ritual is for
the sadhaka to d e m o n strate that he h as m astered h is sexual d e sire s. T h e y
claim th at the m ale d o es n ot ejacu late d u rin g in te rc o u rse b u t red irects
his sem en "u p w a rd ” or inw ard, th e reb y c o n tro llin g and ch an n elin g his
sexual en ergy to achieve sp iritu al e n d s .27 In the Tantrasara, how ever, it is
clear th at the m an e jacu lates into the w o m an ; a s he d o es so , he says a p a r
ticu lar p ray er co m p a rin g his ejacu lation to an offering: ’’ T h e fire o f atman
has been m ad e b la z in g by the offerin g o f clarified b u tte r; by m ean s o f my
m ind lad le I am ever e n gage d in offerin g the m o d a lity o f m y senses
th ro u gh the susumnd c h a n n e ls .” 2’ T h is u tteran ce im p lie s, n ot th at the
sadhaka w ith h o ld s his sem en , b u t th at he in terp re ts his ejacu latio n a s p art
o f a p ro c e ss that aw akens kundalinis'akti. It is n ot su b lim ated or curbed
sexual activity th at aw akens the kundalinibut sexual activity p ro p e rly u n
dersto od or p erh ap s p ro p erly a p p r e c ia te d .29
Sexual im agery in M ah avid y a ico n o g ra p h y and w orsh ip plays a sy m

bolic role. It m ay be u n d ersto od m etap h o rically a s su g g e stin g the dynam ic
polar rhythm o f reality, the in teractio n o f Siva and Sakti th at creates and
suffuses the co sm o s. T h e Kuldmava-tantra says th at the w orld do es n ot

b ear the lik en ess o fth e cakra, the lo tu s, or the th u n d erb o lt b u t rath er the
lik en ess o fth e lirigam and y on i, th u s reflectin g the form o f Siva and Sakti;
w herever th ere is the u nion o f the tw o, "the devotee ex p erien ces deep
trance [samddhi].->s Sexual im a g ery m ay also sy m bolize aw ak en in g co n
scio u sn ess. T h e risin g o f kundalini sakti and the b liss o f h e r u n ion with
Siva in the sahasrara cakra m a y b e sy m b olized by sexual u nion . Sexual a c
tivity seem s an ap p ro p riate m e tap h o r for the ro u sin g o fth e kundalini, as
both are h igh ly en ergetic p ro ce sses accom p an ied by h eigh ten ed aw areness.
It seem s likely th at in so m e ca ses sexual im a g e ry reflects actu al p ra c
tice, a s in the panca tattva ritu al, w h ere sexual in te rco u rse m ay be u sed as
a m ean s o f aw ak en in g kundalini sakti. S u b stitu te s m ay b e u sed in the rit
u al, how ever, w hich im p lies th at sexual in te rco u rse is n ot n e ce ssary to
the aw ak en in g o f the kundalini. T a n tric texts so m e tim e s w arn th at only
th ose o f a certain a cc o m p lish ed ch aracter and h eroic n atu re sh ou ld en
g a g e in th is ritual. T o su g g e st th at ex p licit sexual activity is a n ece ssary
p art o f M ah av id y a w o rsh ip w ould b e an ex ag geratio n . On the o th e r h an d,
sexual p ra c tic e s clearly have a ro le , and for so m e sddhakas in so m e situ a
tio n s, sexual in te rco u rse m ay lead to an in ten se sp iritu al exp erien ce.
T h e C onjunction o f D eath and Sexual Imagery
It is strik in g th at im a g e ry o f b oth sex and death sh ould be

so central in M ah av id y a m aterials and th at b oth are so often ju x tap o sed
in the ch aracterizatio n o f a g o d d e ss and in certain ritu als o f w o rsh ip . K ali,
T a r a , and C h in n a m a sta , in p articu lar, often co m b in e b oth ty p es o f im
agery in th eir ico n s. In an e ig h te en th -cen tu ry K a n g ra p ain tin g , T a r a
stan ds on K am a and R ati, w ho are co p u la tin g on a crem atio n fir e .31 K ali
is so m e tim e s show n c o p u la tin g with Siva in a crem atio n g r o u n d ,32 and
C h in n am a sta d e ca p ita te s h e rse lf w hile stan d in g or sittin g on R ati, who
is h av in g sexual in terco u rse with K am a. It is n o t u n u su al for the c o p u
la tin g co u p le on w h om C h in n am a sta stan ds or lean s to b e ly in g on a c re
m ation fire. T h e r e are also ex a m p les o f C h in n am a sta h av in g in terco u rse
with Siva w hile he lies on a crem ation pyre and she d e ca p ita tes h e rse lf
(see figu re 2 4 )«
T h e s e are on ly the m o st d ram atic ex am p les o f the ju x tap o sitio n o f
death and sexual im agery. C ertain M ah av id y a texts p rescrib e equally
sh o ck in g ju x ta p o sitio n s in th eir d e sc rip tio n s o f ritu als a p p ro p ria te to
M ah av id y a w orsh ip . In its section on T a r a , for ex a m p le, the Mantra-

mahodadhih says th at the sadhaka who seeks lo rd sh ip sh ou ld sit n aked on
the h eart o f a co rp se in a crem a tio n gro u n d and offer the g o d d e ss on e
th o u sa n d flo w ers, each co v ered w ith his se m e n , w h ile re c itin g her
m a n tr a .33 T h e sam e section o f the text d e sc rib es a ritual in w hich the
sadhaka sh ould im a g in e the g o d d e ss seated on the ch est o f a co rp se en
ga g e d in sex w ith h er co n so rt on a fifteen -petaled lo tu s w hile the sadhaka
is also h avin g sexual in te r c o u r se .3* A lso in the section on T a r a , the Mantra-
mahodadhih m e n tio n s a ritual in w hich the sadhaka p la ce s a hum an skull
at the p lace w h ere he is to recite the g o d d e ss’s m an tra. T h e n , w hile r e
p e a tin g the m an tra, he is to gaze u p o n , to u ch , and sexually en joy a
w o m a n .35 T h e Uddis'a-tantra gives d ire ctio n s for im p ro v in g the erotic a p
p eal o f a w o m an , w hich are follow ed im m e d iate ly by ru les g o v ern in g sava
sadhana (spiritual en d eav o r u sin g a c o r p s e ) .36
W h at m igh t th is ju x ta p o sitio n o f sex and death im a g e ry m ean? I w ould
su g g e st two in terp re tatio n s. F irst, tantric sadhana, w hich is so in tim ately
asso ciated with M ah avid y a w o rsh ip , p laces a p rem iu m u pon direct, u n
m ediated exp erien ce. As m en tion ed ab ove, tantric sadhana is secret and
private. It is u n d ertak en by an in d ivid ual in a lon ely p la ce . P riests are n ot
n ecessary, and w hile the sadhaka's guru m ay b e p resen t, or the sadhaka m ay
take p art in a collective ritual on rare o c ca sio n s, it is p rim arily a lone adept
who u n dertakes the rituals described in M ah avidya and related tantric texts.
T h e texts are also explicit co n ce rn in g at least one o f the aim s o f sadhana:
to b ec o m e one with the deity b e in g w o rsh ip ed , or to b e b lessed with a v i
sion o fth e deity— a tran sfo rm ativ e and p ro b a b ly in ten se exp erien ce. We
m ay typify the tantric sadhaka a s so m eo n e who seeks co n crete re ligio u s
exp erien ce, for w hom ritu als are a m ean s to ex p erie n cin g an in ten sity of
feelin g and em otio n . B oth d y in g and sex are o v erw h elm in g hum an e x p e
rien ces th at can leave a p erso n u p ro o ted from and u n p ro tected by social
co n ven tion s and ritual in su latio n . B oth , o f c o u rse , are h igh ly ritualized in
alm ost every cu ltu re, p re c ise ly b ecau se the in ten se em o tio n s they en g e n
der are so ap t to cau se social d isru p tio n . But no a m o u n t o fritu al can g u a r
antee the ta m in g or ord erly ch an n elin g o f eith er o f th ese b asic hu m an ex
p erien ce s. It is the "e x p lo siv e ” n atu re o f death and sex im a g ery that m ak es
them so central in tantric sadhana, w hich p u ts such a p rem iu m on ach iev
in g tran sform ative re lig io u s exp erien ces. A s sy m b ols th ey are p articu larly
pow erful in evok in g feelin gs th at can deeply affect and alter a p erso n ; they
can trig g e r the kind o f exp erien ce the sadhaka seeks.
Sec o n d , the ju x tap o sitio n o f death and sex im a g e ry a p p ro p ria te ly ex
p re sse s the n atu re o f reality a s co n stan t and sim u ltan eo u s in cep tion -
creatio n and d e stru ctio n . T h e w ax in g and w an in g o f all b e in g s and all

th in g s, from in d iv id ual o rg a n ism s to the infinite co sm o s itself, is a p p r o
p riately su g g e ste d in the sim u ltan eo u s p resen ta tio n o f sex and death im
agery. I f such ju x ta p o sed im a g e ry sh ock s u s, it is b ecau se we are in the
h ab it o f m ask in g the destru ctive d im e n sio n o f reality so in siste n tly th at
its in evitable ap p earan ce is u p settin g . T h a t sex and death im a g ery ” do
n ot b e lo n g to g e th e r ,” th at we find the ju x ta p o sitio n in ’’bad t a ste ,” is sim
ply an a d m issio n th at our view o f reality is w arp ed and u n re alistic. T h o s e
M ah av id y a g o d d e sse s w ho ju x ta p o se sex and death im a g e ry are ico n s o f
revelation to the sadhaka., who seeks an expanded co n scio u sn e ss, an aw are
n ess o fth e truth o f th in gs th at d o es n ot p an d e r to w ishful th in k in g c o n
ce rn in g on e’s own m o rtality and frailty. T h e y are im a g e s th at help the
sadhaka tear the veil o f maya (illusion g ro u n d e d in self-in fatu ation ).
T h e Roles o fW o m e n
and Reverence for W o m e n
It is strik in g how central fem ale im agery and w om en are in

M ah avid y a and related tantric m aterials. T h eo lo g ic a lly , the g o d d e ss, or
Sakti, in on e form or an oth er is equal or su p erio r to a m ale deity or p rin
cipal, u su ally Siva. She is u su ally identified with the origin o fth e co sm o s
and is said to infuse it and contain it. F req u en tly in M ah adevi texts she
em po w ers the m ale go d s to create, m ain tain , and co n su m e the creation,
or she u n d ertak es th ese functions herself. Icon ograp h ically , the in d iv id
ual M ah avid y a go d d e sses are shown d o m in atin g m ale deities. K ali and T a r a
stand on , sit on, or have sex astride Siva. O th er M ah avid y as sit on m ale
co rp ses. T rip u ra-su n d ari sits on the b o d y o f Siva, w hich in turn rests on a
couch w h ose leg s are four m ale d eities. N o n e o fth e M ah av id y as is shown
in the role o f a trad itio n al H in d u wife or co n sort. Even L a k sm i, w ho is
w idely know n for h er loyal and su b servien t positio n a s V isnu’s w ife, is
shown alone. It is also n otew o rth y th at the severed h eads that d ecorate the
g o d d e sse s’ b o d ie s are m ale, a s are the co rp ses th at lie b en eath th em . W hen
anim al sacrifice is inclu ded in w o rsh ip , m ale anim als are offered.
M o reo v er, M ah av id y a and related tan tric texts often m en tion the im
p o rtan ce o f re v erin g w o m e n .37 T h e Kaulavali-tantra says that all w om en
sh ould be look ed u pon a s m an ifestatio n s o f the M ah ad ev i (great g o d
d e s s ) .3’ T h e Nila-tantra says that on e sh ou ld d esert on e’s p a re n ts, gu ru ,
and even the d eities before in su ltin g a w o m a n .39
Sev eral ritu als involve the w o rsh ip o f in d ivid ual w o m en . At several
p o in ts in th e pane a tattva ritual, p articu larly d u rin g maithuna, the sadhaka
do es e la b o rate w orsh ip o f his sakti. A cco rd in g to the d e scrip tio n o fth e
ritual in the Tantrasara, he b e g in s by m en tally w o rsh ip in g the g o d d e ss
and several different g ro u p s o f w om en : dan cin g g irls, K a p a lik a s ("those
w ho b e a r sk u lls,” a p articu la r type o f re ligio u s a d e p t), p ro stitu te s, and
w o m en o f the b arb er, w ash erm an , and cow herd c a s te s .*0 T h e s e gro u p s
are all eith er low caste or so cially or re lig io u sly lim in al. It is from on e o f
th ese g ro u p s th at the sadhaka re cru its the w om an w ho is to be his sakti
in the ritual. T h e sign ifican ce o fth e low -caste or lim in al status o f these
w o m en m ay re late to a ge n e ral th em e o fth e ritual, w hich affirm s a s sa
cred w h at is ord in arily view ed a s forb idd en or p o llu tin g and u se s it to
w o rsh ip the god d ess,-w h o p erv a d es all th in gs. B y w o rsh ip in g w om en o f
low er c a ste s, or w om en w ho are socially or re ligio u sly m arg in al, the adept
re v erses the n orm al h ierarch y o f resp ect. By re v erin g such w o m en , he
affirm s th eir u n d erly in g and essen tial divin ity a s co n crete m an ifestation s
o fth e g o d d e ss. H e affirm s a s divin e that w hich is n o rm a lly d isd ain ed or
sh u n n e d .*1
D u r in g the ritu als d irectly related to maithuna, the th em e o f w o r

sh ip in g the w om an a s the g o d d e ss is p ersiste n t. H a v in g p erfo rm ed hhuta
suddhi and nyasa on her b od y to purify and divinize the w o m an , the sadhaka
d irects her to sit on a b ed , w hich he then w o rsh ip s a s a pitha o fth e g o d
d ess. T h is sacred sp o t is im a g in e d to be the cen ter o fth e w orld and is
p ictu red a s a lo tu s su p p o rted by the co sm ic serp en t in the dep th s o fth e
co sm ic ocean . On the lotu s sits the g o d d e ss, re p re se n te d by the sddhaka's
sakti. T h e sadhaka then w o rsh ip s the w om an ’s body: B y m ean s o f m an tras,
he ’’d e p o sits” in h er lim b s the five form s o f K a m a -d e v a, the god o f sex
ual d e sire . A gain u sin g m a n tra s, he divin izes h er b re a sts or em pow ers
them w ith sacred en ergy by ’’d e p o sitin g ” there the d e ities V asan ta (who
p erson ifies the am o ro u s season o f sp rin g) and K am a. H e r forehead is
im agin ed to have the m oon a d o rn in g it (as is the case w ith m an y o fth e
M ah avid y a g o d d e sse s), and both h er righ t and left sid es are im agin e d as
suffused w ith divine b ein gs. T h e sadhaka then w o rsh ip s her v agin a, which
should be seen to have three ch an n els, re p re se n tin g the m o o n , sun, and
fire. F rom the m oon channel flows w ater, from the sun ch annel flows
m enstrual fluid, and from the fire ch an n el, w hich is in the m id d le, flows
seed. H e sh ou ld then w orsh ip the two g o d d e sse s B h a g a m a la and B h aga-
ma l in l (both n am es m ean ’’having a garlan d o f y o n is” ), in ad d ition to his
°w n ch osen deity, a s re sid in g in the s'aAti's v a g in a .*2 H e sh ou ld also at this
Point w orsh ip his own p en is a s re p re se n tin g Siva. In sh o rt, the sadhaka
ritually tran sfo rm s sexual in te rco u rse into a co sm ic even t th at u n ites Siva
and Sakti.
Som e tan tric texts also m en tion ritual w o rsh ip o f a w om an p re c e d in g
sexual in tercou rse ou tside the co n text o f the panca tattva ritual, which su g
g e sts th at the tan tric sadhaka sh ou ld ro u tin ely view in te rco u rse a s a s a
cred ritual in w hich or by w hich on e realizes on e’s co sm ic identity. T h e
Guptasddhand-tantra, for ex am p le, d ire cts the ad e p t to w o rsh ip h is w ife,
or the wife o f an oth er, by w ash in g h er feet with w ater, then w o rsh ip in g
h er foreh ead , face, th ro at, h eart, n avel, b re a sts, and v agin a by re p e a tin g
on e hu n d red m an tras o fh is ch osen deity. At the tim e o f e jacu latio n , the
sadhaka is to offer his sem en to Siva and im agin e the sakti a s his chosen
deity.*3 T h e Kubjikd-tantra, sim ilarly, in stru c ts the sadhaka, o u tsid e the
co n text o f the panca tattva ritual, to w o rsh ip his wife w hile she is drun k
and lyin g on a bed . H e is to view h er a s a g o d d e ss an d , w hile re p e a tin g
m a n tra s, sh ou ld touch her h eart w ith his h eart, h er vagin a with his p e
n is, and her face w ith his face, th u s sy m b o liz in g the u n itin g o f Siva and
Sak ti.**
T h e Yogini-tantra says th at yoni pujd, w o rsh ip o fth e vulva, is the b est
o f all m e th o d s o f w o rsh ip .*5 T h e Kdmdkhyd-tantra in stru c ts the sadhaka
to w o rsh ip the g o d d e ss in the g e n itals o fh is sakti.^ T h e Mdyd-tantra en
jo in s the ad e p t to im agin e his chosen deity re sid in g in the yoni o f a w om an
’’who is n ot his ow n ” in o rd er to obtain p e rfe c tio n .*7T h e SarvoUdsa-tantra
o f Sarv an an d a, citin g the Vrhad-yoni-tantra, d iscu sse s the dow nw ard-
p o in tin g tria n g le , the sym bol o fth e y o n i, a s c o n ta in in g B rah m a, V isn u ,
and Siva on its th ree sid es, and also m o st o f the M ah av id y as. In sh ort,
the text say s, the trian gle is the G re a t G o d d e ss herself, the ab od e o f all
d eities. K ali is said to dwell on all three sid es o f the tria n g le , w hich is
id en tical with the y on i. T a r a is above it, B h uvan esvari and T rip u ra -su n -
dari are in sid e it, B h airavl is at its ro ot. C h in n am a sta ab id es in sid e the
h ole in the tria n g le , and at the end (p erh ap s d eep w ithin) dw ells D h u
m avatl, w ho e m e rg e s from th ere (p erh aps with m en stru al flo w ).*’ At the
ro o t o fth e h air o fth e yoni dw ells M a h a k a li, w hile M atarigi resid e s in the
folds o f skin b elo w the navel. C o v e rin g the w h ole area are K a m ala and
K a m a k h y a .*9T h e sam e text, citin g the Vrhad-yoni-tantra, also eq u ates the
yoni with sacred tirthas ( ’’cro ssin g s,” or h o ly p la c e s), sp ecifically certain
h o ly rivers and p o n d s .50 T h e text also says th at w o rsh ip o fth e yoni earns
on e the m erit ord in arily o b tain ed by m a k in g ard u o u s p ilg rim a g e s to holy
p la c e s, b ecau se the yoni itse lf co n tain s all th eir sacred p o w e r.51
A n oth er co m m o n ritual in w hich fem ales are revered is kmnaripujd.a
In this ritual, prepubescent or v irg in girls are offered pujd and fed. In this
ca se , fem ales from h igh c a ste s, u su ally B rah m a n s, are so m etim e s sp e c i

fied, w hile oth er texts say girls from any caste are su itab le. T h is ritual is
n ot specifically tan tric or asso cia ted with the M a h a v id y a s, alth ou gh it o c
cu rs in tan tric and M ah av id y a m a te ria ls. It is often do n e to d ay d u rin g
D u r g a P u ja, the g re at autu m n festival in h o n o r o f D u rg a . T h e u n d erly
in g th em e o f in d ivid ual fem ales re p re se n tin g the p ervasiv e divine fem ale
p rin cip le is again clearly ex p re ssed th ro u gh this ritual.
T h a t so m e o f th ese ritu als m ay n ot su g g e st reveren ce for w om en at
all, b u t are sim p ly exam p les o f m ales se ttin g up w o m en a s o b je cts o f se x
ual lu st, is o f co u rse p o ssib le. M a in stre a m H in d u so ciety h as ro u n d ly c r it
icized such tan tric p ra ctic e s a s excu ses for sexual in d u lg e n ce . It is clear,
how ever, th at th ese ritu als fit a h igh ly so p h isticated gen eral p h ilo so p h y
or th e o lo g y o f reality, and it is th e refo re u n fair to su g g e st th at they are
u n d ertak en solely for sexual gratificatio n or involve the im p licit or ex
p licit ab u se o f w om en .
In so m e tan tric tra d itio n s, w o m en are said to b e tra n sm itte rs o f d o c
trin e , to p lay the role o f tea ch er or gu ru . An exam ple is the P ascim am n aya
K a u la trad itio n , w hich flourished in K a sh m ir and N e p a l. A cco rd in g to
the Manthana-bhairava-tantra o f th is sch oo l, no d istin ctio n w h atsoev er
sh ou ld b e m ad e betw een the gu ru and the yogini (fem ale p ractitio n er).
T h e secret o f all the scripture, the suprem e essence o fth e oral tradition,
is on the lips o fth e yogini. T h u s she is venerated as the Suprem e Power
which bestow s bliss [knowledge] o fth e innate nature o f t h i n g s . . . . T h e
y ogini is the wom b from which the enlightened yogi is born and her
m outh, from which issues the tradition, is the sacred m atrix (yoni).... As
the w om b (yoni) o f creation, it is the Low er M outh (ardbovaktra) which
is the essence o fK a u la d o ctrin e . 3
In the P ascim am n ay a sch o o l, Siva o rigin ally revealed the teach in gs to

ttieyoginis, who su b seq u en tly h an ded them dow n from gen eratio n to g e n
e r a tio n .5* T h e im plication h ere is th at w o m en , at lea st in th is p articu lar
tan tric trad itio n , have play ed an im p o rta n t, even ce n tral, ro le a s so urces
o f tan tric in stru ctio n . A c c o rd in g to the Guptasddhand-tantra, initiation
by a fem ale guru lead s to the ach iev em en t o f all d e sire s and is the in i
tiate’s g re at go o d fo rtu n e .55 T h e Prdnatosini, citin g the Rudraydmala, d is
cu sses the co n d ition s u n d er w hich a fem ale guru m igh t p erform initiation,
and also the qu alities th at such a w om an should p o sse ss. It is clear, in short,
th at fem ales w ere gu ru s in at lea st so m e tantric c u l t s .56
Even th o u gh g o d d e sse s p la y a cen tral role in m uch tan tric literatu re,
p articu larly in M ah avidya texts; even thou gh w om en are said to be revered
ge n e rally in so m e tan tric texts and are often w o rsh ip ed a s in d iv id u als;

and even th o u gh in at least on e tan tric trad itio n w om en are said to be
the so urce and tra n sm itte rs o f d o ctrin e , it is n o t clear to w hat extent the
M ah avid y a m ateria ls, or even the related tantric m ateria ls, exp ress fem ale
spirituality. T h e texts in m o st cases take a m ale p o in t o fv ie w and seem
to be w ritten by m ales for m ales. W om en are often d escrib ed a s o b je cts
o fth e m ale su b je cts, and the sadhaka. is a ssu m ed to b e m ale and his p a r t
n er fem ale. T h e rituals are d escrib ed from his p o in t ofview .
B ecau se the texts are p reo c cu p ied w ith g o d d e sse s, fem ale im agery , and
w o m en , and u su ally view the fem ale in a p o sitiv e or affirm ative fash ion ,
and b ecau se we know th at w o m en w ere so m etim e s teach ers and full p a r
ticip an ts in tan tric sadhana, it is p o ssib le th at the sp iritu ality d escrib ed in
tantric texts reflects w o m en ’ s re lig io u s ex p erien ce a s well a s m en ’s. M i
ran d a Shaw h as argu ed in the case o f B u d d h ist T a n trism th at the ’’male
g a z e ,” and m ale sp iritu ality gen erally, m igh t be u n d ersto o d to reflect fe
m ale exp erien ce a s w ell, in so fa r as w o m en teach , fully p articip ate in r it
u als w ith m ales, and so m etim e s w rite tan tric t e x t s .57 T h e sam e m ay be
the case in H in d u T a n t r is m ,5’ and in M ah av id y a w o rsh ip specifically.
W h ile m en w rote the g re at m ajo rity o f tan tric tex ts, it is p o ssib le th at
w om en w rote so m e o f th em , since th ey w ere so m etim e s teach ers. It is
also p o ssib le , a s Shaw h as argu ed for B u d d h ist T a n tra , th at m ale sp iritu
ality, a s reflected in texts w ritten by m ales, m igh t b e inform ed by fem ale
re lig io u s exp erie n ce, esp e cially in cases w here b oth sexes w ere full p a r
ticip an ts in tan tric rites. T h u s far, how ever, I have been u n ab le to find
H in d u tan tric texts th at explicitly d iscu ss or d e scrib e tan tric rites from a
fem ale p o in t o f view. D u r in g m y research I asked sch o lars and in form an ts
i f they knew o f any m aterials on the M a h a v id y a s, or any H in d u tantric
m a te rials, th at w ere w ritten by, for, or ab ou t fem ales. N o one did.
T h is do es n o t m ean that such texts do n ot exist. M ira n d a Shaw ’s r e
cent w ork on tantric B u d d h ism is so b erin g in this re sp ect, illu stratin g how
fem ale so u rces have b een alm o st en tirely ig n o red by sc h olars o f B u d
dh ism . It se em s u n likely that sch o lars o f H in d u ism have b een any m ore
a ssid u o u s than sch o lars o f B u d d h ism in seek in g fem ale-au th o red texts or
a cco u n ts o f fem ale spirituality. We can only h o pe that fem ale-au th ored
H in d u tan tric texts will com e to lig h t in the n ear future.
T h e Potentially Liberating
N ature of Social Antimodels
Finally, the qu estio n rem ain s: W hy w ould one wish to id e n

tify w ith, to actu ally b ec o m e (in the logic o fT a n tr a ), a g o d d e ss such as
K ali, C h in n am a sta , D h u m avati, B h airavi, or M atarigi, each o f w h om d ra
m atically em b o d ie s m arg in al, p o llu tin g , or socially su bversive qualities?
T h e s e g o d d e sse s are frigh ten in g, d a n g e ro u s, and lo a th so m e. T h e y often
threaten social order. In their stro n g association s with death , v iolen ce, p o l
lu tion , and d esp ised m argin al social ro le s, they call into qu estio n such n o r
m ative social " g o o d s ” a s w o rld ly co m fort, security, re sp ect, and honor.
S ee k in g to identify with or b ec o m e one with these g o d d e sse s su g g e sts that
the sadhaka in so m e fashion fin ds m argin ality, social ta b o o s— the fo rb id
den gen erally — sp iritu ally re fresh in g or lib eratin g. W h erein lies the p o
ten tially lib e ratin g pow er o f w h at we m ig h t term social an tim od els?
T h e answ er, as I have su g g e ste d at several p oin ts th ro u g h o u t th is book ,
p ro b a b ly lies in certain H in d u tan tric em p h ases. T h e s e g o d d e sse s ’’fit”
the lo gic o f certain a sp e c ts o f T a n t r a , esp ecially left-h an d ed T a n tra , in
w hich a cen tral aim is to stretch on e’s c o n scio u sn e ss b ey o n d the c o n
v e n tio n al, to b reak aw ay from ap p ro v ed social n o rm s, ro le s, and e x p e c
ta tio n s. By su b v e rtin g , m o ck in g , or re je c tin g co n ven tion al social n o rm s,
w hich seem s to be the aim o fth e ritual o fth e five fo rb id d en th in gs (the
panca tattva ritu a l), the ad e p t seek s to lib erate his or h er c o n scio u sn e ss
from the in h erited , im p o se d , and p ro b a b ly in h ib itin g ca te g o rie s o f p ro p er
and im p ro p e r, g o o d and b a d , p o llu ted and pure.
A p rin cip le aim in left-h an d ed T a n tra is to o v erco m e w h at m igh t be
term ed h a rd e n in g o fth e ca te g o rie s. L iv in g one’s life a c c o rd in g to rules
o f p u rity and p o llu tio n and caste and class th at d ictate how, w h ere, and
exactly in w hat m an n er every b o d ily function m a y b e exercised, and which
p e o p le on e m ay, or m ay n ot, in tera ct with socially, can create a sense o f
im p riso n m e n t from w hich on e m ig h t lo n g to escap e. P e rh ap s the m ore
m a rg in a l, b iz a rre , ’’o u tsid e r” g o d d e sse s am o n g the M a h a v id y a s facilitate
this e sc a p e , a s social a n tim o d els w ho can effectively d islo ca te an in d i
vidu al. By id en tify in g w ith one o f th e m , the a d e p t m ay exp erien ce e x
p an d ed or lib e rated co n sc io u sn e ss; by iden tify in g w ith the forbidd en or
the m a rg in aliz e d , an ad e p t m ay acq u ire a new and re fresh in g p ersp ectiv e
on the ca g e o f re sp ecta b ility and pred ictab ility.
T h e p ersp e ctiv e from the crem atio n gro u n d (K ali, T a r a , and o th e rs),
or the p ersp e ctiv e o f a p o llu te d , cu ltu rally p erip h eral p erso n o f low caste
252 concluding reflections
(M atarigi) or o f an in a u sp ic io u s, m arg in alized w idow w ho is sh un ned a s

an ill om en (D h u m av atl), offers tan tric a d e p ts a su bversive vision o f
revered social v alu e s, cu ltu ral n o rm s, and accep ted fram ew orks o f m e a n
ing. T o take on such a p e rsp e ctiv e , to b eco m e on e o f th ese g o d d e sse s,
m ig h t very well involve or im p ly a tra n sfo rm atio n o f id en tity in w hich
h ard en ed c a te g o rie s are je ttiso n e d and the e m o tio n s, m in d , and sp irit are
stretch ed in e x h ilaratin g fashion.
Notes
I n t r o d u c t io n
1. In a list of fifty-one goddesses in the Mahdkdla-samhitd, nine of the ten

Mahavidyas are mentioned, Dhum avatl alone being absent. T h is text has been
dated as early as the tenth century C.E. and may be the earliest mention of the
Mahavidyas as a group. Mahdkdla-samhitd (Allahabad: Ganganath Jha Research
Institute, 19 7 4 ), Kamakala-khanda, pp. 6 5 -6 6 . Six ofthe ten Mahavidyas—Kali,
Tara, Matarigi, Bhairavl, Chinnam asta, and D hum avatl—are described in upa
tantras, small sections dealing with each goddess, in the Sammoha-tantra, which
was probably written in the fifteenth century. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, Studies
in the Tantras (Calcutta: University o f Calcutta, 19 7 5 ), p. 10 1.
2. See David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the
Hindu Religious Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 19 8 6 ), chap.
: "The M ahadevi."
T h e M a h a v id y a s a s a G r o u p
1. Kdlikd-purdm 7 4 .9 0 " 9 4 •
2. S. C. Banerjee, ^4 Brief History of Tantric Literature (Calcutta: Naya Prokash,
1986), p. 30.
3 . Ibid.
4. T he list o f the goddesses in one manuscript o f the Mundamdld-tantra, for
example, varies in both number and sequence from the corresponding list in an
other. In the first list the Mahavidyas are given as follows: Kali, Tara, Sodasi,
(Tripura-sundari), Bhuvanesvari, Bhairavl, Chinnamasta, Dhumavatl, Bagala,
Matarigi, and Kamala. T h e second manuscript names thirteen: Kali, Tara,
Tripura-sundari, Bhairavl, Bhuvanesvari, Chinnamasta, Bagala, Dhumavatl, A n
napurna, Durga, Kamala, Matarigi, and Padmavati. Mundamdld-tantra (Calcutta:
ava Bharat, 1980), 1.7ft., 1.14ft.
■53
N O TES TO PAGES 14-20
5. Upendra Kumar Das, Bharatiya Saktisddhand, 2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit

Rai Praksan, Visvabharati, 19 6 7 ), p. 4 7 1, n. 5.
6. Narendra N ath Bhattacharyya, History of the Tantric Rdigon: ^4 Historical,
Ritualistic and Philosophical Stud)/ (New Delhi: M anohar Publishers, 19 8 2 ), p. 3 4 8 .
7. Brhaddharma-purdna, M adhya-khanda 2 5 .5 8 -6 8 ; Brhaddharma Purdnam,
ed. M. M. Haraprasad Sastri (Varanasi: Chaukhamba Amarabharati Prakashan,
1974), P- 379
8. T h e group is the standard one, with the goddesses depicted in the follow
ing order, clockwise from left to right: Kali, Tara, Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari, Bhairavi,
Chinnam asta, Dhumavati, Bagala, Matarigi, and Kamala.
9. T h e group consists o fth e usual ten: Kali, Tara, Tripura-sundari, Bhu
vanesvari, Tripura-bhairavi, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, and Kamala.
10. S eeD . C. Sircar, The Sdkta Pi/&H(Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, 19 7 3 ). The
s'dktapithas are places sacred to the goddess because pieces of Sati's body fell on
them. Visnu dismembered Sati after she killed herself to avenge her father's in
sult to her. Traditionally there are said to be fifty-two such pithas.
11. T h e pictures are actually numbered and show the Mahavidyas in the fol
lowing order: Kali, Tara, Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari, Chinnamasta, Tripura-sundari,
Dhumavati", Bagalamukhi, M atangl, and Kamala, which is the usual group of ten
in a relatively common order.
12. T h e y include the usual group and from left to right are: Kali, Tara, Sodasi,
Bhuvanesvari, Chinnamasta, Tripura-bhairavi, Dhumavati, Bagala, Matarigi, and
Kamala.
13. My description o fth e place ofth e Mahavidyas at Kamakhya is based on
a paper by Patricia Dold, "The Mahavidyas at Kamarupa" (presented at the annual
m eeting ofth e Canadian Association for Asian Studies, Ottawa, June 19 9 3 ).
14. T he Mahdbhdgavata-purdna, ed. Pushpendra Kumar (Delhi: Eastern Book
Linkers, 19 8 3 ), 7 7 .9 - 1 1 , which tells the origin ofthe Mahavidyas, locates them at
Kamarupa, saying that Kali is in the center there, surrounded by the other goddesses.
15. A t the larger o fth e two tem porary pandals housing the M ahavidyas, lo
cated on S. N. Banerjea Road, ten goddesses were arranged as follows, from left
to right: Dhumavati, Chinnamasta, Tara, Bhuvanesvari, Kali, Matarigini (M a
tarigi), Sodasi, Bagala, and Kamala. At the other shrine, nine goddesses were
arranged, from left to right, as follows: KaminI (Sodasi), Dhumavati, Bhairavi,
Kamala, Kali (in the center and much larger than the others), Bhuvanesvari, Tara,
Bagala, and Kamakhya-devl. T he goddesses Matarigi and Chinnamasta were ab
sent, and the goddess Kamakhya was added to the usual group.
16. See David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the
Hindu Religous Tradition (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 19 8 6 ), chap.
9: "T he M ahadevi."
17. For example, Devi-mSdtmja 11.3 8 -5 0 .
18 . For example, Vedamurti Taponista, Tantra-mahdvijnana, 2 vols. (Bareli,
U.P.: Sarhskrti Sarristhan, 19 7 1 ), vol. 2, p. 389, says ofth e G reat Goddess: "All
wom en are your different forms."
19. Sircar, The Sdkta Pithas, p. 48.
20. Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sdkta. Literature
(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 19 8 1), p. 81.
NO TES TO PAGES 20-29 255
21. Govinda Sastri, "Karunamayi T ara," Candi 6, no. 7 (1 9 4 6 ): 231.

2 2. Kali is Krsna, Tara is Rama, Bhuvanesvari is Varaha, Tripura-sundari is
Nrsirhha, Dhumavatl is Vamana, Chinnam asta is Parasurama, Kamala is Matsya,
Bagalamukhi is Kurma, Matarigi is the Buddha, and Sodasi is Kalki.
23. As follows: Kali is Krsna, Tara is Rama, Chinnamasta is Narasirhha, Bhu
vanesvari is Vamana, Bagala is Kurma, Dhumavatl is Matsya, Sundari is Para
surama, Bhairavl is Hall (a personified and deified constellation), and Laksmi is
the Buddha. Taponista, vol. 2, p. 390.
24. Laksmi Narayana Sarma, Tantra Vidyd (Delhi: W orld Book C o., 19 8 6 ),
P- 37
25. DhumavarTs spreading of disease might be understood on the analogy of

the Buddha as an avatdra o fV isn u . W h en the Buddha is included as an avatdra,
as he is in some late Vaisnava texts, the purpose ofhis incarnation is to delude
wicked people so that they w ill get their just deserts.
26. See Sircar, The Sdkta Pithas.
27. T h e accounts are found in Brhaddharma-purdna, Madhya-khanda 6 .7 3
133, and Mahdbhdgavata-purdna 8.45-9*82.
28. 6.78.
29. Brhaddharma-purdna, Madhya-khanda 6 .1 2 8 -3 1 . T h e locations and names
of the Mahavidyas in the Mahdbhdgavata-purdna account ( 7 7 .3 1 - 3 4 ) are some
what different: Tara is to the east, Sodasi to the southeast, Dhumavatl to the south,
Bhairavl to the southwest, Bhuvanesvari to the west, Chinnam asta to the north
west, Bagalamukhi to the north, Tripura-sundari to the northeast, and Matarigi
above. Kali is said to be present in all the directions.
30. As follows: Tara is to her left (east), Bhuvanesvari to her right (west); in
the southeast is Sodasi; in the southwest, Bhairavl; in the northwest, Chinnamasta;
in the north, Bagala; in the northeast, Sundari; and in the south, Dhumavatl.
31. Madhya-khanda 8.66-6 7.
3 2. Mahdbhdgavata-purdna 8.71*
33. Madhya-khanda 6.132.
34. Brhaddharma-purdna, Madhya-khanda 6.133.
35. Ibid. 6 .139-40.
36. 9.79.
37. Madhya-khanda 6 .12 4-2 6 .
38. W illiam Sax, Mountain Goddess: Gender and Politics in a Himalayan Pil
grimage (New York: Oxford University Press, 19 91), pp. 91ft".
39. A nother example o f a group o f goddesses personifying magical powers is
found in the tale o f Biroba, a regional deity of western India. In his wanderings,
Biroba encounters seven female deities, from whom he acquires magical powers.
"But in a broader sense, the seven goddesses are also the personified, supernat
ural, feminine powers, the sev en —or rather, e ig h t— siddhis, who serve the one
who wins them by his asceticism or in some other way." G un ther-D ietz Sont-
heimer, Pastoral Deities in Western India, trans. Anne Feldhaus (New York: O x
ford University Press, 1989), pp. 9 2 -9 5 .
40. Madhya-khanda 6.132.
4 1. Saktisamgama-tantra, vol. 4 - Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya
and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: O riental Institute of Baroda, 19 7 8 ), 2 .8 9 -9 1.
NO TES TO PAGES 29-42
4 2. Vibhuti Narayana Dvivedi and Harisankara Upadhyay, SriTard-sadhand

(Vindhyacal: Sri Tara Mandir, 1988), p. 14.
4 3 * Vdmam-purdm2 9 -1"3 -73 S SivsL-purdna 5 -4 7 -1 "4 ^ -5 S Skandapuram
7 .3 .2 4 .1 - 2 2 ; and several upa purdnas.
4 4 . For the nine Durgas, see Diana Eck, Banaras, City ofUght (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 2 6 8 -6 9 .
4 5. Sarma, Tantra Vidyd, p. 37.
4 6 . See Thom as B. Coburn, Encountering the Goddess: A Translation ofthe Devi-
Mdhdtmya and a Study ofIts Interpretation (Albany: State University of N ew York
Press, 1991).
47. T he classic statement of Vaisnava avatdra theology is in Bhagavad-gitd
4.7-8.
48. T h is characteristic o fth e Matrkas is found in other purdnic accounts of
them, for example, Matsya-purdna 17 9 .8 -9 0 and Vardha-purdna 17 -3 3 “ 3 7 -
4 9 . Sdktapramoda (Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 19 9 2 ), p.
268.
50. Sahasrandma stotra from the Rudraydmala; Rajes Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari
evam Chinnamasta Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Braj Printers, 19 8 8 ), pp. 4 6 - 5 2 .
5 1. T he Mahavidyas are closely associated with Durga in N epal. A recent
scholarly work refers to them as "an unstable set of Durga manifestations," by
which the author means that the number and identity o f the group vary, includ
ing at times Annapurna and Mahisamardinl, a form o f Durga herself. M ary Shep
herd Slusser, Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, 2 vols.
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19 8 2 ), vol. 1, p. 322.
52. See "T he Mahavidyas as Forms ofth e M ahadevi" in Part I.
53. T he magical power that enables one to becom e small is called anima sid
dhi and is sometimes represented as a goddess, along with other siddhis; see D oug
las Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom: The Texts and Traditions of Srividya Sdkta Tantrism
in South India (Albany: State U niversity o f N ew York Press, 19 9 2 ), p. 14 2 .
54 . Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta, V . 36, p. 4 9 *
5 5. Ibid., v. 7, p. 4 7.
56 . Devi-hhagavata-purdna 7.28; The Sri Mad Devi Bhagavatam, trans. Swami
Vijnanananda (Allahabad: Sudhindra Nath Vasu, 1 9 2 1 -2 3 ), pp. 6 8 8 -9 2 .
57. For a discussion o f the Devi-hhagavata-purdna, see C. M ackenzie Brown,
The Triumph ofthe Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions ofthe Devi-
Bhdgavata Parana (Albany: State University o f N ew York Press, 1990).
58. Goudriaan and Gupta, p. 195.
59 . Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta, pp. 4 5 “ 5 1 •
60. Eck, Banaras, City ofUght, p. 3^0.
6 1. Private communication from Hillary Rodrigues.
62. Taponista, p. 73.
63. Pranab Bandyopadhyay, The Goddess of Tantra (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak,
1990), pp. 19 -24.
64. Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta.
65. Sir John W oodroffe, Sakti and Sdkta, Essays and Addresses (Madras: Ganesh
& Co., 19 8 7), p. 3 6 1. The same grouping o f the Mahavidyas is given in Sarbeswar
Satpathy, Dasa Mahavidya and Tantra Sastra (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 19 9 2 ), pp-
NOTES TO PAGES 42-48
66. Mahdnirvana-tantra 13 •4 i N. Bhattacharyya, History ofthe Tantric Religion,

P- 348 .
67* Kdlika-purdna 6 0 .5 5 ft; Bani Kanta Kakati, The Mother Goddess Kdmdkfyd
(Gauhati, Assam: Lawyer's Book Stall, 1948 ), pp. 3 6 -3 7.
68. Kdlika-purdm 78.86; Kakati, pp. 5 1-5 2 .
6 9 . For exam ples, see the works by Pushpendra Kum ar listed in the
Bibliography.
70. See Banerjee, , '} Brief History of Tantric literature, p. 28.
71. Saktisamgama-tantra, Tara-khanda 1.8 4 -9 0 ; N. Bhattacharyya, Histoy of
the Tantric Religion, p. 3 4 3
72 . T h ere are often said to be three types o f aspirants, each ofw hom reflects
a different bhava (mentality): divya (said to be superior and associated with the
sattva guna), vira (said to be the appropriate type of spirituality for engaging in
left-handed tantric rites and sometimes associated with the rajas guna), and pasu
(the lowest, "beastly," type of person or spirituality). T here are appropriate paths
for each type of aspirant, and perhaps appropriate types of goddesses, although
I have not yet found clear examples ofthe Mahavidyas being related to the three
bhavas. See Sures Chandra Banerji, Tantra in Bengal: A Study of Its Origin,Devel
opment and Influence (Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 19 77), pp. 1 5 5 -5 6 .
73. See Kamalakar Mishra, Significance ofthe Tantric Tradition (Varanasi: Ard-
dhanarisvara Publications, 19 8 1), pp. 38, 7 6 - 7 7 , and Satpathy, Dasa Mahavidya
and Tantra Sastra, p. vii.
74 . For a detailed interpretation o f Kali and the other Mahavidyas accord
ing to this approach, see the treatment o f the individual M ahavidyas in Part II.
75 - See June M cD aniel, The Madness of the Saints: Ecstatic Religion in Bengal
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 198 9), pp. 13 2 -3 3 , where she discusses
the famous Bengali sdkta saint, Bamakhepa.
76. T h is is exactly the interpretation proposed by K. M ishra, Significance of
the Tantric Tradition, pp. 140ft. See also Sarbeswar Satpathy, Sakti Iconography
in Tantric Mahavidyas (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 19 9 1), pp. 1 5 1 - 5 3 , where the
Mahavidyas and the seven cakras are said to reflect the evolution-devolution of
consciousness in much the same way as in Sarhkhya philosophy.
77. Taponista, vol. 2, p. 4 70 .
78 . Ibid., p. 4 7 1 .
7 9 - Sdktapramoda, p. 27O.
80. Kall-khanda 3 -32 ; Banerjee, , '} Brief History of Tantric literature, p. 3 1•
81. Mahdnirvana-tantra 10 .11 2 ; Banerjee,/! Brief History of Tantric literature,
P- Si-
82. Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, pp. 136, 14 1 -4 2 .
83* N. Bhattacharyya, Histoiy ofthe Tantric Rjeligion, pp. 3-2-25■
84* In the Mundamdld-tatitra, in the Dasamabdvidyd-stotra, chap. 11, there is
an implied hierarchy. Kali and Tara are called M ahavidyas; Sodasi, Bhuvanesvari,
Bhairavi, Chinnamasta, and Dhumavati are called Vidyas; and Bagalamukhi,
Matarigi, and Kamala are called Siddhi-vidyas; Kalydna, TtrthaArik (Gorakhpur:
Gita Press, 19 5 7 ), pp. 6 9 6 - 9 7 . Pushpendra Kumar, Sakti Cult in Hinduism, p.
155, also identifies the Mahavidyas with these categories but does not cite any
textual reference. In neither the Mundamdld-tantra nor Kumar, however, is there
any com m ent on the meaning of these three designations or the distinctions they
2,8 N O T E S T O PAGES 5 1-5 9
denote. It is likely that Kali and T ara as Mahavidyas are understood to be supe
rior in some sense to the other M ahavidyas, but this is not made explicit.
85. Sdmanyapujd to the goddess is described in K. R. Van Kooij, Worship of
the Goddess according to the Kdiikdpurdna (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1 9 7 —) > PP* 7 - " 9 j
tantric worship is also described in Kauldvali, ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi: Bharatiya
Vidya Prakashan, 198 5), chaps. 2-8.
86. T he importance o f purification in tantric worship is discussed by K.
Mishra, Significance ofthe Tantric Tradition, pp. I4 8 -5 O .
87. Uccista-matarigl, a form o f the M ahavidya Matarigi, may be related to
such goddesses insofar as she is often described as fierce and is said to prefer left
overs, ucdsta, for offerings.
88. See K. M ishra, Significance ofi the Tantric Tradition, pp. 6off.
89. For the achievement of siddhis and other powers as distractions from the
spiritual quest in yoga, see Alain Danielou, Yoga: The Method ofi Re-integration (New
York: University Book Publishers, 19 5 5 ), pp. 1 1 8 - 2 2 , and M ircea Eliade, Yoga:
Immortality and Freedom (New York: Pantheon Books, 1958), pp. 8 5 -9 0 .
90. Ddmdra-tantra, ed. and trans. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi: Pracya Praka
shan, 1988), pp. 15, 18, 51, and passim.
9 1. Chap. 3; Goudriaan and Gupta, p. 116 .
9 3. Ibid., p. 119 .
94. Ibid., p. 12 1.
9 5. Ibid .,p . 122.
96. V. B. Mishra, ReligiousBeliefisand PradicesojlSlorth India (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
97. Brhaddharma-purdna, Madhya-khanda 6.133.

98. Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, p. 14 2 .
9 9 . See pujd vidhi (rules on worship) for Matarigi in Sdkta-pramoda, p. 332.
100. See Goudriaan and Gupta, pp. 19 3 -9 4 .
1 0 1 . Sdkta-pramoda, p. 285*
102. Ibid., p. 226.
103. Acarya Pandita Sri Sivadattamisra Sastri, Bagaldmukhi-rahasyam (Vara
nasi: Thakur Prasad Pustak Bharadar, 19 5 1), pp. 1 1 - 1 3 .
104. Sdkta-prdmoda, pp. 173 " 7 4 *
105. Hemendra N ath Chakravarty and M ark Dyczkowski.
106. T. V. Kapali Sastry, Sidelights on Tantra (Pondicherry, 19 7 1), p. 16; cited
in Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, p. 82.
107. Jan Gonda, "The Indian M antra," Oriens, vol. 16 (19 6 3 ); reprinted i n j.
Gonda, Selected Studies I V ( Leiden: E.J. Brill, 19 7 5 ), p. 252; cited in Brooks, Au s
picious Wisdom, p. 8 l.
108. See Harold G. Cow ard, Bhartrhari (Boston: Twayne, 19 7 6 ), for a dis
cussion of the Sphota school and the creative role of sound generally in Hinduism.
10 9. Swami Harshananda, Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Mylapore: Sri Rama
krishna Math, 1988), p. 107.
n o . Ajit M ookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way:Art, Science, Ritual
(Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 19 7 7 ), p. 190.
in . Pushpendra Kumar, Sakti Cult in Ancient India (Banaras: Bharatiya Pub
lishing House, 1974), p. 155.
NO TES TO PAGES 59-73 ■59
112 . Banerjee, , 1 Brief History of Tantric literature, p. 2 8.

113. Taponista, vol. 2, pp. 3 8 4 -8 9 .
1 1 4 . Devi-mdhdtnya 1. 6 0 , 4 -4 ? 5 - 14 ? 11-7
115. For example, Ganesa-khanda 4 5 .4 ; Krsnajanma-khanda 4 1.7 8 , 86.97,
109.20.
I l 6 . C heever M acKenzie Brown, God as Mother: , '} Feminine Theology in In
dia (Hartford, Vt.: Claude Stark & Co., 19 7 4 ), p. 165.
117- Falitd-sahasrandma with Bhdskarardya's Commentay, trans. R. Anan-
thakrishna Sastry (Madras: Theosophical Publishing House, 19 5 1).
118. Sri Mad Devi Bhagavatam, pp. 1, 3 ,1 1 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 5 7 ,1 2 1 ,1 2 6 ,1 3 0 ,1 3 6 ,1 6 7 ,
194, 201, 216, 303, 323, 419-20.
11 9 . Diana Eck, "India's Tirthas: 'Crossings' in Sacred G eography," Histoy
ofReligions 20, no. 4 (May 1981) : 3 2 3 - 4 4 .
120. T h is is a term used by Eck, ibid.
12 1. See Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, chaps. 2 and 8.
K a li
1. Dhydna mantra o f D aksina-kall from the Kdli-tantra: Krsnananda

Agam avagisa, Brhat Tantrasara (Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p p.
387-88.
2. Dhydna mantra of G uhya-kall; Tantrasara, p. 406.
3. Dhydna mantra of Smasana-kall; Tantrasara, p. 4 6 1.
4. Sir John W oodroffe, Sakti and Sdkta, Essays and Addresses (Madras: Ganesh
& C o., 19 8 7 ), p. 3 6 1; Rajes Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Sumit Prakashan,
1987), p. 1.
5. V ibhuti Narayana Dvivedi and Harisankara Upadhyay, Sri Tdrd-sddhand
(Vindhyacal: Sri Tara Mandir, 1988), p. 14.
6. Mahdbhdgavata-purdna 8.48-53*
7. Skanda-purdna 5*8 2 .1-2 1.
8. Saktisamgama-tantra, vol. 4 : Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya and
Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 19 7 8 ), 9 .7 -8 .
9 . Agni-purdna 1 3 3 ? 1 3 4 ? I 3 6 ; Garuda-purdna 38.
10 . Bhdgavata-purdna 5*9*12-20.
11. For the T hugs, see Francis Tuker, The Yellow Scarf (London: J. M. Dent
& Sons, 1961).
12. Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sdkta literature
13 • Mdnasdra-s'ilpa-s'dstra 9*289*
14. R. Nagaswamy, Tantric Cult ofSouth India (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan,
1982), p. 26.
15. Ibid., p. 26.
16. Ibid., p. 27.
17. Ibid., p. 28.
18 . liriga-purdna 1.10 6.
19. Ibid. 1.72 .6 6 -6 8 .
20. Vdmana-purdna 25-29.
21. Skanda-purdna 5*8 2 .1-2 1.

2 2. T his story is told in Xhe Adbhuta Rdmdyana, Sarala-dasa's Oriyan Rdmdyana,
and the Bengal ]aiminibhdmta Rdmdjana. N arendra N ath Bhattacharyya, History
ofthe Sdkta Religion (New Delhi: M unshiram M anoharlal Publishers, 1 9 7 4 ), p.
149.
23. See C. Sivaramamurti, Nataraja in Art, Thought and literature (New Delhi:
National Museum, 19 7 4 ), p- 138.
24. Bbavabfmti's Mdlatimddhava with the Commentary ofjagaddhara, ed. and
trans. M. R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 19 6 7 ), pp. 4 4 - 4 8 .
2 5 • N. Bhattacharyya, History ofthe Sdkta Religion, p. 136 .
26. M ark S. G. Dyczkowski, The Doctrine of Vibration: A.n Analysis ofthe Doc
trines and Practices ofKashmir Shaivism (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, 1989)? P* 16.
27. Ibid., pp. 11 7 -2 4 .
28. See Sures Chandra Banerji, Tantra in Bengal: A. Study of Its Origin, Devel
opment and Influence (Calcutta: N aya Prokash, 1 9 7 7 ), pp. 8 5 -8 6 ; Sarbeswar Sat-
pathy, Sakti Iconography in Tantric Mahavidyas (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 19 91 ) > PP*
12 0 -2 2 ; N. Bhattacharyya, History of the Sdkta Religion, p. 13 6 .
29 - Principles of Tantra: TheTantratattva of Sriyukta Siva Candra Vidydmava
Bhattdcdrya Mahodaja, ed. Arthur Avalon (Madras: Ganesh & C o., i9 6 0 ), pp.
327-28.
30. Hymn to Kali (Karpurddi-stotra), ed. and trans. A rthur Avalon (Madras:
Ganesh & Co., 1965), p. 34.
3 1. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. For example, Mahdnirvdna-tantra 5 .14 0 -4 1, 6 .6 8 -76 , 10.102.
34. Ibid. 4 .3 0 -3 4 .
35. For the panca tattva ritual, see ibid. 5 -6 ; Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric
Tradition (London: Rider, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 2 2 8 -7 8 ;M ircea E lia d e , Yoga: Immortality and
Freedom (New York: Pantheon Books, 19 5 8 ), pp. 2 5 4 -6 2 ; and Heinrich Zimmer,
Philosophies oflndia (Cleveland: W orld Publishing Co., 19 5 6 ), pp. 5 7 2 -8 0 .
36. Hymn to Kali, pp. 84, 86.
37 - Dlksit, KdliTantra Sdstra, pp. 11 9 “ 3 "1•
38. Jeffrey J. Kripal, "Kali's Tongue and Ramakrishna: 'Biting the T ongue' of
the Tantric Tradition," History ofReligions 34, no. 2 (November 1994 ): 15 2 -8 9 .
3 9 - Frederique A. M arglin, Wives ofthe God-King: The Rituals ofthe Devadasis
ofPuri (New York: Oxford University Press, 198 5), pp. 2 1 4 -1 5 .
4 0 . Kripal, p. 16 7.
4 1. Ram Chandra Datta, Srisriramakrsna Paramahamsadeverjivanavrttdta, 5th
ed. (Calcutta: Yogadyana, 19 3 5 ), p. 19; cited in Kripal, p. 168 .
4 2 . "T ill recently, in Kerala, older w om en would disapprove of young fe
males leaving their hair loose when they were in a public place. A wom an with
loose hair was often equated in literature and com m on parlance with a loose
wom an, an actress, a professional dancer, a wom an out to seduce." Savithri
Shanker de Tourreil, "N ayars in a South Indian Matrix: A Study Based on Fe
m ale-C entered Ritual" (Ph.D . diss., Concordia University, M ontreal, 19 9 5 ), P-
129, n. 2.
4 3 . "H indu wom en are normally expected to keep their hair tied up, that is.
'under control.' Keeping the hair loose is a sign of impurity, as after the death of
a close relative or during m enstruation." Kathleen M. Erndl, Victory to the
Mother: The Hindu Goddess of Northwest India in Myth, Ritual, and Symbol (New
York: Oxford University Press, 19 9 3 ), p. 16 5 , n. 2.
44. A lf Hiltebeitel, "Draupadl's Hair," Pumsdrtha 5 (19 8 1): 18 6 -8 7.
45. See P. Hershman, "Hair, Sex and Dirt," Man 9 (19 74 ): 2 82-8 3. For rules
concerning menstruation in Hinduism , see Pandurang Vam an Kane, History of
Dharmas'astra, vol. 2 (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 19 7 4 ), pt.
2, pp. 802-5.
4 6 . Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra , p. 130.
4 7. Ibid., p. 125.
4 8 . T h e details ofth e follow ing interpretation are particularly dependent on
interviews I had with Swami Annapurnananda o f the Ramakrishna M ission in
Varanasi and on the observations by Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra., pp. 3 -7; Caman
L alG au tam , KaliSiddhi (Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Sarhsthan, 19 8 4 ), pp. 9 1 - 1 1 7 ; Sat
pathy, Sakti Iconography in Tantric Mahavidyas, pp. 1 1 8 - 2 1 ; and other sources, who
spoke on the condition of anonymity.
4 9 . June M cD an iel, The Madness of the Saints: Ecstatic Religion in Bengal
(Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press, 19 8 9 ), p. 87, citing an interview with a
contem porary devotee.
50. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra, p. 3
5 1. Swami Annapurnananda.
52. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra.
53. Gautam.
5 4 . Swami Annapurnananda.
55. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra; Gautam .
56 . Swami Annapurnananda.
57. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra; Swami Annapurnananda. T h is is a strikingly
different interpretation o f Kali's lolling tongue from that o f Kripal cited above.
58 . Gautam .
5 9 . Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra.
60. Gautam .
6 1. Ibid.
62. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra.
63. Ibid.
64. Swami Annapurnananda.
65. N. N. Bhattacharyya, in a conversation with me in Calcutta in October
1992—appropriately, during Kali Puja—said that Kali's standing on Siva, as in
the Daksina-kall image, symbolizes her being above him during intercourse. Such
sexual union between the two is often actually shown and is sometimes part of
the dhydna mantras of other forms o f Kali.
6 6 . See Satpathy, Sakti Iconography in Tantric Mahavidyas, p. 12 1.
67. In a com m entary to the Karpurddi-stotra, the Niruttam-tantm, and the
Kdmadhenu-tantra; G uy L. Beck, Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound (C o
lumbia: U niversity o f South Carolina Press, 1993), p. 145.
68. Dlksit, Kali Tantra Sdstra; Swami Annapurnananda.
69* Swami Annapurnananda.
262 NO TES TO PAGES 89-97
70. See the Tantrasara on Guhya-kali; see also Chintaharan Chakravarti,

Their Religion and literature (Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 19 6 3 ),
Tantras: Studies on
pp. 90-91.
71. D rinking blood results in intoxication in many myths featuring Kali and
other goddesses. She gets drunk on fresh blood and behaves in wild, unpredictable,
dangerous ways.
72 . Dyczkow ski, The Doctrine of Vibration, pp. 1 2 4 - 2 5 ; K. C. Pandey, Abhi-
navagupta: A n Historical and Philosophical Study, 2d ed. (Varanasi: Chowkham ba
Sanskrit Series Office, 1963), pp. 5 1 3 -2 1 .
T ara
I. Stephan Beyer, The Cult of Tara: Mage and Ritual in Tibet (Berkeley: U n i
versity of California Press, 19 73), p. 7
2. John Blofeld, Boddhisattva of Compassion: The Mystical Tradition of Kuan Yin
(Boulder, Colo.: Shambala Publications, 19 7 8 ), p. 53; Heinrich Zimmer, Philoso
phies of India (Cleveland: W orld Publishing C o., 19 5 6 ), p. 53 4 .
3. Beyer, pp. 8 -10 .
4. Ibid., p. 4.
5. For references on the history ofT ara in T ibet, see ibid., p. 4 6 9 .
6. Ibid., p. r2.
7. Ibid., p. 13.
8. For a description o fth e "eight terrors" from which Tara is said to save,
see Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, 2 vols. (Rome: Libraria dello Stato,
1949), tanka 4 4, pi. 78, discussed in vol. 2, pp. 403ff.
9. For example, see Beyer, pp. 2 3 3-4 0 , and Blofeld, pp. 5 5 -7 1 .
10. Beyer, pp. 386-88.
II . Ibid .,p . 386.
12. See Blofeld, p. 59 , where Tara blesses a young couple with a child after
rescuing them from calamity.
13. Beyer, pp. 2 12 -13 .
14. Beyer, p. 302, shows quite clearly that Kurukulla was originally an Indian
tribal deity.
15. Ibid., p. 303; see also Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, The Indian Buddhist Iconog
raphy: Mainly Based on the Sddbanamdld and the Cognate Tantric Texts of Rituals (C al
cutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1968), pp. 14 7 -5 2 .
16. Beyer, p. 302.
17. Ibid., p. 306.
18. B. Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, pp. 1 3 4" 4 6 .
19. Beyer, p. 292.
20. B. Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, p. 190; see also Nalini Kanta
Bhattasali, Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum
(Dacca: Rai S. N. Bhadra Bahadur, 19 2 9 ), pi. 71(a), facing p. 206.
21. Pushpendra Kumar, Tara: The Supreme Goddess (Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya
Prakashan, 1992), pp. 103-4.
2 2. T h is myth is found in the first and second chapters ofth e Brahmaydmala
and the tenth chapter ofth e Rudraydmala. T his elaborated version o fth e story is
from Rasmohan Cakravarti, "Mahavidya Tara ki Sadhana," Candi 6, no. 7 (19 4 6 ):
216 -20.
23. N o te that the Buddha is included in some late lists of the avatdras ofV isn u.
In such cases, the role ofthe Buddha is to delude sinners with his false teachings
so that they w ill receive their appropriate karmic rewards.
24. Mahidhara, Mantra Mahodadhih, vol. l, ed. and trans. Ram Kumar Rai
(Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 199 2 ), pp. 17 9 -8 0 . I have edited the translation.
25. "Tara Astakam," from the Brhannila-tantra; Rajes Dlksit, Tara Tantra Sdstra
(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1987), pp. 1 1 5 -1 6 .
26. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tantrasdra (Calcutta: Navabharat Pub
lishers, 1984), p. 415.
27. Dlksit, Tara Tantra Sdstra, pp. 12 8 , 1 3 O.
28. For the poetry of Ramprasad and his use o fth e epithets Kali and Tara,
see Rama Prasada's Devotional Songs: The Cult of Shakti, trans. Jadunath Sinha (Cal
cutta: Sinha Publishing House, 19 6 6 ), passim. For his use o f T a r a " to suggest
the benign aspect o fth e goddess, see song 221, pp. 1 1 8 - 1 9 , where he refers to
Tara as the "doer of good, the good o f all, grantor of safety," and as having a
"smiling face."
29 - Dlksit, Tara Tantra Sdstra, p. 117
30. Ibid., pp. 128-33.
3 1. See the discussion of this myth below.
32. Uiriga-purdna 1.106.
3 3 - Dlksit, Tdrd Tantra Sdstra, pp. 108, 132 .
34. Kalydna, SaktiArik (Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 19 3 4 ), p. 4 0 4 .
35. Dlksit, Tdrd Tantra Sdstra, p. 6.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. Robert E. Svoboda, Aghora: A t the Left Hand of God (Albuquerque, N .M .:
Brotherhood of Life, 1986), p. 79.
39. Ibid., p. 80.
4 0 . Swami Annapurnananda.
4 1. Swami Annapurnananda.
4 2 . Dlksit, Tdrd Tantra Sdstra, pp. 12 8 - 3 4
4 3 . Kalydna, SaktiArik, "Tara-rahasya," p. 224.
4 4 . Ibid.
4 5 - Dlksit, Tdrd Tantra Sdstra, p. 131
4 6 . Kalydna, Sakti Arik, p. 225
47. Dlksit, Tdrd Tantra Sdstra, p. 10.
48. Nila-tantm 3 1 .12 -18 , 2 1-2 3 ; Kumar, Tdrd p. 101.
4 9 - E. Alan M orinis, Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: A Case Study of West
Bengal (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 19 8 4 ), pp. 16 6 -6 7 .
50. Ibid., p. 16 7. See also June M cD aniel, The Madness ofthe Saints: Ecstatic
Religion in Bengal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19 8 9 ), p. 89. In Mc-
DaniePs account, which is based on an interview with a devotee, it is Kali who
comes to Siva's rescue. She changes her form to Tara, she says, because "I can-
lo t nurse my own husband."
51. Svoboda, pp. 77-80.

52. Kalydna, Sakti A u k, p. 4 ^ 4 -
53. M orinis, p. 182, says that th e stone image is actually ill defined and that
the devotee must use considerable imagination to detect Tara nursing Siva.
54 . Ibid., p. 17 1.
55. Ibid., pp. 184-85.
56 . See David Kinsley, The Divine Player: A. Study o/Krsna U la (Delhi: M oti-
lal Banarsidass, 197 9), pp. 20 5-5 2.
57. M orinis, p. 177.
58. Ibid., pp. 178 -79 .
T rip u ra-S u n d ari
1.Rajes Dlksit, Sodas! Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 19 9 1 ), p. I.

2.Interview with Swami Annapurnananda.
3.Sdkta-pramoda (Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 19 9 2 ), p. 15 3 .
4.Lalitd-sahasrandfia, name 5 2; Douglas Renfrew Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom:
The Texts and Traditions of Srividyd Sdkta Tantrism in South India (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1992), p. 64.
5. Diksit, Sodast Tantra Sdstra, p. 137. In this description, Tripura-sundari is
described as a female version of Siva.
6. Krsnananda Aga m avagisa, Brhat Tantrasara (Calcutta: N a v a b h a r a t P u b
lishers, 1984), pp. 3 5 6 - 5 8 . ,
7. Ibid., p. 358.
8. T h is was described in Part I. T he following discussion of Tripura-sundari,
particularly her place in South India, follows the excellent w ork done on her cult
by Brooks in Auspicious Wisdom.
9. Ibid., p. 56.
10. Ibid., p. 72.
11. Ibid., p. 71.
12. Kaljdna, SaktiArik (Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 19 3 4 ), p. 670.
13. Conversation with T. K. Biswas, Joint Director, Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi, Decem ber 19 9 2 .
14 - Robert I. Levy, Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organisation of a Traditional
Newar City in Nepal (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 19 92 ), pp. 2 2 9 -3 1.
15. Ibid., p. 230.
16. From Lalitopdkhjdna 3 0 .5 6; summarized in Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, pp.
6 8 -69 .
17- Dlksit, Sodasi Tantra Sdstra , pp. y - 10, following the Tripurd-rabasya o fth e
Mahatmya-khanda of the Brahmdnda-purdna.
18. Diksit, Sodasi Tantra Sdstra , p. 139
19. See "T he One Hundred and Eight Nam es of Sodasi" from the Brah-
maydmala and the Sahasrandma fromvthe Vdmakesvara-tantra; ibid., pp. 13 6,
137- 49
20. Prapancasdra-tantra, ed. John W oodroffe (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass,
n.d.), 9 .2 3 - 2 4 , translated by W oodroffe in his introduction to the text, p. 28.
NOTES TO PAGES 118-126 265
21 . Dlksit, Sodasi Tantra Sdstra, pp. 14 7 “ 4 ^ •

22 . Kdlikd-purdna 78-100; Bani Kanta Kakati, The Mother Goddess Kamakhya
(Gauhati, Assam: Lawyer's Book Stall, 1948 ), pp. 4 5 -4 6 .
23 - Yogini-tantra I.6 .I7 ; Kakati, p. 5 0
24. Ttipurd-rahaya 10.14; Kakati, pp. 5O-5I.
25. Dlksit, Sodasi Tantra Sdstra , p. 140.
26. Ibid., p. 137.
27. Ibid.,pp. 1 3 7 ,1 4 3 .
28. Ibid., p. 13 9 , where she is called Kali, Kalika, and Kalaratri.
29. Upendra Kumar Das, Bharatiya Saktisddhand, 2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ran-
jit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), vol. 1, pp. 52 5-2 6 .
30. Ibid., p. 52 5.
31. Conversation with a tantric scholar in Varanasi, January 19 9 3 .
32. Das, p. 525.
33. T. V. Sastry, Sidelights on Tantra (Pondicherry, 19 7 1 ), p. 254; cited in
Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, p. 77
34. Sastry; cited in Brooks, Atuspidous Wisdom, p. 79.
35. Sastry, p. 254; cited in Brooks. Auspicious Wisdom, p. 77.
36. Nityasodas'ikdmava 1.12 ; Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, p. 77
37 - Prdnatosini^.6; Das, p. 5 2 6 .
39. M ark Dyczkowski and Hem endra N ath Chakravarty, two scholars of
Tantra, private conversations in Varanasi, 199 3 .
40. Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, p. 107
4 1. Com m entary on the Lalitd-sahasrandma; Brooks, Auspidous Wisdom, p. 76,
citing Sastry.
4 2. "In §ri-Vidya ideology, there is no disparate existence of signifying sound
and the signified object; and the expressing consciousness and the expressed en
ergy are fundamentally one. T he universe o f experience . . . is nothing other than
the expressive sounds that constitute the a lp h a b e t... . T h e 36 letters (15 vowels
taken as one, and the consonants 35) ofthe alphabet correspond to the 36 prin
ciples (tattvas) that underlie the constitution and function o fth e universe." S. K.
Ramachandra Rao, Sri-Cakra: Its Yantra, Mantra and Tantra (Bangalore: Kal-
patharu Research Academy, 19 8 2 ), p. 38.
4 3 - Brooks, Auspidous Wisdom, p. 60.
4 4 - Varivasyd-rahasya 2 .16 3; Brooks, Auspidous Wisdom, p. 108.
4 5 - Brooks, Auspidous Wisdom, p. 109
4 6 . Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret ofthe Three Cities: A n Introduction to
Hindu Sdkta Tantrism (Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press, 19 9 0 ), p. 118 .
4 7. A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: G rove Press, 19 5 9 ),
162; cited in Brooks, Atuspidous Wisdom, p. 93.
48. Brooks, Auspidous Wisdom, pp. 9 3 “ 9 4 -
49. Ibid., pp. 9 0 -9 1.
50. Ibid., pp. 9 9 -10 1.
5 1. For a description and interpretation o fth e Sri cakra, see the Kdmakald-
vilasa, summarized in S. C. Banerjee, A Brief Histoiy of Tantric literature (Cal
cutta: Naya Prokash, 19 8 6 ), pp. 2 0 8 -1 2 , and Ajit M ookerjee and Madhu Khanna,
The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual (Boston: New York Graphic Society, n.d.),
pp. 59-62.
52. Brooks, Auspicious Wisdom, pp. 140-41*
Bhuvanesvari
1. Dhyana mantra from Mantramahamava (Bom bay: Khem raj Srikrsnadas
Publishers, 1990), p. 471.
2. Mundamdld-tantra (Calcutta: Nava Bharat, 1980), 6 .5 -8 .
3. Rajes Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta Tantra Sdstra (Agra: BrajPrint
ers, 1988), p. 17.
4. From h e r thousand-name hymn; ibid., pp. 47-52.
5. From the RMdraydmala-tantra; Mantramahamava, p. 47-: SCO also
Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tantrasdra (Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers,
1904)1 P- 4*7
6 . Sdkta-pramoda (Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), pp.
204-5.
7. The Sri Mad Devi Bhagavatam, trans. Swami Vijnanananda (Allahabad: Su-
dhindra Nath Vasu, 19 2 1-2 3 ), 3.4, pp. 12 8 -2 9 .
8. Ibid .,4 . 1 9 , p .3 19 .
9. Prupancasdra-tantra, ed. John W oodroffe (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, n.d.);
the hymn is found in 1 1 .4 9 - 6 8 and is translated by W oodroffe in his introduc
tion, pp. 29-37.
10. Ibid. In the English translation, W oodroffe numbers the verses o fth e
hymn b e g in n in g with 1, which co rresp o n d s to verse 49 in the text.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. See Tantrasdra, p. 17 6 (blue form), and Mantramahamava, pp. 4 6 8 -6 9
(golden form) and 4 7 1 (verm illion form).
15* Mantramahamava, p. 4 7 2 .
16. Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta, p. 21.
17. 1.26-28, p. 12.
18. Mantramahamava, p. 4 6 8 .
1 9 - 6.5, p. 499.
20. 2.5; Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sdkta Liter
ature (Wiesbaden: O tto Harrassowitz, 19 8 1), p. 89.
21. Dlksit, Bhuvanesvari evam Chinnamasta, pp. 4 7 “ 5 2 •
22. Ibid., pp. 4 5 -5 1.
2 3 - Hundred-nam e hymn from the Rudraydmala; ibid., p. 4 5 *
24. Bhuvanesvari-stotra from the Ritdraydmala; Mantramahamava, p. 472.
25 - Prapancasdra-tantra, chap. 3? Introduction, p. IQ.
26. Vedamurti Taponista, Tantra-mahdvijndna, 2 vols. (Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti
Samsthan, 1971), p. 470.
27. T he follow ing description is found in the Tantrasdra, pp. 1 7 3 - 7 5 ; the in
terpretation follows that of Hemendra Nath Chakravarty, a scholar ofTantrism
in Varanasi. T h e yantra itself is also pictured in the Sdkta-pramoda, p. 19 4 . See

also Ajit M ookerjee, Tantra Asana: ^ 4 Way to Self-Realisation (Basel: Ravi Kumar,
1 9 7 1 ), pi. 38, p. 67, an eighteenth-century Bhuvanesvari yantra from Rajasthan.
Here the names ofth e deities, s'aktis, and guardians are actually w ritten out.
28. Hemendra N ath Chakravarty, private conversation.
(Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1992), pp. 2 3 4 -4 7 .
30. Ibid., p. 2 6 1.
3 1 . Tantrasara, p . 4 6 8 .
32. Sdkta-pramoda, pp. 2 0 4 - 5
33. Diksit, B huvanesvarievam Chinnamasta, p. 18 .
34 . Ibid.
35. Taponista, p. 4 7 1 .
36. Hundred-nam e hymn from the Rudraydmala; Sdkta-pramoda, p. 205.
Chinnamasta
1. From a hymn addressed to Chinnamasta; Teun G oudriaan and Sanjukta
Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sdkta literature (Wiesbaden: O tto Harrassowitz, 19 8 1),
p. 207.
(Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 19 9 2 ), p. 256.
3. Dhydna mantra o f Chinnam asta; Sdkta-pramoda (Bombay: Khemraja
Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), p. 221.
4. Jagdish N arain T iw ari, "Studies in Goddess Cults in N orthern India, with
Reference to the First Seven Centuries A .D ." (Ph.D. diss., Australian National
University, n.d.), pp. 3 12 -3 7 .
5. Ibid, pp. 313 - 15
6. Ib id , p. 3 17.
7. T h e follow ing names and their numbers are from Elisabeth Anne Benard,
"Chinnamasta: T he Awful Buddhist and Hindu Tantric G oddess" (Ph.D . diss,
Colum bia University, N ew York, 19 9 0 ). In Chinnamasta's 108-nam e hymn from
the Sdkta-pramoda, for example, she is called K iller o f the Demons Canda and
M unda (name 7), and in her thousand-name hymn from the Sdkta-pramoda she
is called K iller ofth e Demon Kesi (name 90), She W h o Is the Battle C ry (name
7 6 7 ), She W h o Is the Battlefield (name 76 8 ), and several other epithets that as
sociate her with demon slaying.
8. T iw ari, p. 3 34.
9. Pra?Hfl/MHi-/flH/ra(Calcutta: Basumati SahityaM andir, 19 2 8 ), p. 378; trans
lated by Benard, pp. 3 5 -3 6 . T h is version is also told, with slight modifications,
in Sri Swami Ji Maharaja Datiya, Sri Chinnamasta Nitydrcana (Prayag: Kalyan
Mandir Prakasan, 19 78), p. 5.
10. Prdnatosini-tantra, p. 378 ; translated by Benard, p. 36.
11. Saktisamgama-tantra, vol. 4■ Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya
andVrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute o f Baroda, 19 7 8 ), 5 .1 5 2 - 7 3 .
12. See also Devi-bhdgavata-purdna 5 - 28-29 and Vdmana-purdna 3 0 -
13. P. Pal, Hindu Religion and Iconology (Los Angeles: Vichitra Press, 19 8 1),
p. 82.
14. Several examples of human sacrifice to goddesses are mentioned in Bani
Kanta Kakati, The Mother Goddess Kdmdkhyd (Gauhati, Assam: Lawyer's Book Stall,
1948), pp. 6 1- 6 4 .
15. R. Nagaswamy, Tantric Cult of South India (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan,
1982), p. 26.
16. Ibid.
17. See J. P. Vogel, "T he Head-Offering to the Goddess in Pallava Sculpture,"
Bulletin ofthe School of Oriental Studies (London) 6: 5 3 9 “ 4 3 : and U. N. Ghosal,
Studies in Indian History and Culture (Bombay: O rient Longm an, 19 6 5 ), pp.
333- 4°-
18. Ghosal, pp. 3 3 5 -3 6 ; Ramendra Nath N andi, Religious Institutions and Cults
ofthe Deccan (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973), pp.14 5 -4 6 .
19. Prince Ilango Adigal, Sbilappadikaram, trans. Alain Danielou (New York:
New Directions Book, 1965), pp. 5 3 9 -4 3 .
20. Head symbolism is discussed by Benard, pp. 2 4 3 -6 1 .
21. E. Alan M orinis, Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: , 1 Case Study of West
Bengal (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 19 8 4 ), p. 187.
22. For examples, see "Jambhaladatta's Version of the Vetalapaficavimsati,"
trans. M. B. Emeaneau, A ; ™ Oriental Society 4 (19 3 4 ): 5 9 -6 3 (this story of
transposed heads is originally from Kathdsaritsdgara 6.80), and W endy O'Flaherty,
Origns of Evil in Hindu Mythology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 19 7 6 ),
P- 351 ; f ° r the story of Renuka's beheading.
23 - See David N. Lorenzen, The Kdpdlikas and Kdlamukhas: Two Lost Saivite
Sects (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1972), for details o fw h y Siva car
ries a skull after killing Brahma by chopping off his head.
24. Datiya, p. 7.
25. Sdktapramoda, p. 23 4
26. Ibid , p. 235.
27. Translated by Benard, p. 17 1.
28. Acarya Ananda Jha, "Chinnamasta Tattva," Sanmarg— TantravisesAnk
(Varanasi), July 26, 19 79, pp. 6 9 -7 1 .
29. Ibid.
30. Sdktapramoda; translated by Benard, p. 172.
31. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tantrasara (Calcutta: Navabharat Pub
lishers, 1984), p. 374.
32. Tantrasara, p. 371 )Sdktapramoda, p. 222.
33 - Tantrasara, p. 371
34. Sdktapramoda; translated by Benard, p. 143.
3 5 . Ibid, pp. 170, 172, 176.
36. Swami Harshananda, Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Mylapore: Sri Rama
37. From her thousand-name hymn from the Sdkta-pramoda; translated by
Benard, p. 173.
38. Vedamurti Taponista, Tantm-mahdvijnana, 2 vols. (Bareli, U.P: Sarhskrti
Sarhsthan, 19 71), pp. 4 7 9 - 8 0 .
39. Benard, pp. 2 76 -7 7.
NOTES TO PAGES 160-171 269
40. See W endy Doniger O'Flaherty, Sexual Metaphors and Animal Symbols in
Indian Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981), pp. 4 4 - 4 9 , 2 6 9 -72 .
41. Ibid., pp. 3 5 -4 4 .
4 2 . On the basis o f Chinnamasta's appearance in the teachings o f a ninth-
century C.E. Buddhist devotee, Laksmlrikara, Bcnard, p. 58, concludes that C h in
namasta appeared in Buddhist sources at least a century before she did in Hindu
materials.
43. The story is told in Benard, pp. 4 0 -4 1.
44. Ibid., p. 4 3 .
45. Translated by Benard, p. 2 11.
46. S. K. Rao, Tibetan Tantric Tradition (New Delhi: Arnold-H einem ann,
19 7 7), p. 87; quoted by Benard, p. 249.
4 7. Sdkta-pramoda; translated by Benard, pp. 13 3 -3 5 .
4 8 . Ibid., pp. 140, 1 4 7 ,1 4 8 ,1 6 7 , 1 7 4 ,1 7 8 .
49-Jagan nath Prasad Sharma, Bhdrat Tilth Darsan (Varanasi: Bhola Yan-
tralaya, 1984), p. 355.
50. T h ere is some evidence that the Cintpurni temple in Himachal Pradhesh
was once a Chinnamasta temple. T he name Chinnamasta is written on the gate
way to the temple, and according to one of the priests at the temple, Chinna
masta "is the original name of Cintpurni." The worship o f C intpurni today is
nontantric, exoteric, and com pletely ordinary (sadhdran) or vegetarian (Vaisnava).
Cintpurni is described as benign and similar to Durga in appearance. Kathleen
M. Erndl, Victory to the Mother: The Hindu Goddess of Northwest India in Myth, Rit
ual, and Symbol (New York: Oxford University Press, 19 9 3 ), p. 51.
51. Benard, p. 92.
52. Ibid., pp. 9 3 -9 4 .
53 • Saktisamgama-tantra 6 .7 9 " 8 2.
54. Mahidhara, pp. 2 6 6 -6 7.
55. Chinnamasta stotra, v. 8; Benard, p. 105.
56 . Sdkta-pramoda, p. 228 .
B h a ir a v i
1. Dhyana mantra o f Bhairavi, Sdradd-tilaka 12 . 31 ; Sdradd Tilaka Tantrum, ed.

Arthur Avalon (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, 19 8 2 ), p. 52 5.
2. Dhyana mantra of Rudra-bhairavi; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tan
trasdra (Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 19 8 4 ), p. 308.
3. Sdradd-tilaka 12 .8 1-9 5, PP 534 “ 37 -
4. Vedamurti Taponista, Tantra-mahdvijndna (Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Samsthan,
i 97i)> PP- 486-89.
5. Rajes Dlksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumavati Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Dip Publica
n, 1988), p. 1.
6. Ibid., pp. 5 7 -5 8 , 61, 64.
7. Ibid., p. 61; see also her thousand-name hymn in the Sdkta-pramoda (Bom
bay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 19 9 2 ), p. 288, where she is said to exist in
a circle o f fire, to be a circle of fire, and to be destructive fire.
8. Dlksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumavati, p. 57*
NO TES TO PAGES 17 1-179
9- Sdkta-pramoda, pp. 265, 2 6 6 , 2 6 8 .

10. M ary Shepherd Slusser, NepaI MandalaA. Cultural Studyofthe Kathmandu
' Valley, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton U niversity Press, 19 8 2 ), vol. 1, p. 328.
11. Tantrasdra, pp. 29 5-315 •
12. Sdkta-pramoda, p. 2 66.
13 * Dlksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumavati, pp. 58, 60, 62, 6 4 •
14 * Tantrasdra, p. 297 *
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., p. 315; see also Sdradd-tilaka 10 .110 .
17. Tantrasdra, p. 315 *
18. Conversation with Hemendra N ath Chakravarty.
19. Upendra Kumar Das, Bharatiya Saktisddhand, 2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ran-
jit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 19 6 7 ), p. 535.
20. Dlksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumavati, pp. 56 , 60, 6 l, 6 4 •
D hu m avati
1. Dhyana mantra of Dhumavati; Rajes Dlksit, Bhairavi evam DhumdvatFTantra

Sdstra (Agra: Dip Publication, 1988), p. 152.
2. Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, ed. Girvanendra Sarasvatl, 2 parts (Thanjavur:
T.M .S.S. Library, pt. 2, 1980), p. 236.
3. Ibid., pp. 2 3 4-3 5.
4. Dlksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumavati, pp. I4 I- 4 2 .
5. Taittlriya-brdhmam 1. 6. 1.4 •
6. Atharva-veda 5 *7 *9 *
7. Satapatha-brdhmana 5 •2 •3 •3 •
8. Ibid. 9.1.2.9.
9. She is mentioned in the Baudbayana-gflryasutra, which can be dated between
600 and 300 B .C.E.; Kane, History of Dharmasastra, 2.i:xi; cited in Julia Leslie, "Sri
andjyestha: Am bivalent Role M odels for W om en," in Julia Leslie, ed., Rales and
Ritualsfor Hindu Women (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass Publishers, 19 9 2 ), p. 113 .
10. Leslie, p. 114 .
ir. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, Elemoits ofHindu Iconography, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New
York: Paragon Books, 1 9 1 4 - 1 6 ) , vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 393.
12. Leslie, pp. 11 5 -1 9 .
13. Lirigapurdna 2.6.83-87.
14. For the text and translation o fth e Srl-sukta, see Bandana Sarasvati, "T he
H istory ofth e W orship of Sri in N orth India to cir. A .D . 5 5 0 " (Ph.D . diss., U n i
versity ofLondon, 1971), pp. 22-31.
15. Swami Harshananda, Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Mylapore: Sri Rama-
16. Upendra N ath Dhal, Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development (New Delhi:
Oriental Publishers, 1978), p. 179.
17. Ibid., p. 178.
18. Ibid., pp. 1 5 0 - 5 6 , 1 7 7 - 7 8 .
19 - M. C. P. Srivastava, Mother Goddess in Indian Art, Archaeology and litera
ture (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 19 7 9 ), p. 190.
20. Kalydna, SaktiArik (Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 19 3 4 ), p. 2 6 4; Diksit, Bhairavl

nam Dhumavatl, p. 15 2 .
21. Prapancasarasara-samgraha, p. 234*
22. D hum avatl stotra; Sdkta-pramoda (Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa
Prakasan, 1992), pp. 2 8 3-8 4.
2 3 * Sarbeswar Satpathy, Sakti Iconography in Tantric Mahavidyas (Calcutta: Pun
thi Pustak, 19 9 1), pp. 1 4 7 - 4 8 .
24. Sakthamgama-tantra, vol. 4 : Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya
and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute ofBaroda, 19 7 8 ), 6 .2 4 -2 5 .
T h is myth was also told to me by the priest at the Dhumavatl temple in Varanasi.
25. Prdnatosini-tantra 5*6; Upendra Kum ar Das, Bharatiya Saktisddhand, 2 vols.
(Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 19 6 7 ), p. 542.
26. Ajit M ookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual
(Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 19 7 7 ), p. 191.
27. P r a p a n c a s a r a s a r a - s a m g r a h a 2 3 4 *
28. T h e painting of Dhumavatl by Batuk Ramprasad is discussed later (see
figure 31).
2 9 -Vv. 9 5 - 9 7 : Dlksit, Bhairavievam Dhumdvati, p. 167.
30. Prapancasarasara-samgraha, p. 236.
31. A ccordin g to the priest at the Dhumavatl temple in Varanasi.
32. Vv. 87 and 92; Dlksit, Bhairavievam Dhumdvati, pp. 1 6 6 - 6 7 .
33. Con versation with K am alakar M ishra, O ctob er 19 9 2 .
34. Sarbeswar Satpathy, Dasa Mahavidya and Tantra Sastra (Calcutta: Punthi
Pustak, 1992), p. 70.
35 * Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu
Valley, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982), vol. i,pp. 333 — 34
36. A ccordin g to the priest at the Dhumavatl temple in Varanasi.
37 * Prapancasarasara-samgraha, p. 234*
38. Thousand-nam e hymn, v. 32; Diksit, Bhairavievam Dhumdvati, p. 16 2 .
T h e priest at the D hum avatl tem ple said that she is the same as Smasana-kall,
"Kali who lives in the cremation ground."
3 9 * Prapancasarasara-samgraha, p. 2 34 *
40. Vv. 1 2 5 - 2 6 ; Diksit, Bhairavievam Dhumdvati, p. 16 9 .
4 1. Pushpendra Kumar, The Principle of Sakti (Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers,
1986), p. 122.
42. Harshananda,p. 108.
4 3. T h ere are also small Dhumavatl temples at Ranchi in Bihar and near the
Kam akhya-devI tem ple near G auhati in Assam.
4 4 * Diksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumdvati, pp. 16 6 , 159 *
4 5. Shiv Prasad Mishra Kahikey, "Bahati Ganga (The Flowing Ganges),"
trans. Paul R. G olding and Virendra Singh (MS, Varanasi, n.d.), p. 69.
4 6 . Diksit, Bhairavi evam Dhumdvati, pp. 16 0 -6 7 .
B agalam u k h i
1. Dhydna mantra of Bagalamukhi; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tintrasdra

(Calcutta: Navabharat Publications, 1984), pp. 4 6 3 -6 4 .
2. Ibid., p. 4 6 5 .
3. Saktisamgama-tantra, vol. 4 - Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya
and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 19 7 8 ), 6 .1 -1 0 ;
see also Acarya Pandita Sri Sivadattamisra Sastri, Bagalamnkhi-rahayam (Varanasi:
Thakur Prasad Pustak Bharadar, 19 5 1), p. 81, and Upendra Kumar Das, Bharatiya
Saktisddhand, 2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1 9 6 7 ), p.
544
4. A. Sastri, Bagalamnkhi-rahasyam, p. 82.
5. Sri Bankhandesvara, Mahavidya Catustayam: Tara, Dhumavati, Bhuvanesvari,
Matarigi(Dattiya, M.P.: Pitambara Pith, n.d.), p. 23.
6. For example, Swami Harshananda, Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Mylapore:
Sri Ramakrishna Math, 19 8 8 ), p. 108, and Alain Danielou, Hindu Polytheism (New
York: Bollingen Foundation, 19 6 4 ), p. 283.
7. Usha P. Shastri and N icole M enant, trans., Hymnes a la de'esse (Paris: Le
Soleil Noir, 1980), pi. 12, p. 103.
8. A. Sastri, Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, p. n.
9. Swamiji, a tantric informant in Varanasi.
10. Vedam urti Taponista, Tantra-mahdvijriana (Bareli, U .P: Sarhskrti
Samsthan, 19 7 1 ), vol. 2, p. 4 9 2 , also says the name ofthe goddess was originally
Valgam ukhl.
11. Kalydna, SaktiArik (Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 19 3 4 ), facing p. 320.
12. Taponista, pp. 4 9 4 -9 5 .
13. Conventionally, in fact, cranes are taken as symbols offalse yogis or holy
men in Hindu culture. T he crane appears to be rapt in meditation, like a yogi,
while in fact its entire attention is directed toward capturing and devouring fish.
The false yogi is not actually meditating; he is pretending to meditate while con
niving to cheat or seduce unwitting people.
14 - A. Sastri, Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, pp. I I - 3 0 ; see also Tantrasdra, p. 4 ^5 -
15. A. Sastri, Bagalamnkhi-rahasyam, p. 15.
16. Mahdbhdrata 3 - l 8 7 -31 - 3 9 > John E. Mitchener, Traditions ofthe Seven li',/',
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982), p. 68.
17. See Tantrasdra, p. 4 6 6 , for her yantra.
18. Savithri Shanker de Tourreil, "Nayars in a South Indian Matrix: A Study
Based on Fem ale-Centered Ritual" (Ph.D. diss., Concordia University, Montreal,
1995), p. 198; see also pp. 176, 179, and 204.
19. The tradition of acquiring magical powers is ancient in India and per
vades tantric literature in particular. For a discussion of magical powers in H in
duism, see N. N. Bhattacharyya, Histoty of the Tantric Religion: A Historical, Rit
ualistic and Philosophical Study (New Delhi: M anohar Publishers, 19 8 2 ), pp.
149- 51
20. Rajes Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Sumit
Prakashan, 1989), pp. 83, 84, 88.
2 1. Tantrasdra, p . 4 6 6 .
22. W . 5 “ 6 ; Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 6 4 •
23 * A. Sastri, Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, p. n.
24* Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 73 •
25 . Pitambari-upanisad; ibid., p. 5 7 *
26. Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, Hindu Tantric and Sdkta Literature
27. See her hundred names from the Rudraydmala; Diksit, Bagalamukhi evam
Matarigi, p . 73
29 - A. Sastri, Bagaldmukhi-rahasyam, p. 13
30. Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, pp. 1-2.
31. Harshananda, p. 108.
33 - Diksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, pp. 84, 88, 8 9 •
34. Ibid, pp. 88-89.
35. Ib id , p. 76.
36. Ibid, pp. 80-81.
37. Kaljana, SaktiArik, "Sri Bagalamukhi Upasana," p. 50 6 .
38. V. 4 i Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 6 3 •
39. Tantrasara, pp. 4 3 8 - 4 4 ; see also Kauldvali, ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi:
Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 19 8 5 ), chap. 15, and Nila-tantra, chap. 16, summa
rized in S. C. Banerjee, ^4 Brief History of Tantric literature (Calcutta: Naya
Prokash, 19 8 6), pp. 2 5 1 - 5 2 .
40. Tantrasara, pp. 43^"3 9 ■
4 1. At many points in this ritual it appears that the sadhaka isseeking to re
vive or control the spirit of the corpse, which will then be used as a "power in
strument," as it were, to bring about desired goals. See N. Bhattacharyya, His
tory ofthe Tantric Religion, pp. 13 7 “ 4 1 •
4 2. T his is also specifically mentioned in the Kauldvali description ofthe rit
ual, p. 15.
43- Tantrasara, p. 4 6 8 .
4 4 . Robert E. Svoboda, AghoraAl the Left Hand of God (Albuquerque, N .M .:
Brotherhood ofLife, 1986), p. 195.
4 5 . Kauldvali, chap. 19, describes gaining power from a corpse by reviving it.
T he particular power (siddhi) mentioned in this case is the ability to see through
solid objects and substances. See also June M cD aniel, The Madness of the Saints:
Ecstatic Religion in Bengal (Chicago: U niversity of C hicago Press, 19 8 9 ), pp.
1 2 0 -2 1 , concerning gaining power from a corpse by means of cremation-ground
rites.
4 6. Attempts to converse with and control spirits in the cremation ground,
the different kinds of spirits that are present there, and the dangers inherent in
such practices are described in Svoboda, pp. 18 7 -2 0 9 .
47. Ibid , p. 49.
48. Ibid.
4 9 - P H . Pott, Yoga and Yantra: Their Interrelation and Their Significance for In
Archaeology (The Hague: Martinus NijhofF, 19 6 6 ), p. 78.
50. T he idea of liminality is developed in V ictor W. Turner, Dramas, Fields,
nd Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: C ornell University
:ss, 1974)-
51. Kalydna, Sakti Arik, p. 407; Kulsekar Sri Mahes Candra Garg, "Puja
wamiji aur Sri Pitambara Pith Datiya," Candi-j, no. 40 (O ctober 19 8 1): 1 7 -2 1 .
M a ta r ig i
1. Dhydna mantra of Uccista-matarigini; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat

Tantrasara (Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 19 8 4 ), p. 4 4 9 .
2. Dhydna mantra o f Matarigi from the Puras'caiydmava; Tantrasara, p. 4 4 7
3. Dhydna mantra of Raja-matarigi from Puras'mrydmava, chap. 9; Upendra
Kumar Das, Bharatiya Saktisddhand (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visva-
bharati, 19 67), pp. 5 4 6 -4 7 . In Sdmdd-tilaka 12 .12 8, Raja-matarigi's dhydna mantra
adds diat she plays the vind, w ears flower garlands and conch-shell earrings, and
has her forehead decorated with paintings o f flowers.
4. Ditydvaddna, ed. P. L. Vaidya (Darbhanga: M ithila Research Institute,
1959). story 33: "Sardulakama," pp. 314-25.
5. Saktisamgama-tantra, vol. 4 - Chinnamasta Khanda, ed. B. Bhattacharyya and
Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute o f Baroda, 19 7 8 ), 6 .3 0 -3 8 .
6. Prdnatosini-tantra (Calcutta: Basumati Sahitya Mandir, 1928), pp. 3 7 9 -8 1 .
T he story o f Parvati returning to her father's house because o fh e r pique over
Siva's philandering, Siva's appearance at her father's house disguised as a seller of
shell bangles, and Parvati's subsequent disguise as a low -caste w om an (in this case
a bdgdini) whom Siva tries to seduce is found in the Bengali marigal kdtyas. See
Asutosh Bhattacharya, Bangla mangal-katyer itihasa (Calcutta: E. Mukharji and
C o , 19 3 9 ), pp. 2 0 5ff, and D. Zbavitel, Bengali Literature (Wiesbaden: Otto Har-
rassowitz, 1976), pp. 156-58. In these accounts, however, Parvati is n o t identi
fied with Matarigi.
7. Svatantra-tantra; Das, p. 5 4 5
8. T old to me by Ram, an inform ant in Varanasi. D u rin g a visit to this te m
ple I was not able to confirm Kauri-bai's identification with Matarigi. T h e story
o f the origin o f the tem p le also differed in several ways from the story told by
Ram. T he story I was told at the temple did not mention the tension between
Siva and Kauri-bai, and Parvati, in her form as A nnapurna, cursed K auri-bai to
live in the jungle, not a low-caste area, because of Kauri-bai's preoccupation with
purity, which left her no time even to eat a meal (which insulted A nnapurna, the
goddess who gives food). T he temple is, in fact, in a neighborhood housing low-
caste people, b u t it n ow also includes some m odern develop m en t w ith upper-
caste residents. T h a t the area was form erly "jungle" is credible, as the location
o f the tem ple is in the southern part o f Varanasi, which w as uninhabited not very
long ago.
9. T h e leftovers or residue of sacrificial offerings (ucdsta) are regarded as pos
sessing great spiritual potency in some Vedic texts. T he Atharva-veda (11.7.1-3,
16), for example, celebrates the sacrificial residue as containing cosmic creative
force. Stella Kramrisch, The Presence of Siva (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton U niver
sity Press, 1981), p. 66.
10. For example, Tantrasara, p. 449, and Rajes Diksit, Bagalamukhi evam
Matarigi Tantra Sdstra (Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 198 9 ), pp. 13 8 -3 9 .
11. Diksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 140.
12. Tantrasara, p. 4 49 i Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 140.
13. In many festivals celebrating village goddesses in South India, a low-caste
woman called a matarigi plays a central role. D uring the festival, the matarigi
represents the goddess. Possessed by the goddess, she dances wildly, uses ob
scene language, drinks intoxicants, spits on spectators, and pushes people about
with her backside. She seems to take special delight in abusing m em bers ofthe
high castes. D uring this festival an inversion ofthe usual social codes and rules
takes place. T h e matarigi personifies social topsy-turvy. Exactly what the con
nection m ight be between these low-caste wom en and the goddess Matarigi is
not clear. See W ilber T h eod ore Elm ore, Dravidian Gods in Modem Hinduism: A
Study ofthe Local and Village Deities of Southern India (Ham ilton, N .Y .: Published
b y th e author, 1915), p. 3T; see also Edgar T hurston, Castes and Tribes o f South
ern India, 7 vols. (Madras: Madras G overnm ent Press, 1909), vol. 4, pp. 295-307,
316-17.
14. Robert I. Levy, Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organisation of a Traditional
Newar City in Nepal (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 19 92), pp. 8 4 -8 5 .
15. Ibid., p. 263.
16. T he leader ofthe Sabaras (Savaras) in Bana's Kdcbmbariis named Matariga.
The Kddambari of Barn, trans. C. M. Ridding (London: Royal Asiatic Society,
1896), p. 28.
17. Mabdkdla-sambitd (Allahabad: Ganganath Jha Research Institute, 1 9 7 4 ),
p. 106.
r8. Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, pp. 149 ? I,r)7 •
19. Ibid., p. 147.
20. Sdradd-tilaka 12.128.
21. Ibid. 0 .9 8 .
22. T he spiritually transformative role of female hunters, who would be re
garded as marginal and polluted by high-caste Hindu society, is emphasized in
the story o fth e Buddhist tantric yogi M aitripa, w ho travels into the mountains
of South India in search of Savari, a well-known tantric teacher (whose name as
sociates him w ith the Savaras, a tribal people). M aitripa finds Savari in the co m
pany o f tw o fem ale hunters, w h o have long, m atted hair, wear bark and leaves as
clothin g, carry huntin g gear, and have freshly killed gam e at their feet. At first
Maitripa is repulsed by the wom en, but later he learns that they are advanced
spiritual teachers. It is from them that Maitripa eventually gains illumination.
Miranda Shaw, Passionate TLnlightenment: Women in Tantric Buddhism (Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19 9 4 ), p. 50.
23. Mahdihdgavata-purdna, Madhya-khanda 2 .6 9 -72 .
24. Tantrasdra, pp. 4 4 6 , 4 4 $.
25. Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 104.
26. Ibid., p. 105.
27. Tantrasdra, p. 4 4 9 '
28. Das, p. 548.
29. Dlksit, Bagalamukhi evam Matarigi, p. 128.
K am ala
1. Dhyana mantra of Kamala; Sdkta-pramoda (Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa
Prakasan, 1992), p. 353.
2. Dhydna mantra of Kamala; Sdradd Tilaka Tantrum, ed. Arthur Avalon

(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982), p. 420.
3. Dhydna mantra of MahalaksmI; Sdradd Tilaka Tantrum, p. 4 2 4 .
4. For the text and translation o f this hymn, see Bandana Saraswati, "The
H istory o fth e W orship o f Sri in N orth India to cir. A .D . 5 50 " (Ph.D . diss. U n i
versity ofLondon, 1971), pp. 22-31.
5. For the symbolism ofthe lotus, see F. D. K. Bosch, The Golden Germ (The
Hague: Mouton, i9 6 0 ), pp. 81-82.
6. For a discussion of these images, referred to as Gaja-laksmis, see N iran-
jan Ghosh, Concept and Iconography of the Goddess ofAbundance and Fortune in Three
Religions of India (Burdwan, W est Bengal: U niversity o f Burdwan, 19 7 9 ), pp.
7 5 -8 7 ; Saraswati, pp. 1 5 9 -6 1; and KiranThaplyal, "Gajalaksmi on Seals," in D. C.
Sircar, e d . Foreigners in Ancient India and Laksmi and Sarasvati in A r t and Litera
ture (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1970), pp. 112 -2 5 .
7. Heinrich Zimmer, The A r t of Indian Asia, 2 vols. (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1955), vol. 1, pp. 1 6 0 - 6 1 .
8. Jan Gonda, Ancient Indian Kingshipfrom the Religious Point of View (Leiden:
E.J. Brill, 1969), pp. 7-8.
9. Upendra N ath Dhal, Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development (New Delhi:
Oriental Publishers, 1978), pp. 6 5 -6 6 ; Saraswati, pp. 15 0 -53 .
10. Dhal, pp. 6 8 -6 9 .
11. See Saraswati, pp. 13 8 -4 7.
12. See particularly the myths of the demons Bali and Prahlada in Saraswati,
pp. 1 3 8 - 4 7 , and Dhal, pp. 6 8 - 6 9 .
13. Dhal, pp. 9 1 -9 3 ; Saraswati, pp. 1 7 3 -7 7 ; Ananda Coomaraswamy, Yaksas,
2 parts (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 19 7 1), pt. 1, pp. 32ff.
14. Jan Gonda, Aspects ofEarly Vtsnuism, 2d ed. (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass,
1969), pp. 164-67.
15. K. S. Behera, "Laksm i in Orissan Literature and A rt," in Sircar, e d . For
p. 101 .
eigners in Ancient India,
16. Saraswati, p. 242.
17. F. O tto Schrader, Introduction to the Pancaratra and the Ahirbudhnya Sum-
bitd (Madras: Adyar Library, 19 16 ), pp. 3 4 -3 5 .
18. See Laksmi Tantra, a Pancaratra Text, trans. Sanjukta Gupta (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1972).
19. For Sri-LaksmI in Sri Vaisnavism, see John Carm an, The Theology of
Rdmdnuja (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 19 7 4 ), pp. 2 3 8 -4 4 ; Va-
sudha Narayanan, "The Goddess Sri: T he Blossoming Lotus and Breast Jewel
of V isnu," in John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, ed s. The Divine
Consort: Rddhd and the Goddesses of India (Berkeley, Calif.: Berkeley Religious Stud
ies Series, 1982), pp. 2 2 4 -3 7 ; and Vasudha Narayanan, "Karma and Krpa. Hu
man Bondage and Divine Grace: T he Terikalai Sri Vaisnava Position" (DePaul
University, Chicago, n.d.).
20. M. C. P. Srivastava, Mother Goddess in Indian Art, Archaeology and Litera
ture (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1 9 7 9 ), p. 189.
21. Dhal, p. 17 6 .
22. Sdradd Tilaka Tantrum, pp. 4 —0 , 43 —•
NOTES TO PAGES 230-238 •77
23. Sakta-pramoia, pp. 3 7 3 -7 6 , 378.

24. Ibid., pp. 3 6 9 ,3 7 5 ,3 7 7 .
25. Ib id .,p p .3 6 9 ,3 7 4 ,3 7 5 .
26. Ibid., pp. 3 70 -7 4 , 379.
27. Ibid., pp. 373 - 75 , 379
28. Cited in June M cD aniel, The Madness of the Saints: Ecstatic Religion in Ben
gal {C h ica g o '. University o f Chicago Press, 19 8 9 ), p. 150.
C o n c lu d in g R eflection s
(Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 19 9 2 ), p. 2 14 .
2. Ibid., p. 14 6 ; see also p. 14 5 .
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., p. 198.
5. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, Brhat Tantrasdra (Calcutta: Navabharat Pub
lishers, 1984), pp. 4 3 8 -4 4 .
6. Ibid., pp. 4 3 4 -3 8 .
7. See David Kinsley, " 'T h e Death T h a t Conquers Death': D ying to the
W orld in M edieval H induism ," in Frank E. Reynolds and Earle H. W augh, eds.,
Religious Encounters with Death: Insights from the History and Anthropology of Reli
gions (U niversity Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1 9 7 7 ), pp. 9 7 -1 0 8 .
8. P. H. Pott has used the term in reference to rituals in cremation grounds
by tantric Buddhists in N epal; Yoga and Yantra: Their Interrelation and Their Sig
nificancefor Indian Archaeology (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 77
9. Mahdbhdgavata-purdna 3 - 15 “ 7 0 ; W endy D oniger O 'Flaherty, Sexual Meta
phors and Animal Symbols in Indian Mythology (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass, 19 8 1),
P- 9 8 .
10. Brhaddharma-purdna 2 .3 1 .1 6 - 3 6 ; O'Flaherty, Sexual Metaphors, p. 9 9 -
U. M a rk S . G. Dyczkowski, TbeCa?ionofitheSaivdgamaandtbeKubjikdTantras
ofithe Western Kaula Tradition (Albany: State U niversity o fN e w York Press, 1988),
pp. 6-7.
12. See M ircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols ofi Initiation: The Mysteries ofi Birth
i Rebirth (New York: Harper & Row, 19 5 8 ).
13. For a vivid description o fth e cremation ground as the locale o f a host of
spirits, see M ary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala: ^4 Cultural Study ofi the Kath
mandu Vally, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19 8 2 ), vol. 1,
P- 333 ; see als° Robert E. S\oboda^4 ghoraAl the LefitHandofiGod (Albuquerque,
N.M .: Brotherhood of Life, 198 6), pp. 18 7 -2 1 0 , for a discussion ofm aking con
tact with spirits in the cremation ground.
14 - See V icto r Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure (Har-
mondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1 9 6 9 ), for a definition and discussion ofthe "lim-
inal" as central to many sets of rituals.
15 - UMis'a-tantra, chap. 95 S. C. Baneijee ,A4 Brief History of Tantric Literature
(Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 19 8 6 ), p. 325.
16. Banerjee, A. Brief Histoy of Tantric Literature, pp. 4 9 6 -9 7 *
2 ,8 N O TES TO PAGES 238-247
17- June M cD aniel, The Madness ofthe Saints: Ecstatic Religion in Bengal (C h i
cago: University of Chicago Press, 198 9), p. 112.
18. Mahidhara, p. 2 14 .
19. See the discussion of chopped-off heads in the chapter on Chinnamasta.
20. Tantrasara, pp. 6 8 2 - 8 3 ; a' so Parasurdma-kalpasutra, ed. A . N. Jani (Ba
roda: University of Baroda, 19 7 9 ), pp. 222, 245, 253.
21. T he asta siddhis, which are superior powers or "perfections" achieved by
means of yoga, include some o f these abilities and are ancient in the Hindu tra
dition. A w ell-known example of the ability to change form at will, including
changing into animal form, is Mahisasura, the buffalo demon whom Durga slays
in the Devi-mdhdtmya.
11. Kinsley, " 'The Death that Conquers Death.' "
23. M cD aniel, p. 58.
24. Ajit M ookerjee and Madhu Khanna, The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual
(Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1 9 7 7 ), pi. 3, which is identified as Kali but is ac
tually Tara.
25. The Yonitantra, ed. J. A. Schoterman (New Delhi: Manohar, 198 0 ), 3 .14 ,
P- 23.
26. Tantrasara, pp. 6 9 2 -70 2 .
27. For example, Mookeijee and Khanna, pp. 1 6 6 - 6 7 ,.1 8 5 .
28. Tantrasara, p. y02.
29 - Miranda Shaw, Passionate Enlightenment: Women in Tantric Buddhism
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19 9 4 ), argues that sexual com ple
mentarity and sexual union are central to Buddhist tantric spirituality and that
sexual union is used to clear the central channel (avadhuti) o f all obstructions and
"knots." Sexual union, she argues, is a meditative technique w hereby illumina
tion is achieved (pp. 147, 160, 171, 18 6 -8 8 ).
30. Yjtldmava-tantra 1 0 8 - 9; McDaniel, p. 111.
31. See M ookerjee and Khanna, pi. 3, p. 83.
32. In one rendition of Kali and Siva, he is lying beneath her feet on a cre
mation pyre that is surrounded by bones, crows, and jackals. He is naked and has
an erection. Philip Rawson, Oriental Erotic A r t (New York: A and W Publishers,
1981), fig. 16, p. 22.
33. Mahidhara, p. 14 5.
34. Ibid.
35. Ib id , p. 181.
36. IJddisa-tantra, chaps. 7 “ 9 > Banerjee, A Brief History of Tantric Literature,
P- 325.
37. For example, Kauldvali, ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya
Prakashan, 19 8 5 ), chap. 10, p. 12; Mahidhara, p. 18 1; and Kahkdlamdlini-tantra,
chap. 4; for a brief discussion of women in tantric literature, see Banerjee, ^4 Brief
Histoy of Tantric literature, pp. 4 9 9 “ 5 f*3 •
38. Kauldvali-tantra, chap. 10; Banerjee,/} Brief History of Tantric literature,
P- 217.
3 9 - Chap. 16; Banerjee, A. Brief Histoy of Tantric Literature, p. 253*
4 O. Tantrasara, p . 694*
4 1. It is not fair to conclude from this text, however, that only low-caste or
socially marginal wom en took part in tantric sadhana. N or w ould it be fair to say
that low-caste or socially marginal w om en were never full participants in tantric
sadhana (as opposed to being simply "used" by male sddhakas). See Shaw, passim,
esp. pp. 35-68.
42. Tantrasdra, p. 7OI.
43 * Guptasddhand-tantra, chap. 4? Banerjee, , '} Brief History of Tantric litera
ture, pp. 184-85.
44 * Rubjikd-tantra, chap. 16; Baneijee, A Brief History of Tantric literature,
p. 223.
45. Yogini-tantm, chap. 7; Baneijee, ,1 Brief History of Tantric literature,
P- 347
46. Kdmdkhyd-tantra 36;M cD an iel, p. 122.
47. Mdyd-tantra 6; M cD aniel, p. 123.
48. Yoni-tantra 6.5 {The Yonitantra, p. 20) specifies that yoni pujd should be
undertaken during menstruation.
49. Sarvolldsa-tantra (Calcutta: Harambacandra Bhattacharya, 1953), 50.30
32, p. 202; see also The Yonitantra, pp. 23-24.
50. Sarvolldsa-tantra 5^’ -4^-4--
5t. Ibid. 50.37.
52. See Kauldvah-tantra, chap. 15; Gandharva-tantra, chap. r8; Kdmdkhyd-
tantra, chap. 11; Kuljikd-tantra, chap. 7; and Nila-tantru, chap. 15, where this rite
is described as being undertaken on a corpse; Baneijee, ^4 BriefHistory of Tantric
Literature, p. 251
53 - D yczkow ski, The Canon ofthe Saivdgama, p. 64.
54. Ibid., p. 65.
55. Baneijee, ^4 BriefHistory of Tantric literature, p. 184. M ark Dyczkowski,
the author of several books on Hindu Tantrism , has told me that both Hindu
and Buddhist tantric lineages m ention female teachers, although they are clearly
in the minority.
56. Prdnatosint-tantra (Calcutta: Basumati Sahitya Mandir, 1928), 2.2, p. 96.
It is also clear in this passage that the discussion is very much from a male point
of view. T h e conditions under which a female may function as a guru depend on
whether her husband is a guru, w hether she is a widow (and, if so, w hether she
has a son), and so on. Similarly, am ong her commendable qualities, loyalty to her
husband is m entioned first. See also N. N. Bhattacharyya, History ofthe Tantric
Religion: A Historical, Ritualistic and Philosophical Study (New Delhi: M anohar Pub
lishers, 1982), p. 121: "In the T an tric religious system a wom an has the right of
initiating persons into the secrets ofthe cult and acting as guru."
57. Shaw, p. 174 and passim.
58. For a discussion oftantric female spirituality in the Hindu tradition, see
anjukta G upta, "W om en in the §aiva/§akta Ethos," pp. 193-210, and Lynn
eskey D enton, "Varieties o f H indu Female Asceticism ," pp. 225-27, both in ju -
a Leslie, ed., Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women (Delhi: M otilal Banarsidass,
992)-
Glossary
Simplified pronunciation guide: the letter c should be pronounced ch. T he let

ters /and j should be pronounced sh.
adharma Evil, immorality

Alaksmi "She who is inauspicious," a goddess; Laksmi's sister
amrta N ectar (of immortality)
Annapurna "She who is full of food," a goddess
dsana Seat, used in reference to spiritual practice

dtman "Self" or soul; the spiritual essence o f a person
avatdra "D escent" or incarnation of a deity
avidyd Ignorance
Bagalamukhi "She who is crane faced," one ofth e Mahavidyas

bah Blood offerings
Bamakhepa 1 8 4 3 -1 9 1 1 A famous Bengali devotee o f Kali
Bhairava A fierce form o f Siva

Bhairavi "The fierce one," one o fth e Mahavidyas
bhava Spiritual mood; mentality

bhuta one o fth e five elements; also, a ghost
bhuta suddhi A ritual in w hich the adept imagines the dissolution
and re-creation of the cosmos
Bhuvanesvari "Mistress o fth e w orld," one o fth e Mahavidyas
bija Seed syllable, sound seed
bija mantra Seed mantra
282 GLOSSARY
bindu Seed, dot, or essence; a com ponent o f yantras

Brahma One o f the gods o f the male trimurti; the creator
brahman T he absolute; ultimate reality. See also nirguna
brahman, s'abda brahman
Brahman A member of the priesdy caste

cakra A spiritual center w ithin the body
Candalas A very low caste
Chinnamasta "She who has severed her head," one ofth e
Mahavidyas
daksina South; right; clockwise; also the gift given to a priest

after a ritual
dars'an V iew ing of a deity's image
devi Goddess
Devi-mdhdtmya T he most revered of Hindu sdkta texts; probably

written around the sixth century C.E.
dharma Cosm ic and moral order
Dhumavati "She who abides in smoke," one ofth e Mahavidyas
dhyana M editation
dhyana mantra A meditation mantra, which often describes the

physical appearance o f a deity
Durga A demon-slaying goddess
Durga Puja A festival in honor of Durga; also known as

Navaratra, the festival of nine nights
Gaja-laksmi An image of Laksmi flanked by elephants

gandharvas Celestial beings
Ganesa An elephant-headed deity
garbha grba "W om b room ," the inner shrine o f a temple
Gauri "T he golden one," an epithet'of Parvati
gunas Qualities or constituents that constitute all matter:

sattva (spiritual, pure), rajas (energetic, powerful), and
tamos (lustful, ignorant)
Himalaya T he Himalayan mountains personified as a god

Indra Ruler o fth e city o fth e gods
mdriya A physical sense; sensory perception
Jagaddhatri "W orld nurse," "she who nurses the w orld," a
goddess
japa Repetition
GLOSSARY 283
Jay a One o f two females flanking the goddess Chinnamasta

jiva Life force
p i. IH.l Liberating wisdom; knowledge
Kali "She who is black," one o fth e Mahavidyas
Kalighat Kali's most famous temple, for which Calcutta is
named
Kali Puja A festival in honor of Kali
Kali Yuga T he present cosmic era, in which morality has
declined; the last of the four yugas
kama Sexual desire
Kama or Kama- ■deva T h e god o f love
Kamakhya "She whose eyes are filled with desire," a goddess;
also the place where she is worshiped in Assam
Kamala "She o fth e lotus," one ofth e Mahavidyas; also

known as Sri or Laksmi
Kamarupa A goddess center in Assam
Kapalika "One who bears a skull," the name of a type of
religious ascetic; also an epithet o f Siva
Krsna "T he black one," a deity
Kubera A deity associated with wealth
kula "Family," a lineage or group o f worshipers

kundalini An inner power in the form of a serpent that is
aroused in tantric yoga
kundalini s'akti Kundalini as a female power or deity
kvaca "Arm or," a type o f protective invocation

Laksmi Also known as Sri or Kamala; one o fth e Mahavidyas
Lalita "Soft and delicate," "she who is lovely," an epithet of
Tripura-sundari, one o fth e Mahavidyas
Lalitd-sahasrandma "T he thousand names o f Lalita," a famous goddess

hymn
M ahadevi "G reat goddess"; an overarching, transcendent
female reality
mabant T he chief priest at a temple
Mahavidya "G reat knowledge," "great m antra," an epithet of a

goddess
Mahavidyas A group of ten tantric goddesses
Mahisamardini "Slayer ofM ahi§a," an epithet of Durga
'naithuna Sexual intercourse
284 GLOSSARY
mandala A graphic and symbolic representation o f the cosmos
marigal kdvyas "Auspicious poem s," a genre o f Bengali literature
mantra A sacred verbal formula; a deity in verbal form
Mantra-mabodadhih A tantric manual
mdrana T he power to cause a person's death simply by

w illing it
Matarigi One o fth e Mahavidyas
matrkds "M others," sounds or letters that give birth to the

creation
Matrkas A fierce band of goddesses
mdyd False consciousness, self-infatuation, magic power of

illusion
i.IJk’/ Lhnit;ll4i1/ ' 4 ii'f’M i\f o ii< u i( ir " 1 . i • -M
moksa spiritual liberation from rebirth
mudras Hand gestures
mukti Liberation, freedom from rebirth
mulddhdra cakra T he lowest cakra, where the kundalini sleeps
murti An image
nddi A vein or artery
ndma stotras Hymns consisting of names or epithets
nirguna W ithout or beyond qualities, beyond all quality and

form
nirguna brahman Ultimate reality without qualities

N irrti An inauspicious goddess
nirvana Final liberation and freedom from rebirth
nydsa A ritual in which one suffuses one's body with the
seed syllables of deities or divinizes one's body with
mantras and mudras
panca makdra ritual See panca tattva ritual

panca tattva ritual A ritual in which the aspirant partakes of five
forbidden things
Parvati "She ofth e mountains," a goddess, Siva's spouse
pati vratd A wife devoted to her husband
pis'dcas Flesh-eating demons
Pltambara "She who is dressed in yellow," an epithet of
Bagalamukhi
pitha A seat, shrine, or sacred center, usually associated
with a goddess
GLOSSARY
prakrti Nature or the physical world

pralaya Cosm ic dissolution
Prdnatosini or A tantric digest probably written in Bengal in the
Prdnatosini-tantra seventeenth century
Praparicasdrasdra- A tantric digest
samgraha
Praparicasdra-tantra An early South Indian tantric text attributed to

Sankara
preta A ghost
Prthivi T he goddess Earth
pujd W orship
purdna A genre o f medieval texts that include mythology,
ethics, legend, and ritual instructions
Rajarajesvari "Queen o f kings," a common epithet ofTripura-
sundari
rajas Energy, one of the three gmas

Rama T he hero o f the Rdmdyana
Ramakrishna 1836-86 A famous Bengali devotee o f Kali
Rdmdyana A Hindu epic
Rati "Sexual intercourse," wife o f Kama, the god of love

sabda brahman T he underlying essence of reality as manifest in
sound
sacciddnanda "Being, consciousness, and bliss," a common
definition of brahman
sadhaka A religious adept
sadhana Religious endeavor; spiritual exercise
s ah asra.11 dm a stotru Thousand-nam e hymn
sahasrdra cakra T he topm ost cakra, depicted as a thousand-petaled
lotus located just above the crown ofth e head
akambhari "She who bears vegetables," a goddess
'.la Pertaining to sakti; partial to sakti
s 'dkta pithas "Seats of Sakti," places sacred to goddesses
Sdktapramoda A tantric digest or manual
ti Energy, power
Icti T he embodied form o f sakti as a goddess
Saktisam gam a-tantru A tantric digest
"amsdra T h e realm of rebirth; this w orld
286 GLOSSARY
Sankara 788-820 A famous Hindu philosopher
Sdradd-tilaka-tantra A tantric digest
Sarasvarl Goddess of wisdom and learning
Sari W ife of Siva; source of the Mahavidyas in some

accounts
sattva Purity, one of the three gunas
sattvic Spiritual
Satya Yuga T h e first and most perfect o fth e four periods of a

w orld cycle
S aundaiyalahari A famous goddess hym n attributed to Sankara
sava sadhana Spiritual practice using a corpse
siddhas Celestial beings
siddhis "Perfections," magical powers
Slta A goddess, heroine of the Rdmdjana, wife of Rama
Siva A deity associated with the M ahavidyas, asceticism,

yoga, and cosmic destruction
smasdna sadhana Spiritual practices appropriate to cremation grounds
Sodasi "She who is sixteen," "the sixteenth," "she who has

sixteen (good) qualities"; an epithet ofTripura-
sundari, one of the Mahavidyas
Sri "Auspicious"; another name for Kamala, one ofth e

Mahavidyas
Sri-sukta An ancient hym n to the goddess Sri
Srividya T h e form ofth e goddess tfripura-sundari as mantra;

also, a school ofTantrism
stambhana T h e power to im m obilize or paralyze a person
sthula T h e physical, anthropom orphic, "gross" aspect o f a

deity
A hymn
T h e central vein or channel ofth e subde body in
susumnd nodi tantric yoga
T h e essential form
svarupa
A tantric digest
S vatantra-tantra
Ignorance, one of the three gunas
tamas
A form o f Hindu and Buddhist religious practice
Tantra
A genre of scriptures concerned with tantric practice
tantras and theory
GLOSSARY
Tantrasdra A tantric digest or manual

tdntrika O ne who practices Tantra
Tantrism A form of Hindu and Buddhist religious practice
Tara One o fth e Mahavidyas
tattva T h in g or truth
tattvas Categories of creation

tirthas "Crossings," sacred centers
tithis T h e thirty days o fth e waxing and waning moon
trimurti "H aving three forms"; the Hindu triad o f Brahma,

the creator; Visnu, the maintainer; and Siva, the
destroyer
Tripura-sundari "She who is lovely in the three w orlds," one ofthe

Mahavidyas
uccatana T he power to make one's enemy sick by w illing it;

the power to eradicate
uccista Leftover food
upa purdnas Lesser or "younger" purdnas, usually briefer and

more recent than principal purdnas
vdhana Vehicle of a deity, usually an animal

Vaisnava Pertaining to Visnu, partial to Visnu
vdk siddhi T h e power by which whatever one says comes true;
the power o f superior speech
/'macara T he left-handed path in Tantrism
idyd Knowledge; in tantric contexts, mantra

vra "H ero"; a type o f religious practitioner qualified to
undertake certain left-handed tantric practices
isnu One o fth e three great male deities o f Hinduism, the

maintainer
Supernatural beings often associated with the forest

or with heavenly places
K ing of the dead and ruler o f the south
tra A schematic rendering of a deity or the cosmos

A female practitioner
gin is Female beings associated with magical powers

T h e periods or stages o fth e w orld or universe
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Index
Note: Page numbers of illustrations are italicized.
Abhinavagupta, 75 > 1^7 Animal sacrifices, 50, 110, 151, 238-40,

adepts, 3-4, 6, 47, 52-57, 76-79, 86-87, 246
90-91, 95, 123-28, 183, 245. See also arikus'a, 138
sadhaka(s) Annapurna (Annapuma-devT), 150,159?
adharma, 20; defined, 28l 174, 256n5i; defined, 281; in
ad? Mahavidya, 1-2, 68, 84^ 112 Mahavidyas, 14, 253n4
adipith a, 17 / Annapuma-bhairavl, 40
Advaita Vedanta, 90 Annapumesvari-bhairavi, 172,174
Agni, 121,138 anthropomorphic images, 135 >°f
Agnipurdna, ’JO Bagalamukhi, 1975 of Tripura-sundari,
Aindri, 32 122-23,126
Aiyai, 151 antimodels, 6-7, 251-52
AjitS, 137 Aparajita, 137
djnd cakra, 48 Arjuna, 217
Akhilandesvari, 115 artba, 126, 201
Aksobhya, 96, 98,100 Arya, 138
AlaksmI, 178-81, 228; defined, 28l dsana(s), 88, 153) defined, 28l
Amavasya, 45 Astamatrkas, II5-16
ambika sakti,' 137 asta siddhis, 278
Amitabha, 93 asuras, 236
Amoghasiddhi, 93 Atisa, 93
, 149, 169, 227; defined 28l Atman, 121
'hata cakra, 48 atman, 60, 126, 141, 243! defined, 28l;
Ananda, 210-12 Lalita as, 5
Ananda-bhairava, 204 Atmavidya, 60
Anariga-kusuma, -kusumatura, -madana, auspiciousness, 9 7? of Bhuvanesvari, 143?
-madana-devi, -madanatura, -mekala of Kamala, 225, 230; of Tripura-sundari,
-devi, -rupa-devi, vedana-devi, -vedya, 118-19• $ee a^so inauspiciousness
138 Avaloldtesvara, 93
Ananta, 67) 89? 13 $. Seealso cosmic serpent avaranas, 140
INDEX
avatdras, 6, 30; Chinnamasta as, 149? Batuk-bhairava, 102

defined, 28 l ; of Tripura-sundari, Baudhayana-grhyasutra, zjony
116-17; ofVisnu, 20-22, 27, 29, 32, Bhadra-kali, 75, 100, 231
34"35> 62, 117, 195, 202, 207, 227, Bhagamala, 247
229-30, 2551125 BhagamalinI, ll8 , 247
avidyd, 44-45, 59; defined, 281 Bhdga.vata-purd.na, 70,146
Bhairava, 101, 102, in , 169; defined, 28l
Bagala. See Bagalamukhi Bbairava-tantra, 165
Bagalamukhi, 2, 11, 14, 29, 34"35, 44, 6l, Bhairavi, n, 15, 29, 35, 39-40, 44, 167
186, 193-208, 220, 228, 2571184; an 75, 253m, 2571184; blood and, 11, 167,
thropomorphic images of, 197? blood 17 1; boons and, 167; Brahma and, 169;
offerings to, 50, 207; Brahma and, 199? Chinnamasta and, 164; consciousness
colorofj 193, 198-99, 208, 221; con and, 47? l69"70, 172; corpses and, 11,
sciousness and, 47; control and, 1 9 6 167, 171, 202; cosmic functions and,
99, 206; corpses and, 14, 201-2, 206, 1 6 9 -7 1,17 4 -7 5 ; cremation grounds
233? cosmic order and, 195? cremation and, 171; defined, 28l; as demon slayer,
grounds and, 199? defined, 28l; as n; destruction and, 170-72; dhyana
demon slayer, 38, 207; demons and, mantras of, 167, 172, 174; fire and, 1 6 9
19 4 - 9 5 >'°7 > 2° 1 ' 2o6-8; Dhumavatl 71; forms of, 172-74? frightening nature
and, 195-96, 208; dhyana mantras of, of, 37, 44, 169-71, I74; gods and, 169;
193, 201, 208; frightening nature of, gunas and, 4 2; as Hall, 2 5 5 A3 ? hymns
37; gunas and, 42-43; hair ofj 83; hymns to, 167-75; illustrations, 168,173', Ka
to, 199? 201; iconography of, 197; illus mala and, 231; kundalini md, 169; lotuses
trations, rj, 104, 200, 20$', Kali and, 8l; and, 169; mantras of, 172; meditation
Kama and, 201; as Kurma, 255nn22,23; on, 170; in Nepal, 167, 171; orderin
lirigams and, 201, 208; lotuses and, 193? Mahavidyas,,, l6, 253114, 2541A8,15,
201; magical powers and, 37"3^? 43? 57? 255111129,3°? Sarasvati and, 169; severed
197. 199-201, 205, 207, 220-21; mantra heads and, 167, 171, 238; sexual inter
of, 198; in Nepal, 207; offerings to, 19 8 course and, 172; shrine to, l8; Siva and,
200; order in Mahavidyas, 9? l6 , 23? 169-70; skulls and, n, 238; Sri and, 174?
25,114, 254nn8,9,n,i2,i5, 2551^29,30; Tantrasdra and, 172,174; Visnu and, 21,
origin myths of, 193 "96 , 202; Parvati 169; worship ofj 46? 166, 172; yantras
and, 195-96; sexual desire and, 201; of, 172, 174; yoga and, 169; yoni, 172;
shrines to, 207; Siva and, 195-96, 207; yoni pujd and, 248
Tantrasdra and, 199; temples to, 50,197, Bhanda, n 6 -1 7
207-8; in Tibet, 207;xTripura-sundari
bharana, 175
and, 193; vdhanas of, 14, 208; Visnu
Bharati, 117
and, 21, 193? 195? worship o£ 46, 108,
Bhaskararaya, 58,121- 23> 125“26
198-99? yantra ofj 198-99? yoni» 201 bhava(s), 47; defined, 281
Bagaldmukhi-Tubasya, 57 Bhavabhuti, 74
Bajresvari-devT, l 6 , 152 Bhayarupa, 164
baka, 196 Bhayavidhvamsini-bhairavi, 172
Bala, 14 Bherunda, ll8
Bala-tripura-sundari, ll8 Bhima, 23 0
Bali, 179 Bhumi, 174
bali, 207, 240; defined, 281. See also blood bhuta(s) (element), 131,133? 19^J defined,
offerings 28l. Seeahn elements of creation
Bamakhepa (Vamaldiepa), l8 , 97? i n > bhuta(s) (ghost), 205-6,236-37; defined, 28l
25 7 n7 5 i defined, 28l Bhutabhairavaseviti, 164
bdna nydsa, 172 bbutasuddhi, 90, 247; defined, 281
Banasura, 146 Bhuvana. 131; -pala, -vega-devi, -palika-
battlefields, 146-47, I55, 203 devi, 138
bbuvanas, 129 Bodhisattva, 92-93? 225
Bhuvanesi, 131 boksis, 183
Bhuvanesvari, II, 29, 32, 35, 41, 44-45, boons, 7 3 , 19 4 , 221; Bhairavi and, 167;
129-43, '8 6, 220, 257n84; auspicious Bhuvanesvari and, 132,141? Dhumavati
ness ofj 143? beauty ofj 140-41; bija and, 176, 187-88; KaU and, 9? 79>87,
mantra ofj 132-36, 139? boons and, 151; Kamala and, 223; Lalita and, 5; '
132, 141; Brahma and, 134; cakras and, Matarigi and, 213 - 14 ? Tara and, 106;
4 7-4 8 ,13 6 ; cosmic functions and, 131, worldly, 3? 6, 51. S et also blessings
133-34? cosmic order and, 134? cults, Brahma, 5, 21, 24-25, 32, 41, 60 , 235;
131> defined, 281; as demon slayer, 134? Bagalamukhi and, 19 9 ? Bhairavi and,
dhydna mantra of, 129; Durga and, 134? 169; Bhuvanesvari and, 134?defined
frightening nature of, 37; gunas and, 42; 282 ; Kali and, 76; lotuses and, 142;
hymns to, 5, 131, 134, 141-42; illustra Siva and, 86, 153? Sodasi and, n, 62;
tions, 12, rjo , 1 3 1 , 1 4 2 >Laksmi and, Tara and, 96; Tripura-sundari and,
134; lotuses and, 129, 137-38, 141-42; 112-13, 115? 117? 120-21, 125; Visnu
order in Mahavidyas, 9, l6, 23, 253114, and, 142; in yantras, 138; yoni p u jd
254nn8,9,n,i2,i5, 255A129,30 ?origin and,248
myths of, 12 9 - 31 ? as physical world, 13 0 - Brabma-vaivarta-purana, 60
33, i4i;prakrti and, 131, 133; sadhani Brahman(s), 58, 211-12, 220-21, 249; de
and, 136, 141? Sarasvaa and, 134?Siva fined, 282
and, 134, 141; Tantrasara and, 136, 139 brahman, 21,55,59-60, 82,126; defined,
40; Tripura-sundari and, 131? as Vamana, 282; Kali and, 76, 86, 90?Lalita and, 5;
255^23 \ as Varaha, 25 5 A2 \Visnu and, nirguna, 105. See also reality; s'abda
21, 134? worship of, 46, 143? yantra of, brahman
136-40; yoni, 141; yoni p u jd and, 248 Brahmani, 32
Bhuvanesvari-bhairavi, 172 brahmarandhra, 28
Bbuvanesvari-stotra, 131 Brahmastra, 199
bija(s), 53,88; defined, 281. S ee also seed Brahmavidya, 60
syllables Brahmaydmala, 96
bija mantras, 132-36; defined, 281. See also Brhaddharma-purdna, 22, 56
seed mantras Brhasp.ili, 222
bindus, 121, 126-27, 135—37, 139-40, 242; Brhatkalhamanjari, 151
defined, 282 Buddha, 93, 96-97, 106, 109, 209-12; as
bird symbolism, 197* also cranes; crows avatdra of Visnu, 2 5 5112 5; Laksmi as,
Biroba, 2 5 5 A 9 2551123; Matarigi as, 255 A 2
blessings, 6, 57, 172, 225, 237l worldly, huddhi, 60
174,185-86,198. See also boons Buddhirupa, 60
blood, 7, 32, 63,149; Bhairavi and, 11,167, Buddhism, 205, 250, 2 7 5 A2, 2 7 8 A9,
171; Chinnamasta and, 11, 144? 14 7?15 5? 27 9 I,5 5 - Chinnamasta in, 146, 161-63;
157"58, l6o; Chinnamunda and, l6 l- lotuses in, 225; Matarigi in, 209-12,
62; Dhumavati and, l 80; Kali and, 21, 217; tantric, 250; Tara in, 92-100, IO5,
67, 70-71, 73-74, 78, 80-81, 89, 149, 108-9
159?Lalita and, 5; Tara and, 100. S e e
also menstrual blood Caitanya, 241
blood offerings, 7, 50, 53"54? 147? 151? Caitanya-bhairavi, 172
158, 171? 238-40; to Bagalamukhi, 50, cakra(s), 47-49, 57, 126, 244;
207; to Chinnamasta, 50, 5 4 ? 147?to Bhuvanesvari and, 47"4 8 , 136; Chinna
Dhumavati, l86; to goddesses, 151? 15^, masta and, 159-60; defined, 282; Laksmi
238-40; in Hinduism, 151, 238-40; to and, 48; lotus, 1 5 9 sakti, 75? Tara and,
KaU, 7,50, 54,70-71; Tantrasara and, 100-101; Tripura-sundari and, 120; in
24O; to Tara, 50, 54 ?100, n o ; at yantras, 138. S eea lso Sri cakra
Tarapith, 108. See also bali calcitras, 18, 33
INDEX
Camunda (Camunda-devi), 16, 32, 35?4 4 ? and, 161, 238; Tantrasdra and, 163;
171 temples to, 50, 147, 164-65; worship
Camunda-kaii, 75 of; 46, 108, 150, 163-66; yantra of; 139,
Cdmundd-tantra, 14 163; yoni p u jd and, 248
Canda, 32, 71, 180, 267II7 Chinnamunda, 161-62
Candalas, 70, 202, 211- 13, 217-18; chwasas, 218
defined, 282 Cina-tara, 97
Canddlikd (Tagore), 212 Cintpumi, 2 6 9 A 0
Candamati, 164 citdsddhand, 234
Candanayika, 148 color: Bagalamukhi's yellow, 193, 198-99,
Candesvari, 164 208, 221; Kali's black, 9, 87, 119; yugas,
Candi, 171 198
Candika, 117, 148, 204 consciousness, 75, 206, 251 * awakened,
Caral-devT-raati, 15- l6 241-445 Bagalamukhi and, 47s Bhairavl
cetand, 60 and, 47,169-70,172; false, 87-88, 163
Cheating Death, 93 (see also mdyd); Kali and, 47, 79, 87-90,
Chinnamasta, 2, 11,14? 20, 25? 29?35? 112; Kamala and, 4 7? 232; mantras and,
39, 41, 44-45, 57, 60, 144-66, 186, 60; sddhakas and, 240, 246, 2$i;sddband
220, 253m, 2571184; as avatdras, 21, and, I70? severed heads and, 240;
14 9 ?Bhairavl and, 164; blood and, 1 1 , spiritual, 160; stages of, 4 6-49, 57;
144, 147, 155, 157-58, 160; blood of states of, 28, 30, 51, 63? 82; Tara and,
ferings to, 50, 54? 147?in Buddhism, 47? 104? Tripura-sundari and, 112
146,161-63; cakmsand, 159-60; corpses Consort(s): goddesses as, 62; Kali as, 63?
and, 202, 206; cosmic order and, 1 4 9 ” 79, 84; Kamala as, 63; Mahavidyas as,
50; cremation fires and, 244? cremation 62; Tara as, 63
grounds and, 157, 233; death and, 1 5 7 control: Bagalamukhi and, 196-99, 206;
58, 244? defined, 282; as demon slayer, Matarigi and, 220-21
21, 149-50, 155, 267n7; dhydna mantras corpses, 7, 24, 63, 164, 202, 233-38, 240,
of, 144? 154? Durga and, 149?fertility 246; Bagalamukhi and, 14, 201-2, 206,
and, 147? frightening nature of, 37? 55? 233; Bhairavl and, n, 167, 171, 202;
146, 164; gunas and, 42; hair o£ II, 83, Chinnamasta and, 202, 206; Dhumavatl
144? history of, 144? 14^; hymns to, 5, and, 180, 182, 233; Kali and, 67, 70, 78,
146-48, 154-55, 157, 159- 164; iconog 88, 202, 206, 233; Mahadevi and, 43;
raphy 146, 150-51, 154-55, l 5 7 - 6S mantras and, 238; Matarigi and, 202,
illustrations, 1 2 , 1 4 5 ?15^, 1 5 &> 1 &5 >Kali 209, 233; reality and, 202; sddhakas and,
and, 80,149? Kama and, 11,144? 1 5 4 “ 240-41, 245; sadhana and, 233-34; Tara
57, 159-60, 243; kundalini and, 159-62; and, 9, 96, 98, 100, 102-3, °8< >
lotuses and, 11, 144? 154"55> 1575 mantra 202, 206, 233, 245; atTaraplth, 153;
of, 157, 163; meditation on, 163; as Tripura-sundari and, 112, 117, 233. See
Narasimha, 2 5 5 A 3; order in Maha also s 'ava sddhand
vidyas, 9,16, 23, 253114, 54 5n n 8 „,u ,
cosmic functions, 5, 28, 41-4 2, 87, 141,
12,15, 255a 129,30; origin myths ofj
159, 246; Bhairavl and, 169-71, 174~75;
147_50, 241j as Parasurama, 255 A 2;
Bhuvanesvari and, 131, 13 3 " 3 5! Kamala
Parvati and, 147"495 prototypes ofj
and, 232; Mahavidyas and, 41-42, 229;
144-47; Rati and, 11, 144, 154-57,
Tripura-sundari and, 117,120
159-60, 243-44; reality and, 157, 163;
cosmic order, 6, 20-21, 32, 34~35, 38, 62,
self-decapitation of; 146-55, 157, 162,
121, 202; Bagalamukhi and, 195?
244? severed heads and, 144? 151? 160,
Bhuvanesvari and, 134? Chinnamasta
238; sexual intercourse and, n, 144?
and, 149-50; Tripura-sundari and, 117,
148-49, 154-57, 166, 241, 244; sexu
122. See also dharma
ality ofj 146; shrines to, 164-65; Siva
cosmic roles, 21, 227, 230, 248
and, 11, 148-49, 156-57, 244; skulls
cosmic serpent, 247* also Ananta
cosmology, 30? 86, 120,125-26 Dattdtreya-tantra, 56
cosmos, 29-30, 51, 53, 89, 125-26; death, 6-7, 86, 157-58, 234, 251; Chinna-
goddesses and, 158; Kali and, 84) 9^5 masta and, 157"58, 2445 Kali and, 78
lotuses as, 140, 2255 mantras and, 135? 79, 84, 89-90? 234? 2445 meditation on,
Sricakra and, 127; yantras and, 137"39, 2345 Nirrti and, 178; sexual imagery
and, 244"465 symbohc, 52,54, 88, 235,
cranes, 19 7? 2135 Bagalamukhi and, n, 14, 240-41; Tara and, 94? no>244* See
196-97, 207-8 also maraud
creation, 41? 87-88, 142; Laksmi and, demon slayer(s), 6, 21, 27, 34, 38, 62, 202;
23O-3I5 Tara and, IO55 yantras and, 139- Bagalamukhi as, 38, 2075 Bhairavi as, 11;
See also cosmic functions Bhuvanesvari as, 1345 Chinnamasta as
cremation fires, 88, 222; Chinnamasta 27> A9"5OA 55> 2° 7 "7 i Dhumavati as,
and, 2445 Dhumavati and, 182, l86, 38,187; Durga as, 5,18, 30, 33“35, 71,
190; Kali and, 100; Tara and, n, 100, 149, 230, 278n2i; Kali as, 21, 27, 38,
102-4, ICI8> 110> 244 74, 79, 8l; Kamala as, 23O; Laiita as, 5;
cremation grounds, 7, 63, 146, 202, 206, Tara as, 21; Tripura-sundari as, II6-I7,
233-38, 240, 245, 251, 2731146; 119; Visnu as, 230
Bagalamukhi and, 1995 Bhairavi and, demons, 20, 30, 32, 35, 55, 148-49, 179,
I7I5 Chinnamasta and, 157, 2335 202; Bagalamukhi and, 194-95?J97>
Dhumavati and, 176,182, 202, 206, 202, 206-8; Kali and, 7O-7I, 73; Matari
233; Kali and, 9, 67-68, 70, 78, 80, gi and, 209. Sec also specific names
82-84, 88, 233, 244; Matarigi and, 214, destruction: Bhairavi and, I7O-7 2; Dhuma
221-22; sadhakas and, in, 234-35; sava vati and, 186, 208; Nirrti and, 178;Tara
sadhana and, 202, 205; Tara and, 97, and, IO3-5? 1 1 8 S* ic functions
100, 102, n o, 233; atTarapith, 108, m, Devi, 243
r53 devi, 20; defined, 282
crows, 197, 2 2 2; Alaksmi and, 179; Devi-bhdgavata-purdna, 35-36, 60,131, 134
Dhumavati and, 11, 176, 179-82, 190, Devi-mdhdtmya, 30, 32-35, 60, 71, 116,
1975 Jyestha and, 178 134, 149, 230, 278n2i; defined, 282
cults, 495 Bhuvanesvari's, 1315 devotional poems; atTarapith, 109"10
Dhumavati's,i76; Kali's, 49 > 62, 68; Dhanapati, 138
Kamala's, 49, 62; in Tantrism, 235, 249; Dhara, 119
Tara's, 49, 93; Tripura-sundari's, 49, Dharma, 226
114,122 dharma, 27, 62, 119, 141, 187, 201, 226;
defined, 282; Durga and, 62; Sri-Laksml
Daldni, 48; Chinnamasta and, 14 4 ? and, 227; Visnu and, 227- See also cosmic
147-48, 151, 160 order
ddkinis, 236 Dhrti, 138
Daksa, 22-27, 73 Dhumavatl, 2, II, 14-15, 29, 34, 39-40,
daksina, 86-87; defined, 282 44, 56, 60,176-92, 220, 228, 252, 253m,
Daksina-bhairava, 87 257^84; Bagalamukhi and, 195-96, 208;
Daksinacara, 48 blood and, l80; blood offerings to, l86;
Daksina-kali, 15, 75, 81-82, 86-88, 90, boons and, 176, l8 7 _88; corpses and,
100, 103, 202, 259m l80, 182, 233! cremation fires and, 182,
Daksinamurti, 170 186, 190; cremation grounds and, 176,
Damara-tantra, 56 182, 202, 206, 233; crows and, n, 176,
danda, 138 179-80,182,190, 197; cult, 176; defined,
Darmadra, 94 282; as demon slayer, 38, 187; destruc
dorian, 18, 110, 115; defined, 282 tion and, l86, 208; dhydna mantras ofj
Daruka, 73 5, 176, 188, 190; frightening nature of,
dasamahavidya, 58-59 37, 43-44, 55, 164. 176, 180, 183, 192,
Dasamahavidyas, 16-17 208; gunas and, 42; hair o^ n, 83, 176,
INDEX
Dhumavati (continued) myths of Mahavidyas and, 22, 30"35?

l88, 190-91; hymns to, 5, 181-82, 185, 38; Puja, 18, 34, no, 230, 249; tempi
187,190-92; illustrations, rj, 17,177, to, l 6 , 164; Tripura-sundari and, ll6 -
18 8 , 18 0 , iff, inauspiciousness of, 8l, 17; vdhanaot, 187; in yantras, 138
164, 178, 180-85, 188, 192, 252; KaU Durgd-cdlisd, 15
and, 8l, 184; Kama and, 191; Kamala Durga Saptasati temple, l6 , 34? 83
and, 231; knowledge and, 183, 185; Uons Durgama, 35
and, 187; lotuses and, l88; as Matsya, Duryodhana, 84
2551123; order in Mahavidyas, 9, l6 , 23, Dussaha, 179
25311,, 25411118,9,n,i2,i5, 2551^29,30; DvaparaYuga, 198
in Nepal, offerings to, l8 5 _86;
origin myths o£ 39? l8l-82;pa/2Ca tattva Eck, Diana, 6l
ritual and, 184, 192; Parvati and, 187; elements of creation, 29, 52, 79, 88,126
portraits of, 187-92; prototypes o£ 176— 131, 133, 198
8l; Rati and, 191 j r°le °f? 186-87; sad- elephants: Kamala and, 14, 62, 223, 229
hand and, 183; Sati and, 89, 180-82, Matarigi and, 218; Sri and, 225-26; as
186-87; sexual intercourse and, 191? symbols of fertiUty, 229
sexuality of, 190-92; siddhis and, 57, 183;
Siva and, 180-82, 195? skulls and, 176, fasting, 216
l8o; temples to, 15? 50? l85"87? tongue females. Seewomen
of, 188; vdhanas of; 182,197; as Vamana, fertiUty, 62, 94? 147? Chinnamasta and,
255n22; Visnu and, 21, 180; worship ofj 147? elephants as symbols of, 229; Ka
46, 108, 183-84, 187, 208; yantra of, mala and, 5? 4 1? Laksmi and, 228- 29;
189/ yoni, l88; yoni p u jd and, 248 Mahavidyas and, 62; Sri and, 225-26;
Dhurvasa, l86 Tripura-sundari and, 118-19
dhyana, 105; defined, 282. See also fire: Bhairavi and, 169-71
meditation fire offerings, l66, 221-22
d hyana mantras, 1, 5, 14-15, 53* Bagala
mukhi's, 193, 201, 208; Bhairavl's, 167, gada, 138
172, 174; Bhuvanesvari's, 129; Chinna- Gagana, 137
masta's, 14 4 ?154 ? defined, 282; Dhuma- Gagana-rekha, 138
vati's, 5, 176, 188-90; KaU's, 5, 67-68, Gaja-laksmi, 62, 229; defined, 282
81-82, 89; Kamala's, 62, 223, 228-29; gandharvas, 118, 236; defined, 282
Matarigi's, 209, 219; sexual intercourse Ganesa, l8, 138, 207; defined, 282
in, 241; Tara's, 98, 100, no;Tripura- Gariga, 15, 60-6l
sundari's, 112-13 garbhagrha, 15, 115, 197; defined, 282
Dhyanu, 152 Garuda, 207
Dlvall (DipavaU), 1 8 ,179?228 Garuda-purdna, 70.
divya, 2$ynj2 Gauri, 73, 117, 151, 169, 230; defined,
Divydvaddna, 209 282. See also Parvati
Dogdhri, 137 Gayatri, 137; mantra, 126, 135-36
Draupadi, 84 Ghora, 137, 230
Drstisamharakarinl, 164 Ghoraghurghumadini, 164
Durga, 5-6, l8 , 36, 39?Bhuvanesvari and, Ghoramantrayuta, 164
134? Chinnamasta and, 149?defined, Ghorarava, 164
282; as demon slayer, 5, l8, 30? 33"35? Ghorasattva, 164
71, 149, 230, 278n2i; dharmaand, 62; Ghora-tara, 171
hymns to, 15; illustrations, 1 0 ,3 1 , 55? Ghorattattvamayi-devi, 164
72; KaU and, 71-73, 79, 82; knowledge goddess festivals, 18. S ee also specific
and, 60; Laksmi and, 230; Uons and, names
187; in Mahavidyas, 14? 253114; in Nepal, goddesses, 14, 20, 36, 62, 236; bird sym
2 56n5i; and Nine Durgas, 40; origin boUsm and, 197? blood offerings to,
151, 15^5 238-4°;i! Chinnamasta Hara-vallabha, 101
prototypes, 146-47? as consorts, 62; head offerings, I5I-54? 238
cosmos and, 158; independence of, Hiltebeitel, Alf, 84
37-40, 169, 229; knowledge and, 60; Himalaya, 73, 213; defined, 282
nude, 14 6 - 4 7 j in origin myths of Hinduism, 7, 40, 58, 6l, 102, l60, 184,
Mahavidyas, 32, 35?reality of, 128; 236, 250; blood offerings in, 151, 238
relationship with worshiper, 3"5? 54? 40; death imagery and, 2345 meditation
59; sacred places and, 6l; sid d h is and, and, 200-201; mythology and, 22, 34,
48,56; as sisters, 40; superiority over 230; Tara in, 96-IO3
gods, 26, 36, 149> 195> 246; tantric, 50, Hiranyakasipu, ll6
76, 114; worship o£ 3-5. See also specific homa, 221-22. See also fire offerings
names Homages to the Twenty-One Taras, 94
gods, 5, 21, 24, 30, 32, 35, 41, 236; Bhairavi hrim, 132-36
and, 169; Sri-LaksmI and, 226; subor human sacrifices, 151? 238
dinate to Mahavidyas, 63? 229; Tripura- hymns, 3, 5"6, 15, 53, 2295 to Bagala
sundari and, 115, 117, 229, 246; in mukhi, 199, 201; to Bhairavi, 167-75;
yantras, 140. See also specific names to Bhuvanesvari, 5, 131, 134? 141"4 2 ;
Gonda, Jan, 58 to Chinnamasta, 5, 146-48, 154—55, 5 7 '
granthis, 159-60 159, 164; to Dhumavati, 5, l8l-8 2, 185,
Great Goddess, 4? 6, 20, 83? 14^5 cosmic 187? I9O-92; to Durga, 15; to Gariga,
functions and, 41 ? forms of, 395 know 15; to Kali, 5?7 5 ?80, 100; to Kamakhya,
ledge and, 60; Tara as, 21; yoni as, 243? 15; to Kamala, 5? 230-31; to Laksmi,
248. See also Mahadevi 230; to Matarigi, 219; to Nirrti, 178; to
Green Tara, 93 Sri, I79, 225; to Tara, 94, 100, 102, 105;
Guhya-kalls, 36, 75, 89, 2 5 9 A at Tarapith, 108; to Tripura-sundari,
Guhyatiguhya-tantra, 20 112,114,117-19. See also specific names;
gunas, 42-43, 87, 126, 133, 231; defined, stotras
282; rajas, 42, 87, 126, 144, 257A2;
sattva, 42-43, 126, 2571172; tamos, 42 iccha, 137
43, 126, 144, 182, 230 iccbas'akti, 121,137
Gundadabbe, 151 iconography: Bagalamukhi's, 1975 Chinna
Guptasddhana-tantra, 248-49 masta's, 146, 150-51, 154-55, '57~a''
gurus, 77, 204, 245; mantras and,3, 5 8 Kali's, 74? 8l-82, 87, 1535 Kamaksi's,
59, 63, 123, i25-26;panca tattva ritual 115; Kamala's, 228- 29; lotuses and, 225;
and, 48, 54, 78; women as, 249» yantras of Mahavidyas, 7, 15-18, 20-21, 39, 62
and,139 63, 240, 243, 246; in Nepal, 190; origin
Gyan Babu, 109- 10 myths ofMahavidyas and, 30? 32_345
skulls and, 1535 Sri-Laksml's, 2275 tantric,
hair, 63, 83-84; Bagalamukhi's, 83; Chinna 76, 93; Tara's, 93, 98, 101, 104, no-n,
masta's, II, 83, 144» Chinnamunda's, 1535 Tripura-sundari's, 112—13
l6l; Dhumavati's, II, 83, 176, l88, 190 idd nidi, 160
91; Jyestha's, 178, l80; Kali's, 9, 67, 78, inauspiciousness, 55, 97, Alaksmi's, 179,
80-81, 83-84, 8$, 89; Sati's, 68; Tam's, Dhumavati's, 8l, 164, 17^, 180-85/88,
9, 96, 98, 100-101, 103; Tripura- 192, 252; Jyestha's, 179; Kali's, 80. See
sundari's, 113,119 also auspiciousness
Haldni, 48 independence: of goddesses, 37“40> 169?
Hall, 2 55112 3 229; ofMahavidyas, 6, 62-63, 79' ” 9 >
Hamsa-kall, 75 of women, 37-38, 79
Hamsesvari-devi, 115 Indra, 32, 345 defined, 282; Sodasi and, 11;
hand gestures, 3? 53- See also mudras Sri-LaksmI and, 226; Tripura-sundari
Hanuman, 34 and, ll6 ; in yantras, 138
Hara-patni, 101 Indrani, 32
306 IN DEX
indriyas, 133,141; defined, 282 and, 7I-73, 79, 82; frightening nature
initiation rites, 235 of. 37- 43- 55- 70, 79- 91- 164, gunas
I sana, 138 and, 42-43; hair o£ 9, 67, 78, 8o-8l,
Isvara, 117 83-84, 89; hymns to, 5, 75, 80, 100;
history of, 70-75! iconography o£ 74?
81-82, 87, 153; illustrations, 12, 60, 72,
Jagaddhatri, 10 5,119 ,134>175>defined, 282 77, 8$, 239; inauspiciousness ofj 80;
Jaganmata, 175
Kamakhya and, 24; Kamala and, 2235
Jalandhara, 121,137 knowledge and, 8 7 -9 0 , 103; as Krsna,
Jalesvari, 105 2551122,23; kula, 232; lingams and, 80;
JambhinI, 35 magical powers and, 56, 70; Mahadevi
ja p a (s), 105,198, 233; defined, 282; mantra, and, 76; mantras of, 75-76; Matarigi
160; sadhana, 3 and, 80-8l, 214, 220; meditation on,
jatd, 100-101, 113, 119 78-79; in Nepal, 108; order in Maha
Jaya, 137, 147, 151; defined, 283 vidyas, 9 ,1 4 ,1 6 , 23,41, 232, 253114,
jiv a , 52; defined, 283
245nn8,9,n,i2,i5, 255 A129,30; origin
jn a n a , 21,137; defined, 283. See also myths of, 68, 735 in origin myths of
knowledge Mahavidyas, 22, 29-30, 32, 36; Parvati
Jnanada, 60 and, 73-74, 79; pollution and, 83-84; as
fndndgni, 88 prakrti, 88; Puja, 18, no; reality and, 30,
jnana sakti, 121, 137 75> 78-79, 83-90; sadhana and, 75, 86
Jvalamukhl Ovalamukhi-devl), 16, 152 90; as sakti, 86; Sati and, 25? 6 8 ,73; sev
Jyestha, 178-81 ered heads and, 9? 67-68, 71, 78, 80,
jyesthd s'akti, 137 87-88, 153* 1585 238; sexual intercourse
and, 67, 74, 79-80, 82, 88, 154, 241,
243-44; Sita and, 73; Siva and, 9? 38,
Kaitabha, 35, 134, 230
62, 67-68, 73-76, 79-82, 86-88, 100,
kaivalya, 42
119-20,149, 243~44,24 a > skulls and,
Kaldni, 48
73, 78, 80, 88-89,3S3. 238; Tantrism
Kala-bhairava, 170
and, 70, 75-79, 86, 90; Tara and, 80,
Kalaratri, 1 7 1 , 23 0
9 2 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 3 , °5i temples to, 1 5 , 4 9 , 6 l ,
Kdlarudra-tantra, 56
7 O - 7 I , 1 0 2 , 1 5 1 ; tongue ofj 6 7 , 7 1 , 8 l -
Kah, 1-2 , 6 -7 , 9, 18, 20, 3 9, 4 4 - 4 5 , 51,
83, 87, 89, 158, l88; Tripura-sundari
5 6 - 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 7 - 9 1 , 1 7 1 , 2 5 3 m , 25 711 84 ;
and, 1 1 7 , 1 1 9 - 2 1 ; Visnu and, 2 1 , 7 6 ; wor
in Astamatrkas, ll6 ; Bagalamukhi and, ship of, 46, 48, 86, 90, 108; yantra of,
8i; Bhuvanesvari and, 134?blood and, 75, 775 y°ni5 80; yonipuja and, 248
21, 67 , 7 O - 7 I , 7 3 - 7 4 , 7 8 , 8 0 - 8 l , 8 9 ,
Kali-bari, 15
149? 159j blood offerings to, 7> 50, 54?
7 O - 7 I ; boons and, 9 , 7 9 , 8 7 , 1 5 1 ; Kalighat,6l, 102; defined, 283
Brahma and, 76; brahm an and, 76, 86, Kalika, 35, 39, 42, 100
90; Camunda-devT and, 16; Chinna Kdlikd-marigal-kdvya, 56
masta and, 80, 149j color of, 9? 87, 119? Kdlikd-purdna, 11, 43, 51-53, 118, 120
consciousness and, 47, 79? 87-90? 112; Katingattuparani, 70, 151
as consort, 63? 79? 84; corpses and, 67? Kali Yuga, 198; defined, 283
70, 78, 88,100, 202, 206, 233; cosmos Kallti, 2 55112 2
and, 84? 90; cremation fires and, 100; Kama (Kama-deva), 112,115, Il8, 172, 247;
cremation grounds and, 9, 67-68, yO, Bagalamukhi and, 201; Chinnamasta
78, 80, 82-84, 88, 233, 244; cults, 49, and, 11, 144, 154-57, 159-60, 243; de
62, 68; death and, 78-79, 84, 89-90, fined, 283; Dhumavati and, 191; Tara
234? 244? defined, 283; as demon slayer, and, 243-44;-" yantras, 138, 140, 243
21, 27, 38, 74, 79, 8l; demons and, 70 kdm a, 201; defined, 283
71, 73; Dhumavati and, 8l, 184, dhyana Kdmadd-tantra, 76
mantras ofj 5>67-68, 8l-82, 895 Durga Kdmadhenu-tantra, 42-43
Kamakala-kall, 75 Kama-matahgi, 222
Kamakald-vildsa, 121 Kama-pisacI, 205
Kamakautukakarini, 157 Karpurddi-stotra, 78-79
Kamakhya (Kamakhya-devi), 16, 2 54m 5, Kartik, l80
defined, 2835 hymns to, 15; Kali and, 245 Kartikeya, l8, 32
in Mahavidyas, 14? Sodasi and, 175 temple Kashmir Saivism, 90, 242
to, 17, 96-97, 165; yoni p u jd and, 248 Kathdsaritsdgaru, 238
Kdmdkhyd-cdlisd, 15 Kaulacara, 48-49
Kdmdkhyd-tantra, 76, 248 Kauldvali-tantra, 246
Kamaksa, 35 Kaumari, 32
Kamaksi, 115 Kauri-bai, 2 1 4 , 2 1 7
Kamala, 2, I4 -I5, 29, 35, 37, 39, 42, 4 4 Kausiki, 7 3
45, 48, 62, 131, 174, 223-32, 2571184; KesI, 2 6 7 1 1 7
auspiciousness of, 225, 23O; Bhairavi khadga, 138
and, 2315 boons and, 2235 consciousness kinnaras, 236
and, 47, 232; as consort, 635 cosmic klim, 157
functions and, 232; cults, 49? 62; de knowledge, 44"4 6 , 59"60, 232; Dhuma
fined, 2835 as demon slayer, 23O; Dhu vatl and, 183,1855 Durga and, 60; god
mavati and, 2315 dhydna mantras o£ 62, desses and, 60; Great Goddess and, 60;
223, 228-29; elephants and, 14, 62, Kali and, S j-tyO , 1035 Tara and, 108.
223, 229; fertility and, 5, 4 1; frightening See alsojridn a; vidya
nature ofj 230, 232; gunas and, 42; Komaldsana, 234
hymns to, 5? 230-315 iconography ofj Kopatura, 164
228-295 illustrations, 25, 257; Kali and, Korravai, 146-47
223; lotuses and, 14, 223, 229; magical Kotaraksi, 171
powers and, 38; Mataiigi and, 2315 as Kotavi, 146
Matsya, 2 5 5 A 2; order in Mahavidyas, Kripal, Jeffrey, 8l-82
9, 16, 23, 41, 232, 253114, 254A8,9, kriyd, 137
11, 12,155 offerings to, 545 r°le in Maha kriyas'akti, 121,137
vidyas, 228-32; Sari and, 230; Sita and, Krodha Bhairava, 148
229; Siva and, 229-30, 232; skulls and, Krodharupa, 164
230; Tantrism and, 228; temples to, 6l; Krodhini, 164
Visnu and, 21, 39, 62, 229-30; worship Krsna, 20-21, 34, 157, 207; defined, 283;
ofj 465 yoni, 17; yonipu/d and, 248. See Kali as, 255nn22,23
also Laksmi; Sri Krsnacarya, l6 l
Kdmaratna, 56 Krsnananda Agamavagisa, 202
Kamarupa, 121, 137,157, 165; defined, 283 krsnapaksa, 121
Kamesvara, 113 Krta Yuga, 148, 193, 19®
Kamesvari, 112, ll8 , 157,172. See also Ksemendra, 151
Tripura-sundari Kubera, 138, 226; defined, 283
Kamesvari-bhairavi, 172 Kubjikd-tantra, 248
Kami-devi, 138 kula(s), 48, 204; Kali, 232; Sri, 232; de
Kamini, 2 54m 5 fined, 283
Kariisa, 34 kula marga, 97
Kanakhala, l6 l Kuldrnava-tantra, 244
Kanti, 138 Kumari, 117
Kapali, 23 0 kumaripujd, 248-49
Kapalika, 153? 2475 defined, 283* S ee also kundalini, 47-48, 57, 136, 160, 244;
Siva Bhairavl and, 169 5Chinnamasta and,
Karalika, 137 159-62; defined, 283;sadhana, 47 ;s'akti,
Karalini, 138 47, 49, 136,159, 241, 243-44;
karma, 89, 104, 108, 123, 237 47-48; yoga, 47, 49, 115, 121, 159
3o 8 IN DEX
Kurma, 255nn22,23 lotus cakra, 159

Kurukulla. S e e Tara Kurukulla lunar phases. See titbis
kvaca, 15, 102; defined, 283
Madan, 194-95, 197, 202
Laksmana Desikendra, 167 Madanatura, 154
Laksmi, 14, 18, 40-41, 6o-6l, 224, 226, Madhu, 35, 134, 230
246; Alaksmi and, 179 ?i*1 Astamatrkas, Madonmattasvarupini, 157
ll6 ; Bhuvanesvari and, 134? as Buddha, magical powers, 25, 27, 29-30, 34, 37-38,
255n2 3; cakras a n d 48; creation and, 51, 55-57; Bagalamukhi and, 37“38, 43,
230-31; defined, 283; Durga and, 230; 57,197, 199-201, 205, 220-21; Kali and,
fertility and, 228-29; hymns to, 230; 70; Kamala and, 38; Mahavidyas and,
Matarigi and, 213; temples to, 15, 4 9 ? 55-57; Matarigi and, 220-22; sddhakas
6l; Tripura-sundari and, 112; vdhanas and, 233-34. See also siddhis
of, 1975 worship of, 108, 228; in yantras, Mahabhdgavata-purdna, 22-26, 46, 60-61,
138. See also Kamala; §ri 68, 220,235, 2541114
Laksmi-tantra, 227 Mahabhairava, 101
Lalita, 4, 5 ,10 , 112, ll6 , 119, 122; defined, Mahabharata, 60, 84, 217
283* See also Tripura-sundari Mahabhayarikari-devl, 164
Lalitd-sahasrandma, 5, 58, 60, 112, 117-19, Mahabhima, 164
121; defined, 283 mahdbhutas, 131. See also bhuta(s)
Lanka, 34 Mahabuddhi, 60
left-handed tantric worship, 46, 54"55? Mahacanda, 164
78, in, 251, 2571172; of Bhairavi, l66; Mahacina-tara, 95"98
of Chinnamasta, l6 6 ; of Dhumavati, Mahadev, 82
208; ofTara, 97, 101, 106, IO9-IO. See Mahadevi, 3, 30?35"36, 38, 41?43?corPs es
also paths in tantric worship and, 43? defined, 283; Kali and, 76; lions
leftover offerings, 54? 209? 213-17, and, 43?lotuses and, 43? Mahavidyas as
2581187. See also uccista forms o£ 18-22, 6l; reaUty and, 21-22,
liminality, 206, 237-38, 247; KaU and, 36; women as, 246. See also Great
89-9°? skulls and, 154! Tara and, 103 Goddess
Urigams, 244? Bagalamukhi and, 201, 208; Mahakala, 67, 185
Kali and, 80; Siva and, 17~l8, 115, l8 6 - Mahdkdla-samhitd, 253m
87, 235; Tripura-sundari and, 115 MahakaU, 41-42, 75, 78, 89, 100, 231, 248
Linga-purdna, 73, 178 Mahalaksmi, 41"42, 2 j 6 A
lions, 24, 207; Dhumavati and, 187; Mahamaya, 41, 131, 148, 230
Durga and, 187? Mahadevi and, 43 Mahamaya-vijayavahinl-tara, 95
Lokapalas, 138 Mahdnirvdna-tantru, 42, 48, 76
lokas, 129 mahant, 207; defined, 283
Lomamansaprapujita, 164 Mahaplthas, 137
lotus(es), 24, 47? 57? 244,247; Bagala Mahapralaya, 134, 171, 185
mukhi and, 193? 201; Bhairavi and, 169; Mahasakti, 148, 230
Bhuvanesvari and, 129, 137-38, 141-42; Mahasarasvati, 41"42
Brahma and, 142; in Buddhism, 225; mahdsukha, 47
cakra and, 126-27; Chinnamasta and, n, Mabdtantra, 134
144, 154-55, '-57; as cosmos, 140, 225; mahavidya, 57-60; defined, 283
Dhumavati and, l88; iconography and, Mahavidyadhari, 211-12
225; Jyestha and, 178; Kamala and, 14, Mahavidyas: as antimodels, 6; as consorts,
223, 229; Mahadevi and, 43? sexual im 62; cosmic functions and, 41"42, 229;
agery and, 242; Sodasi and, 11; Sri and, defined, 283; Durga in, 14, 60, 253114;
225; in Tantrism, 140; Tara and, 98, 100, frightening nature of, 36-37, 55, 63; as
245; Tripura-sundari and, 112, 115, 142; a group, 9 -63, 234? iconography of, 7,
in yantras, 140, 204 15-18, 20-21, 3*9, 62-63, *4°> *43> 24 A;
INDEX
illustrations, 10,12, 13, 24, 31, 33; inde Mantra-mahodadhih, 98, 139, 163, 166,
pendence ofj 6, 62-63, 79> 229 5 interre 233-34,238. =45; defined, 284
lationships among, 3 8 - 49 5 Kamakhya m drana, 25, 56,199, 207; defined, 284. See
in, 145 literary contexts of, 1 4 - 155 also death
magical powers and, 55"575 Mahadevi Matariga, 209-12, 220
as form of, 18-22, 6 l j model for, 55 Matarigi, 2, 14-15, 29, 35, 39, 44, l86,
moods of, 435 number of, 145 order of, 209-22, 228, 252, 253m, 2571184, 258
9-14, 16-17, 4J> *3‘ > 253114, 2541A8,9, 11875 boons and, 213- 145 as Buddha,
11,12,15,25 5 r,I,29 > 3° 5 origin myths ofj 255n22; in Buddhism, 209-12, 217;
6, 15, 22-38, 63, 79, 196; shrines to, control and, 220-21; corpses and, 202,
1655 temples to, l6 -l8 , 5^5 worship 209, 233; cremation grounds and, 214,
of, 6-7,14, 25, 46, 49-55, 108, 136; 221-22; defined, 284; demons and, 209;
yantras of, 13 6- 4 0. S ee also specific dhydna mantras ofj 209, 219; elephants
names and, 2l8; frightening nature of, 375
Mahesvari, 32, 36 gunas and, 42; hymns to, 219; illustra
Mahl, 119 tions , 1 3 , 2 1 0 , 215, 2 1 0 ; Kali and, 8 0 -
Mahisa, l8, 33 8l, 214, 220; Kamala and, 231; Laksmi
Mahisamardini, 18, 33, 2 5 6 Al; denned, and, 213; low castes and, 217-20; magical
283 powers and, 56, 220-22; mantra of,
Mahisasura, 35, ll6 , 134, 278n2i 216, 220-22; offerings to, 209, 220
Mahoccusma, 137 22; order in Mahlvidyas, 9, 16, 23,
Maihar-devi, 152 253114, 25411118,n,i2,i5, 255 A9 ;
mait(s), 26-27 origin myths ofj 212-14, 21 7 _18 , 241;
m aithuna, 218, 243, 247; defined, 283. See Parvati and, 213- 15, 217-18; pollution
also sexual intercourse
and, 7, 80-81, 214-18; sadhana and,
220-22; Satl and, 218; sexual inter
Maitripa, 2 7 5 a 2
makdra, 243
course and, 218; Siva and, 2 13 - 15 >
Mdldtimddhava, 74
217-18; skulls and, 209, 238; Tantrasara
male deities. S e e gods and, 220, 222; Tripura-sundari and,
214; vdhanas ofj 197; Visnu and, 21,
male-female tensions, 37-38, 76, 88, 103,
213; worship ofj 46, 108, 215-16, 220
140, 202
22; yantra of, 221-22; yoni, 17; yoni
Manasara-s'ilpa-s'dstra, 70
pujd and, 248
m anaalas, 51-54, 242; defined, 284
Marigala, 137 MatariginI, 2 5 4m 5
marigal kdvyas, 56, 70; defined, 284 Mati, 60, 138
manipura-cakra, 48 Matrkas, 32, 7 1 ,1 4 6 ,1495 defined, 284
Mantbdna-bhairava-tantra, 249 mdtrkds, 153
mantra(s), 3, 14, 51-53, 58-60, 172, 211, Matsya, 21, 255 A 2,23
234? 247-48; Bagalamukhi's, 198; mdyd, 88, 141, 163, 195, 246; defined,
BhaimvTs, 172; Bhuvanesvari's, 132 284* See also consciousness: false
36, 139, Chinnamasta's, 157, 163> con Mayd-tantra, 248
sciousness and, 60; corpses and, 238; Medha, 138
cosmos and, 1355 defined, 2845 gurus meditation, 57? 88, 200-201; on Bhairavi,
and, 3, 58-59, 63, 123, \25-26Japa. 170; on Chinnamasta, 1635on death,
l60; Kali's, 75-76; Mahavidyas and, 63; 234; on Kali, 78-79* See also dhydna
Matarigi's, 216, 220-22; reality and, 125 Mekhala, l6 l
26, 135; sadhana, 63; in sava sadhana, menstrual blood, 7, l6 0 - 6 l, 172, 2l6
203-5; siddha, 221; siddhis and, 56; sound Milarepa, 162-63
and, 63, 135-36; Srividya, 122-28, 135; Minaksi, 114 A
Tara's, 95"96, IO5-6, 245; Tripura- MohinI, 35
sundari's, II4, ll6 , 120, 122-28. See m oksa, 25, 51, 76, 163, 201; defined, 284
also d hy dn a mantras Molaram, 187
INDEX
moods: of Mahavidyas, 43 nourishment, I50, 158, I7O-7I

mudrds, 3, 53, 87, 172, 185; defined, 284 Nrsirhha, 255 A 2
mukti, 51, 163; defined, 284 nydsa, 90, 160, 172, 247; bdna, 172;
mulddbdra cakra, 47-49, 136, 159; defined, defined, 284
284
Munda, 32, 71, l80, 2 6 7 A offerings, 50, 52-54? 243? to Bagalamukhi,
Mundamdla-tantra, 20, 100, 253114, 198-200; to Dhumavati, 185-86; to Ka
*571184 mala, 54; to Matarigi, 209, 220-22; to
munddsanas, 153 Nirrti, 178; in sava sadhana, 204; to Tara,
miirti, 139; defined, 284 95 - S e e a lso blood offerings; fire offer
Muttusvami, 114 ings; head offerings; leftover offerings
mystics, 240-41 origin myths: Bagalamukhi's, 193"96? 202;
Bhuvanesvari's, 129-31 ? Chinnamasti's,
nddis, 115, 160; defined, 284. See also 147-50, 241; Dhumavati's, 39, 181-82;
specific types Durga's, 22, 30-35, 38; KaH's, 68, 73; of
ndgas, 236 Mahavidyas, 6, 15, 22-38, 63, 79, 196;
Naina-devi, 15 Matarigi's, 2 12 -14 ,21 7 18 , 241; Tara's,
ndm astotras, 15, 62, 75, 181, 187; defined, 9 3 , 10 1- 2, 10 6 ; ofTarapidi, IO8-9
284
Nanda-devi, 26-27 padma, 138
Nandydvarta-tantra, 219 Padmanidhi, 13 8
Narada, 116, 119 Padmasambhava, l6 l
Ndrada-pancardtra, 14,147 Padmavati, 2 53n4
Naramansapriyanitya, 164 Paksa-raja, 207
Nararaktapriyasada, 164 Pal, P., 150
Narasiriiha, 20, 2 25 A3 Palaladipriyanitya, 164
Narasimhl, 32,230 panca mahdbhuta, 88
Narayana, 174 p a nca m akdra ritual. See p a nca tattva ritual
Narayani, 169 Pancamukha-siva, 174
Navaratra, l8. S ee also Durga Puja panca preta, 71
Navavaranakirthis (Muttusvami), 114 Pancaratra, 227, 230
Nepal, 183, 2l8, 249j Bagalamukhi in, 207; panca tattva ritual, 46, 48, 54-55, 78, 218,
Bhairavi in, 167, 171; Dhumavati in, 241,243-44, 248, 251; defined, 284;
187-90; Durga in, 2 5 6 Al; iconography Dhumavati and, 184, 192; gurus and, 48,
in, 190; Kali in, 108; Tripura-sundari in, 54, 78; sexual intercourse and, 46, 54,
78,101, 241, 244; women and, 247
”5
Nigama-kalpataru, 76 Parabrahmasvarupiru, 175
Nilakantha, 10 6, 108 Parama, 175
Nila-sarasvatl, 98 paramdtman, 135 •
Nila-tantra, 246 Paramesvari, 175
Nine Durgas, 40 Parasurama, 255A122,23
nirguna, 87,112; defined, 284 Parasurdma-kalpasutra, 174
nirgunabrahm an, 105; defined, 284. See pardvidyd, 60
also brahm an Parvati, 60; Bagalamukhi and, 195-96;
Nirrti, 138? 178-81; defined, 284 Chinnamasta and, 147" 4 9 ? defined, 284;
Niruttara-tantra, 14, 76 Dhumavati and, 187; Kah and, 7 3"74?
nirvana, 93; defined, 284 79; Matarigi and, 213-15, 217-18; in
Nirvana-sakti, 48 origin myths of Mahavidyas, 22, 27-29?
Nirvdna-tantra, 76 36, 79; Siva and, 76, 196
Nisumbha, 30, 34"35, 7 h 74, 134, 149, 230 pdsa, 138
Nitya, 137 Pascimamnaya Kaula, 249
Nityahnna, ll8 pasu, 87, 2571172
INDEX
Pasupati, 174 50, 51; yoni, 243, 248. See also Durga
paths in tantric worship, 4 6 ,4 8 "4 9 >55> Puja; Kali Puja; worship
l l 8, 166. S ee also left-handed tantric pujdpaddhati, 198
worship puranas, 30, defined, 285. See also specific
p a d vratd, 6, 79; defined, 284 titles
phalastotras, 229 puras'carna, 220
Phetkarini, 56
Pbetkdrini-tantra, 56
rurascaryarnava, 222
Picchild-tantra, 76
purification, 52-53, no, 139, 216, 243
Pirigaldnddl, 160 Pumagiri, 121,137
pis'dcas, 73, 236; defined, 284 purnim d, 45
Pitambara (Pitambara-devi), 193?1 9 4 >19^, purusa, 5, 88
198 j defined, 284* See also Bagalamukhi Puspayudhadhara, 157
pitbas, 17, 61, 109, 115, 121, 137, 186, 221, Pusri, 138
247; adi, 17; defined, 284. See also sdkta Radha, 229
pitbas rahasya, 15
pollution, 6-7, 235, 247, 251; Kali and, Raja-matarigl, 219, 2 7 4 A
83-84; Matarigi and, 7, 8o-8l, 214-18; Raja-matariginI, 214
Tara and, 1035 women and, 84 Rajarajesvari, 4 > 10,112, 115? H 7> H 9 j
Pore, 218 defined, 285* S ee alsJl Tripura-sundari
possession, 19 8, 204 rajas, 42; defined, 285; guna, 42, 87, 126,
Pracandacandika, 148 144, 25,n72
practitioner. See adepts; sddhaka(s) Raldnl, 48
Pradhana, 133 Raksa-kall, 89
Prahlada, ll6 rdksasas, 236
Prajnaparamita, 96 Rakta, 137
Prajnatmika, 60 Raktabija, 32, 35, 71, 134
Prakrti, 133, 211-12, 217 Raktapanaparayana, 164
prakrti, 139; Bhuvanesvari and, 131, 133; Rama, 21, 34, 73, ll6 ; defined, 285; Tara
defined, 285; Kali as, 88; Lalita as, 5 as, 25511112 2,2 3
pralaya, 103-4, 134, 185; defined, 285 Ramakrishna, l8, 82-83, 87; defined, 285
prdnas, 201 ramana, 175
Pranasakti, 230 Ramayana, 2601122; defined, 285
Prdn atosin i-tan tra,75, 119,147-48,213, Ramprasad,Batuk, 187? I9O-9I
249; defined, 285 Ramprasad Sen, 100
prdnaydma, 204 Ranajaitri, 155
praparica, 133 Ranastha, 155
Prapancasarasara-samgraha, 182,185; Ranotkantha, 155
defined, 285 rasa, 104
Prapancasdra-tantra, 118,131,133-35; Rati, ll6 , ll8 , 1725 Chinnamasta and, n,
defined, 285 144, 154-57, 159-60, 243-44; defined,
Prapancesvari, 131, 133-34 285? Dhumavati and, 19 1? sexual inter
prasdda, 213, 216 course and, 154?172; Tara and, 24 3"4 4 >
Pratyarigiras, 14 in yantras, 138, 140, 243
prayog vidhi, 220 rati, 157
tas, 102, 202, 205-6, 236-37; defined, Ratiragavivrddhini, 157
285 raudra, 43-44
etasana, 164 raudrds'akti, 137
etasananivasini, 164 Raudri, 230
Prthivl, 105; defined, 285 Ravana, 21, 34?H6
ptija, 15, 51, 71, 105, 138-39, 160; defined, rddhis, 199
285; kumari, 248-49; sixteen-part, 3, reality, 7, 20, 48, 55, 175, 181-83, 249;
INDEX
reality (continued) Sahasradalamadhyastha, 159

Chinnamasta and, 157,163; corpses and, Sahasradalavarttinl, 159
202; of goddesses, 128; Kill and, 30, 75, sabasrandm astotras, 32, 35, 39, 42, 80, 84,
78-79, 83-90; Mahadevi and, 21-22, 36; 86; defined, 285
mantras and, 125-26, 135; sakti and, 234; s a b a sr d ra ca k r a , 48, 244; defined, 285
sexual imagery and, 242-43, 245"46; Saitri, 138
sound and, 58, 126, 1345 tantric, 76-78, Saivacara, 48
141, 242; Tripura-sundari and, 112, 115, Sakalasiddhi-bhairavl, 172
120,122; Visnu and, 227; worship and, 51 Sakambhari, 22, 35~36,150 j defined, 285
rebirth, 53, 20 6, 235 Saldni, 48
Rg-veda, 125,178 s d k ta , 17, 134,141; defined, 285; literature,
rituals, 206, 250; daksinCL and, 86; Tantrism 20, 26, 30, 60; mythology, 22; theology,
and, 76, 237; Tara and, 95, 97. See a lso 20-21, 26, 36, 39, 41, 43-44, 61-62
specific types sdktapithas, 16, 22, 61, 109; defined, 285
Rudra, 1 1 ; Sodasi and, 1 1 , 62; Tripura- Sdkta-pramoda, 2-3 , l6 , 32, 57, 7 5 , 139,
sundari and, 112 ,117,12 1; in yantras, 138 141,148, 154, 163, 165-66, 171-72, 230,
Rudra-bhairavi, 2 6 9 A 267117; defined, 285
Rudraydmala, 35, 39, 42, 96,131, 134,199', sdkta purdnas, 14
201, 219, 249 sdkta trimurti, 41" 4 2
Rukmini, 229 s'dktaupapurdnas, 2 2
Sakti, 75-76, 86, 88, 103, 108, 121; defined,
Sabaras. See Savaras 285; Siva and, 202, 242-44, 246, 248;
sabdabrahman, 58, 88,104,134. See also Sri cakra and, 126-27; myantras, 137,
brahman 140
sacciddnanda, 59, 76; defined, 285 s a k ti (energy, power), 36, 48, 55, 59, 78,
sacred places, 61,102, 137 109, 121, 125, 137, 141, 235, 243; cakra,
Sadasiva, 117 75; defined, 285; Kali as, 86; Laliti as,
sddhaka(s), 3, 47-63, 76-79, 135, 141, 160, 5; reality and, 234; s d d h a k a s and, 247
237> 245, 250; Chinnamasta and, 164; 48; Tripura-sundari as, 129*See also
consciousness and, 240, 246, 251; kundalini sakti
corpses and, 240-41, 245! cremation s 'a k ti(s )(female associates ofthe goddess):
grounds and, in , 234"25; defined, 285; Chinnamasta and, 148; Mahavidyas
magical powers and, 233"34 ? Matarigi as, 35 5 Sri c a k r a and, 127; Tara and,
and, 220-22\panca tattva ritual and, 243, 106; Tripura-sundari and, 116, ll8 ;
247; sakti and, 247-48; s'ava sadhana and, in yantras, 138-39
202-4; sexual desire and, 243? sexual sakti bhavan, 16
intercourse and, 218, 243"45,24AJ skulls Sdktisamgama-tantra, 3, 29, 46, 48, 68,
and, 153-54, 23a > 245S Tripura-sundari 148,166, 213; defined, 285
and, 117, 127-28; Vasistha as, 97! yantras S djo -ta n tra , 56
and, 139, 242. See also adepts Samadhi, 60
sadhana, 28-29, 47- S1. 5A. 63. 78, 82, samddhi, 234, 244
128, 235, 245; Bhuvanesvari and, 136, sdmanyapujd, 51-54
141; dtd, 234; consciousness and, I70; Samhdrakrama, 127
corpses and, 233"34! defined, 285; Sammoha-tantra, 253m
Dhumavati and, iSyJapa, 3j Kali and, Sampatprada-bhairavl, 172
75, 86-90; left-handed, l66; mantras samsdra, 104-5; defined, 285
and, 135; Matarigi and, 220-22; skulls Samsaratarini, IO5
in, 152-53, 2S8;smas'dna, 78, ni;Tara sankalpa, 204
and, 9 7, 106, i n ; Tripura-sundari and, Sankara, 114 , 13 1j defined, 286
120, 123-24; yantra, 136, 139, 242. See Sankara-vallabha, IOI
also s 'ava sadhana Sankhanidhi, 138
Sddhanamdld, 95-96 Sdnkhyayana-tantra, 199
sannyasi, 184 self-decapitation, I5I-52, ,62-63; Chinna
s'antds'akti, 137 masta's, 146-55, i „ , u ,,
santi, 56 Chinnamunda's, l6 l-62
Saptamatrkas, 149 > 229 self-sacrifice, 150, 155, 162
Saptasati, 34 semen, 100,170, 172, 243, 245,248
Sdradd-tilaka-tantra, 56,167,169-70, 219, serpents, 89, 9^1 Tara and, 96, 98, 100.
229; denned, 286 S ee a lso cosmic serpent; snakes
Sarasvati, l8, 21, 39> 42, 44>60; Bhairavi Sesa, 193
and, 169 ^ Bhuvanesvari and, 134? de severed heads, 7, 63,153"54> 238-41,
fined, 286; Tripura-sundari and, 112; 246; Bhairavi and, 167, 171, 238;
vdbanas ofj 1975 in yantras, 138 Chinnamasta and, 144> 151» l60, 238-
Sardulakarna, 211-12 Chinnamunda and, l6 l; consciousness
Sarva-sisira-devi, 138 and, 240; Kali and, 9, 67-68, 71, 78, 80,
San ananda, 248 87-88,153,158, 238; Sati and, 23;Tara'
Sarvarupa, 131 and, 9, 11, 98, 100, 108, 153, 238. See
Sarvavam ayi, 105 also self-decapitation; skulls
Sarvesi, 131 sexual desires: Bagalamukhi and, 201; sa d-
Sarvolldsa-tantra, 248 hakas and, 243 j Tripura-sundari and, ll8
Sasti-rekha, 138 sexual fluids, 7,121, l6 0 -6 l. See also
Sataksi, 1595 i*1 origin myths o fM a h a menstrual blood; semen
vidyas, 22, 35-36 sexual imagery, 241-46
tatapatha-brabmana, 225 sexual intercourse, 7, 63, 248; Bhairavi
Sat-cakra-kram a-vasini, 48 and, 172; Chinnamasta and, n, 144?
Sati, 6, 2 4 , 28, 68; defined, 286; D h u m a 148-49, 154-57, 166, 241, 244;
vati and, 39, 180-82, 186-87; hair of, Dhumavatl and, 191 j in dhydna mantras,
68; Kali and, 25, 68, 7 3 ? Kam ala and, 241; Kali and, 67, 74, 79-80, 82, 88,
23O; M atarigi and, 218; in origin myths 154, 241, 243-44; Matarigi and, 218;
ofM ahavidyas, 22-27, 63, 79> 196; panca tattva ritual and, 46, 54, 78, 101,
p itb a s and, 6 l ; severed heads and, 23 ; 241,244;Ratiand,i54, \y2;sadhakas
skulls and, 68; T ara and, 106; T arapith and, 218, 243-45, =48 5Siva and, 148,
and, 1095 tem ples to, l 6 ; tongue of, 235 154; Sodasi and, 11; Tara and, 241,
V isnu and, l6 ; yoni, 16-17 243-44. See also maithuna
Satkarmadipika, 56 sexuality, ll8 , 241-445 Chinnamasta's,
sat-karmdni, 56 146; Dhumavati's, 190-92
sattva, 42; defined, 2S6; guna, 42-43, 126, shamanism, 205
257n72 shamans, 240-41
sattvic, 87 , 112 , l l 8 ; defined, 286 Shaw, Miranda, 25O
SatyaY uga, 195 defined, 2 8 6 shrines: Bagalamukhi's, 2075 Bhairavl's, l8;
saubhagya, 118. See also auspiciousness Chinnamasta's, 164-655 Kamakhya's,
saumya, 43-44 l6, 96-975 Mahavidyas', 165
Saundaryalahari, 113, 117-18; defined, 286 Siddha-kall, 75, 89
sava, 36; asana, 204; defined, 286; sadhana, siddha mantra, 221
in , 201-6, 234, 245. See also corpses Siddhantacara, 48
Savaras, 219; 275ni6 siddhas, 118,169, 236; defined, 286
Savaresvari, 219 siddhis, 6, 29, 47-48, 51, 55-57-63-"7>
Savari, 219 s55n39 > 25(A153; asta, 278; Bagala
Savasana, 171, 233 mukhi and, 197, 199-201, 207; defined,
Savitri, 6 0 286; Dhumavati and, 57, 1835 goddesses
seed mantras, 125 , 139 * See also bija mantras and, 48,565 Kali and, 5 6; mantras and,
seed syllables, 53 , 9 0 , 136 , 157- See also 56; Matarigi and, 56. See also magical
bija(s) powers; vdk siddhi
self-control, 154"55 Siddhi-vidyas, 68, 257n84
IN D E X
Sila-devi, l6 and, 11, 62; defined, 286; frightening

Silappadihdram, 151 nature of, 37?QUTICLS and, 42; Indra and,
Siti: defined, 286; Kali and, 73? Kamala 11; as Kalki, 2551122; Kamakhya and,
and, 229; as model for women, 6 17; lotuses and, 11; order in Mahavidyas,
Siva, 5, 17-18, 39-41, 46, 48, 57, 62, 7 5 9, 16, 23, 253H4, 254nn8.l l .l2.l5.
76, 126, 150, 159-60, 185, 235, 247; 1551A129,30; Rudra and, 11, 62; sexual
Annapurna and, 1745 Bagalamukhi and, intercourse and, 11; Siva and, 11, 21;
195-96, 207; Bhairavl and, 169-70; Visnu and, 11, 21, 62; worship of, 46,
Bhuvanesvari and, 134? 141? Brahma 57; yoni, 17. See also Tripura-sundari
and, 86, 153?Chinnamasta and, 11, 14 8 Soma, 121, 138, 226
49, 156-57, 244? defined, 286; Dhuma soma, 129
vatl and, 180-82, 195; illustrations, 24, Songsten gampo, 93
17a , 236; Kali and, 9, 38, 62, 67-68, sound, 88, 135; mantras and, 63? 135"36;
73-76, 79-82, 86-88,100,119-20, 149, reality and, 58, 126, 134; skulls and, 104,
243-44, 24 Ai Kamala and, 229-30, 232; 153; Tripura-sundari and, 120
as Kapalika, 153? kundalini and, 4 7 " sound seeds. See b ija s / seed syllables
48; lirigams, 17-18,115,186-87, *35> Sphota, 58
Matarigi and, 213-15, 217-18; in origin Sraddha, 138
myths ofMahavidyas, 22-38, 79? 196, srdddha, 206
23O; Parvati and, 76, 196; Sakti and, Sri, 117-18, 138, 225-26; Bhairavl and,
202, 242-44, 246, 248; sexual inter 174; cakra, 112-15, 122-28, 136; defined,
course and, 148, 154; Sodasi and, n, 286; hymns to, 179, 225; kula, 232;
21; Sri and, 117; Sri cakra and, 126-27; lotuses and, 225; Siva and, 117; yantra
Tara and, 9, 38, 62, 96, 100-103,ioA> of, 1 2 -1- S ee also Kamala; Laksmi
108, in , 243? 246; Tripura-sundari and, sri, 226
38, 62, 112-21, 125, 246; in yantras, 137,
Sri-Laksmi, 2, 226-28, 232, 246
140; yoga and, S S ;y og in is and, 249? y°m
Sri-siikta, 179, 225; defined, 286
pujd and, 248
Sri Vaisnavism, 227-29
Siva (feminine form), 101, 23O Srividya, 56, 112, 114, 119! defined, 286;
Sivaduti", 35 cakra, 48; cult, 48; mantra, 122-28, 135.
Sivananda, 121 See also Tripura-sundari
skulls, 63, 153 - 54, 23 8 ~4i; Bhairavl and, srstikrama, 127
11, 238; Chinnamunda and, l6 l, 238; Srstisarhharakarini, 175
Dhumavatl and, 176, l 80; iconography Sniti, 138
and, I53; Kali and, 73, 78, 80, 88-89, stambhana, 25, 56, 195, 197, 201, 207-8,
153? 238; Kamala and, 230; Matarigi 221; defined, 286
and, 209, 238; sddhakas and, 153-54, Sthu la, 123, 135; defined, 286
238, 245; insddhand, 152-53, 238; Sati sto tra s, 141, 154, 159, 164, 199; defined,
and, 68; sound and, 104, 153; Tara and, 286; Karpurddi-stotra, 7g-yg;phala, 229.
96, 98, 100, 104, n o, 153, 238, 245; See also hymns; ndmastotras; sahasrandma
Tripura-sundari and, 119- See also stotras
severed heads Subandhu, <)2
Smasana-bhairavi, 102 s'ukla ekddas'i, 180
Smasana-kall, 75, 89, l86, 2 5 9 A, 2 7 1 A8 sukla paksa, 121
Smasanalaya-vasinI, 171 s'ula, 138
sm asanasadhana, 78, in; defined, 286 Sumbha, 30, 32, 34-35, 71, 74, 134, 149,
Smasana-vasinI, 171 230
Smrti, 138 Sundara, 56
snakes, 9 6,10 4,113 ,119 ,176 , 203. See also Sundari. S ee Tripura-sundari
serpents Surya, 121,129
Sodasi, ii, 12, 14, 29, 40-41, 44-45, 112, susumnd nddi, 47, 159-60, 169, 243;
114-15, 119-22, 186, 2571184; Brahma defined, 286
IN D E X
Susumnasvarabhasini, 159 mantras, 98, 100, n o ; frightening

svadhisthdna cakra, 48 nature of, 37, 55, 96, 98, 100, 108,
svarupa, 76, 126; defined, 286 i i o - i i , 164; as G reat G odd ess, 21;
Svatantra-tantra, 148, 214; defined, 286 Green, 93? QUnas and, 42; hair o£ 9? 96,
98, 100-101, 103; in Hinduism, 96-103;
T ag o re, Rabindranath, 212 hymns to, 94, 100, 102, IO5; iconogra
tamas, 42-43; defined, 286;guna, 42-43, phy of, 93, 98, io i, 104-5, i i o - i i , 153;
126, 144, 182, 230 illustrations, 12, 99, 101, ‘^3^1 Kali
Tamasi, 23 0 and, 80, 92, 100-103,105 : Kama and,
tdmasic, 170, 182 243-44; knowledge and, 108; Kurukulla,
tdndava dance, 74-75, 230 95, 98; lotuses and, 98, 100, 245!
Tantra, 28, 30, 41, 83, 141, 242, 251; mantras, 95"96, 105_6, 245? maternal
defined, 286 aspects ofj 105_6, 109; offerings to, 95?
Tantraloka, 75 orderin M ahavidyas, 9? 14? l6 , 23, 4 1 ?
Tantras, 14-15, 48, 54, 59, 76, 80, 127; 253114, 25411118,9,n,i2,i5, 255111129,
defined, 286 30; origin myths ofj 93, 101-2, 106;
Tantrasara, 2, 75, 98, 113, 202, 234; poUution and, 103; as Rama, 255H A2,
Bagalam ukhi and, 199? Bhairavi and, 23; Rati and, 243"44? rituals and, 95?
I72, 174; Bhuvanesvari and, 136, 97; sadhana and, 97,106, I I I ; Sati and,
139 - 4 0 ; blood offerings and, 240 ; 106; serpents and, 96, 98, 100; severed
Chinnam asta and, 163 ; defined, 287 ; heads and, 9, 11, 98, 100, 108, I53, 238;
Mataiigi and, 220, 122;panca tattva sexual intercourse and, 241, 243"44?
ritual and, 243, 247; sava sadhana and, Siva and, 9, 38, 62, 96, 100-103,ioA>
202-5 108-9, IJI > a43> 246; skulls and, 96,
98, 100, 104, no, I53, 238, 245; sym-
tantric worship, 3, 49"55? 90*See also left
boUc significance of, 103"4? temples
handed tantric worship \p u jd l worship
to, 18, 6l, 102, 108; Tibet and, 92-100,
tdntrika(s), 28,153,164, 186, 207; defined,
IO5, IO8-9; tongue ofj 98, 100, no,
287
188; Visnu and, 21, 96-97; White, 93;
Tantrism, 37, 47, 56, 63, 137, 250; Bud
worship of; 46, 94, 97, 101-2, 106,
dhist, 25O; cults in, 235, 249j defined,
10 8 -ll; yantra ofj 139? y °g a and, 97;
287; goddesses in, 50, 76, 114; iconog
yoni pujd and, 248
raphy in, 76, 93; KaU and, 70, 7 5 ~7 9 ,
T araka, 34
8 6 , 90 ; Kam ala and, 2 2 8 ; lotusea in,
140; paths in, 46, 54"55? 7&? reaUty in, Taraplth, 6l, 97, 102, 106, 108-11
76-78, 141, 242; rituals in, 76, 237; Tdra-:antm, 100
spirituaUty and, 7, 250, 278 A9; texts, Tarini,35,231
14, 36, 51 ? 56 , 58; Tripura-sundari and, tattva, 234; defined, 287
114 tattvas, 126; defined, 287
T ara, 2, 9, n , 15, 20, 25, 29, 39, 44, temple pujd, 49“50, 53“54
9 2-H l, 245, 253m, 2571184; blood and, temples, 20, 49, 6l, 102, 240; Bagala
100; blood offerings to, 50, 54? 100, n o ; mukhi's, 50, 197, 207-8; Bajresvari-
boons and, 1 0 6 ; Brahm a and, 9 6 ; in devi's, l 6 , 152; Camunda's, l6; Carai-
Buddhism, 92-IOO, 105, 108-9; cakras devi-mata's, 15“l 6 ; Chinnamasta's, 50,
and, 10 0 -1 0 1 ; consciousness and, 47? 147, 164-65; Dasamahavidyas', 16-17;
104 ; as consort, 63 ; corpses and, 9? 9 6 , Dhumavati's, 15, 50, l 85_87; Durga's,
98, 100, 102-3,'i°8> iio> 202, 206, 233, l 6 , 164; DurgaSaptasati's, l6, 34?83;
245 j creation and, IO 5 ; cremation fires Jvalamukhl's, l6; Kali's, 15, 4 9 ?6 l,
and, 11, 100,102-4, iq8 . 110> 244; 7O-7I, 102, 151; KaU-bari's, 15; Kama-
crem ation grounds and, 97? 100, 102, khya's, 17, 165; Kamala's, 6 1; Laksmi's,
n o, 233? cults, 4 9 ?93?death and, 9 4 ? 15, 49? 6l; Mahavidyas and, 15-18, 50?
n o , 244? defined, 287? as demon slayer, Maihar-devl's, 152; Naina-devi's, 15;
21; destruction and, IO3-5, dhydna Sati and, l6; Sila-devi's, l6; T ara's, l8,
3i 6 IN D E X
temples {continued) temples to, 114 j tongue of, 119 j triadic

6l, 102, 108; Tripura-sundari's, 114- See nature of; 120-21,125; Visnu and, 11 2
also specific names 2 1 ,125; worship of, 46, 57? H4? yantra
Tibet, 205; Bagalamukhi in, 207; Tara in, of; 112 -14 ,12 2-28 , 136;yoni, ll8 , 120;
92-100, 105, 108-9 yoni pujd and, 248. See also Lalita;
tilaka, 178, 180 Rajarajesvari; §odasI
tirtbas, 248; defined, 287 Trisariku, 211-12
Tirumantiram (Tirumular), 114 Tulaja-devI, 35
titbis, 45, 115,121, 202; defined, 287 turmeric, 193-94> 198_99> 221
Todala-tantra, 20 Turner, Victor, 206
tongue(s): Dhumavati's, l88; Kali's, 67? 7 1 ?
81-83,G7>G9> ' 5 G' i88;Tara's, 98, 100, uccdtana, 25,56, 200; defined, 287
n o , l88; Tripura-sundari's 119 uccista, 222; defined, 287. See also leftover
Treti Yuga, 198 offerings
Trikdyavajra-yogini, 162 Uccista-candalinI, 213, 217
trimurti, 41,134; defined, 287 Uccista-matarigl, 2 5 8 A7
Tripura, 35, 43, ll8 , 120 Uccista-matarigini, 8l, 213, 2l6, 218,
Tripura-bala, 43 274m
Tripura-bhairavi, 15, 32, 43, 48, 170, 254 Udddmara-tantra, 56
nn9,i2 Uddis'a-tantra, 238, 245
Tripurd-rahasya, 118 Uddiyana, 137
Tripura-sundari, 2, n, 14, 35, 39-40, 4 3 Ugra-kall, 100
44, 62, 112-29, !!°i anthropomorphic Ugra-tara, 39?9 5 ?9 $? 100, 106, no
images of, 122-23? " A; auspiciousness Uma, 138
of; 118-19; avatdras of; 116-17; Bagala upa purdnas, 14; defined, 287
mukhi and, 193? Bhuvanesvari and, 131? Upa-vidyas, 68
Brahma and, 112-13, II5, II7, 120 updsandpaddhati, 198
21, 125; cakras and, 120; consciousness U?as, 138
and, 112; corpses and, 112, 117, 233;
cosmic functions and, 117? 120; cosmic Vagesvari, 134
order and, 117, 122; cults, 4 9 ,1 14 , 122; vdhanas, 138,197; Bagalamukhi's, 14, 208;
defined, 287? as demon slayer, ll 6 , 117? defined, 287; Dhumavati's, 18 2 ,19 7 ',
119; dhyana mantras, 112-13 j Durga Durga's, 187; Laksml's, 1975 Matarigi's,
and, II6-I7; fertility and, 118-19; fright 197; Sarasvatl's, 197
ening nature of, 37, 119 j gods and, 115? Vaisnava, 20, 27, 29, 32,116, 171, 174,
117, 229, 246; hair of; 113, 119; hymns 230, 241; defined, 287
to, 112, 114, II7-I9 ; iconography of; Vaisnavacara, 48
112-13; illustrations, 4 , 113 , 124; Indra Vaisnavi, 32, 229-30
and, ll6 ; Kali and, 117? 119 ~2 l; Laksmi vajra, 138
and, 112;lirigams, 115; lotuses and, 112, Vajra-varahi, l6 l
115,142; mantras of; 114, ll6 , 120,122 Vajra-yogini, 146, l6 l
28; Matarigi and, 214; mythology of, vdksiddhi, 56, 143, 194, 196-97; defined,
114-20; names of; 120-22; in Nepal, II5; 287
as Nrsirhha, 2 5 5 A 2; order in Maha valga, 196-97
vidyas, 9, 23, 41, 253114, 25411,; as Para- Valgamukhi, 196-97
surama, 2 5 5 A3; reality and, 112, 115, vdmd, m; sakti, 137
120, 122; roles of, II7, 120; Rudra and, Vamacara, 48, 54; defined, 287. See also
112, 117, 121; sadhana and, 120, 123-24; left-handed tantric worship
sakti and, ll6 , ll8 , 129; Sarasvati and, Vama-kali, 87
112; sexual desires and, ll8 ; Siva and, Vdmakesvara-tantra, 113-14,117-19
38, 62, 112-21, 125, 246; skulls and, Vamakhepa. See Bamakhepa
119; sound and, 120; Tantrism and, 114; vamana, 175
IN D E X
Vamana, 21, 255A122,23 visuddha cakra, 48

Vamana-purdna, 73 Visvarupa, 131
Varaha, 21, 174, 255A122 Visvasdra-tantru, 171-72,175
Varahi, 32, 229-30 voodoo, 204
Vamini, 144, 147-48, 151, 160 Vrhad-yoni-tantra, 248
Varuna, 138 Vrksamadhyani-vasini, IO5
Vasall, 14 Vrta, 34
Vasanta, 247
Vdsavadattd (Subandhu), 92 White Tari, 93
Vasikarana, 56 widow(s), 183-86, 190, 1 9 2 ) 195, z 7 » n 5 6 ,
Vasistha, 96-97, 106, IO8-9 Dhumavati as, 11, 39, 8l, 176, 180, 182
Vasudha, IO5 83, 187, 190, 252
Vasuki, 117 women: as gurus, 2495 hair ofj 83"84?
vasya, 56 independence of, 37"3^» 79! life cycles
Vayu,138 of, 40-41; as Mahadevi, 246; offerings
Vedacara, 48 from, 179; pa nca tattva ritual and, 247;
Vedas, 96, 11 7 , 12 1, 13 6 , 169 pollution and, 84; roles ofj 103, 246-50;
Vedic: literature, 178; mantras, 58; period, Sita as model for, 6; stereotypes of, 8l;
238; rites, 116, 151 worship o£ 97, 187, 247-5O
vetdlas, 236 Woodroffe, John, 42-43
vidvesa, 56 worship, 22, 5 7?of Bagalamukhi, 46, 108,
vidvesana, 56 198-99; of Bhairavi, 46; of Bhuvanesvari,
Vidya, 57, 60 46, 143* of Chinnamasta, 46, 108, 150,
vidya (knowledge), 29-30. 44-45, 59-60, 163-66; of Dhumavati, 46, 108, 183
103; defined, 287. S ee also knowledge 84? 187; of goddesses, 3"5 j of Kali, 46,
vidya (mantra), 58 ; defined, 287* See also 86, 9 °? 108; of Kamala, 46; of Laksmi,
mantras 108, 228; of Mahavidyas, 6-7,14 , 25,
Vidyas, 68, 76, 2 5 7 A4 46, 49-55, 108, 136; of Matarigi, 46,
Vijaya, 13 7 ,14 7 ,15 1 108, 215-16, 220-22; patterns of; 3;
Vijnana-bhana-rupini, 60 p u rd n ic, 3; reality and, 51; rewards from,
Vikaralini, 138 200; of Sodasi, 46, 57; of Tara, 46, 94?
Vilasinl,137 97, ipi-2, 106, 108-11; ofTripura-
viparita rati, 88 sundari, 4 6 ,57? H 4 ?Vedic, 3; of women,
vfm, 78, 166, 2571172; defined, 287 97, 187, 247-50. See also left-handed
Viraratri, 148 tantric worship;p u jd ; tantric worship
Visnu, 5, 21, 24-25, 32, 41, I74, 235;
Anantaand, 89; avatdras o£ 20-22, 27, yaksas, 118, 226; defined, 287
29> 32- 34-35- 62> " 7 - 195- 202, 207, Yama, 11, 86, 138, I70, 180; defined, 287
227, 229-30, 2551125; Bagalamukhi and, yantra(s), 3 >15> 51- 5 4 > Bagalamukhi's,
193? 195» Bhairavi and, 169; Bhuvanes 198-99? Bhairavfs, 172, 174! Bhuvanes
vari and, 134?Brahma and, 142; defined, vari's, 136-40; Brahma in, 138; cakras
287; as demon slayer, 230; dharma and, in, 138; Chinnamasta's, 139? 163; cosmos
227; Dhumavati and, 180; Dussaha and, and, 137-39, 243; creation and, 139;
179 ; Kali and, 76; Kamala and, 39, 62, defined, 287; Dhumavati's, l8 g : Durga
229-30; Kotavi and, 146; Matarigi and, in, 138; gods in, 140; gurus and, 139?
213; reality and, 227; Sati and, 16; Sodasi Indrain, 138; Kill's, 75. 77! Kama in,
and, n, 62; Sri-Laksmi and, 227-28, 138, 140, 243! Laksmi in, 138; lotuses
232, 246; Tara and, 96-97; Tripura- in, 140, 204; Mahavidyas', 136-40;
sundari and, 112-21, 12 5; in yantras, Matarigi's, 221-22; Rati in, 138, 140,
138; yonipu jd and, 248 243; Rudrain, 138; sadhakas and, 139,
242; sadhana, 136,139, 242; ms'ava
Visnu-purdna, 146
sa dha n a, 204; sexual imagery in, 241-
vistardsana, 234
si8 IN D E X
yantra(s) (continued) yo gin i(s) (female practitioners), 249?

43; Sakti in, 137, 140; s'aktis in, 138-39; defined, 287
Sarasvatiin, 138; Siva in, 137, 14' 1■Sri's, y o g in is (female beings with magical powers),
124; Tara's, 139; Tripura-sundari's, 112 36, 56, 71, 158, 197, 204, 236; defined,
14, 122-28, 136; Visnu in, 138; yonis 287
and, 137, 140, 243 Yogini-tantra, 76, 118, 248
yoga, 55-56 , 13-9, 154, 157, 200; Bhairavl yoni(s), 17-18, 235, 244, 247-48; Bagala
and, 169; kundalini, 47, 49, 115, 121, mukhi and, 201; Bhairavl and, 172;
159? Matarigi and, 221; Siva and, 88; Bhuvanesvari and, 14 1? Dhumavati's,
tantric, 57, 139?l60; Tara and, 97 l88; Great Goddess as, 243, 248; Kali
Yogamargapradayini, 154 and, 80; Kamala and, 17; Matarigi and,
Yogamaya, 154 YJ\puja, 243, 248; Sari's, 16 -17;Tripura-
Yogamayl, 154 sundari and, ll8 , 120; yantras and, 137?
Yoganandapradayini, 154 140, 243
Yoganirata, 154 Yoni-tantra, 243
yogi(s), 101,197 Yudhisthira, 84
Yogini, 154 Yugas, 198; defined, 287. See also Krta Yiiga
DAVID K I N S L E Y i v is P r o f e s s o r o f R e l i g i o n in
M a c M a s t e r U n i v e r s i t y , C a n a d a . H e is t h e
a u t h o r o f H indu Goddesses: Visions o fth e
Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious
Tradition, and The Sword and die Flute:
Kali and Krsna, Dark Visions o fth e Terrible
and Sublime in Hindu Mythology.
O th e r Books by David Kimlty
The Divine Player v__
T h is b o o k analyzes th e re la tio n sh ip betw een play a n d religion in
th e c o n te x t o f H in du ism . Ii survevs th e ro le o f play a m o n g th e
G ods, th e ro le o f play in religious cult in g e n era l a n d K rsna cult
in p a rticu la r. It a rg u es th at a lth o u g h playful th em e s pervade
m an 's religious activity in devotion to Krsna, cultic activity m ay
n o t be re d u c e d to play. It also p o in ts to e x am p les o f divine an d
cultic play in n o n -H in d u trad itio ns.
The Sword arid the Flute

Kali an d Krsna, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the
Sublime in Hindu Mythology
In tracin g th e specifically religious d im e n sio n s o f th e m ythologies
o f two o f th e m ost p o p u la r H in d u d eities, K rsna a n d Kali, th e
a u th o r grasps tho se q ualities that have b o th stu n n e d a n d blessed
g e n era tio n s of H in d u s a n d have. :i< cording to th eir m any devotees,
tra n s p o rte d m en to th e "o th e r shore" o f sp iritu al fulfillm ent. H e
d e m o n s tra te s th at, w h e th e r th e divine reveals itself (o r is a p p re
h e n d e d by m a n ) in terrib le o r sublim e form , it is ultim ately
red em p tiv e. In identifying th e tra n s c e n d e n t d im e n sio n s o f Krsna
a n d Kali, h e ex p lain s how bo th deities dram atically ex p ress
c e n tra l tru th s ol th e H in d u religious trad itio n .
The Hindu Goddesses

T h e work d e scrib es th e m ain a p p e a ra n c e s a n d roles of th e
g o d d esses a n d also in te rp re ts the signifit an ce ol each go d d ess
w ithin H in d u ism . Kacli god dess is d e alt with as a n in d e p e n d e n t
deity w ith a c o h e re n t m ythology, theology a n d in som e cases, cult
of h e r own. T h e re are sep a ra te c h a p te rs d ev o ted to Laksml,
Parvati, Sarasw ati. Slta, Uadhfi, D urga. Kali, anti M ahadevi. O th e r
c h a p te rs d eal with god desses in Verlit lite ra tu re , g oddesses
a sso ciated with geographic ,il featu res, a n d th e M atrkas, th e ten
M ahavidyas a n d th e village goddesses.
M O T IL A I. BAN ARM 1) ASS PU M .ISH E R S PRIVATE LIM ITED

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ii:n m a ii.w iD -’!

The Ten Mahavidyas

M O TILA L BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS

© 1997 The Regents o f the University o f California

ISBN: 81-208-1522-x (Cloth)

This edition may n o t be sold outside India,

ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS ix

PAR T I. T H E M AH AV ID YAS AS A GROUP

PAR T H. T H E IN D IVIDU AL M AH AV ID YAS

K ali: The Black Goddess 67

Tara: T h e Goddess W h o G u id es th ro u g h T rou bles 92

Tripura-sundari: She W h o Is L ovely in the Three W orlds 112

Bhuvanesvari: She W hose Body Is the W o rld 12 9

C hinnam asta: T h e S elf-D ecap itated Goddess 14 4

Bhairavi: The Fierce One 16 7

Dhumavati: The W id o w Goddess 176

M a ta rig i: T h e O utcaste Goddess 209

K am ala: T h e L otus G oddess 223

H e a d s 238; S e x u a lity a n d A w a k e n e d C o n s c io u s n e s s 241; T h e

I first became aware o f the group o f H in d u goddesses

am using speculation on the m ysteries presented b y this unusual group

W h a t is one to make o f a group o f goddesses that includes

pramoda, Saktisamgama-tantra, and m any others— discuss each M ahavidya

Fig. i. Rajarajesvari (Lalita, Tripura-sundari), contemporary lithograph.

It is more typical for someone to focus on one particular goddess and to

in H in d u cu ltu re, is a d om inan t them e in M a h a v id y a ico n o grap h y and

T h e order in w h ic h the M ahavidyas are given varies some­

is about to beat a dark-com plexioned enemy. W i t h another hand she is

T ypical Literary and Iconographic Contexts

T h e M ahavidyas are prom in en t p rim a rily in tantric lite r ­

her. T h e text also gives the goddess's rahasya (essence or secret), w h ic h

Fig. 5 . Dhumavati, Durga Saptasati temple, Nagawa, Varanasi.

closest to farthest, are K a li, Tara, Bhuvanesvari, B hairavl, and C h in n a ­

T h e Mahavidyas as Forms ofthe MahadevT

B oth litera ry and iconograp h ic materials give the general

M a h a d ev i (great goddess). A n u n d e rly in g assum ption o fm a n y s'aktatexts

A lth o u g h an im portant aspect o f s'akta th e o lo gy stresses the place of

Mahavidya O rigin M yths

I have come across five versions o f the o r ig in o f the

O fth e five versions o fth e M ahavidyas' origin , I have found

lo n e ly places and crem ation grounds and surrounding h im se lf w ith

Fig. 7 . Sati and Siva surrounded by the Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.

relative to the goddess Kam akhya, w h o is id en tified w ith K a li. K am akhya

o fth e M ahavid yas elaborates th e ir in d iv id u a l appearances or character­

w h ic h could be ruinous. In the cu lt o fth e goddess N an d a-d evi, a yea rly

T h e second version o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas was

by a tdntrika friend o f his. T h e tdntrika said the story was to be found in

texts. T h e Saktisamgama-tantra, for example, says that the M ahavidyas

T h e th ird version o fth e o rig in o fth e M ahavidyas is found

T h e central po in t o f this version o f the o rig in o f the M ahavidyas, a

C o n tem p o ra ry oral trad itio n , supported b y certain icon o -

cosm ic balance is threatened by enemies o fth e gods (i i .3 8-51). T h e th e ­

Fig. 9 . Durga surrounded by the Mahavidyas, contemporary lithograph.

M ahavidyas surrounding a central goddess, none other than D u rga (in

W h e n we l o o k at the in dividual M a h a v id y a s in detail, as we shall do

5. THE MAHAVIDYAS AS FORMS OF SATAKSI

T h e f ifth ve rs io n o f t h e o rig in o f t h e M a h a v id y a s is told

purpose. Second, th ey are m entioned along w ith other groups o f go d ­

H a v in g review ed these five versions o f the o rig in o f the

vidyas is also attested in most descriptions o fin d iv id u a l M ahavidyas. K a li,

Interrelationships among the Mahavidyas

A s a group, the M ah avid yas present a curious c o lle ctio n o f

V ersions 1-3 o ft h e origin o fth e M ahavidyas stress th at

T h e order in w h ic h the M ahavidyas are given varies some

T h e M ahavidyas are prom in en t p rim a rily in tantric lite r

closest to farthest, are K a li, Tara, Bhuvanesvari, B hairavl, and C h in n a

o fth e M ahavid yas elaborates th e ir in d iv id u a l appearances or character

cosm ic balance is threatened by enemies o fth e gods (i i .3 8-51). T h e th e

purpose. Second, th ey are m entioned along w ith other groups o f go d

scheme, K a li, Tara, Bagala, Chinnam asta, and D h u m a v a tl m ig h t be i n

Some inform ants have suggested to me that the M a h a

path, w h ic h is considered the highest. A lth o u g h w e find M ahavidyas as

T h e M ahavidyas are approached in a variety o f ritu al c o n

co rd in g to tantric p rinciples. A lth o u g h m any tantric texts give the spe

W e have already touched on the association o fth e M a h a

acquire special powers (siddhis) b y p ra cticin g yoga, but w arn against i n

n in g the heroine, V id y a , by means o f m agical powers acquired in w o r

A literal translation o fth e term mahavidya is "great k n o w l

T h e description o f the tem ple itse lf underlines K ali's aw ful, u n c iv i

A n u n d e rly in g assumption in tantric id eology is that reality is the re

H e, O M ahakali, w ho in the crem ation-ground, naked, and with d i

sexual indulgence seems plausible. In D aksin a-kali images, Siva som e