LV23-Petrol Fuel Systems

kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:36 am Page 13
Student Workbook
LV23
Petrol Fuel
Systems (2)
LV23/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates in
Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV23
PETROL FUEL SYSTEMS (2)
Contents
Page Page
…
Introduction 3 Icing 28
Carburettor Adjustments: 3 Principles of Combustion and

First throttle valve opening 4 Exhaust Emissions 29
Second throttle valve opening 5
Secondary touch angle 6 Combustion Process: 31
Kick-up 7 Oxides of nitrogen 33
Fast idle 8 Hydrocarbons 34
Unloader 9 Carbon monoxide 36
Choke breaker 10 Carbon dioxide 36
Automatic choke 10 Exercise 2 38
Idle mixture adjusting screw 12 Emission standards 40
Accelerating pump 13
Float level 14 Emission Control Systems: 41
Catalytic converters 41
Idle Mixture Adjustment: 15 Oxygen sensor 42
Using a CO meter 15 Throttle positioner system 43
Hot idle compensation system 45
Four Gas Analyser: 17 Choke breaker 46
Adjustment without a CO meter 19 Choke opener system 47
Air filter 20 Auxiliary acceleration pump system 48
Fuel filter 20
Carburettor diagnosis 21 Dash Pot System: 50
Progress check 1 22 Deceleration fuel cut off system 51
Exercise 1 23 Cold mixture heater 52
Hot engine starting compensation
Vapour Lock 25 system 53
Progress check 2 55
Percolation 27
Copyright © Automotive Skills Limited 2003 LV23: Petrol Fuel Systems (2) Issue 1
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Introduction
Within Phase 1 Petrol Fuel Systems LV10, explanations were given on the
operations of both carburettor and injection based fuel systems. The
components were identified and their operations explained for various different
types of carburettors. Within Phase 2 Petrol Fuel Systems LV23 we will look at
the routine maintenance requirements for carburettor based fuel systems.
Explanations will be given on how to diagnose various faults associated with
carburettors, together with an overview of the combustion process.
When explanations are given on how to adjust the various parts of the
carburettor, a single type of carburettor will be used. There are numerous
types of carburettors used by the various manufacturers, so before carrying out
maintenance or adjustments the manufacturers’ manuals must be consulted.
Carburettor Adjustments
Fig 1
The carburettor, as with other components, needs to be checked and adjusted
at regular intervals. Incorrect adjustment can lead to high fuel consumption,
incorrect emissions and general incorrect engine operation. If the carburettor is
incorrectly adjusted for a long period of time then serious engine malfunction
may occur, including burnt valves and pistons. Conventional carburettors have
externally mounted adjustment screws, which allow the adjustment of high and
low idle speeds as well as the air/fuel mixture. Other adjustments can be
carried out by slightly bending the various levers, or by stripping off
components from the carburettor and following the manufacturers’ adjustment
procedures.
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The following diagrams outline the various adjustments needed. A single type
of twin choke carburettor has been used to outline the adjustments. The
procedure will change depending on the type of carburettor to be adjusted, i.e.
constant depression carburettors, constant choke carburettors and variable
venturi carburettors, although the types of adjustments will be fairly generic.
First throttle valve opening
Fully open the first throttle valve.
Visually check the first throttle valve angle.
Opening angle 90 degrees
Adjust the first throttle valve opening by bending the throttle lever stopper.
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Second throttle valve opening
First open the first throttle valve.
Fully open the second throttle valve lever.
Visually check the throttle valve opening angle.
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Opening angle 90 degrees
Adjust the second throttle valve opening by bending the throttle lever stopper.
Secondary touch angle
Open the first throttle valve until the throttle valve lever part A touches part B.
At this time, check the first throttle valve opening angle using the
manufacturers’ recommended gauge.
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Adjust by bending part A.
Kick-up
Open the first throttle valve until the kick arm slightly opens the second throttle
valve.
Check the clearance between the second throttle valve and the body.
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Adjust part A to leave a kick-up clearance of 0.04 – 0.16 mm.
Fast idle
Fully close the choke valve by turning the coil housing.
Check the throttle valve clearance between the throttle valve and the bore.
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Adjust by turning the fast idle adjusting screw leaving a clearance of 0.1 mm.
Unloader
Fully close the choke valve by turning the coil housing.
Fully open the first throttle valve.
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At this time, check the choke valve opening angle.
Adjust by bending part A to leave an unloader angle of 44 – 46 degrees.
Choke breaker
Fully open the choke valve by turning the coil housing.
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Push the choke breaker diaphragm, and at this time, check the clearance
between the choke valve and bore.
Adjust by bending part A to leave a choke breaker clearance of 2.1 – 2.4 mm
Automatic choke
Set the coil housing scale mark so that it will be aligned with the centre line of
the thermostat case.
The choke valve becomes fully closed when the atmospheric temperature
reaches 20°C
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Depending on the vehicle operating conditions turn the coil housing and adjust
the engine starting mixture.
If the mixture is too rich – Turn the coil housing clockwise.
If the mixture is too lean – Turn the coil housing counter-clockwise.
Idle mixture adjusting screw
Screw in the idle mixture adjusting screw and then unscrew it as follows:
Initial setting
Unscrew the adjusting screw about 2¼ turns from the fully closed position.
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Use care not to screw in the adjusting screw too tightly, as damage will occur
on the screw tip.
Accelerating pump
Adjust the pump stroke by bending part A by 3.25 mm.
Note: After adjustment is made, be sure to check the linkage to see that it
operates smoothly.
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Float level
Allow the float to hang down under its own weight, then using an appropriate
type of measuring equipment, measure the clearance between the float tip and
the air horn.
The air horn gasket should be removed before carrying out this measurement.
Manufacturers’ specifications should be used for float level clearance.
Adjustment is made by bending the part labelled A.
To adjust the lower position of the float, lift the float and check the clearance
between the needle valve plunger and the float lip. An appropriate type of
measuring equipment should be used for this.
The lower float level position should be adjusted by bending the part labelled B.
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Idle Mixture Adjustment
Using a CO Meter
When adjusting the mixture using the idle mixture adjusting screw, it is good
practice to always use a CO meter. If the vehicle is operating correctly, then
adjustment of the carburettor may not be needed. However the vehicle
emissions should still be checked using the CO meter. The following procedure
is specific to one manufacturer, so each individual manufacturers’ specification
should be checked before carrying out any idle mixture adjustment.
Adjust the idle speed and the idle speed mixture, by using a CO meter to
measure the concentration of CO in the exhaust gases. To adjust the CO
concentration turn the mixture adjusting screw until the given value is obtained.
The idle speed should be approximately 800 rpm.
The adjustments should be carried out with no electrical load placed on the
engine.
The CO meter to be used should now be calibrated. The engine rpm should be
raised to around 2000 and held there for approximately 30 to 60 seconds. The
engine should then be stabilised by allowing it to tick over for approximately 3
minutes. The engine should be warmed up before carrying out any of the
above operations.
The test probe should now be inserted into the exhaust pipe, and a
measurement taken over the next few seconds.
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The CO concentration should be between 0 and 0.5% for an engine fitted with a
catalytic converter, and 1 and 2% for an engine not fitted with a catalytic
converter.
If the readings are outside the manufacturers’ specifications then adjustments

should be carried out.
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Four Gas Analyser
As described previously the engine needs to be warmed up before carrying out

any adjustment using a CO meter. This is more important for an engine
fitted with a catalytic converter, as the catalytic converter needs to reach a
temperature of approximately 400°C before it begins to work effectively. The
above shows the difference in readings achieved from a four-gas analyser
when the engine is cold and when the engine has warmed up.
The four-gas analyser can be used to test if an engine is either running rich or
lean or if it is within its given parameters. If an engine is running slightly rich
then the following symptoms can occur:
• maximum engine output
• higher emissions
• higher fuel consumption
• lower tendency to knock or pink.
When the engine is running too rich then the symptoms will change slightly.
These are listed below:
• poor fuel mileage
• misfiring
• increase in air pollution
• oil contamination
• black exhaust
• catalytic converter damage.
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The diagram above left shows the readings achieved with a four gas analyser
when the engine is running too rich. This was achieved using a petrol injection
engine with one of the ignition coils disconnected. The same results can be
achieved by adjusting the idle mixture screw of a carburettor to make the
engine run rich. Other items that may cause an engine to run rich include
incorrect adjustment of the float level, worn main jet or a blocked air filter.
If the air/fuel mixture is lean then a different set of symptoms will occur. For a
slightly lean engine the following list of symptoms will occur:
• improved fuel economy
• low exhaust emissions
• reduced engine power

Fig 37
• slight tendency to knock or pink.
When the engine is running too lean then the symptoms can become more
serious, and the types of fault are listed below:
• poor engine power
• misfiring at cruising speed
• burnt valves
• burnt pistons
• scorched cylinders
• spark knock or pinking.
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As with the rich mixture section the diagram above left shows the four-gas
analyser readings achieved when the engine is running lean. This was
simulated by removing the power to one of the injectors of an electronic fuel
injection system. Within a carburettor, incorrect adjustment of the idle mixture
screw, float chamber or a blocked main jet will cause lean air/fuel mixture to
occur.
Adjustment without a CO meter
Fig 38
Idle mixture adjustment can be carried out without a CO meter although it is not
advisable. With rigorous MOT procedures in force the following adjustment
method does not guarantee that the emissions will be correct.
The following procedure is called the lean drop method and as explained earlier
should only be carried out if a CO meter is not available.
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First set the engine to the maximum idle speed by turning the idle mixture
adjusting screw. Now adjust the idle speed down to 860 rpm by adjusting the
idle speed adjusting screw. Continue this procedure until the adjustment of the
idle mixture screw does not raise the idle speed above 860 rpm. Now reduce
the idle speed to 800 rpm by re-adjusting the idle mixture screw. These
adjustments should be carried out with no electrical load placed on the engine.
Air filter
Within Phase 1 Petrol Fuel Systems LV10 an in-depth explanation was given
into the need for an air filter to be fitted to a carburettor engine. If small
particles of dirt enter the carburettor then various components within the
carburettor will begin to wear quickly. From a diagnosis and adjustment
perspective, if the air filter becomes blocked then the engine will run rich,
leading to the symptoms listed earlier. With some manufacturers the air filters
are replaced at periodic intervals but they will be inspected at every service
interval. At given mileages they will also be blown out, which extends the life of
the air filter.
Fuel filter
The fuel filter, as with the air filter, needs to be changed periodically. If the fuel
filter becomes blocked then the engine symptoms incurred will be the opposite
to that of a blocked air filter. The engine will run lean, leading to all the faults
listed previously.
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Carburettor diagnosis
To diagnose a fault correctly the technician must first decide the correct cause
of the problem. The fault may not be in the fuel system, but it may be in the
ignition system, or within the engine itself. For this reason it is important to
carry out basic checks on the engine to decide where the fault lies. To assist in
the diagnosis of a fuel system fault, a diagnosis procedure chart is given below.
Ask the customer to outline the

Analyse the customers fault symptoms of the fault. and under what
conditions the fault occurs. This should
help the technician to decide on how to
proceed.
1. Was the vehicle hard to start

Test drive the vehicle to
2. Was there a flat spot during
confirm the symptoms acceleration
3. Does the vehicle use excessive
fuel
4. ETC
Preliminary inspection and Engine oil, drive belts, spark plugs,

adjustment
Battery, distributor, air filter, ignition
Timing.
Fuel system inspections
Decide in w hich area the

repair is needed
Carry out adjustm ent or

repair
Final check
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Progress check 1
Answer the following questions:
1. List five adjustments carried out on a carburettor based fuel system:
2. List the items checked during the preliminary inspection and adjustment:
3. When adjusting the idle mixture why is it important not to over tighten the
adjusting screw?
4. What type of gas analyser is most effective at assessing all three

pollutants that are emitted from the combustion process?
5. Draw a picture of the fuel filter showing the flow of fuel through it:
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Exercise 1
For the five following engine symptoms, list the possible causes and
repairs needed to rectify the faults:
Symptom Possible cause Repairs needed
Engine will not start
Erratic idle
speed/engine stalling
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Hesitation/misfire
High fuel consumption
Pre-ignition/
detonation
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Vapour Lock
When diagnosing faults within the fuel system, you will find that most of them
are associated with wear or failure of components. In some cases it is the fuel
itself that causes the failure. Vapour lock is when the fuel inside the fuel line
between the tank and the fuel pump begins to boil. The boiling of the fuel
results in vapour being generated within the fuel line causing only fuel vapour to
be delivered to the carburettor. If vaporised fuel is delivered to the carburettor,
then the engine will run lean, and as outlined earlier, this will cause problems
such as poor engine power, rough idling, misfiring and burnt valves etc.
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Manufacturers can take different forms of action to try and eliminate or reduce
the possibility of vapour lock occurring. One important consideration is the
positioning of the fuel pipes that run along the underside of the vehicle.
They must be placed so that they are not near any heat generating components
such as the exhaust system. A fuel-return system will reduce the temperature
of the fuel that is delivered to the fuel pump. This is achieved by constantly
passing fuel between the fuel pump and the fuel tank, as the fuel tank is
subjected to air travelling under the vehicle it is constantly cooled. By passing
cool fuel around the system vapour lock is eliminated. On some systems the
fuel is returned from the carburettor and not the fuel pump, but the principle is
the same.
With the introduction of modern fuel injection systems the need for a fuel return
system has been eliminated and most manufacturers have returned to the non-
return fuel system. To remove vapour lock the fuel has now been pressurised
and this increases the temperature that the fuel needs to reach before it boils.
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Percolation
Percolation is similar in it characteristics to vapour lock, they are both caused

by the fuel boiling. As described previously, vapour lock is caused when the
fuel boils in the fuel line, whereas percolation is caused when the fuel boils in
the float chamber of the carburettor. Vapour lock causes the air/fuel mixture to
become lean, but percolation causes it to become rich. Percolation is caused
when the fuel in the float chamber boils and this is usually caused by the
vehicle being driven at high speeds or under high load. Sitting in a traffic jam in
hot weather will increase the possibility of percolation occurring due to the
increase in engine and exhaust temperatures. Percolation leads to the vehicle
rough idling, due to the rich air/fuel mixture being delivered to the engine. If this
symptom continues then the engine will stall. When the engine has stalled due
to percolation it may be hard to start while the vehicle is hot, so the vehicle will
need to be allowed to cool.
Each of the manufacturers will have their own adaptations fitted to the
carburettor to reduce or eliminate percolation. One type of adaptation is the hot
idle compensator which reduces the possibility of the air/fuel mixture becoming
over rich. An explanation of this system will be given later in the workbook.
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Icing
Ice
In damp conditions the temperature of the air drawn into the carburettor is
reduced and the moisture content is increased. As the petrol from the main
nozzle and the slow running nozzle are vaporised in the venturis, the
temperature of the carburettor will be further reduced. The water droplets
contained within the petrol will begin to adhere to the throttle nozzle and the
throttle valve. As the temperature within the carburettor is so low, ice will form
on these components, causing a narrowing of the gap between the throttle
nozzle and the edge of the venturi and a narrowing of the gap between the
throttle valve and the edge of the carburettor. These gap reductions will reduce
the amount of air/fuel mixture that can be drawn into the engine, resulting in a
loss of engine power, or cause the engine to stall.
Manufacturers reduce the possibility of this happening by drawing the air that
enters the carburettor over the exhaust manifold first. Some of these systems
are operated automatically, but others involve the driver physically operating a
lever, that switches between summer and winter settings.
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Principles of Combustion and Exhaust Emissions
CO2 (carbon dioxide)

CO (carbon monoxide) Ar (argon
HC (hydrocarbons) 0.94%
Nox (nitrous oxides)
SO2 (sulfur dioxide) O2 (oxygen)
Others 21%
N2 (nitrogen)
78%
It is well documented that motor vehicles are responsible for much of the
pollution that is discharged into the atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere or air
consists of primarily oxygen and nitrogen, with argon and other gases
contributing to only about 2% of the total make up. The gas percentages
shown on the diagram above are in volume and not weight.
Although motor vehicles contribute to the production of undesirable or green-

house gases, you can see from the diagram above there are other causes.
These include aviation, power plants, heating systems, ships and others.
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The harmful gases that are produced by the engine of a motor vehicle are
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (Nox)
These gases are generated within the combustion process that powers the
motor vehicle and unburnt fuel evaporating into the atmosphere. The gases
that are produced are harmful to all living animals and can be unpleasant to
breathe.
The three major sources of the pollutants produced by the engine are blow by
gas, exhaust gas and evaporated fuel.
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Combustion Process
An internal combustion engine powers modern motor vehicles. Hydrocarbons

and air are drawn into the combustion chamber where they are given an
ignition source causing the mixture to explode. The explosion of the mixture
within the combustion chamber causes it to burn, raising pressure and
temperature. This rise in pressure forces the piston down driving the vehicle
forward. It is from this process that the above pollutants are produced.
14.66:1
The theoretical air/fuel ratio is the amount of fuel that is added to the air as it is
drawn into the combustion chamber. If the correct amount of fuel is drawn in
with the air then everything within the chamber will burn. This theoretical ideal
air/fuel mixture is called the stoichiometric fuel mixture, and is approximately
14.66:1. When the fuel enters the combustion chamber with the air at the
stoichiometric fuel mixture, the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide levels are
at their lowest, as close to perfect combustion is achieved.
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10:1
To understand the combustion process it is important that the concept of the

stoichiometric fuel mixture is understood. If we move away from the theoretical
ideal air/fuel mixture then emissions will be affected. When the air/fuel ratio is
reduced, which means that less air is mixed with the fuel, then the mixture will
become rich. An example of this is when the air/fuel ratio reaches, 10:1 this
means that 10 parts air are mixed with 1 part fuel. When the engine is in this
condition there is not enough oxygen within the cylinder, so not all of the fuel
burns.
20:1
Contrary to this is if the air/fuel mixture is increased e.g. 20:1. This means that
20 parts air are mixed with 1 part fuel. In this condition the engine is said to be
running lean. As with a rich mixture full combustion does not take place, but
this time it is because there is not enough fuel mixed with the air. Each of
these conditions will produce an increase of one or all of the pollutants
produced by the motor vehicle.
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Oxides of nitrogen
As described earlier the atmosphere in which we live and breathe consists of

78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume. Although nitrogen contributes over
three quarters of the make-up of the air that is drawn into the combustion
chamber, it is not used in the combustion process. During the combustion
process under high load, the temperature within the combustion chamber can
reach temperatures in excess of 1370°C. When nitrogen and oxygen are
subjected to temperatures above 1093°C the oxygen and nitrogen begin to
combine. This combination of nitrogen and oxygen form harmful oxides, called
oxides of nitrogen. These oxides of nitrogen include nitrogen dioxide and
nitrogen monoxide.
Due to the high temperatures needed to mix the nitrogen and oxygen, it is the
only one of the pollutants produced by the engine that increases as the
stoichiometric fuel mixture is reached. If the high temperature within the
combustion chamber is not reached then the chemical reaction does not take
place and only nitrogen and oxygen will be exhausted. For this reason the best
way to reduce the concentration of oxides of nitrogen, is either to reduce the
combustion chamber temperature, or restrict the time that the combustion
chamber is at the high temperature.
Rich Lean
3000
2500
2000
ppm
1500
1000
500
0
11.2 12.5 13.2 14.0 14.7 15.4 16.2 16.8 17.6 18.3
Air fuel ratio
The production of oxides of nitrogen is at its highest level when the air/fuel ratio
is approximately 16:1. Above or below this ratio the concentration of oxides of
nitrogen is reduced. When the engine is running lean oxides of nitrogen are
reduced as the temperature, within the combustion chamber, is reduced. When
the engine is running rich the concentration is reduced due to the reduction in
oxygen entering the combustion chamber.
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It is now known that combustion chamber temperature affects the amount of
oxides of nitrogen that are produced. Within Phase 1 Engines LV06
explanations were given that ignition-timing affects the temperatures generated
within the combustion chamber. As the ignition is either advanced or retarded
the temperature within the combustion chamber will change. Advancing the
ignition timing when the engine is running, either at or near the stoichiometric
fuel mixture, will cause the combustion chamber temperature to rise. The
graph above shows the relationship between ignition timing and the production
of oxides of nitrogen.
Hydrocarbons
Rich Lean
600
500
400
ppm
300
200
100
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Air fuel ratio
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms. High

concentrations of hydrocarbons are emitted from the exhaust when the
combustion process is incomplete. Hydrocarbon levels are measured in parts
per million.
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Hydrocarbon emissions are at their lowest when the air/fuel ratio is at about
16:1. Even at this ratio the combustion process is not perfect so some raw fuel
will be exhausted from the engine. The hydrocarbon levels will increase when
the engine is running lean or rich. When running lean there will be a lack of fuel
entering the combustion chamber and this will increase the time needed for
flame propagation, leading to incomplete combustion. As not all of the fuel will
be burnt, raw fuel will be exhausted from the exhaust pipe. If the engine is
running rich, incomplete combustion will be due to the lack of oxygen within the
combustion chamber. Raw fuel will be exhausted from the exhaust pipe.
There are other conditions under which the engine will produce high levels of
hydrocarbons. When the vehicle is either decelerating or coasting, the throttle
valve will be fully closed so only a small amount of air will be able to enter the
combustion chamber. This air will enter via the slow running circuit of the
carburettor. Reducing the air will also reduce the compression pressure within
the combustion chamber; this will lead to insufficient oxygen and thus
incomplete combustion. Engine misfire will result and raw hydrocarbons will be
emitted from the exhaust pipe.
Valve overlap and quenching are two other ways that raw fuel can be
exhausted from the engine. During valve overlap the exhaust gases leaving
the combustion chamber draw new air/fuel mixture straight out through the
exhaust valve and into the atmosphere. Quenching zones are cool areas within
the combustion chamber where the correct temperature is not reached for
complete combustion. In these areas unburnt fuel remains until it is exhausted
through the exhaust pipe. The final area in which hydrocarbons are produced
is in the fuel evaporating from the fuel tank. Modern vehicles are now fitted
with charcoal canisters that collect this evaporated fuel and return it to the inlet
manifold to be burnt.
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Carbon monoxide
Rich Lean
12
10
8
%
6
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Air fuel ratio
Carbon monoxide is produced when there is more fuel and less oxygen within
the combustion chamber. This means that the engine is running rich. Carbon
monoxide is a combination of one carbon atom with one oxygen atom, which is
then exhausted into the atmosphere through the exhaust pipe. Carbon
monoxide production is at its greatest when the engine is running rich, although
it is also produced when the engine is running over lean. The graph shows the
relationship between carbon monoxide concentration and air/fuel ratio.
Carbon dioxide
Rich Lean
18
15
12
ppm
9
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Air fuel ratio
Carbon dioxide as with carbon monoxide is a mixture of carbon and oxygen

atoms. In the case of carbon dioxide one carbon atom is bonded with two
oxygen atoms, and unlike carbon monoxide it is comparatively harmless.
Carbon dioxide levels within the exhaust gases are a good indication of the
combustion efficiency of the engine, because the carbon dioxide levels peak
just before the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
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As described in the previous paragraph the carbon dioxide levels peak as the
air/fuel mixture reaches approximately 14.66:1. Either side of this air/fuel ratio
the carbon dioxide levels fall. Carbon dioxide levels can also be used to
determine the condition of the exhaust system as any significant air leaks will
reduce the carbon dioxide levels.
Having looked at the three types of pollutants produced, it is easy to see that all
of them are linked to the air/fuel ratio placed into the combustion chamber. It is
hard for the manufacturer to reduce all three of the gases, as you can see from
the graph that as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels are reduced then
oxides of nitrogen are increased. The reverse is also true - if you reduce the
oxides of nitrogen levels the other two increase. The only way to reduce all
three significantly is to fit a catalytic converter into the exhaust system. Even
with a catalytic converter fitted the temperature within the catalytic converter
needs to exceed 400°C before it becomes effective.
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Exercise 2
Exhaust gases produced during varying driving conditions
For the following five diagrams, give a brief explanation of the exhaust
emissions during each different operating condition.
Warm up
CO
HC
Air fuel ratio too rich
Idling
CO
HC
Air fuel ratio rich or at theoretical level
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Cruising
CO
HC
NOx
Air fuel ratio lean or at theoretical level
Accelerating (heavy load)
CO
HC
NOx
Air fuel ratio rich
Decelerating
CO
HC
Air fuel ratio too rich
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Emission standards
The first exhaust emission control regulations enacted into law were in the state
of California (in the USA) in 1960. The history of US vehicle exhaust emission
control regulations is given below.
1943: Rapid urbanisation of Los Angeles began producing photochemical

smog. This is considered to be the start of the automotive exhaust
emission pollution problem.
1952: It was pointed out (by A. J. Haagen Smit of the University of California)
that the main cause of photochemical smog was the action of the sun’s
rays on automotive gas exhaust gases.
1960: Automotive exhaust emission control regulations (for CO, HC) were
enacted (in California).
1970: The Clean Air Act, introduced by Senator Edmund Muskie, which
mandated US federal exhaust emission control regulations, was passed.
The Muskie Act set extremely strict standard levels for exhaust
emissions of CO, HC and Nox to be met by all US made cars by 1975.
This Act is the basis of the current US emission control standards.
In the US, in addition to reducing the amount of air pollutants emitted, an on-
board diagnostic system is also required. This OBD system is required to
enable the vehicle’s on-board computer system to monitor the vehicle’s
emission control systems, and to provide a warning to the driver when any
malfunctions have occurred.
An upgraded version called OBD-II, introduced in 1994 had to meet full

compliance by 1996.
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Emission Control Systems
Catalytic converters
CO2
H2O
N2
CO
HC
NOx
O2
To reduce the emissions discharged from a motor vehicle, the manufacturers

first tried to get the air/fuel ratio as near to the stoichiometric as possible. In
reality, even if this were achieved modern vehicles would not reach the
stringent emission regulations set down by the Government. To lower these
emissions further, catalytic converters were introduced into the exhaust
systems. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
reaction without being used up itself. Noble metals are used within the catalytic
converter to enable this chemical reaction to take place. The types of metal
used are: rhodium, palladium, platinum and iridium. These metals are applied
to a ceramic baffle material, called substrates. These substrates supply a large
surface area with which the exhaust gas can contact the noble metals.
When the exhaust gases pass through the catalytic converter they pass over
the noble metals, and this causes a reaction called catalyst oxidation. Catalyst
oxidation adds O2 to the molecular structure of the carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. Modern catalytic converters that carry
this process are called three-way catalysts, and they help to reduce all the
pollutants produced by the combustion process. The only problems associated
with this type of catalytic converter, is that its operating temperature needs to
exceed 400°C, and the air/fuel mixture entering the combustion chamber needs
to be close to the stoichiometric fuel ratio.
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Below is a diagram showing the gases that enter the catalytic converter, and
the gases that leave the catalytic converter.
NOx + CO N2 + CO2
NOx + HC N2 + CO2 + H2O
O2 + CO CO
O2 + HC H2O + CO2
Oxygen sensor
For the catalytic converter to operate correctly the air/fuel mixture entering the
combustion chamber must be near the stoichiometric fuel ratio. To enable this
to be monitored an oxygen sensor is fitted into the exhaust system. This
oxygen sensor sends a signal to the engine control unit in the form of a voltage
to inform the engine control unit of the oxygen content contained within the
exhaust gas. From the oxygen content contained, the engine control unit is
able to assess the air/fuel ratio entering the combustion chamber.
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If the oxygen sensor judges that the oxygen content is low, then the engine
control unit views the air/fuel ratio as being rich. In this condition a high voltage
is sent from the oxygen sensor to the engine control unit. If the oxygen content
is high, then a low voltage is sent to the engine control unit. The engine control
unit views this as a lean air/fuel ratio. With a carburettor based engine the
air/fuel ratio is altered by the engine control unit, by admitting more or less air
through the air bleeder. The air/fuel mixture is normally kept slightly richer than
the theoretical ideal or stoichiometric fuel mixture.
Throttle positioner system
VTV
TP Diaphragm
When the driver removes his or her foot from the accelerator, the throttle
butterfly or valve closes shut completely. This sudden closing of the valve
causes a vacuum to be created within the inlet manifold. This vacuum draws
the fuel that has adhered to the walls of the inlet manifold into the combustion
chamber, causing the engine to run rich. In conjunction with the engine running
rich the closing of the throttle valve causes the compression pressure to fall
inducing incomplete combustion and engine misfire.
To compensate for this a throttle positioner is fitted. The throttle positioner

opens the throttle valve slightly during deceleration, causing the air/fuel mixture
that enters the combustion chamber to burn completely.
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When the vehicle is being driven normally no vacuum is applied to throttle
positioner, so the diaphragm is pushed to the left via a spring. This in turn
pushes the adjusting screw to the left.
When the vehicle is decelerating the lever linked to the throttle valve makes
contact with the adjusting screw stopping the throttle valve from closing fully.
Over a short period of time vacuum from the throttle positioner port acts on the
throttle positioner diaphragm causing the throttle valve to close gradually.
Condition TP Port Vacuum TP Diaphragm Throttle Valve
Idling Intake manifold Pulled by intake Idling position

vacuum manifold vacuum
Cruising Nearly atmospheric Pushed out by High-speed position

pressure diaphragm spring
Deceleration Intake manifold Pulled by intake Opens slightly, then

vacuum manifold vacuum closes slowly to the
idling position
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Hot idle compensation system
When a motor vehicle is driven in hot conditions, the temperature within the
engine compartment will rise. As the temperature rises, the petrol within the
carburettor will begin to boil, causing the petrol to give off vapour. This petrol
vapour will be discharged through the main nozzle causing the air/fuel mixture
entering the engine to become over rich. This will cause the engine to idle
erratically or stall. To eliminate this problem a hot idle compensation system is
fitted to the carburettor or the air cleaner. This system also assists in reducing
the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide levels leaving the exhaust system.
There are different types of systems fitted to carburettor engines, but within this
phase an explanation will be given on the type actually fitted to the carburettor.
Cold Hot
The carburettor based system uses a bimetal strip to open and close the hot
idle compensation valve allowing air to bypass the main nozzle. It does this by
sensing the temperature of the incoming air, opening the valve when the
temperature is hot, and closing it when the temperature is cold.
Intake Air Temp Thermo Valve HIC System
Cold (below 55°C) Closed Off
Hot (above 75°C) Open On (air volume is controlled by the

HIC valve)
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Choke breaker
Cold Hot
For the engine to operate correctly, the choke butterfly must open gradually as
the engine begins to warm up. This is done using a bimetal strip or a heated
coil within the automatic choke. The choke breaker assists this process, as it
opens the butterfly to a given angle as engine coolant reaches a given
temperature.
When the engine is cold, normally just after the engine has started, vacuum is
applied to the left hand chamber of the choke breaker, acting upon diaphragm A.
This vacuum sucks on diaphragm A, drawing the connecting rod to the right,
opening the choke valve the first step.
As the engine coolant reaches the correct temperature, the thermostatic

vacuum sensing valve opens. This allows vacuum from the inlet manifold to act
on diaphragm B drawing it to the right. As the diaphragm moves to the right so
does the connecting rod opening the choke valve to the second stage.
Coolant temp TVSV Diaphragm A Diaphragm B Choke link pull
Below 7°C Open (L-J) Pulled Not pulled Slight
Above 17°C Open (K-L) Pulled Pulled Much
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Choke opener system
The choke breaker system as described opens the choke butterfly through two
stages as the engine begins to warm up. The choke opener ensures that the
choke butterfly opens fully when the engine reaches approximately 60°C. This
temperature will vary depending on which manufacturer designed the
carburettor to which it is fitted. When the choke has been opened fully this
system releases the fast idle cam allowing the engine to idle at the correct
speed.
Cold
Just after the vehicle has started when the engine is cold atmospheric pressure
is applied to the choke opener diaphragm. The thermostatic vacuum-switching
valve controls the atmospheric pressure diverted to the choke opener.
Atmospheric pressure enters the valve from the air filter side of the choke
butterfly, travelling through the thermostatic vacuum-switching valve to the
choke opener. As the diaphragm is not being drawn to the left by vacuum,
spring pressure keeps the choke closed.
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Hot
When the engine temperature rises, the thermostatic switching valve moves,
connecting the inlet manifold to the choke opener. The vacuum generated
within the manifold acts on the diaphragm within the choke opener, drawing it to
the left. This operation pulls the control rod to the left opening the choke
butterfly. As the choke is pulled to the left, the fast idle cam is released
allowing the engine to return to the correct idle speed.
Coolant temp TVSV Diaphragm Choke Valves Fast Idle Cam Engine
RPM
Below 50°C Open Released by spring Closed by Set at 1st or 2nd High
(J-M) tension automatic step
choke
Above 68°C Open Pulled by manifold Open Released to 3rd Low
(K-M) vacuum step
Auxiliary acceleration pump system
In order for a motor vehicle to meet the needs of the driver, it must be able to
accelerate smoothly even if the vehicle is cold. When the engine is hot an
acceleration pump is sufficient to enable the vehicle to accelerate smoothly
without hesitation. When the vehicle is cold, this pump is not able to deliver
enough fuel to give the desired results. For this reason an auxiliary
acceleration pump is fitted, to support the main acceleration pump.
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Cruising
When the engine is cold, the thermostatic vacuum-switching valve allows

vacuum to be applied to the auxiliary acceleration pump chamber, from the inlet
manifold. This vacuum is applied to chamber A drawing the diaphragm to the
right. As the diaphragm moves to the right, fuel is sucked into chamber B.
Accelerating
When the driver presses the accelerator pedal during acceleration the vacuum
within the inlet manifold drops. This lowering of pressure reduces the amount
of force acting on the diaphragm, allowing the spring pressure to draw the
diaphragm to the left. As the diaphragm moves to the left, fuel is forced out of
chamber B through the accelerator pump nozzle into the venturi. This action
enables the driver to accelerate smoothly when the vehicle is cold. When the
engine reaches a given temperature set by the manufacturer the vacuum-
switching valve closes stopping the pump from operating.
Engine TVSV Engine Intake Diaphragm in Fuel

Operation Vacuum AAP
Below 50°C Open Constant rpm High Pulled by vacuum Drawn into AAP
(K-N) chamber
Acceleration Low Returned by Forced into
spring tension acceleration nozzle
Above 68°C Closed No operation

(K-N)
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Dash Pot System
When the driver releases the accelerator pedal during deceleration, the throttle
valve snaps shut. This sudden closing of the throttle valve causes an increase
in vacuum within the inlet manifold. The increased vacuum causes fuel that
has adhered to the walls of the inlet manifold to be drawn into the engine
causing it to run rich. As this is happening the compression pressure drops due
to the deceleration, causing misfiring and unstable combustion. Due to this
process the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide levels increase.
The dash pot system shown above is fitted to overcome this problem by
stopping the throttle valve from snapping shut. This will assist the complete
combustion of the air/fuel mixture entering the combustion chamber.
Cruising Deceleration
When the vehicle is cruising the diaphragm is pushed to the right via spring
pressure. As the vehicle decelerates vacuum is applied to the diaphragm
through the VTV valve, causing the throttle valve to close slowly.
Engine Operation TP Port DP Diaphragm Throttle Valve
Idling Intake manifold Pulled by intake At idling position

vacuum manifold vacuum
Cruising Near atmospheric Pushed out by Medium or high-
pressure diaphragm spring speed position
deceleration Intake manifold Pulled by intake Opens slightly, then
vacuum manifold vacuum slowly closed to idling
position
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Deceleration fuel cut off system
Various systems have been used to eliminate the problems associated with
decelerating the vehicle. The deceleration fuel cut off system is included within
this category, as it stops fuel entering the engine through the slow running
circuit during deceleration. This eliminates afterburning within the exhaust
silencer.
When the driver releases the throttle pedal the throttle valve closes, in this
position the throttle switch is turned off. The engine control unit is able to sense
that the switch is in the off position, and in conjunction with an rpm signal it is
able to determine that the vehicle is decelerating. When the engine control unit
has reached this decision it operates the fuel cut off solenoid valve closing the
slow running circuit of the carburettor.
Engine speed Throttle Position ECU Fuel cut-off Slow Circuit In

Switch Solenoid Valve Carburetor
Less than On On On Open
1900rpm
Off
Greater than On On On Open
2300rpm Off Off Off Closed
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Cold mixture heater
When the engine is first started, fuel entering the inlet manifold adheres to the
sidewalls. This increases the emissions and reduces the driveability of the
vehicle. To compensate for this cold mixture heaters are fitted into the inlet
manifold. These heaters heat the inlet manifold during the warming of the
engine assisting in the evaporation of the air/fuel mixture.
The engine control unit controls the heaters fitted to the inlet manifold. When
the engine control unit receives a signal from the alternator it is able to
determine that the engine is running. The engine temperature is fed to the
engine control unit in the form of a signal from the coolant temperature sensor.
If the coolant temperature is below the manufacturers’ given limit then the CMH
relay are turned on, causing the heaters within the inlet manifolds to
heat up.
IG Switch Engine Coolant Thermo ECU CMH Relay CHM

Temp Switch
Off Not running - - - Off Off
On Not running - - Off Off Off
Running Below 43°C On On On On
(heated)
Above 55°C Off Off Off Off
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Hot engine starting compensation system
When diagnosing faults with a vehicle fitted with a carburettor based fuel
system, understanding the type of carburettor fitted is important. One common
problem with carburettors is the amount of time needed to start the vehicle after
it had been stationary for a short period of time. The reason for this being that
when the vehicle is moving forward cool air is either drawn in by the cooling
fan, or comes in naturally as the vehicle moves forward. This keeps the engine
bay and the carburettor relatively cool.
When the vehicle is switched off after a journey the engine is going to be hot,
this heat is transferred into the engine bay heating the fuel within the
carburettor. As the fuel is heated vapour is given off causing the vehicle to run
rich during starting. The hot engine starting compensation system reduces this
causing the vehicle to start more quickly.
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When the driver turns the ignition switch off, the power supplied to the outer
vent control valve is also switched off, opening the passage between the float
chamber and the bi-metal vacuum switching valve. If the engine bay
temperature rises above the manufacturers’ specified limit, then the bi-metal
vacuum switching valve opens, allowing vaporised fuel to pass down to the
charcoal canister. As the charcoal canister now collects the vaporised fuel it
does not enter the inlet manifold.
When the engine is cranked power is supplied to the outer vent control valve,
closing the passage between the float chamber and the bi-metal vacuum
switching valve. The fuel that has been collected by the charcoal canister, is
drawn back into the engine through the purge port, due the reduction of
increased vacuum generated by the engine.
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Progress check 2
Answer the following questions:
1. What three pollutants are emitted from the exhaust due to the engine
combustion process?
2. Give an explanation on the term stoichiometric fuel ratio.
3. What proportion of the earth’s atmosphere is made of nitrogen and

oxygen?
4. Why is the hot idle compensation system fitted to the carburettor?
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LV23-Petrol Fuel Systems

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kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:36 am Page 13

Carburettor Adjustments: 3 Principles of Combustion and

First throttle valve opening

Fully open the first throttle valve.

Visually check the first throttle valve angle.

Opening angle 90 degrees

First open the first throttle valve.

Fully open the second throttle valve lever.

Visually check the throttle valve opening angle.

Secondary touch angle

Fully close the choke valve by turning the coil housing.

Fully close the choke valve by turning the coil housing.

Fully open the first throttle valve.

Adjust by bending part A to leave an unloader angle of 44 – 46 degrees.

Fully open the choke valve by turning the coil housing.

Adjust by bending part A to leave a choke breaker clearance of 2.1 – 2.4 mm

If the mixture is too rich – Turn the coil housing clockwise.

If the mixture is too lean – Turn the coil housing counter-clockwise.

Idle mixture adjusting screw

Adjust the pump stroke by bending part A by 3.25 mm.

Adjustment is made by bending the part labelled A.

If the readings are outside the manufacturers’ specifications then adjustments

As described previously the engine needs to be warmed up before carrying out

• maximum engine output

• higher fuel consumption

• lower tendency to knock or pink.

• poor fuel mileage

• increase in air pollution

• catalytic converter damage.

• improved fuel economy

• low exhaust emissions

• reduced engine power

• poor engine power

• misfiring at cruising speed

• spark knock or pinking.

Adjustment without a CO meter

Ask the customer to outline the

1. Was the vehicle hard to start

Preliminary inspection and Engine oil, drive belts, spark plugs,

Fuel system inspections

Decide in w hich area the

Carry out adjustm ent or

Answer the following questions:

1. List five adjustments carried out on a carburettor based fuel system:

4. What type of gas analyser is most effective at assessing all three

Symptom Possible cause Repairs needed

Engine will not start

Symptom Possible cause Repairs needed

Symptom Possible cause Repairs needed

High fuel consumption

Symptom Possible cause Repairs needed

Percolation is similar in it characteristics to vapour lock, they are both caused

CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Although motor vehicles contribute to the production of undesirable or green-

An internal combustion engine powers modern motor vehicles. Hydrocarbons

To understand the combustion process it is important that the concept of the

As described earlier the atmosphere in which we live and breathe consists of

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms. High

Carbon dioxide as with carbon monoxide is a mixture of carbon and oxygen

Exhaust gases produced during varying driving conditions

Air fuel ratio too rich

Air fuel ratio rich or at theoretical level

Air fuel ratio lean or at theoretical level