Sustainable Civilization: From the Grass Roots Up
Micro Environment Subsistence System (MESS) Appendix
(Ok, so I tend toward corny names.) The purpose
of this appendix is to look at the limits on closing
the loop for the safe recycling of human effluents
to a growing medium which is a micro-
environment optimized for growth of food.
Agriculture is not the results of a
happening, an idea, an invention,
discovery or instruction by a god of
goddess. It is the results of long periods of
intimate co-evolution between plants and
man.
- Jack Harlan (1917-1998)
American geneticist and plant breeder
To maintain and most effectively implement the
advantages of advanced knowledge and
technology humans need to live in large dense
populations. But in our move to urbanization we
have virtually left out plants, the core means of
turning sunlight, air, water and soil into fuel and
nutrients for our bodies.
Our present population of 6+ billion is dependent
on the present global socio-economic-industrial
infrastructure not only for economic purposes,
but also for "life support" such as food. That
infrastructure is itself dependent on cheap,
abundant fossil fuels, in particular oil. It is
becoming clear that we are approaching the peak
of oil production. Prior to the point where oil
ceases to be cheap, or abundant, we need
alternatives.
Organisms live in many different kind of
habitats, which MUST contain a minimum of
every life support limiting factor for each
species. As the eagle’s habitat is more that a
nest, including both land and air, so the habitat
for a human is not just a house, it is the rest of
the local ecosystem that provides the overall life
support for not just the present generation of
humans, but for the indefinite future.
The human food chain is the simple progression
from plants that absorb sunlight, to the human
table. A downward example of a food chain is:
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The human eats the dog, the dog ate several cats,
the cats ate lots of mice, the mice ate fields of
grass which grew by absorbing the sunlight.
After the table though, all waste must somehow,
eventually, become “food” for something else
and be recycled. Small organisms such as
insects, bacteria, mold, & mushrooms fill a vital
niche in an ecology in that they eat dead
biological materials and make the atoms and
molecules again available as nutrients to grow
plants. This takes us to the food web, which is
the blend of the overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem. A food web is from one celled
organisms to bugs, to humans, and everything in-
between.
Scientifically a community is all of the
population that lives together in the same place
and interacts. In reality a minimal human food
production area is a specialized niche, requiring
some particular mix of organisms and physical
factors. What are the minimums for such?
If overall loss is minimized, a community of
organisms, interacting with each other and the
nonliving things in the environment can provide
a long term localized ecosystem. A limiting
factor is any living or nonliving part of an
ecosystem that effects the survival of an
organism, such as heat, light, particular atoms or
molecules, and water.
INTRODUCTION
As far as the physical atoms incorporated into
living organizations are concerned, the Earth is
essentially a closed system, with the energy of
sunlight as the only input and the power source
for essentially all life on the surface of the Earth.
Much of this document is "generic", based on the
theory that once the major nutrient loops are
closed further augmentation should not be
required. However, my personal focus is "high
desert", in Arizona, USA, where water is a
significant limiting factor. Every area will have
it's on local limiting factor, potentially for most
locations the limiting factor may be sunlight and
growing season. I've also got to deal with the
natural heat, and very low typical humidity.

The optimal human centered ecosystem is
physically different from, and essentially
incompatible with, any "natural" environment,
and must be kept separate. This document
combines personal theory, web research into
programs such as NASA's CELESS, the
Biosphere II project, the work of Ecology
Action, and other closed loop food systems, as
well as research on optimal food growing
methods (hydroponics, aquaponics & overall average efficiency of something just over
aeroponics) and recycling of human effluent, and
personal container garden experiments.The area
needed to grow food for a fully grown human to
survive should, logically, match the area which
can be fertilized by human effluents (solid, liquid
& gas). Urine, feces, and eventually our
physical bodies can all be readily returned to the
growing medium.
It is vital to ensure optimal growing conditions
for crops, to include exclusion of plant
pathogens, as well as those that may infect
humans. The growing area will receive both gray
water and black water, which must be handled
in a safe manner.
Absent a sealed environment, we lose water
vapor, CO2, and other gases. It is obvious that
when we grow a crop of which humans eat only
a portion, the rest of the plant must be recycled
by animals or microorganisms before the
nutrients are again available for plant growth.
Think of the kernels eaten on an ear of corn, vs
the total mass of the plant. This makes crop
selection a critical element.
With a typical "first world" diet the upper
fertilizing limit for humanure looks to be around
1600 ft. sq. and a potential "minimum" area of
600 ft. sq. as touched on below. Of course, our
diets are horrible. If we ate food with greater
vitamin content, we would excrete a greater
concentration, which would fertilize a larger
area. I solicit feedback on vitamin / nutrition
standards and what the upper limit is for safe
human consumption of various minerals if they
are in high concentration in plants.
Every square yard (9 sq. ft.) on the earth's
surface with direct, perpendicular un-shaded
exposure to the sun receives energy at the rate of
around 1kwh (3412 BTU or 859,845 heat
calories). The value of a food calorie is 1,000
heat calories, so at 100% conversion each square
yard could generate 859 "food" calories per hour.
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An "average" person needs 2,000 food calories
per day. Therefore, if humans were directly
solar powered with 100% efficiency, each of us
would only need around 22 sq. ft. /hours per day
of solar exposure. But of course, we are not
directly solar powered, nor are our plants 100%
efficient.
If limited to fertilizing 1600 ft. sq., and 6
hour/day of light, the garden must have an
.225%. But crops for nutrition rather than mere
calories do not approach this level of efficiency.
Various health guides indicate humans should
"aim" for having our daily calorie intake fulfilled
by 40% carbohydrates (1 g = 4 calorie), 30%
protein (1 g = 4 calorie), and 30% fats (1 g = 9
calorie).
OVERVIEW OF PLANT NEEDS
The basic needs of plants are nutrients (certain
atoms in certain forms), water, and light. On the
scale of the Earth, our entire ecosystem is an
essentially sealed environment.
AIR
Plants need three primary gases from air.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), which is used in their
leaves in the photosynthesis process to combine
hydrogen from water with carbon from CO2 to
produce carbohydrates (sugars), with the oxygen
being released. In normal seal level air, CO2 is
at 350 parts per million (ppm), or .035%. Even
this tiny amount is enough to support plant
growth. Studies seem to show that the upper
concentration limit for CO2 for plants is around
4%, which requires that all other growing
conditions be optimized. But, plants cannot
tolerate the 4% level unless there is sunlight
present for photosynthesis. WARNING: In
general, humans cannot breathe where the CO2
concentration approaches 3%.
Water will absorb it's own volume of CO2, and
when evaporated will release the CO2. This
seems nicely in tune with nighttime water
condensation absorbing CO2, with daytime
evaporation releasing the gas.
Oxygen for their roots. Roots can suffocate or
drown without enough O2. Conversely, as
aeroponics shows given access to nutrients and
kept moist, roots and the plant will thrive when
given lots of air. Aeroponics is cited as perhaps
the most productive means of providing crops
necessary nutrients. Aeroponics has plants
suspended in holding material, in an air gap,
which is kept in a spray of the liquid nutrient.
The falling liquid also gains air which provides
O2 for the roots in the liquid below. I continue
experiments on a static means to approximate
this. I’ve had modest success with containers set
up with a bottom wick kept moist by an upturned
bottle of water, several inches of perlite over the
wick, then a tower of perlite up the center with
compost around the tower. A WARNING: You
may have heard that more houseplants are killed
by overwatering than by underwatering." The
problem with overwatering is not that the roots
do not like to stay moist, but that if heavily
watered, water fills most of the spaces ordinarily
filled by air in dry soil. Plant roots require
oxygen, but not all portions of a plant's roots
require the same amount of oxygen. Plants can
form what he calls oxygen (O) roots and
water/nutrient (W/N) roots. Roots exposed to air
specialize in taking up oxygen; those immersed
in water specialize in taking up water and
nutrients. When the water level drops in a plants
growing medium, the W/N roots change into O
roots, a process taking only 2-4 days. However,
this is not reversible. If water returns to the
original depth the plants wilt within a few hours
and do not recover. You need to create a
medium with such large air spaces that no matter
how much water is around, the roots will still
find plenty of air, but dense enough that water
can move up by capillary action and keep the
medium moist.
Nitrogen (79% of the air) to produce complex
molecules. Most plants cannot absorb nitrogen
directly from the air on their own, but must
obtain it via their roots from a substance which
embodies the gas atom.
The bulk of commercial nitrogen fertilizer is
made using un-sustainable high energy chemical
processes.
There are various methods to "fix" the gas into
the soil, for example special bacteria, that can
live in symbiosis with some plants:
Clover, alfalfa, select legumes, and select trees
such as Neem and Russian Olive. Research what
grows well in your area. It is the bacteria that
make nitrogen available for absorption by plant
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roots. Fixing nitrogen takes energy. Every
gram of nitrogen fixed requires 10 gram of
glucose, with the plant feeding the bacteria
growing on it's roots.
Blue-green algae can also absorb nitrogen and
incorporate it into their cells, with the advantage
it can be used as an animal (or human) food, or
as fertilizer.
Lightning splits the N2 molecule, which can then
combine with oxygen into a nitrogen oxide
which can dissolve in rainwater, which was
something that Tesla referenced in several of his
papers.
In a free online pamphlet, Bill Mollison presents
his "third world endless nitrogen fertilizer supply
system." You will need a sand box, with a
trickle-in system of water, and a couple of
subsurface barriers to make the water dodge
about. Fill the box with white sand and about a
quarter ounce of titanium oxide (a common paint
pigment). He indicates that in the presence of
sunlight, titanium oxide catalyzes atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonia, endlessly. You don't use
up any sand or titanium oxide in this catalyic
reaction. Ammonia is highly water soluble. You
run this ammonia solution off and cork the
system up again. You don't run it continuously,
because you don't want an algae buildup in the
sand. You just flush out the system with water.
Water your garden with it. Endless nitrogen
fertilizer. If you have a situation where you want
to plant in sand dunes, use a pound or two of
titanium oxide. You will quickly establish plants
in the sand, because nitrogen is continually
produced after a rain. This solution is carried
down into the sand. If you are going to lay down
a clover patch on a sand dune, this is how you do
it.
Apart from the legumes and actinorhizal plants,
there are a number of other systems involving
nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, notably of the
bacterial genera Azotobacter, Anabaena, and
Nostoc. These systems involve the following:
1. Gunnera-Nostoc. Probably all Gunnera
species display a localised infection of the stem
by Nostoc bacteria.
2. Azolla-Anabaena. The aquatic plants of
the Azolla family form a symbiosis with
Anabaena bacteria.
3. Liverwort-Nostoc. The liverwort genera
Anthoceros, Blasia and Cavirularia all form
associations with Nostoc bacteria.
4. Lichen associations. About 7% of
lichen species are not of the traditional fungi-
algae symbiosis, but are instead formed of a
fungi-cyanobacteria symbiosis. Nostoc in the
bacteria genus is usually involved. The lichen
genera Collema, Lobaria, Peltigera, Leptogium
and Stereocaulon form this type of symbiosis.
They are particularly important as nitrogen-
sources in Arctic and desert ecosystems, where
fixation rates may reach 10-20 Kg/ha/year.
5. Leaf surfaces (the phyllosphere). There
is increasing evidence that free-living N-fixing
species of bacteria are abundant on wet and
damp leaves in predominantly moist climates.
6. Root zone (Rhizosphere). Free-living
bacteria, for example Azotobacter species, may
be more abundant in the areas immediately
adjacent to plant roots and aid plant nitrogen
nutrition.
7. Free-living. N-fixing bacteria thrive where the
Carbon:Nitrogen ratio is high and there is
sufficient moisture, for example on rotting wood,
in leaf litter, the lower parts of straw and
chipping mulches etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING NODULE
DEVELOPMENT
1. Temperature. Depends on the bacteria species
and the host plants, for example 4-6 deg C is
adequate in Vicia faba, whereas 18 deg C or
more is necessary for most sub-tropical and
tropical species.
2. Seasonality. For most species, fixation rates
rise rapidly in Spring from zero, to a maximum
by late spring/early summer which is sustained
until late summer, then decline back down to
zero by late autumn. In evergreen species, N-
fixation occurs throughout the winter provided
the soil temperatures do not fall too low.
3. Soil pH. The legumes are generally less
tolerant of soil acidity than actinorhizal plants.
which is reflected by Rhizobium species being
less acid-tolerant than Frankia species. Of the
actinorhizal plants, Alders (Alnus spp) and
Bayberries (Myrica spp) are most acid tolerant.
Of Rhizobium species, acid-tolerance declines in
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the following order: cowpea group (most acid
tolerant) - Soya bean group - Bean & Pea groups
- Clover group - Alfalfa group (least acid
tolerant).
In poor soils which are low in Nitrogen, the
introduction of N-fixing plants usually leads to
considerable acidification (e.g., a fall in pH of up
to 2.0 in 20 years for a solid stand), which itself
will in time start to affect nodulation efficiency.
4. Availability of Nitrogen in the soil. If
Nitrogen is abundant and freely available, N-
fixation is usually much reduced, sometimes to
only 10% of the total which the N-fixing plants
use. In trials with Alders, at low soil N levels
(under 0.1% total soil nitrogen), the majority of
N used by the alder comes from N fixed from the
air; when total soil nitrogen is as high as 0.5%,
only 20% of the N used came from fixed N from
the air.
5. Moisture stress. In droughts, bacterial
numbers decline; they generally recover quickly,
though, when moisture becomes available again.
Some species (usually actinorhizal), for example
Alnus glutinosa and Myrica gale, are adapted to
perform well in waterlogged conditions.
6. Light availability. Nitrogen fixation is
powered via sunlight and thus will be reduced in
shady conditions. For most N-fixing plants,
which are shade sensitive, N-fixation rates
decline in direct proportion to shading, i.e. 50%
shading leads to 50% of the N-fixed. The
relationship for N-fixing species which are not
so shade-sensitive is not so clear: they may well
continue to fix significant amounts of nitrogen in
shade.
WATER
Plants use water in the photosynthesis process,
combining carbon from the air with the hydrogen
from the water molecule, and releasing the
oxygen from the water molecule. They also use
water in their circulation system and to cool
themselves when the temperature gets too high.
The relative humidity has a large effect on plants
evaporation of water, with plant water use
varying 5x over a humidity range of 5% to 95%.
A "ballpark" figure for plant transpiration is
roughly 30g/hr/plant of H 2O. A specific
example is sorghum, which "consumes" water at Compared to the demand for CO2 and water, the
the rate of 200:1 (water weight to dry weight need for other factors is "small", but nevertheless
sorghum) essential.

In addition to the water loss thru the plants, your
soil/growing medium will have losses.
Aeroponics have virtually no evaporative loss,
but poor growth for some plants. In conditions
of 50-75% relative humidity and average
temperature of 75 F- good plant conditions, an
open water surface may evaporate at a rate of 3.2
mm/day. Soil may start at around 4 mm/day
until the top soil area is dry, around five days or
less, with an eventual drop to around 1.5
mm/day.
Plants don't have teeth. Plant roots do not crush
substances and eat them. 98% of the nutrients
plants absorb with their roots must first be
dissolved in the soil water. For nutrients "locked
up" in dead plant or animal matter, the cell walls
must somehow be ruptured, so the inner nutrients
can be reached by the roots. In commercial
processing of the algae Chlorella, flash heating is
used. In making leaf concentrate, it's a simple
blender or grinder. (Blended food scraps
anyone?)

If you are using well water, city water, etc. rather Rock dust, or cement kiln dust (before burning)
than rain water, you are probably adding can be applied as a valuable multi-nutrient
dissolved salts to your plant growing medium. A fertilizer.
general guide is to leach - flood the plant and
medium to wash out the salts, every 4 to 6 Logic seems to say that all of the atoms taken
months. In example, a typical 6 inch pot will from the soil to build the plant end up as either
hold 10 cups of water, so 20 cups of water are part of my body, or excreted. We're bound to
used to leach a plant in such a pot. Keep the lose some other atoms in our... body gas...
water running in a flow to wash out the salts. If perhaps sulfur, but I don't believe it's a lot...
the top of the soil has a salt crust, remove it
before starting the rinse. Average pounds produced per person per year.
Source: Future Fertility
The Arizona Master Gardeners Manual suggests
as a watering rate, "…During dry periods, one Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium
thorough watering each week of 1 to 2 inches of Urine 7.5 1.6 1.6 2.3
Manure 2.8 1.9 0.8 2.0
moisture (65 to 130 gallons per 100 square feet)
Total 10.3 3.5 2.4 4.3
is usually enough for most soils. Soil should be
wetted to a depth of 12 inches each time you Range required per 100 ft. sq. of garden
water and not watered again until the top few
inches begin to dry out. Average garden soil will Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium
store about 2 to 4 inches of water per foot of 0.1 - 0.5 0.2 - 0.6 0.15 - 0.50 0.2 - 0.8
depth." (52 to 104 inches per year). Applied at
this same rate year long to a 1,000 square foot Range one human's effluent can fertilize each
garden would require a reliable supply of 33,800 year in ft. sq.
to 67,600 gallons. At 12" annual rainfall and
100% collection rate, the collection area per Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium
person needs to be 4,300 to 8,600 square feet. Urine
1500 - 7500 266 - 800 320 - 1067 287 - 1150
As long as your home waste water does not
Manure
contain toxic materials, and is sterlized if 560 - 2800 316 - 950 160 - 533 250 - 1000
containing disease organisms, your garden water
supply can include the runoff from your home Total
gray water. Examine the commercial product 2060 - 10300 582 - 1750 480 - 1600 537 - 2150
"Infiltrators". Consider in reverse something like
home drain gutters, filled with rock or sand, and Expect each person to produce around 1 gallon
buried to route water to the garden areas. of manure per month, which should be applied to
no less than 50 ft. sq. monthly, otherwise you're
adding too much nitrogen to the growing
"SOLID" NUTRIENTS
medium. Layer manure, then 2" soil, seeds, and

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sprinkle soil. Move on to next 50 ft. sq., cycle
back annually for 3 years, then shift to another
set of beds.
Urine must be diluted with water from 5 to 10 to
1.
MACRONUTIENTS
The "big three" plants need in their soil are
nitrogen (N) phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).
NPK are the three numbers you will typically
find prominent on fertilizer packages, which
refer to the percentage by weight of each. In a
20 pound bag of 21-7-14 it therefore means the
bag contains 4.2 pounds nitrogen, 1.4 pounds
phosphorus, and 2.8 pounds potassium. Also
needed in the soil in relatively large amounts by
plants are sulfur, magnesium, and calcium.
Green manures add back nitrogen and carbon to
the growing medium, but unless you grow them
elsewhere and add them to the medium, they
can't add any other non-gas element that is not
already in the medium, or in the water or
fertilizer applied. The remaining macronutrients,
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen plants get from air
and water.
Nitrogen is a major component of proteins,
hormones, chlorophyll, vitamins and enzymes
essential for plant life. Nitrogen metabolism is a
major factor in stem and leaf growth (vegetative
growth). Too much can delay flowering and
fruiting. Deficiencies can reduce yields, cause
yellowing of the leaves and stunt growth.
Phosphorus is necessary for seed germination,
photosynthesis, protein formation and almost all
aspects of growth and metabolism in plants. It is
essential for flower and fruit formation. Low pH
(<4) results in phosphate being chemically
locked up in organic soils. Deficiency symptoms
are purple stems and leaves; maturity and growth
are retarded.
Yields of fruit and flowers are poor. Premature
drop of fruits and flowers may often occur.
Phosphorus must be applied close to the plant's
roots in order for the plant to utilize it. Large
applications of phosphorus without adequate
levels of zinc can cause a zinc deficiency.
Potassium is necessary for formation of sugars,
starches, carbohydrates, protein synthesis and
cell division in roots and other parts of the plant.
It helps to adjust water balance, improves stem
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rigidity and cold hardiness, enhances flavor and
color on fruit and vegetable crops, increases the
oil content of fruits and is important for leafy
crops. Deficiencies result in low yields, mottled,
spotted or curled leaves, scorched or burned look
to leaves.
Sulfur is a structural component of amino acids,
proteins, vitamins and enzymes and is essential
to produce chlorophyll. It imparts flavor to
many vegetables. Deficiencies show as light
green leaves. Sulfur is
readily lost by leaching from soils and should be
applied with a nutrient formula. Some water
supplies may contain Sulfur.
Magnesium is a critical structural component of
the chlorophyll molecule and is necessary for
functioning of plant enzymes to produce
carbohydrates, sugars and fats. It is used for
fruit and nut formation and essential for
germination of seeds. Deficient plants appear
chlorotic, show yellowing between veins of older
leaves; leaves may
droop. Magnesium is leached by watering and
must be supplied when feeding. It can be
applied as a foliar spray to correct deficiencies.
Calcium activates enzymes, is a structural
component of cell walls, influences water
movement in cells and is necessary for cell
growth and division. Some plants must have
calcium to take up nitrogen and other minerals.
Calcium is easily leached. Calcium, once
deposited in plant tissue, is immobile (non-
translocatable) so there must be a constant
supply for growth. Deficiency causes stunting of
new growth in stems, flowers and roots.
Symptoms range from distorted new growth to
black spots on leaves and fruit. Yellow leaf
margins may also appear.
MICRONUTRIENTS
There are other elements that while used in much
smaller amounts, must nevertheless be present in
some "significant" quantity. Essential trace
elements include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), sodium (Na),
zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), and nickel (Ni).
Beneficial mineral elements include silicon (Si)
and cobalt (Co), which have not been deemed
essential for all plants but may be essential for
some. Eliminate any one of these elements, and
plants will display abnormalities of growth,
deficiency symptoms, or may not reproduce
normally.
Iron is necessary for many enzyme functions and
as a catalyst for the synthesis of chlorophyll. It
is essential for the young growing parts of plants.
Deficiencies are pale leaf color of young leaves
followed by yellowing of leaves and large veins.
Iron is lost by leaching and is held in the lower
portions of the soil structure. Under conditions
of high
pH (alkaline) iron is rendered unavailable to
plants. When soils are alkaline, iron may be
abundant but unavailable. Applications of an
acid nutrient formula containing iron chelates,
held in soluble form, should correct the problem.
Manganese is involved in enzyme activity for
photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen
metabolism. Deficiency in young leaves may
show a network of green veins on a light green
background similar to an iron deficiency.
In the advanced stages the light green parts
become white, and leaves are shed. Brownish,
black, or grayish spots may appear next to the
veins. In neutral or alkaline soils plants often
show deficiency symptoms. In highly acid soils,
manganese may be available to the extent that it
results in toxicity.
Boron is necessary for cell wall formation,
membrane integrity, calcium uptake and may aid
in the translocation of sugars. Boron affects at
least 16 functions in plants. These functions
include flowering, pollen germination, fruiting,
cell division, water relationships and the
movement of hormones. Boron must be
available throughout the life of the plant.It is not
translocated and is easily leached from soils.
Deficiencies kill terminal buds leaving a rosette
effect on the plant. Leaves are thick, curled and
brittle. Fruits, tubers and roots are discolored,
cracked and flecked with brown spots.
Zinc is a component of enzymes or a functional
cofactor of a large number of enzymes including
auxins (plant growth hormones). It is essential
tocarbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis
and internodal elongation (stem growth).
Deficient plants have mottled leaves with
irregular chlorotic areas. Zinc deficiency leads
to iron deficiency causing similar symptoms.
Deficiency occurs on eroded soils and is least
available at a pH range
of 5.5 - 7.0. Lowering the pH can render zinc
more available to the point of toxicity.
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Copper is concentrated in roots of plants and
plays a part in nitrogen metabolism. It is a
component of several enzymes and may be part
of the enzyme systems that use carbohydrates
and proteins. Deficiencies cause
die back of the shoot tips, and terminal leaves
develop brown spots. Copper is bound tightly in
organic matter and may be deficient in highly
organic soils. It is not readily lost from soil but
may often be unavailable. Too much copper can
cause toxicity.
Molybdenum is a structural component of the
enzyme that reduces nitrates to ammonia.
Without it, the synthesis of proteins is blocked
and plant growth ceases. Root nodule (nitrogen
fixing) bacteria also require it. Seeds may not
form completely, and nitrogen deficiency may
occur if plants are lacking molybdenum.
Deficiency signs are pale green leaves with
rolled or cupped margins.
Chlorine is involved in osmosis (movement of
water or solutes in cells), the ionic balance
necessary for plants to take up mineral elements
and in photosynthesis. Deficiency symptoms
include wilting, stubby roots, chlorosis
(yellowing) and bronzing. Odors in some plants
may be decreased. Chloride, the ionic form of
chlorine used by plants, is usually found in
soluble forms and is lost by leaching. Some
plants may show signs of toxicity if levels are
too high.
Nickel has just recently won the status as an
essential trace element for plants according to the
Agricultural Research Service Plant, Soil and
Nutrition Laboratory in Ithaca, NY. It is
required for the enzyme urease to break down
urea to liberate the nitrogen into a usable form
for plants. Nickel is required for iron absorption.
Seeds need nickel in order to germinate. Plants
grown without additional nickel will gradually
reach a deficient level at about the time they
mature and begin reproductive growth. If nickel
is deficient plants may fail to produce viable
seeds.
Sodium is involved in osmotic (water
movement) and ionic balance in plants.
Cobalt is required for nitrogen fixation in
legumes and in root nodules of nonlegumes. The
demand for cobalt is much higher for nitrogen
fixation than for ammonium nutrition. Deficient
levels could result in nitrogen deficiency calcium 1 8.64 cm
symptoms. phosphorus 0.78 7.54 cm
potassium 0.14 5.46 cm
Silicon is found as a component of cell walls. sulfur 0.14 4.07 cm
Plants with supplies of soluble silicon produce
sodium 0.1 4.69 cm
stronger, tougher cell walls making them a
mechanical barrier to piercing and sucking chlorine 0.095 3.98 cm
insects. This significantly enhances plant heat magnesium 0.019 2.22 cm
and drought tolerance. Foliar sprays of silicon Iron 0.0042 8.1 mm
have also shown benefits reducing populations of fluorine 0.0026 1.20 cm
aphids on field crops. zinc 0.0023 6.9 mm
Tests have also found that silicon can be silicon 0.001 7.5 mm
deposited by the plants at the site of infection by rubidium 0.00068 7.6 mm
fungus to combat the penetration of the cell walls strontium 0.00032 5.0 mm
by the attacking fungus. Improved leaf erectness,
bromine 0.00026 4.0 mm
stem strength and prevention or depression of
lead 0.00012 2.2 mm
iron and manganese toxicity have all been noted
as effects from silicon. Silicon has not been copper 0.00000072 2.0 mm
determined essential for all plants but may be aluminum 0.00000006 2.8 mm
beneficial for many. cadmium 0.00000005 1.8 mm
cerium 0.00000004 1.7 mm
Micronutrients presence may be difficult to 0.00000002
determine. Deliberate initial medium saturation barium 2 1.8 mm
to a pre-determined maximum "safe" level iodine 0.00000002 1.6 mm
appears a reasonable consideration. In plants, tin 0.00000002 1.5 mm
and animals, there are aspects where a single titanium 0.00000002 1.6 mm
atom of a particular element is essential to the 0.00000001
creation or operation of a molecule, and boron 8 2.0 mm
therefore a particular function. No atom, no 0.00000001
molecule, no function, no life. Absent high-tech nickel 5 1.2 mm
chemistry, any particular missing micronutrient
0.00000001
may be difficult to determine. A non-technology
selenium 5 1.5 mm
approach by observation of the effects on
0.00000001
selected plants with known reactions i. Rock
chromium 4 1.3 mm
dust, perhaps preferably dolomitic limestone, but
0.00000001
even concrete dust, may contain enough atoms to
manganese 2 1.2 mm
help.
0.00000000
Whatever you take out of the growing medium, arsenic 7 1.1 mm
must be replaced. In growing to adulthood, a 0.00000000
human will accumulate a collection of elements lithium 7 2.4 mm
such as this: 0.00000000
cesium 6 1.5 mm
0.00000000
Mass of Element
mercury 6 0.8 mm
element would
0.00000000
Mass of comprise germanium 5 1.0 mm
element a cube
0.00000000
Kilograms this long
molybdenum 5 0.8 mm
on a
0.00000000
Element side:
cobalt 3 0.7 mm
oxygen 43 33.5 cm 0.00000000
carbon 16 19.2 cm antimony 2 0.7 mm
hydrogen 7 46.2 cm 0.00000000
nitrogen 1.8 12.7 cm silver 2 0.6 mm

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 niobium 1.5E-09 0.6 mm Most plants need light in wavelengths of 400 to
0.00000000 700 nm, which I read is 45% of incoming light.
zirconium 1 0.54 mm They apparently do best in red and blue light.
lanthanium 8E-10 0.51 mm When growing vegetative matter, plants use
gallium 7E-10 0.49 mm primarily blue-violet light. When flowering they
need red-orange end of the spectrum. As an
tellurium 7E-10 0.48 mm
aside, human eyes see green best, a color little
yttrium 6E-10 0.51 mm used by plants, which reflect it and therefore
bismuth 5E-10 0.37 mm they appear green to us.
thallium 5E-10 0.35 mm
indium 4E-10 0.38 mm Terms often used to describe light are Lumen,
gold 2E-10 0.22 mm Foot-Candle, Watt, and Lumens per Watt.
scandium 2E-10 0.41 mm Lumen is a particular amount of light energy.
tantalum 2E-10 0.23 mm Envision a ton of feathers, it doesn't matter
vanadium 1.1E-10 0.26 mm whether they fill a room, or are compressed into
thorium 1E-10 0.20 mm a brick, it's still a ton.
uranium 1E-10 0.17 mm
samarium 5E-14 0.19 mm Foot Candle measures light intensity. It is one
beryllium 3.6E-14 0.27 mm lumen of light shining on one square foot. Watt
tungsten 2E-14 0.10 mm is an electrical term. As we see with the
difference in incandescent and fluorescent bulbs,
watts of electricity IN, does not necessarily mean
As one example, soil that is complete in
micronutrients may contain around .055% the same light OUT. It is a convenient means of
comparison though of power in sunlight, in p/v
phosphorus1, with the practical depletion level
being .008%. Each human body represents the panel conversion, and bulb conversion. Lumens
per Watt is the efficiency of a bulb in converting
depletion of phosphorus from around 3,650
pounds of otherwise fully fertile soil. electricity to useful light.

If it’s not in the growing medium, it won’t be in
the plant, or in you. Take “Popeye’s” favorite,
spinach and the iron that is to make him strong.
Organic grown / virgin soil spinach has around
1584 PPM iron. From commercial farms, it’s 19
PPM. About 1% of nature.
LIGHTING
Most plants cannot use the entire spectrum or
intensity of light received on Earth. Limiting the
light intensity and frequency to that at which
each type of plant best grows reduces the heat
load. Plants may also have specific lighting
duration periods. Periods shorter than daylight
can easily be simulated by shutters. Plants
needing longer light periods than available
daylight can often be "tricked" into continued
processing though by low intensity artificial
light, well below normal growing levels. In low
light areas more useful light for the plants is
gained where the growing area is mirrored, or
reflecting in the right frequencies.
1
In each 2 million pounds of soil, 1100 and 160
pounds respectively, per “The Farm Won’t Wear
Out”.
In some situations, such as climates with extreme
exterior temperature challenges, it may be
necessary to consider use of p/v panels to
generate electricity, for lighting and plant growth
in remote, strictly environmentally controlled
chambers. (Of course, you need a lot of money
to set this up.)
Perpendicular direct daylight is around 10,000
lumens per square foot, for ease of estimating
call it 100 watts if perfectly converted to
electricity. In modest cloud cover, light intensity
can drop to 1/10 or less. My reading shows that
this may be the minimum power level for most
photosynthesis. (Compare though to the
Columbia University folks - Vertical Farm - who
estimated a general value of 25 watt per meter
square (2.32 watt foot square) for plant lighting.
Plants convert certain frequencies of light into
simple sugars. Too little light, and
photosynthesis will not take place.
The "open" blue sky provides around 16% of
useful light to plants of the intensity of direct
sun. Too much light, and the plant overheats,
transpires greatly increased water flow, and

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photosynthesis may not only shut down, but the
plant may start to burn the sugars.
Sunlight is basically 10% U/V, 45% visible, 45%
infrared (near/heat, and far/useable by plants).
Most vegetables can use only make use of
captured light up to a maximum of 2,500 - 5000
footcandles, and need this intensity for a period
of about 6 hours daily, or about 15,000 to 30,000
foot candle hours of light. (Some vegetables,
such as parsley, lettuce, chives, radishes and
cabbage can do well with 4 hours.) (Intensity
will vary depending on your latitude, time of
year, atmospheric conditions, etc.)
Depending on your local conditions, you may be
able to grow some plants in partial shadow, or
your plants may benefit from some artificial
reduction in light intensity. I've read that for
most plants, the "ideal" wavelength of light is
red, with the plant maintained at an optimum
temperature of 77 degrees F (25 C).
If you intend to use artificial lighting to drive, or
aid, your growing area, then bulb light
production efficiency is a major issue.
A regular 100 watt household light bulb
produces only around 400 lumens, or about 4
lumens per watt. If you used mirrors and
focused it all on one square foot, it would be
around 4% of open sunlight.
Halogen bulbs produce about 20 lumens per
watt, 100 watts being 20% of open sunlight.
Fluorescent bulbs, say high output, full-spectrum
bulbs produce 68 lumens per watt, 100 watts
being 60% of open sunlight.
Metal Halide Lamps are often used in
hydroponic labs, they produce 80-120 lumens
per watt, 100 watts being essentially the power
of open sunlight.
High Pressure Sodium lamps produce
somewhere between 90 to 150 lumens per watt,
or again the power of open sunlight. At these
efficiency levels, perhaps frequency becomes
more important. (See discussion of frequency
applicable for the plants stage of life.)
Electrical conversion is not the only
consideration. In long-term sustainability, the
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lifespan of a product, and ability to replace it,
becomes far more important than energy
conversion efficiency.
Another factor is AVOIDING loss of useful light
frequency. Mentioned elsewhere, light absorbed
and re-emitted comes out in a longer, often less
useful frequency. Line your growing chamber
with foil, or mirrors. Cited on the web for
reflective efficiency is Foylon, (see also Aluma-
Glo) at 97% reflectivity.
LET THERE BE (A SELECTED
SPECTRUM) OF SUNLIGHT
A brief digression into a science summary, if you
will bear with me. Visible light is just one small
portion of the wavelength spectrum for
electromagnetic energy. Below visible light is
ultraviolet light, then X-rays. Above visible
light is infrared (heat) then "radio" waves. From
low to high (400 to 700) the colors go something
like violet, blue, blue-green, green, yellow-green,
yellow, orange, red. The longer the wavelength
of light, the longer it takes for the photon’s
energy to be imparted on whatever it strikes.
Think a quick punch (short wavelength &
duration of impact) vs a slow push from the
same arm (long wavelength long duration of
impact). less "energy" a given photon has. If a
particle absorbs a photon, it is either absorbed as
heat, triggers a chemical reaction (causes an
electron to move) or is re-emitted as a longer
wavelength.
Chlorophyll A plants prefer blue 430 nm & red
66 nm
Chlorophyll B plants prefer blue 460 nm &
orange 640 nm
Carotene prefers 400 nm to 500 nm.
High tech selective surfaces can provide a means
to eliminate the unwanted frequencies. These
items though tend to be expensive, fragile, and
derived from finite fossil fuels. Consider a more
“robust” and local hardware store approach.
I'm working at a latitude of around 32 degrees
north - recalculate all angles for your latitude,
with a goal of blocking direct summer heat, yet
passing the maximum level of blue and red light.
In winter my noon sun is 34.5 degrees up from
true South, and 81.5 degrees in summer.
Envision thin strips of shiny red on the top,
mirrored on the bottom. Have the slats runs true
East / West, each tilted up 30 degrees. Set the
North / South space between slats such that
direct sunlight from 60 degrees or higher cannot
pass.
The following two photographs are of the same
"ceiling", located in Phoenix, Arizona. The first
is looking at the ceiling toward the direction of
summer morning sun, the slats blocking most
summer noon sun. Shading in the picture
disguises the true angles of the slats, which show
better perhaps in the lower photo, which is
looking toward the winter pre-noon position.
My proposal is a set of slats similar to this, but
instead of all white, a combination of bright red
and mirror.
In the winter most of the sun either directly
passes or strikes the mirror and is reflected to the
growing area. In the summer almost all direct
sun strikes the red, which is then reflected down
by the mirror. Around a 60 degree swath of
diffuse blue sky is always available to the plants
directly, or reflected down.
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The below photo is essentially looking due east.
A simpler approach than the welded overlapping
metal used at the Phoenix location would be two
separate layers of slats, which could also allow
them to be made adjustable if desired. Simpler
yet is recognition that the east-west running slats
are the priority. Simple short lifespan slats can
be bright cloth and mylar held by a pattern of
ropes.
If desired at the lower edge of the red side of the
(fixed) slats a transparent substance (glass,
plastic, ?) could be attached and extended
perpendicular to the slat, making contact with the
parallel mirror surface, or not, as desired. It
would block most air flow thru the slats, and
catch & channel most rain that fell on this roof.
PHOTOSYSTHESIS EFFICIENCY
Plants use light to rearrange molecules to store
solar energy as chemical energy in the form of
starch and glucose (sugar). The present globally
photosynthetic atmospheric processing limit
appears to be 2 x 1017 grams of carbon (200
billion tons) per year, which is about 10% of the
atmospheric content. This carbon is being used
by organisms and returned by respiration. We
humans with our increasing numbers, burning
ancient stored carbon, and depletion of plant
mass are raising carbon levels. In plant cells
water and carbon dioxide enter the cells, and
impacted by the right frequency and intensity of
light, sugar and oxygen leave the leaf. The
chemical equation for this process is:
6CO2 + 12H2O + 48 photons light → C6H12O6 +
6O2 + 6H2O
6 molecules of carbon dioxide (6CO2) and 12
molecules of water (12H2O) are consumed in the
process, while glucose (C6H12O6), six molecules
of oxygen (6O2), and six molecules of water
(6H2O) are produced.
Plants have limits on their rate of converting
light to stored energy. Remember that plant
biological processes continue at night, and that
this uses up some of the energy accumulated in
the presence of light. I've read that the overall
theoretical efficiency of photosynthesis may be
4.5%. At 6 hour exposure, and if you could eat
the entire plant, this would be an area 9 feet on a
side. I've no idea what the crop would be, but
you would probably be able to watch it grow…
If this "perfect" rate were potatoes, production
would be (86 mt dry or 346 mt fresh) / ha). The
real-world yield is (12 mt dry or 29 mt fresh) /ha,
less then 1/10 of theoretical.
In various sources I find that overall
photosynthesis efficiency in open nature and for
typical food crops (corn,wheat,rice) is .1% to .
2%. For 1/10% efficiency, each of us requires
21,600 sq. ft. /hours per day. With an average of
6 hours solar exposure per day this requires a
fully productive food crop area of 3,600 sq. ft.,
1,800 for 2/10% This is an area much less than
the 1/4 acre per person typically available for
manual farming (see information on farming in
Cuba post-USSR), yet higher than the 1,000 sq.
ft.ii information from Ecology Action. More
(concentrated) sun is not the answer. C3 crops
(wheat, barley rice, sugar beet, potatoes) all have
FALLING conversion efficiency rates as light
intensity goes above 20% of full sunlight.
Potato efficiency goes up to .4%, so with 6 hours
exposure you need a minimum of 900 sq. ft. In
various places, I've read the most "efficient" crop
is claimed to be spirulina, with production of
between 5 and 15 gram per sq. yd. per day. If
each gram is around 5 calories, we get
somewhere between 243 ft. sq. to 720 ft. sq. per
person. At the upper level of production, is
we're still assuming an average of 6 hours good
sun exposure, we're looking at just under 2%
efficiency on converting sunlight to food energy.
While I do not really expect to find a more
efficient crop than algae, perhaps hydroponic or
aeroponic methods can bring up the efficiency of
more traditional foods. For those with a sweet
tooth, Sugar cane (a C4 crop) comes in at a
yearly average of 1%, requiring 360 sq. ft. with 6
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hours sunlight, and with crops such as corn and
sorghum can utilize higher sun intensity.
REDUCED LIGHT
Studies in Israel show increased growth of young
citrus trees under reduced mid day light in a
semi-arid climate, using up to 60% shade cloth.
With too much light, some plants shut down
photosynthesis, and physically "wilt" their leaves
to minimize light exposure. Shade particularly
benefits plants grown for their leaves.
The photosynthesis rate increase tracks increased
intensity of direct light only from 0 to 50 watt
per meter sq., then increased production tapers
slightly up to 100 watt, and for many plants goes
almost flat at 200 watt per meter sq.
I also read of plants benefiting from flickering
light, vs constant. Perhaps a means to disperse
sunlight as momentary sparkles would allow a
greater growing area than the available solar
window (welcome back the disco ball?).
Consider methods that rather than block a
portion of the light, rather split the light into 2 or
more separate beams. Route each beam via
mirrors, lenses, fiber optic, etc, to separate,
perhaps stacked growing areas, then diffuse each
beam so that it illuminates an area of plants equal
in area to the original light collection area. Do
we accomplish the reduced sun that many plants
need, while doubling or more the growing area?
At a minimum, line the growing area with
reflective material, and perhaps you can
"recycle" some of the light that otherwise would
escape back to the sky, or just go to heat the
surrounding area. A reflective northern wall
may add as much as 12.5% "extra" light.
LIGHTING PERIODS
Historical and experimental reports include that
some plants must have a daylight period longer
than, or shorter than, some particular period of
time (photoperiodism). An example is spinach,
which is reported to need 14 hours of light per
day for a period of two weeks in order to flower.
The genetic programming in some plants appears
to sense their "ideal" day length to periods as
precise as an error 5 to 10 minutes. Plants with
this sensitivity will not make it even in a
greenhouse with otherwise ideal conditions.
An approach for spinach might be that if your
days are less than 14 hours, extend the days with
artificial lighting. But, it's not the whole story.
Experiments by K. Hammer and J. Bonner2 show
that photoperiod sensitive plants may actually be
"measuring" the length of night, not the day.
With this approach, spinach wants to sense not
necessarily 14 hours of light, but periods of dark
that are no longer than 10 hours. Their report is
that the darkness can be interrupted by as little as
a 25 watt bulb, for as short as one minute.
If the plant needs a longer night, expect to need
an opaque cover to protect the plant from even
the light intensity of a 25 watt bulb. From other
sources, I've gathered that the mid-darkness
period needs to be artificial light of 10 to 30 foot
candle. Used as an approach to extend the day,
light for something like 3 minutes in every 30
minutes, 6 seconds minimum in every minute.
Strawberries 7.06
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Earth berming or burying a contained growing
area would minimize the effect of external
temperature variations, and provide greater pest
protection. Earth sheltering combined with
insulation iv should, if the intrusion of heat is
avoided, provide for appropriate year round
temperatures. Unless intended / used as human
shelter for a CBR threat, the structure does not
need to be airtight or constantly overpressured.
Root temperature in general should not exceed
82 degrees F, above which growth processes
drop off, with 68 to 77 preferred. A root zone
temperature of 105 degrees F is probably fatal to
most plants.

A 40 watt florescent tube power is: Leaves usually prefer 61 to 68 F.

Inch Distance Ft. Candle GROWING AREA

1 1000
Readily available information suggests that
2 950
3 750 1,000 sq. ft. minimum of growing areav is needed
per person. With a typical modern diet, the
4 650
5 560 upper fertilizing limit for humanure looks to be
around 1600 ft. sq., with the limiting nutrient
6 400
7 430 being potassium, vi and a potential "minimum"
area of 600 ft. sq. based on a nitrogen
8 370
9 360 concentration limit.
10 350
In the interest of pest control, I would not
iii
Estimated Light Requirements suggest a single large facility for a family.
Per Square Foot Instead, a number of separate units would permit
growing a wider variety of plants, in differing
Plant Watt/Ft.Sq. conditions, concentrated with other plants
needing similar conditions. It may also be
Tomato 8.3
simpler and cheaper to make a series of smaller
Eggplant 2.32 units even per person, rather than a single 600 to
Peppers 2.32 1,600 sq. ft. "greenhouse" for each person.
Soybeans 2.32
The commercially available concept and
Green Peas 2.32
products that blend well with the MESS concept
Spinach 2.32 are those intended for "roof gardens", and their
Carrots 2.32 design factors. A bottom water proof membrane
Cucumbers 15.77 and roof penetration protection, a layer of
drainage and aeration, a means to prevent soil
Wheat 2.32 penetrating the drainage, and compost above.
Lettuce 2.5 Protect the top of the soil with another aeration
barrier, then wind barrier above, which has
2
Notes from Introduction to Biology, 4th penetrations for plantings. Weight is a major
Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc., 1972

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consideration in a roof garden or say gardening
in containers on raised benches.
If your gardening media is enclosed and
suspended above ground, then consider if you
can walk under the garden. How far can you
lean and reach if you are tending the garden? If
you can walk under, and come up thru san a
square 2’ on a side to tend by leaning, then you
eliminate a lot of waster path space.
If you can reach 3 foot (or a hair more) then
think in terms of each 8’ x 8’ growing area
having a 2’ x 2’ hole in the middle. Each 64
sq.ft. of surface area has 60 sq.ft. of growing
space. If you “fudge” the math a bit (remember,
the growing area can be from 1,000 to 1,600 sq.
ft), you could have these units in a grid either 4
or 5 on a side. This is a A square with sides
between 32’ and 40’. (Is there a commercially
available bubble 8’ x 8’?) If a single test facility
for your area is to have just plants on benches
without walk-under capability, the above
therefore would put a single test unit at around 8’
x 12”.
The bulk of my container tinkering was in "Wal-
Mart" plastic tubs setting on cheap steel shelves.
(Which of course rusted-out in a few short
years.) "Rubbermaid" heavy duty shelving costs
more, but in the 4th year of outdoor use shows
no signs of decay.
The growing level. A mix of composted
biomass and inert water holding substances. The
depth will vary depending on the crop. The
medium must hold surface tension water, yet
drain well and allow air into the "pores" between
particles.
Next down is a drain / filter level, I use
fiberglass garden cloth, some of which has been
in use for 5+ years (2007). Under this is 1 to 3
inches of "volcanic" rock, light but it holds the
filter above the water and provides air space.
Under the rock I've been having success with
another layer of fiberglass cloth as a wick, and
keeping an upside down bottle, down thru a
sleeve to keep the wick wet.
The greater the control & isolation from external
influences, the better. But, your facility can be
anything from a hedge rimmed garden to a
miniature version of the Biosphere II facility, or
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the NASA CELESS. It's up to you and your
resources. If you want to exclude excess heat
(my situation most of the year) the only light to
reach the garden should be that intensity and
frequency needed by the plant, all else is waste
heat. Insulate and protect the growing medium
from light and moving air.
HUMIDITY RECOVERY
At the moment, short of a sealed greenhouse and
running mechanical HVAC, I'm unclear on a
method. (See Appropriate Technology - Dew
Collection) I've read of fans blowing air from
above the plants thru buried porous pipes, with
the lower ground temperature leading to
condensation, then the water draining from the
pipes.
If the greenhouse IS sealed, then the largest
challenge is getting heat OUT of the plant
growing structure. Consider a bottle top up
filled with water inside the greenhouse, another
empty one outside top down, and the mouths of
the bottles connected by hose. If the bottles and
hose are solid enough, the temperature of
evaporation can be “set” by controlled
imposition of a vacuum on the unit. When the
temperature of the inside bottle is greater than
that of the outside bottle, water will evaporate,
the vapor flow then condense, and the liquid
water run back .
WATSON WICK
WARNING
CHECK WITH YOUR LOCAL HEALTH
OFFICIALS
A method of recycling human effluent rather
directly to the growing medium is the Aerobic
Pumice Wick presented by TOM WATSON.
Black water drains thru a filter tank to hold
solids for aerobic composting, allowing the
liquid to drain to a bed/tank.
In this container you want a lot of wicking
material, with a lot of air. Mr. Watson suggests
an 18" bed of pumice in a waterproof base, with
a cover of around 6" of soil. The bottom 1/2" to
1" needs to be water-tight. Absent pumice,
consider coarse sand. Without a watertight
membrane, use the old approach of a layer of
straw and manure to help anaerobic bacteria
create a water-impermeable "clogging" layer.
The intent is to create an area to convert the
smelly end product of human digestion, which
scientifically can be seen as 0.16 g/l dissolved
solids, 0.23 g/l suspended solids, 0.007 g/l
phosphate, and 0.51 g/l nitrogen, into a nutrient
righ garden bed. Plant roots access the bed use
the nutrients and transpire the water. In the case
of too much liquid, the wick acts as a filter and
filtered water drains out of the exit pipe. Please
ensure liquid does not rise to the compost level.
Perennial plants are best used because of their
permanent roots. Lawns, shade trees, fruit trees,
berries, grape arbors etc. are all suitable as there
are no disease vectors transmitted via the roots.
WARNING
CHECK WITH YOUR LOCAL HEALTH
OFFICIALS
AIR STORAGE
If used as a CBR shelter, air storage is needed to
avoid drastic swings in air composition.
Consider the earth, with plant and animal activity
taking place on the surface or in the first 100 feet
or so, yet with miles of effective storage
overhead. A potential methods to combine the
garden with a large sealed volume of air is a
rooftop garden over your sealed home.
PLANTING PLANNING
Companion plantingvii . Some plants grow better
together, or immediately following each other,
while some plants cannot tolerate each other or
growing in a medium just after other particular
plants.
Nitrogen Replenishment. Nitrogen fixation may
be accomplished by symbiotic organisms of
legumes, or other plants which harbor the correct
microbial population. Plants can not fix nitrogen
gas but legumes have evolved a symbiotic
relationship with the bacteria of the genus
Rhizobium, which grow in special nodules in
those plants. The plant provides the bacteria with
the nutrients they need for growth and in return
obtain nitrogen which the bacteria convert from
N2 into NH4+. These nitrogen fixing crops
should preceed heaving nitrogen feeding crops.
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Nutrient Concentrations. The life cycle of
plants, animal intervention, earthworm or
microbe systems may cause temporary
concentrations (therefore also temporary areas of
shortages). Overages or shortages can be tested
in a non-technology manner by selected
plantingsviii and ovservation of the plant
reactions.
Crop cycling. In addition to companion
planting, keeping a growing range from seed to
mature plants, based on the needs of he plants
and your consumption rate. For example, if you
use a head of lettuce every week, you need to
plant lettuce weekly. For every plant completely
harvested you should have it's replacement
already growing and ready to set out. Cycle
planting also includes considering that there are
plants which cannot tolerate being in the
growing medium immediately after certain other
plants.
Seed Crops. You'll want to keep seeds of the
"best" plants for your next generation.
Cloning. Many plants can be cloned from
cuttings, or with the right technologyix from far
smaller portions than would happen in nature. A
large enough genetic base, in the form of stored
seeds, needs to be maintained to prevent
deleterious mutations being concentrated due to
inbreeding or cloning of the "defective" plant.
A "Grocery Store" recipe for cloning "difficult"
plants is 1/8 cup sugar, 1 cup water (or coconut
milk), 1/2 cup pre-mixed water and fertilizer, 1/2
inositol (125mg) vitamin tablet, 1/4 vitamin
tablet with thiamin, 2 tablespoon agar flakes (or
corn starch, jello, etc.)
The growth promoting substance in plant shoot
tips will, if the tips are crushed, diffuse into
surrounding substances, and therefore be
collectable in substances, such as galatin.
Plants being rooted may not be able to
manufacture their own "food. They may be
helped along by sugar water, coconut milk, fruit
juices, etc.
ALGAE CULTURES
Algae grows quite well naturally in most ponds
and ditches, taking its carbon dioxide from the
water plus utilizing what minerals are in the
water. Logically if you harvested a portion each
day and minerals were added, the crop would be
much larger than it is naturally. Potentially three
foot wide, 20 feet long, one foot deep plastic-
lined troughs filled with the water could supply
all the algae wanted.
For animal feed, the harvested algae could be
mixed with the dead flies, dried and pelletized or
broken up. As chicken feed it would supply all
the protiens, vitamins and minerals required,
even by chicks.
For human consumption, Spirulina is sold as a
health food. While I'm not enthused by the taste,
I had Spirulina growing for several years from a
starting of commercially available supply. As
part of it's nutrient source, I pour water thru local
sand, and potting soil.
Spirulina, a one-celled form of algae, perhaps a
"link" between plants and animals, thrives in
slightly saline "fresh" water, 8 to 11 pH, of 85 to
112 degrees F, up to 140 degrees F. The
conditions are such that most other
microorganisms cannot survive. It is perhaps
the most "efficient" means to grow a nutritious
food, which is over 65% complete protein, that is
all essential amino acids in balance. It is 8 to 10
percent efficient in use of light, and is one of the
few plant sources of vitamin B12, usually found
only in animal tissues. A teaspoon of Spirulina
supplies 250% of the Recommended Daily
Allowance of vitamin B12 and contains over
twice the amount of this vitamin found in an
equivalent serving of liver. It also provides high
concentrations of many other nutrients - amino
acids, chelated minerals, pigmentations,
rhamnose sugars (complex natural plant sugars),
trace elements, enzymes - that are in an easily
assimilable form.
Certain desert-adapted species will survive when
their pond habitats evaporate in the intense sun,
drying to a dormant state on rocks as hot as 70
degrees Centigrade (160 degrees F). In this
dormant condition, the naturally blue-green algae
turns a frosted white and develops a sweet flavor
as its 71 percent protein structure is transformed
into polysaccharide sugars by the heat.
The blue-green algae, and Spirulina in particular,
have a primitive structure with few starch
storage cells and cell membrane proliferation,
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but rich amounts of ribosomes, the cellular
bodies that manufacture protein. This particular
arrangement of cellular components allows for
rapid photosynthesis and formation of proteins.
The lack of hard cellular walls assures that
Spirulina protein is rapidly and easily assimilated
by consuming organisms.
Any water-tight, open container can be used to
grow spirulina, provided it will resist corrosion.
Its depth is usually 16 inches (twice the depth of
the culture itself). Temperature is the most
important climatic factor influencing the rate of
growth of spirulina. Below 68°F growth is
practically nil. The optimum temperature is
99°F, but above 108°F it is in danger. Growth
takes place in light (photosynthesis), but
illumination 24 hours a day is not recommended.
It cannot stand a strong light when below 68°F.
It preferes 1/3 of full sun, with cells destroyed by
prolonged strong light.
The water used should be clean or filtered, but
consider it's natural conditions.
When in good condition harvesting is an easy
operation, but when it gets "sticky" harvesting
may become a mess. Harvesting in early
morning for the cool temperature, more sunshine
hours to dry the product, and the % proteins in
the spirulina is highest in the morning. Harvest
by a filter of a fine weave cloth.
The nutrients extracted from the culture medium
by the harvested biomass must be replaced. The
major nutrients can be supplied in various ways,
preferrably in a soluble form, but even insoluble
materials will slowly be disolved as the
corresponding ions are consumed by the
spirulina in the medium. Urea is an excellent
nutrient for spirulina but its concentration in the
medium must be kept low (below about 100
mg/liter). If sugar or other easily oxidizable
organic materials are used as a source of carbon,
nitrates cannot be fed in large concentration
either, as they may be reduced to ammonia that
is toxic above 150 mg/liter. Excess urea can be
converted either to nitrates or to ammonia in the
medium. A faint smell of ammonia is a sign that
there is an excess of nitrogen, not necessarily
harmful ; a strong odour however indicates an
overdose. Balance salinity at 15 grams per liter
and alkalinity at 0.1 N
Per liter based on chemicals:
NaHCO - 8 gram
(sodium bircarbonate)
Sea Salt - 5.0
NaNO3 or KNO32.0
or Urea - 0.07
NH4H3PO4 - 0.1
K2SO4 - 0.1
MgSO4*7H2) - 0.1
FeSO4 - 0.001
Natural approach: Use ashes from wood fires
rich in potassium, sea salt, urine, and iron such
as from old nails with vinegar and lemon juice.
Blood also is a good source of iron. In case of
necessity ("survival" type situations), all major
nutrients and micronutrients except iron can be
supplied by urine (from persons or animals in
good health, not consuming drugs) at a dose of
about 15 to 20 liters/ kg spirulina. Iron can be
supplied by a saturated solution of iron in
vinegar (use about 100 ml/kg).
Freshly harvested and eaten is best, it will not
keep more than a few days in the refrigerator,
and no more than a few hours at room
temperature. Adding 10 % salt is a good way to
extend these keeping times up to several months,
but the appearance and taste of the product
change : the blue pigment (phycocyanin) is
liberated, the product becomes fluid and the taste
is somewhat like anchovy's paste. Freezing is a
very convenient way to keep fresh spirulina for a
long time. It also liberates the blue pigment, but
it does not alter the taste. Drying is the only
commercial way to keep spirulina. If suitably
packaged and stored, dry spirulina is considered
good for consumption up to five years. But
drying is an expensive process and it very
generally gives the product a different and
possibly unpleasant taste and odour. Dried
spirulina is also not so easy to use.
Direct sun drying must be very quick, otherwise
the chlorophyll will be destroyed and the dry
product will appear blueish. Whatever the
source of heat, the biomass to be dried must be
thin enough to dry before it starts fermenting.
Drying temperature should be limited to 158°F,
and drying time to 5 hours.
AQUACULTURE
Fish present a means to "process" bugs, worms,
etc. into a pleasing protein source. Tilapia do
well in small captive tanks, and in fact may
breed too well, with an exploding population of a
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LOT of small fish with few bigger (and more
eatable) fish. Think of them as producing liquid
fertilizer.
Tilapia have been successfully grown in a 725
gallon tank, catfish in 55 gallon drums. In such
crowded conditions, 10% or more by volume
must be siphoned out monthly from the bottom
sludge.
Tilapia is a hearty freshwater fish native to the
Middle East and Africa which grows rapidly
within a range of environments, with a high
tolerance for bad conditions including relatively
low oxygen and high silt, with a diet that can
include algae, agricultural "waste", or bugs (see
notes elsewhere on fly-farming). The growing
fish must be fed roughly one and one-half times
their average daily body weight throughout the
course of their lives. They have 19.7 g protein
and 2 g fat per 3.5 oz (100 g) serving. Tilapia
need warm-water from 82° to 86°F. They need
minimum dissolved oxygen level of 3 parts per
million, requiring some pumping system in a
crowded tank. Tilapia grow best in water with a
pH of 7; as nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acids)
build up and make the water acidic, neutral pH is
maintained by added buffers such as KOH or
(Ca(OH)2), added daily or every other day. Iron
is supplied through the addition of an iron
chelate once every three weeks and the
recommended amount is 2ppm.
Each individual fish (harvested at .45 kg or 450
grams), would consume 2.5 times that amount,
or 1,125g, of which 40% becomes increased
body mass, 20-30% is used for energy and
maintaining body functions, and 30-40% is
waste. Our 10 person homestead tank would
require fish feed of 1,125 kg, in order to reach
the target weight.
Fish waste products of urea and solid excrement
accumulate in the tanks, which must be removed
and recycled to the growing plant crops,
including algae as fish food.
The Columbia3 study shows one tank 8’ in
diameter by 4’ deep (1,250 gallons) can be
stocked with 800 30g male tilapia fingerlings
3
The folks at Columbia University Medical
School, New York City, New York, have worked
up a multi aspect theoretical food system where a
city building is used to produce food for 50,000
city residents.
grown for 6 months before harvest, even with a
high mortality of 25%, fish harvested at 450
grams, edible filets of 40% of live weight. With
600 surviving fish at 450 g per fish, one tank
harvest should provide .45kg x 600 = 2700kgs
x .40 = 108 kg edible fish. This is an average of
around 600 gram of fish flesh per day. (To feed
six people) Our target per family size is 10
people, so we need a tank that is 160% larger in
volume, and twice again the area to provide for a
full year. Their example tank is around 200
cubic feet. Each homestead needs about 640
cubic feet (4166 gallon), which weighs around
33.332 pounds (don't put it on the roof with a
LOT of reinforcement). If we keep the same
depth as the Columbia example, then the
diameter must increase to around 10 feet. The
size of each of the two tanks is still not much
more than an above ground kid pool.
HYDROPONICS
In repeated texts hydroponics is reported to be
cheaper and more efficient than soil gardening.
It provides a means to provide optimum root
conditions and avoid soil pathogens. Without
root resources limits plants can grow to their
optimum given heat, light, and CO2 limits.
Hydroponics via aquaculture is the simplest to
set up. The author has not done experiments in
hydroponics to determine if it requires less or
more water than a soil-based garden. In general
there must be some means to support the roots.
In general the solution must be pumped to/from
the plants and the source of the nutrients,
whether the fish tank, the black water tank,
or ???? Typically there must be some medium
for the roots to adhere to that holds enough
moisture between nutrient floodings. Mediums
that may work for you are gravel, smooth river
rock, sand, marbles, etc., looking for something
that holds moisture on its surface, while
providing adequate air-space for the roots.
Check your library for books with further details
on physical materials and layout.
As mentioned elsewhere regarding worm
castings, to extract the nutrients from a compost
for use in a nutrient solution think of a tea bag.
Fill a sack with compost and put it in warm
water for about a week, put your compost in a
watertight can, etc. The nutrients seep out into
the water. Filter (i.e. thru more soil, sand, etc.)
to leave the solids behind for use elsewhere.
NOTE: Many trace elements essential for plants
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may not dissolve in the water from natural
sources. The needs to obtain and “insert” these
elements in a more artificial “chelated” form is
an inherent “problem” of hydroponics, vs soil
where natural organisms handle all the
balancing.
CONSTRUCTION
Think in terms of a "rooftop garden", which then
of course can be located on virtually any surface
exposed to sunlight. A lightweight, controlled
environment where the growing conditions for
plants are optimized.
For your growing area, envision you use planting
beds 4' x 8', with 16” wide paths all around for
ease of access. Using this method, for every 32
ft. sq. planted, your garden will cover about 5' x
10', therefore 1,000 ft. sq. of planting area would
require nearly 1,600 ft. sq. of surface. Framing
the area allows extra topsoil or compost to be
added in to create a thicker growing area, raises
the growing surface above night chilled air, and
reduces the need to bend. Consider each 4' x 8'
bed as a large self-watering planter.
WATER-TIGHT BASE MEMBRANE
Maintain some absolute minimum bottom
moisture, avoiding enough to "drown" roots,
with excess draining to storage / reprocessing.
Maintain a reservoir by such method as you can
to keep this bottom moisture in place. A small
number of W/N roots can exist in the water, but
depth should be no further than 15 cm due to the
limited amount of dissolved oxygen. When the
water level drops in a plants growing medium
where roots are growing in the water,
these water tolerant roots change into O
roots, a process taking only 2-4 days. However,
this is not reversible. If water returns to the
original depth such that the changed roots
are now flooded, the plants wilt within a few
hours and do not recover. You need to create a
medium with such large air spaces that no matter
how much water is around, the roots will still
find plenty of air, but dense enough that water
can move up by capillary action and keep the
medium moist.
 WICK MATERIAL
A durable, non-toxic, non-rotting material
capable of wicking water up, 2" to 3" thick,
which also serves as an air-gap.
Expanded volcanic rock, Perlite (Danger to
worms), it's principal value is aeration, as it does
not hold water & nutrients as well as vermiculite.
It has a pH of 7.0 to 7.5. It can cause fluoride
burn on the tips of some foliage plants.
Vermiculate is expanded mica. (Danger to
worms) It will hold large quantities of air, water,
and nutrients, with a pH of 6.5 to 7.2. It comes
in four particle sizes, use larger sizes, at least 2
or 3.
Fiberglass w/rock. (Danger to worms)
FILTER SCREEN / MAT
For high-tech fiberglass screen or woven mat.
Low tech sticks, twigs, stems (needs to be
monitored/replaced). This holds growing
medium above wick/air gap.
ENCLOSURE
Whether vapor-tight canvas, adobe, stainless
steel, or concrete, walls are necessary to exclude
hungry critters, and avoid drying or damaging
winds. A typical greenhouse has transparent
walls to allow in more light. Is the engineering
challenge and expense of walls of glass worth it,
or even warranted?
Consider you put into an otherwise open field
your 1,000 sq. ft. garden. Your plants have
access to all of the direct and indirect light from
all angles that might fall on that 1,000 sq. ft.
Put an eight foot high solid opaque wall 4 around
your garden, and you plants are in shade at the
bottom of a well. Line your wall though with
highly reflective material and you plants are
4
Consider one of the primitive metal sheds
available at your local home supply store, with
as may skylights, or even glued in place random
plastic and glass panels, which will not look like
a greenhouse, but will function. Or lower your
garden eight feet into the ground to take
advantage of the stable temperatures.
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essentially back to receiving all of the light that
would otherwise fall on their footprint. Place at
the top of the structure a light selective surface
(discussed earlier) and you could if desired have
a virtually air-tight structure.
TYPICAL SOIL
Soil is the loose mineral and organic material
which provides nutrients, moisture, and
anchorage for land plants. The mineral aspect
starts as rock, which is physically broken in to
smaller particles by mechanical weathering,
wind, water, freeze/thaw, and life once it is
established.
Particles size ranges are:
Sand - 0.05 to 2.00 mm
Silt - 0.002 to 0.05 mm
Clay - < 0.002 mm
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
The smaller the particles, the greater the surface
area for any given mass. Clay size particles have
so much additional surface area that the
permanent negative electrical charge of the
surface electrons becomes a significant
consideration, and they readily attach to
molecules other than the parent rock. This
electrical charge difference is referred to as the
Cation Exchange Capacity (CAC). The higher
the CAC, the more easily these particles make
nutrients available to roots and soil life,
including water.
Zeolite means the stone that boils. I've read that
a zeolite crystal the size of a pinhead, when
devoid of water, will have an internal surface
area equivalent to a bedspread. This porous
structure provides significant cation exchange
capacities when added to the growing medium.
CEC of Soil Textures, showing the relative
amount of nutrients the soil can hold in a useful
manner.
Sand 3 to 5
Sandy loam 10 to 20
Loam 15 to 20
Silt loam 15 to 25
Clay loam 20 to 50
Organic soil 50 to 100
Soil organic matter (90% carbohydrate), as it
decomposes, makes the nutrients available to the
crops. It increases water holding capacity,
aeration, and buffers soil pH.

SOIL PH

Soil pH is a chemical term "potential of

Hydrogen" which is a measure of acidity (lower)
or alkalinity (higher) of a solution or substance,
numerically a reading of 7 is a neutral solution.
As you move in either direction away from 7, the
scale is logarithmic, that is a pH reading of 8.5 is
ten times more alkaline than a reading of 7.5.

Any atom with a number of electrons that do not

"match" the protons in the nucleus is an "ion".
The "pH" of a solution is a count of the number
of ions. In a glass of water there is generally one
hydrogen ion in every 10 million water
molecules. The pH of water is set at 7 (7 zeros
in the count). Stomach acid has one hydrogen
ion for every one hundred molecules, or a pH of
about 2. (two zeros) The ions work to tear apart
the molecules of food.

Remember, 98% of plant nutrition absorption is

Soil pH depends of course on the elemental and
molecular composition of the basic soil. Most of
Arizona for example contains high amounts of
the mineral calcium carbonate (free lime), which
keeps the soil pH at around 7.5 to 8. Nearly all
ofthe carclim carbonate would have to be
neutralized with a strong acid to begin to drop
the pH appreciably.
from minerals dissolved in soil water. The effect
of soil pH varies with the mineral, presence of
other minerals, and soil type.
In alkaline conditions micronutrients such as
iron, zinc, copper and manganese become
chemically bound and may precipitate out of
solution.

In acid conditions calcium, phosphorous and

magnesium may become chemically bound and
precipitate, while manganese and aluminum can
dissolve to toxic levels.

SOIL WATER RETENTION

Of water applied to a soil of primarily one size of

particles, the water held will generally be
around:

Fine sand - 2.0%

Sandy loam - 8.5 %
Silt loam - 10.9%
Clay - 13.5%

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Soil physically typically consists of:
45% - Mineral material (sand, silt, clay)
1 - 5% - Organic matter (plant & animal
remains)
2 - 3% - Micro-ogranisms
25% - Soil atmosphere
25% - Soil moisture
WATER CONSERVATION
Exchange of water molecules into the air occurs
only if there is a vapor pressure difference
between the evaporating surface and the air, i.e.
evaporation is nil when the relative humidity of
the air is 100%. A change of state from liquid to
vapor, and therefore necessitates a source of
latent heat. To evaporate 1 gram of water
requires 540 calorie of heat at 100 degree Celsius
and 600 calorie at 0 degree Celsius.
Evaporation rate is affected by wind speed, 1
mm of the water surface the upward movement
of vapor is by individual molecules -- "molecular
diffusion", but above this surface boundary layer
turbulent air motion -- "eddy diffusion" is
responsible.
It is reported that even three or four stones
around a tree in the desert make a difference
between survival and non-survival. If you put a
pile of stones in the desert, it is often moist
below them.
Salinity depresses the evaporation rate. Sea
water has 2-3% less evaporation rate than fresh
water.
Evapotranspiration is a combination of
evaporation from the free water surface such as
oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds; and
transpiration from plants, vegetation, soil and
grounds.
Transpiration -- water loss from plants takes
place when the vapor pressure in the air is less
than that in the leaf cells. 95% of the daily water
loss occurs during the daytime, water vapors
transpired through small pores, or "stomato", in
the leaves, which open in response to stimulation
by light. The internal (stomatol) resistance of a
single leaf to diffusion is an important control on
transpiration, and it is dependant on the size and
distribution of the stomato. External resistance of
the air to molecular diffusion arises through
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frictional drag of air over the leaf (larger leaves
have lower transpiration rates) and the
interference between diffusing molecules of
water vapor.
What factors control the net loss of water (or net
evaporation) in the atmosphere:
Temperature: increase the temperature, increase
the activity of water molecules and loss the water
molecules, therefore, affect the net rate of
evaporation. Temperature of the water, and the
temperature of the evaporating surface. It takes
great amount of input energy to change from
liquid to gas. Temperature (evaporation) is a
function of latitude, season, time of day, and
cloudiness.
Relative humidity of the air: hot air can hold
great deal more water vapor than cold air.
Measure the water vapor content in the
atmosphere expressed in percentage. What % of
the water vapor has been saturated in the air. The
higher the relative humidity, the slower the
evaporation rate. Sometimes, this refers to the
vapor pressure deficit - which is the difference in
vapor pressure between the water surface and the
atmosphere.
Wind velocity: The higher the wind velocity, the
more the mix of the air, and the better the chance
for evaporation rate. Stability of the air or the
stillness of the air is also affect evaporation rate.
Above all, the temperature of surface is the most
important factor affecting evaporation. The
warm surface area gets largest evaporation.
Arctic and Antarctic, or mid-latitude in the
winter, evaporation gets very low. Sea has open
water surface, tropical and subtropical areas,
evaporation is high.
Availability of moisture: The moisture supply
in the soil is limited, plants have difficulty in
extracting water, and AE rate falls short of PE
(Potential Evaporation) which is the moisture
transfer from a vegetated surface is referred to as
PE, and when the moisture supply in the soil is
unlimited. The evaporation equivalent of the
available net radiation.
To contemplate a perhaps complex approach to
preserving your garden water, enclose the garden
in essentially a water vapor tight structure. (For
starters, think greenhouse.)
Although greenhouse glazing often gets credit-
blame for interior heating by preventing
radiation of the infrared from the heated
greenhouse contents, tests show that even when
the glazing is made of materials transparent to
infrared, the greenhouse still warms. Even in
greenhouses with infrared blocking glazing,
night sky radiation still cools.
It appears that the glazing, whatever the material,
provides a great deal more toward warming
merely by preventing convection currents than
does blocking ground level infrared radiation.
If the larger factor is convection currents and
physical transfer of heat, then in areas such as
the author's, where the purpose is avoiding water
loss to open air flow, look to gmize entry of un-
desired light frequency, and avoid within the
greenouse dark colored heavy mass objects, that
would create a miniature "heat island" within the
greenhouse.
Use night-sky radiation to cool a thermal storage
area, perhaps a large container of phase-change
material. Use the atmospheric condensers
discussed in the Appropriate Technology
appendix to dry garden air, then re-heat it before
exhausting it.
OPTIMIZED GROWING MEDIUM
A shallow bed of compost, worm castings, etc.
3" to 6". If you are taking a rooftop approach,
weight can be critical. Weight estimates from
ECHO x for a 4' x 8' bed are:
DEPTH WEIGHT COMPOST WEIGHT
SOIL
3" 598 lb.
947 lb.
8" 1,595 lb.
2,552 lb.
ECHO tells us a garden can be planted in fresh
organic material if one does not have compost,
grass clippings, food scraps, etc. as an example.
Whenever possible, cover new such beds with an
inch or more of compost before planting. So far
compost appears to be the ideal medium.
Transplanting holes may be filled with manure,
and consider watering with manure tea.
Transplanting from sprouting trays helps keep
growing medium "in use".
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Shallow rooftop type beds may require annual
reworking, or after each crop, as the depth of the
bed drops as the material turns to compost, but
the trade-off is the quality of the medium, which
is essentially pure compost, a near "ideal"
medium. To rework the bed, temporarily
remove the compost and put the new organic
material in the empty bed, then put the compost
remains back on top.
There is an element of artistry involved in
creating a medium that hold sufficient air and
water. In my containers I've been using a
column of perile surrounded by the compost,
with the perlite extending to the water mat, but
the compost held away by rocks and a fiberglass
mat. A key in all being at least 3 inches of soil
above the water level.
Whether commercial mats of capillary material,
fiberglass or other non-biological materials, or
biodegradable items, the purpose is to provide a
means of wicking water in a bed.
Compost tea, worm casting tea, even the runoff
from water thru (first solar pasterurized)
humanure can serve as an organic "hydroponic"
solution. One approach involves xi is
construction of a "wall" from cut and stacked
tires, filled with inert material such as gravel.
The professor's article is written around
graywater, but I see no physical impediment to
use of these other solutions.
In a "solid" growing medium, plant roots may
only make contact with 1/10% to 3/10% of the
particlesxii in the soil. (Still, with our present
open-loop system, how many crops does it take
for most of the nutrients to be taken away?)
ROOTING DEPTH
Your particular crop selection obviously effects
the details of your food production facility. In
open field conditions, plant feeder root depths
will typically be:
Alfalfa 3 to 6 feet
Beans 2 feet
Beets 2 to 3 feet
Berries (cane) 3 feet
Cabbage 1-1/2 to 3
feet
Carrots 1 1/2" to 2
feet
Corn 2 1/2 feet
Cotton 4 feet Insufficient ventilation, turn pile. Pests, rats,
Cucumbers 1-1/2 feet
raccoons, insects, presence of meat scraps or
Grain 2 to 2-1/2
feet fatty food waste, remove meat and fatty foods
Grain, SOrghum 2-1/2 feet from pile, or cover with a layer of soil or
Grapes 3 to 6 feet sawdust, or build an animal-proof compost bin,
Lettuce 1 foot
Melons 3-1/2 to 3
or turn the pile to increase temperature
feet
Nuts 3 to 6 feet Among the larger "helpers" are earthworms. Be
Onions 1-1/2 feet sure to select the type which best tolerates your
Orchard 3 to 5 feet
Pasture (Grass) 1-1/2 feet
conditions. Most worm composting books I've
Pasture (w/clover) 2 feet read recommend Lumbricus rubellus, or red
Peanuts 2 feet wiggler. It can't take my heat though as well as
Peas 2-1/2 feet Eudrilus eugeniae, the African night crawler,
Potatoes 2 feet
Soybeans 2 feet
which is a surface feeder.
Strawberries 1 to 1-1/2 Earthworms prefer a soil with a neutral pH, or
feet slightly alkaline. They need to stay moist, and
Sweet Potatoes 3 feet out of sunlight. They CAN NOT live in rock
Tobacco 2-1/2 feet
Tomatoes 3 to 4 feet
wool, vermiculite or perlite as on the scale of the
worm the products are like shards of broken
glass. All earthworms thrive on manure, and
COMPOSTING
consume their body weight in food every day. In
the wild earthworms may be malnurished. In
Breakdown of complex biological materials. your compost bin you may find up to 100,000
Non-edibile crop residue, food scraps, humanure, earthworms per cubic meter (3,000
etc., need to be broken down into simplier earthworms/cubic foot) as commercial growers
substances for plants to easily access the needed report. If each worm weighs around a gram, and
components. This can be done in a variety of produces casts of around it's body weight daily,
ways. Composting in containers that maintain one such bin could produce 100 kg of compost
appropriate humidity & temperature for the daily.
decay organisms. The finer the items are shred,
the greater the surface area and the easier the
Earthworms can absorb and carry disease. If you
organisms can proceed. These organisms, while
have any doubt as to safety of anything to be
breaking own you scraps, also use them for food.
added to your compost pile, consider solar
sterilization of the item first. You may lose
Rotten Odor - Probbly excess moisture
some nutrients, but you avoid contaminating
(anaerobic conditions). Turn the pile, or add dry,
your pile and worms. Earthworm casts are not
porous material, such as sawdust, wood chips, or
only considered a fertilizer, but you may find
straw. It could also be compaction (again
they are so rich in nutrients (see table 1) that
anaerobic conditions)
hydroponics solutions can be made from soaking
their casts. (DeKorne, 1978; Hydro Greenhouse
Ammonia Odor - Excess moisture or perhaps too
Corp, 1983). Like most animals earthworms
much nitrogen (lack of carbon). Turn the pile,
accumulate toxins in their bodies, which would
add high carbon material, such as sawdust, wood
be concentrated in any creature fed the worms.
chips, or straw.
Perhaps therefore early generations should be
recycled to outside of your food web.
Low Pile Temperature - Pile too small, make
pile bigger or insulate sides. Insufficient
moisture, add water while turning pile. Poor Table 1. Properties of earthworm casts and of
aeration, turn pile. Lack of nitrogen, mix in soil from cultivated fields.
nitrogen sources such as grass clippings or
manure. Cold weather, increase pile size, or 0-6" Soil 8-16" Soil
insulate pile with an extra layer of material such Compound Casts
Depth Depth
as straw.
Total Nitrogen 0.0353 0.246 0.081
High Pile Temperature (greater than 140 degrees Organic carbon
5.17 3.35 1.11
Fahrenheit) - Pile too large, reduce pile size. (%)

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Carbon : Nitrogen fall into a removable drawer below, or onto your
14.7 13.8 13.8 fish tank or chicken food bin.
ratio
Nitrate nitrogen
21.9 4.7 1.7 MICROSYMBIONTS
(ppm)
Available These can be bacteria or fungi that "infect" the
150.0 20.8 8.3
phosphorus (ppm) host plant root. As implied by the word
Exchangeable symbiont, instead of a debiliating infection there
2,793.0 1,993.0 418.0 is a two-way benefit. The plant sugar flow to its
calcium (ppm)
roots feeds the infecting organism, while the
" magnesium
492.0 162.0 69.0 symbiont aids the plant in uptake of water or
(ppm)
nutrients from the soil, or in some cases the
" potassium (ppm) 358.0 32.0 27.0 "fixing" of nitrogen from the air. There are three
Total calcium (%) 1.19 0.88 0.91 types of organisms that may form this valuable
symbiosis.
Total magnesium
0.545 0.511 0.548
(%) Mycorrhiza are a fungus that can essentially
Percent saturation 92.9 71.1 55.5 provide an extended root system for the plant,
pH 7.0 6.36 6.05 and protection for the plant. The fungai extend
their threads into a large volume of soil where
Moisture they explore and extract nutrients from the soil
31.4 27.4 21.1
equivalent (%) beyond the reach of the plant roots. Some fungi
produce hormones that stimulate greater root
Source: Lunt, H. A. and G. M. Jacobson, The development.
Chemical Composition of Earthworm Casts.
Rhizobia bacteria may cause some leguminosae
Soaking earthworm casts is a means to produce (think bean) plant roots to form nitrogen-fixing
an "organic" hydroponic solution. Soak an equal root nodules. The bacteria/plant relationship can
volume of earthworm casts and water. You may be very type-specific, where the legume will
need additional nitrogen. Earthworms are your form nodules only when infected with a specific
miniature engineers, opening the soil to allow air rhizobium. Others will form nodules with a
and water to flow. range of rhizobia. For your intended crops, and
potential surrounding "native" transplant donor
sites, pre-research relationships. Rhizobium
FLIES
nodules for transplant should be collected from
young roots. The interior of a healthy N2-fixing
A perhaps strange sounding approach from THE rhizobium nodules is usually pink, red or brown.
SURVIVOR Vol. 1. Do you include chickens,
fish, etc. in your food plans? Do you need a high Frankia bacteria also perform nitrogen fixation.
protein food source for them? Capture a few These bacteria form their own web, similar to
flies, and odds are one or more of them will be a fungus, and independent nitrogen fixing vesicles.
female. And as with rhizobia, can be either broad of
plant specific. The interior of a healthy frankia
Envision them in a screened in, escape proof nodules is usually whitish or yellowish.
container, with rotting food, sterilized sewage,
etc. The SURVIVOR suggests four inch deep If you are starting with a sterile medium, you
plastic trays, in the bottom part of each tray a may be able to "transplant" microsymbionts from
hole with a patch of rubber with a slit in it previous planting sites, or sites in nature where
through which a nozzle would be inserted. The similar plants are doing particularly well. Either
same kind of slit rubber patch would be over approach has risks of course of also transplanting
holes in the screen adjacent to each tray. As the pathogens. The danger can be reduced by
maggots ate they would rise to the top to pupate. collecting only desired "infected" roots and
Pump the new slurry in from the bottom. At one nodules.
end hang electrified wires to zap the flies, who

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 The difference between with/without a
symbioant, or the right one, can be significant.
Wood production in selected trees inoculated
with a superior strain can be more than 100%
above the naturally inoculated control.
MACROSYMBIONTS
Companion planting. There are combinations of
plants that grow better (and worse) next to each
other than they do next to a plant the same type.
There are numerous materials on the subject.
This approach also allows use of a wider range
of soil depth, as roots from the different plants
seek different nutrients, at different times, and
different depths.

Vegies Beneficial Antagonistic

Asparagus parsley, tomato, basil onions, potato
Basil Most plants Rue
Beet, borage, cabbage, carrot,
cauliflower, cucumber, corn, marigold,
chives, fennel, garlic
Beans squash, strawberry, tomato
leek
*Reduces the number of corn armyworms
*Nitrogen-fixing
Beet cabbage, kohlrabi,dwarf beans,onions, Runner Beans ...
Broad Beans Potato, lettuce Fennel
bean, celery, chamomile, dill,
mint, nasturtium, onion, lettuce, strawberry,
Broccoli
potato, sage, rosemary tomato
*Reduces striped cucumber beetles
bean, celery, dill, hyssop, mint
Brussels Sprout rosemary, strawberry
nasturtium, potato, sage, , thyme
bean, beet, chamomile, dill,
hyssop, mint, nasturtium, onion
grape,strawberry,
Cabbage potato, sage, rosemary
tomato, thyme
*Surround cabbages with white-flowering plants to prevent
cabbage moth damage.
bean, chives, leek, onion, pea, lettuce
sage, scorzonera,
Carrot dill, rosemary, radish
tomato, wormwood
*Deters onion flies
bean, beet, celery, chamomile, dill,
Cauliflower hyssop, mint, onion potato
oregano, sage, radish
Celeriac bean, cabbage, leek, onion, tomato ...
bean, cabbage, leek, onion, tomato
Celery parsnip, potato
*Deters cabbage butterflies
Artichoke, parsnip,bean, cabbage, cucumber, early potato,
Corn ...
lupin, melon, pea, pumpkin, squash
bean, broccoli,carrots, celery,
Cucumber rue, sage
Chinese cabbage, lettuce, pea, radish, tomato
Eggplant beans,potatopea, tarragon, thyme ...
Horseradish potato ...
bean, cucumber, pepper,
Kohlrabi beet, onion
tomato
carrots, celeriac, celery
Leeks broad bean, broccoli
*Deters carrot flies, strawberries
beet, cabbage, carrots clover, pea,
Lettuce Beet, beans, parsley, parsnip
radish, strawberry
Melon corn, peanut, sunflower ...

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 beet, cabbage, carrot, chamomile, corn, lettuce,
bean, pea, cucumber, dill,
Onion potato, strawberry,, tomato
tomato, pumpkin, squash
*Deters Colorado beetle and carrot flies
carrot, corn, cucumber
Pea eggplant, lettuce, radish, onions, garlic, shallots
spinach, tomato, turnip
basil, carrot, lovage, marjoram,
Pepper fennel, kohlrabi
onion, oregano
Broad bean, cabbage, cauliflower, corn, lettuce,
onions, peas, petunia, marigold, radish
apple, pumpkin,
Potato *Deters Mexican bean beetle
tomato, sunflowers
*Indian hemp helps protect against late blight - this plant is
illegal in some countries - check local regulations
bean, corn, mint, nasturtium,
Pumpkin potato
radish, marjoram
bean, cabbage, cauliflower,
cucumber, lettuce, melon, parsley,
Radish tomato grape, hyssop, squash,
*Deters many cucmber beetle,root flies,vine borers, and many
other pests
cabbage, celery, eggplant, onion
Spinach ...
pea, strawberry, fruit trees
bean, corn, mint, nasturtium
Squash ...
radish
bean, corn,, mint, nasturtium
Summer Squash potato
radish
asparagus, basil, beans, cabbage,,
carrot, cauliflower, chives,
Tomato onion, parsley, pea, sage
fennel, potato
*Deters loopers, flea beetles, and whiteflies on cabbage
Turnip pea ...
bean, corn, marjoram, mint, nasturtium,
Zucchini potato
radish

Flowers as Companions
Reseeds frequently, gradually breaks up & adds to the organic level of the soil (*esp. white
Alyssum
alyssum)
Amaranth Pigweed *Attracts ground beetles
Alfalfa lucerne reduces corn wireworms
Chrysanthem
reduces nematodes
um
Coneflower Rudbeckia
Castor Bean controls mosquitoes and nematodes
Good companion for roses
Lupins
*Nitrogen fixer
Marigolds Calendula*Deters asparagus beetes, tomato hornworms

Tagetes
*reduce the number of nematodes in soil
*attract hoverflies (aphid predators)
Marigolds
*Deters Mexican bean beetles
*Reduces cabbage pests
*Good companion for roses
Poppies Suppress weeds (and every other plant)

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Petunias Repel a number of pests, including Mexican bean beetle, potato bug, and squash bug
Wallflower Aids growth of orchard plants

Herbs
bean, coriander
bean, cabbage, tomato
Anise Deters aphids, fleas, reduces Basil
*Controls a variety of pests
cabbage worms
strawberry, tomato
*Attracts bees, reduces Japanese
Borage Caraway pea
beetles on potatoes, and deters
tomato hornworms
*Deters ants, aphids, Colardo
beetles, darkling beetles, flea
Catnip Chamomile cucumber, mint, radish, roses
beetles, Japanese beetles, squash
bugs, weevils.
*Cures blackspot on roses, deters Japanese
Chervil carrot, radish Chive beetles, discourages insects from climbing
fruit trees, inhibits growth of apple scab
Clover deters cabbage root flies Coriander deters Colorado beetles
Good companion for fruit trees; Deters potato
Dandelion Repels Colorado beetles Dead nettle
bud
Dill Repels aphids and spider mites Elderberry General insect repellant
Eucalyptus general insect repellant Fennel deters aphids
Good companion for fruit trees;
Good companion for fruit trees; deters
Garlic general insect repellant, deters Horseradish
Colorado beetles
Japanese beetles, aphids
Good companion for grapes;
Hyssop repels white-cabbage butterfly, Lavender cotton Santolinadeters corn wireworms
flea beetles, insect larvae
Attracts bees and helps
Lemon Balm Milkweed Deters aphids
pollination
Give off ethylene gas which helps in early
ripening of fruit (though too many may inhibit
growth) Reduces aphids, cabbage worms,
Mustard reduces aphids Nasturtium Colorado beetles; deters wooly aphids, squash
bugs and whiteflies.
Keep away from broccoli, brussel sprouts,
potato, radish, squash.
Parsley roses, asparagus
Ragweed Reduces flea beetles Rue Deters beetles and fleas
Deters bean beetles, white
Deters cabbage worms, white cabbage moths,
Rosemary cabbage moths, carrot flies, and Sage
and root maggots
many other insects
Savory Deters Mexican bean beetles Southernwood Deters cabbage moths, carrot flies, aphids
Deters many insects including
ants, aphids, cabbage worms,
Colorado beetles, Japanese Deters cabbage loopers, cabbage worms,
Tansy Thyme
beetles, squash bugs whiteflies
Planted in a ring around fruit
trees, helps repel fruit fly
General insecticide; deters mice
"Nature is often hidden; sometimes overcome;
Wormwood and other rodents, slugs &
seldom extinguished."
snails. Repels carrot fly

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 LOCATION
Determine the facts, and plan. Determine the
true orientation of your property, and the
available light exposure positions of the sun
throughout the year. Are you planning a roof top
garden, or one with light collection / reflection at
a height above ground level? Calculate and plan
for the appropriate level.
INTERNAL LAYOUT
Plan your garden on paper. Calculate quantity of
crops, needed area, light exposure, etc.
Remember to group plants according to their
nutrient needs.
Heavy feeders. Asparagus, beet, broccoli *,
brussels sprouts, cabbage *, cantaloupe *,
cauliflower, celery, colard, corn-sweek *,
eggplant *, endive, kale, kohlrabi, lettuce, okra,
parsely, pepper, potato, pumpkin, radish,
rhubarb, spinach, squash-summer *, strawberry,
sunflower, tomato *, watermelon *.
Plan for subsequent crops in rotation,
minimizing re-planting of the same or related
crops in the same family in the same spot Place
perennial crops where they are minimally
disturbed. Put tall and trellised crops on the
north side to avoid shading shorter plants. (*
indicates fertilize at least twice)
Light feeders. Carrot, garlic, leek, mustard
greens, onion, parsnip, rutabaga, shallot, sweet
potato, swiss chard, alfalfa, be4ans, clover, peas,
peanut, soybean.
Easily survive transplant. Broccoli, cabbage,
cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, chinese cabbage,
sweet potato slips, onion, tomatoes, pepper.
Require care in transplant. Beets, carrots, celery,
chard, melon (2 true leaves), squash (2 true
leaves)
NOT usually transplantable. Beans, corn,
cucumbers, peas, okra.
CROP SELECTION.
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Worldwide, around twenty plants constitute the
bulk of plants grown for human food. There are
however over 20,000 speciesxiii of edible plants
in the world. Look at your lawn. While you
can't readily digest mature grass, you can process
it into leaf protein, or eat young leaves and
shoots.
But there are better options for food crops5 than a
lawn, which would take far too large of an area
to obtain sufficient calories and nutrition for a
person, as compared to the area which could be
fertilized by the effluent of that person.
When the folks at ECHO asked Dr. Frank Martin
what he would take to an uninhabited tropical
island, his list was:
Roots and Tubers
(1) sweet potatoes--the variety 'Gem' (orange-
fleshed) and some white-fleshed types,
(2) yams--Dioscorea alata and D. esculenta,
selected varieties,
(3) cassava--some true seed to start my own,
(4) Queensland arrowroot (Canna edulis), very
easy to grow and productive.
Grains
(1) corn,
(2) okra, for edible seed and well as green fruit,
(3) wax gourd (Benincasa hispida) for edible
seed as well as squash-like fruit.
Legumes
(1) Catjang cowpeas (climbing, disease resistant
forms),
(2) winged bean,
(3) Dolichos lablab beans,
(4) asparagus beans.
Leafy Vegetables
(1) chaya,
(2) sunset hibiscus,
(3) Tahitian taro (Xanthosoma brasiliensis),
(4) Tropical or Indian lettuce (Lactuca indica).
5
The crops mentioned and compared in this
appendix are only presented as examples. A tab
to this appendix contains much expanded general
information, as does a tab to the Tucson
appendix contains expanded desert crops, and a
tab to our family “plan” expands on our personal
crops.
Fruit Vegetables Annual vs Perennial. Annual crops require
(1) tropical pumpkin, significant input, a lot of which is used to grow
(2) okra, the unused plant portions. These must then be
(3) small-fruited, indeterminate tomatoes, reduced by composting organisms (themselves
(4) hot pepper, using up energy) before further crops can be
(5) ensalada pepper, selected for its edible grown. Perennial crops such as treesxiv put much
leaves. less "effort" into maintaining their support
system. Envision perennial corn fields, with
Trees permanently standing stalks. The potential is
(1) bananas, waiting for the right bio-engineer in the form of
(2) breadfruit, Zea diploperennis, a multi year relative of corn.
(3) limes (West Indian, from seed),
(4) tamarind, Trees. The quintessential perennial crop.
(5) papaya,
(6) mangoes (from seed, turpentine type but Honey Locust. A mesquite, bearing edible
selected). “bean” pods, when mature a tree 55’ in diameter
may provide 66 lb. of pods, containing 30%
CALORIE CROPS (19.8lb.) sugar, 22% (14.5lb. protein), and good
quantities of potassium. While this tree DOES
Determine Crop Nutrition Efficiency. Calorie NOT fix nitrogen, it is a good “miner” of deep
and vitamin concentration per unit weight of soil nutrients for later use by surface gardens.
food, and the yield of a given crop or crop The pods can be used to make coffee. In a 100
combination per area must be worked out. As ft. sq. comparison it provides 2.77 lb. of pods,
mentioned elsewhere, one of the most efficient with .83 lb. sugar and .61 lb. protein.
crops is sweet potatoes. The edible vs not
proportion of a sweet potato plant is far more Citrus. Citrus is a global favorite. Of the citrus
efficient than the same comparison for corn, crops, lemon, grapefruit, and orange trees can
where the large stalk, roots, and cobs must be produce fruit without pollination, where in
composted before the nutrients "locked up" there effect, the fruit is a genetic copy of the mother
are once again available to nourish crops. There plant. The provide a better crop growing on
are many crops with high calorie yield, high rootstock that is not their own, but fortunately
nutrition, and/or multiple edible parts. are readily "spliced". Varieties are available that
produce in the heat of Yuma Arizona to areas
Palatable. The garden crops must be something with snow.
you and your family will eat, and can eat.
Consider the volume and weight of food you can Corn. Per ear, around 600 kernels, 80 calories, 3
consume. I read in ONE CIRCLE that between g protein, 18 g carb. Yield per 100 sq. ft. around
4 and 6 pounds per day is the range for most 50 ears over an average 80 day growing period,
people. That reference works with a list of the or around 50 calories per day. Growing
following 14 crops. constantly it would take 4000 sq. ft. to feed a
person, who would have to eat 25 ears per day.
Collards (leaf and stem)
Filberts (seed) Rice: Growing constantly it would take 1350
Garlic (bulb) sq. ft. to feed a person, who would have to eat
Leeks (bulb) 1.2 lbs. per day.
Onions (bulb)
Parsley (stem & leaf) Potatoes: Growing constantly it would take 900
Parsnips (root) sq. ft. to feed a person, who would have to eat
Potatoes (tuber) 5.9 lbs. per day. For optimal yields, an equal
Peanuts (seed) amount of sunlight and darkness/day is
Soybeans (seed) necessary. Potatoes typically have 50% more
Sunflower (seed) waste than edible yield produced.
Sweet potatoes (tuber)
Turnips (root & leaf) Sweet Potatoes: Growing constantly it would
Wheat (seed) take 400 sq. ft. to feed a person, and in that it has

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edible tubers and leaves, the person would eat
0.5 lb. of cooked leaves and 2.6 lb. of tubers per Beets, inches spacing for intensive planting: 2
day. For optimal yields, an equal amount of - number of square feet to be planted: 2.70
sunlight and darkness/day is necessary. - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
Amaranthus: From data on the web, growing 30 - 60 plants
constantly is appears that yield per 100 sq. ft 60 - 120 plants
would be around 50 lbs, over a 40 day growing
period, or 1.25 lb. per day, which appears to Broccoli, inches spacing for intensive planting:
match the daily food calorie needs of a person, 12
who would have to eat 1.17 lbs. per day. Thrives - number of square feet to be planted: 8.00
in hot dry weather. - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
VEGETABLE YIELD - PER PERSON 3 - 5 plants
PLANNING 5 - 6 plants

Brussels Sprouts, in. spacing for intensive

Man does not live by bread, or calorie crops planting: 15
alone. The following are estimates of plants per - number of square feet to be planted: 10.90
person, intensive planting spacing, and amount - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
of square feet to be planted for a little more respectively of:
variety in "American" crops. As I add up the 2 - 5 plants
space, for each person you are planting around 5 - 8 plants
338 square feet.
Cabbage, inches spacing for intensive planting:
Asparagus, inches spacing for intensive planting: 15
15 - number of square feet to be planted: 12.50
- number of square feet to be planted: 31.50 - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage respectively of:
respectively of: 3 - 4 plants
10 - 15 plants 5 - 10 plants
10 - 15 plants
Cabbage, Chinese, inches spacing for intensive
Beans, Lima, inches spacing for intensive planting: 10
planting: - number of square feet to be planted: 5.50
4 - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
- number of square feet to be planted: 3.30 respectively of:
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 4 - 12 plants
respectively of: 4 - 12 plants
15 - 16 plants
45 - 60 plants Carrots, inches spacing for intensive planting: 2
- number of square feet to be planted: 2.70
Beans, Pole, inches spacing for intensive - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
planting: 6 respectively of:
- number of square feet to be planted: 6.50 30 - 60 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 60 - 90 plants
respectively of:
10 - 12 plants Cauliflower, inches spacing for intensive
16 - 20 plants planting: 15
Beans, Bush, inches spacing for intensive - number of square feet to be planted: 17.20
planting: 4 - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
- number of square feet to be planted: 8.25 respectively of:
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 3 - 5 plants
respectively of: 8 - 12 plants
30 - 45 plants
45 - 60 plants

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Chard, Swiss, inches spacing for intensive - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
planting: 6 respectively of:
- number of square feet to be planted: 2.75 4 - 6 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 6 - 10 plants
respectively of:
3 - 5 plants Onions (plants/sets), inches spacing for intensive
8 - 12 plants planting: 2
Collards & Kale, in. spacing for intensive - number of square feet to be planted: 5.90
planting: 12 - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
- number of square feet to be planted: 10.00 respectively of:
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 18 - 30 plants
respectively of: 180 - 300 plants
5 - 10 plants
5 - 10 plants Peas, inches spacing for intensive planting: 2
- number of square feet to be planted: 9.90
Eggplant, inches spacing for intensive planting: - to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
18, seeds sprout at 80 F. respectively of:
- number of square feet to be planted: 9.00 90 - 120 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage 240 - 360 plants
respectively of: Peppers, inches spacing for intensive planting:
2 - 3 plants 12
2 - 3 plants - number of square feet to be planted: 6.00
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
Lettuce, Head, in. spacing for intensive planting: respectively of:
10 3 - 5 plants
- number of square feet to be planted: 16.80 3 - 5 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of: Potatoes, Irish, in spacing for intensive planting:
12 plants 10
12 plants - number of square feet to be planted: 82.80
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
Lettuce, Leaf, in. spacing for intensive planting: respectively of:
4 60 - 120 plants
- number of square feet to be planted: 6.60 60 - 120 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of: Pumpkins, inches spacing for intensive planting:
30 plants 24
30 plants - number of square feet to be planted: 8.00
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
Muskmelon, inches spacing for intensive respectively of:
planting: 18 1 - 2 hills
- number of square feet to be planted: 6.75 1 - 2 hills
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of: Radishes, inches spacing for intensive planting:
3 - 5 plants 2
------------ - number of square feet to be planted: 0.54
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
Mustard, inches spacing for intensive planting: 6 respectively of:
- number of square feet to be planted: 7.50 18 - 30 plants
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage ------------
respectively of:
10 - 20 plants Spinach, nutritional reputation lies in its high
20 - 30 plants oxalic acid content inches spacing for intensive
planting: 4
Okra, inches spacing for intensive planting: 12 - number of square feet to be planted: 4.95
- number of square feet to be planted: 10.00

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- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
15 - 30 plants
30 - 45 plants
Squash, Summer, in spacing for intensive
planting: 18
- number of square feet to be planted: 9.00
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
2 - 3 hills
2 - 3 hills
Squash, Winter, in spacing for intensive
planting: 24
- number of square feet to be planted: 8.00
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
1 - 3 hills
1 - 3 hills
Tomato stems will sprout roots if buried, so
clone the best. Spacing for intensive planting:
18
- number of square feet to be planted: 18.00
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
3 - 5 plants
5 - 10 plants
Turnip, inches spacing for intensive planting: 4
- number of square feet to be planted: 3.30
- to achieve a crop of fresh and storage
respectively of:
15 - 30 plants
15 - 30 plants
HONORABLE MENTION CROPS
Chipilin. 5' bean bush, leaves strip like moringa,
not considered a "staple", but a very nutritious
addition with a 6 year lifespan.
Cassava (Tapioca) Sheds leaves & goes dormant
in drought, can take acidit soil. Avoid leaves, or
grind & dry to evaporate toxics.
Chaya (Tree Spinach) Leaves are poison when
raw, boil 1 minute. Grows 6 - 9 feet tall, use in
"damp" areas.
Swiss Chard. Helps normalize cholesteral &
blood pressure, outer leaves can be harvested at
60 days, then once per week thereafter.
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Malabar Spinach (Tetragonia expansa) New
Zealand spinach. Low plant, thrives on hot
weather.
Moringa Olefara. a small tropical tree that
grows to about 25 feet (8 meters). It has edible
tuberous roots, fern-like leaves, and seed pods
resembling musician drumsticks. The pungent
horseradish essence is in all parts of the plant,
with the roots used as flavoring and in poultices.
The bark yields substances including moringine
and moringinine, the earlier acts as a cardiac
stimulant, produes rise of blood pressure, acts on
sympathetic nerve endings as well as smooth
muscles all over the body, and depresses the
sympathetic motor fibers of vessels when eaten
in large doses.
Native to northern India it is mentioned as a
medicinal plant in ancient Sanskit texts. It is fast
growing and possibly the most nutritious of all
leaf crops, the leaves are 7% protein and have
extremely high levels of folates, vitamin C,
carotenes, calcium, iron, and niacin. The seeds
yield an edible and high quality oil (ben oil)
earlier used to lubricate fine mechanical swiss
watches. Very tolerate of drought. Very
attractive yard tree when allowed to grow to its
full size.
Alfalfa. Adapted to hot dry conditions. Roots
may grow to 30' deep. Nitrogen accumulator,
perennial, but replant every 6 - 8 years.
Wheat (Triticum) as a leaf crop, most nutritious
just BEFORE seed formation. Dry and grind as
a food additive.
West Indian Pea Tree. (Sesbania grandifolia)
Edible pods and leaves (as with beans). Grown
throughout the tropics and tolerates heat and
drought well.
Egyptian Thorn (Acacia nilotica) Very drought
resistent, edible leaves and pods.
Orach (Mountain spinach) VERY drought and
salt tolerant.
Quinoa (Andes plant)
Okra (abelmoschus esculeatusr) Edible leaves,
flowers, seed pods, mature seeds. VERY heat
tolerant, somewhat acid, dry to store.
Ivy Gourd (Coccinia grandis) Edible leaves &
fruit, so prolific often considered an invasive
species.
Cow Pea. Annual plant, leaves have a mild
flavor, does well growing with banana plants.
Sunflower.
Per lb: 2542 cal, 109 protein, 90.3 carb
Yield per 100 sq. ft. 5 lb. over a 84 day growing
period, or .06 lb. per day. Growing constantly it
would take 1,300 sq. ft. to feed a person, who
would have to eat .78 lb. per day.
Parsley while low in calories is concentrated in
vitamins and minerals. The plant odor may help
in insect control.
Per lb: 198 cal, 16.3 protein, 38.6 carb
Yield per 100 sq. ft. 35 over a 77 day growing
period, or .45 lb. per day. Growing constantly it
would take 2250 sq. ft. to feed a person, who
would have to eat 10+ lbs. per day.
Pumpkin. Fruits and leaves.
Dandelion. There are probably commercial
varieties that are less bitter than wild relatives.
PLANT PROPAGATION
PERPETUATING AND IMPROVING
YOUR CROP
The are two types of propagation, sexual and
asexual. Sexual reproduction is genetically
similar to how it functions in animals, involving
the floral plant parts to achieve the union of
pollen and egg. It is a mix of the genes of two
parents to create a new, third individual.
GENETIC MIXING
In "heirloom" plants, whether bred by nature or
by humans, the plant "children" can in general be
expected to resemble the parent. For essentially
the history of agriculture, farmers, or scientists,
bred plants for this long term stability
characteristic.
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However, in plants the "child" may not be
genetically stable, which is what we see with
"hybrid" plants. A specialized type of seed may
grow a highly productive plant, but the the seeds
of that plant may grow new individuals that have
little in common with the desired results.
Perhaps with adequate attention, the desired
traits could be stabilized. But the hybrid
throwback trait has kept farmers returning to the
seed companies every year.
Annual reliance on unstable hybrid seed from
companies places each annual crop at the risk of
catastrophe loss. Focus on heirloom / stable
varieties, or if your inclined, see if you can
develop a new stable variety.
To store you seed, keep it in a tightly closed low
humidity container, at around 40 degrees F if
possible. The higher the temperature and
humidity, the faster the little "life" in the seed
processes to eventual un-viability. Every 5
degree C drop in temperature, STAYING
ABOVE FREEZING, will double seed life.
Seed "lifetime" also doubles with every 1%
decrease in water content. Seed moisture will
match surrounding air, so use a product such as
silica in a closed container to dry the seed,
remove the desiccant, and seal the seeds.
SEED SPROUTING
Seeds need at a minimum water, oxygen, light
and heat. The specific requirements of your
selected seeds can vary greatly, and you may
need to research. In general, to keep your
growing medium in the most efficient and
effective production, expect to sprout and
maintain seedlings in an independent "nursery"
area.
Some seeds may be determined to remain in their
dormant state. Again, seed specific research is
suggested. Some seeds need to have their hard
outer coat scratched or otherwise penetrated or
softened to allow water to pass. Some benefit
from soaking in hot water (170 to 212 degrees
F). Some seed requires a particular period of
chill, even freezing. There are even seed which
will only spout after being eaten and passed thru
the digestive system of an ape.
Your seed starting medium needs to be fine
textured, relatively uniform, well aerated, loose,
yet capable of holding water by capillary action.
It should be free of insects, disease organisms,
weed seed, etc.
A renewable mixture could be something like
1/3 sterilized soil (pasteurize at 180 F for 30
min), 1/3 sand size particles, and 1/3 peat moss.
No special pots are required, any approach that
holds the seedling medium together works.
Note: I discovered that sterilizing soil in the
kitchen oven may not be the "best" method, as
the heated soil may release some distinctly
unpleasant odors, that in my case required a
follow up scrubbing of the oven, airing out the
house, and dinner for the family at the
restaurant...
The time to start your seedlings depends upon
their growth rate, and when you intend to
transplant them. A suitable planting depth is
usually about 2X the diameter of the seed.
You can even pre-germinate seeds before putting
them in their initial soil. This reduces
germination time, and increases the germination
percentage. As with the entire theme of this
appendix, and the parent document, the goal is to
achieve optimum environmental factors to
minimize resource use, and in particular waste.
Lay seeds in the folds of a cotton cloth or on a
layer of vermiculite in a shallow pan, keeping
either moist.
When roots begin to show place the sprout in the
container, or the garden. Obviously while
working with these, exercise great caution to not
injure the plant. Provide indirect light for the
first day or so, then new seedlings need bright
light, but don't "cook" them.
In open-field gardening, container started plants
may need to be "hardened off", which is
gradually changing their environment from the
perfection of your nursery, to the conditions of
the open field. This process can be two weeks.
CLONING BACKGROUND
If you're got a great plant variety, but find it's an
unstable, perhaps unrepeatable hybrid, asexual
propagation may be necessary. The Bartlett
pear (1770) and the Delicious apple (1870) are
two examples of clones that have been asexually
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propagated for many years. Some plants
naturally clone.
"HIGH TECH" CLONING
"Plants from Test Tubes" provides detailed
guidance for those who want to set up a
scientific, yet home-scale cloning operation. The
starting material can be meristems, shoot tips,
macerated stem pieces, nodes, buds, flowers,
peduncle (flower stalk), rhizone tips, root pieces,
and in theory a single cell. The cited text is
strongly recommended.
REPRODUCTION AT HOME
A simplified home procedure can get you started
on your set of wonders. Home made medium:
1/8 cup sugar
1 teaspoon all-purpose soluble fertilizer, absent
such chemicals substitute _____________ 1/3
tsp of 35% soluble nitrogen fertilizer
1 tablet (100 mg) inositol (myo-inositol)
1/4 pulverized vitamin tablet which has 1 to 2
mg thiamine, or substitute ___________
4 tablespoons coconut milk (cytokinin source),
also available in _______________
3 to 4 grains (1/400 teaspoon) of commercial
rooting compound which has 1/10 active
ingredient IBA, or substitute
___________________
Fill a sterile 1 quart jar with pure water and the
ingredients, shake well & ensure all materials
have dissolved. The medium can then be poured
into previously prepared sterile culture jars, say
small baby food jars with cotton or paper support
material. Pour until the support material is just
above the solution.
Put the baby food jar lids on loosely and
sterilize, such as in a pressure cooker for 30
minutes or oven (solar!) at 320 degrees F for 4
hours. Also prepare sterile water, tweezers, and
razor knife.
Select small actively growing plant parts, such as
1/2 to 1 inch of the shoot tip. Remove leaves.
Sterilize the cutting in 10% bleach (90% water)
for 8 to 10 minutes, then rinse in sterile water.
Remove any bleach damaged plant part with a
sterile raxor. (Note continued concern for only
sterile tools touching the cutting) Put the cutting
on the support material in the culture jars, and
recap quickly. (All of this should be done in as
sterile environment as possible.)
Place in a warm, well-lit (NOT direct sunlight)
to encourage growth. Contamination will be
obvious in 3 to 4 days, if so, remove, discard,
and sterilize.
When successful plantlets are large enough,
remove and carefully & thoroughly rinse off all
medium (otherwise expect a lot of fungus) then
plant into soil. Water thoroughly and cover with
vapor-tight transparent (plastic bag), removing
for brief (1 hour) period, gradually increasing the
open time over a two-week period until the
plants are strong enough to stand the open air.
"LOW-TECH" CLONING
Many types of plants can be propagated by a
cutting from a vegetative plant part. xvTake
cuttings with a sharp knife to reduce injury to the
parent plant. Clean the cutting in alcohol,
peroxide, etc., to avoid transmitting diseases
(you hope there are none). Looks for modes
(bumps on the stem - see reference material for
your particular choice of plants). At least one
node must be in the rooting medium. Preferred
is two up, two down.
In general, take cuttings from one year old or
less wood, just before, or after (preferred) the
spring flush of growth.
Remove flowers and buds to allow the cutting to
focus its stored carbohydrates on root and shoot
formation rather than fruit or seed production.
Rooting can be improved by application of a
rooting hormone, with a fungicide if possible. A
commercial hormone product is indole-3-butyric
acid, 1/10%. (NAA)
If you do not have access to a commercial
product hormone, consider cutting and mashing
the growing tip of any other plant. A particular
example of a homemade rooting hormone from
the web.
1) Gather a handful of willow twigs. Fresh
branches work best so avoid fallen and dead
twigs. All varieties of willow contain
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indolebutyric acid which is the active ingredient
needed in a rooting hormone. This acid acts to
reduce the plant cuttings ability to stop growth at
the place of the wound (where you cut the leaf or
stem).
2) Cut the willow stems into pieces about two to
four inches long. You will want about 1 cups of
clippings to make one half gallon of rooting
hormone.
3) In a large container pour boiling water over
the clippings and allow the mixture to steep
overnight.
4) Store the rooting hormone in the refrigerator
in a sealed container. The mixture will be viable
for up to two months.
Insert cuttings into a rooting medium like coarse
sand, which is sterile, well drained, yet
constantly moist. Find a way to keep the
container sealed. Put stem and leaf cuttings in
bright, indirect light. Put root cuttings in the
dark until new shoots appear. Expect the process
to take 4 to 6 weeks, or for the cuttings to rot.
Mist propagation involves suspending the
cuttings, with as MUCH leaf as possible, in a
mist chamber with relatively intense light, to the
level of potential heat damage. The mist keeps
the cells moist while providing the maximum
drive for the leaves to produce food and
hormones to prompt rooting.
Layering is a cloning method where stems that
are still attached to the parent plant is
encouraged to form roots where the stem touches
a rooting medium. Expect this to have much
greater success than cuttings.
"Air Layering" is just a matter of cutting wounds
in a living stem, (generally a 1/2 to 3/4 inch
branch, but larger works) and surrounding it with
most airy mass, (say damp moss) surrounded by
a semi-permeable membrane (saran) to
encourage root growth. Once the moss has
visible roots, but the new plant free just below
the roots, and plant.
GRAFTING
No, not theft, but a means of joining different
plants so they grow together as one plant. The
part to be propagated is called the scion. There
is a great deal you can study about grafting, but
some simple techniques and basic reference
material, along with experiments, can take you a
long way.
The rootstock, or stock provides the plant's root
system and perhaps the lower part of the stem.
The scion and rootstock must be compatible,
each must be at the proper physiological stgage,
the cambial layers of the scion and stock must
meet, and the graft union must be kept moist
until the would closes.
Perhaps the easiest and smallest graft involves
cutting one bud from the scion twig, inserted into
a slice in the bark of the host tree.
PRUNING FOR PRODUCTION & HEALTH
TREES
Fruit & nut trees, can be trimmed and trained to
an arbor or espalier system. Trees trained in this
fashion should be grafted onto dwarfing
rootstock or roots grown in a container.
An example would be two tree whips planted six
feet apart, against a grid 12 feet apart, 8 feet
high, with vertical wires/braces at heights of 18,
36, 54, and 72 inches. Season one spring, cut the
whip just below crossing the lowest wire. Retain
the uppermost shoot as the central leader, tie two
side shoots onto the wire, remove all other
growth. Let the ends of the horizontal leaders
point up though, otherwise horizontal growth
will stop. At the end of season one the central
leader should have grown above the second wire.
Repeat in the spring of each year until the top
wire is reached, then instead of cutting the top
off train it to the very top wire.
By the end of the fourth season, the trees should
be in heavy production. All pruning is done
during the spring and summer months. After
new growth is the spring is about 2", cut it off,
also remove 1/4 of the previous season's growth.
Don't cut terminals at the scaffold. Early
August, or when new growth is 10 to 12 inches
long, cut it back to two or three buds. Repeat
about a month later. This encourages fruit bud
formation and prevents vigorous growth.
For stand-alone micro dwarf, from the website:
http://www.midfex.org/yale/train.html, growing
a mini-dwarf apple tree (3 foot). Grow on M27
or P22 rootstock, whose effect is so limiting that
during the time it is bearing fruit, it will not have
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the additional energy to form new primary
branches. So it is essential to create the tree's
primary framework of branches, called
scaffolding, before you let it bear fruit. Plant a
newly grafted apple tree, a single stem as thick
as an index finger and maybe 6 to 10 inches
high. Dig a generous hole, plant the tree deep so
that the grafting union is 3 to 4 inches above the
soil line & refill with top soil. No fertilizer is
added when first planting.
Start in spring with a newly planted 6 to 10\ inch
tree, allow only one of the buds sprouting on the
grafted wood to grow, usually the top bud, any
other bud growth on the scion wood or rootstock
is rubbed off. No other pruning is done this
year. The goal is to produce a single, straight,
first year whip, that has grown to 36 inches or
more if possible.
Year two in early spring cut the single stem whip
back to 18 inches above the soil line. When the
buds sprout, remove every bud between the
ground and 12 inches. Leave the topmost bud
on, but remove the bud directly below that. This
top bud will become the new central leader. On
the trunk between 12 inches and 18 inches look
for buds that will be used to develop the lower
main scaffold, ideally 4 well spaced buds that
will grow out at 90 degree angles from each
other, for example towards the north, south, east
and west. All other buds are removed. In a little
while the side buds become flexible 3 inch side
branches. At this point take a clothespin and
place it on the trunk, directly above each side
branch. This encourages the new branch to grow
out perpendicular from the trunk, rather then
upward. Branches grown at 90 degrees are the
strongest and also bear earlier. The clothespins
are left on for two or three months.
Year three cut the central leader back to 30
inches above the soil, while the tree is still
dormant. Like before, when the buds sprout, the
topmost bud is left on, and the bud directly
below is removed. This top bud will continue
growing as the central leader. Cut last year's
side branches until they are 6 to 8 inches long,
cut to a bottom facing bud. This will encourage
the branch to fork out. This should also be done
in subsequent years at the other scaffold tiers.
Look at the 18 to 30 inch segment of the central
leader for buds from which to form the second
set. Like before look for 4 buds growing at 90
degree angles from each other, but this time also
taking the lower set of scaffolding branches into
consideration. Let's say the lower branches are
growing towards the north, south, east and west.
Ideally choose buds growing towards the
northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest.
Clothespins are also attached to the trunk above
these branches when they reach 3 inches.
Even though a mini-dwarf normally has its first
blossoms in its third year, and it's so tempting to
leave them on, remove any fruit that sets. Year
four begins with cutting the central leader back
to 36 inches above the soil, while the tree is still
dormant. This will be the final height of the
tree. At this point develop 1 or 2 side branches
in the area between 30 and 36 inches in the same
way as before, or let the tree start bearing fruit.
From that point on, whenever the tree is
producing fruit, growth from the top will be
minimal.
VINE FRUIT
Grapes for example must be trained to a definite
system, and pruned severely, to be most
productive. Something similar to the above
espalier works. Set 5 foot posts 15 to 20 feet
apart, with wires at 2 1/2 foot high and post top.
Vines are trained on the wires. During annual
winter pruning, one cane is saved from those that
grew from near the base of each arm. This cane
is cut back to about ten buds, on which fruit is
borne the next season from shoots developing
from those buds. Select another cane from each
arm that grew near the trunk and cut it back to a
short stub having two buds. Again, similar
procedures apply to blackberries and raspberries.
WHAT'S BUGGING YOU
INSECTS
Most people associate insects with disease and
crop loss, but in reality less than 3% are
considered pests. Most insects are either actually
overall beneficial or at least harmless.
For persistent pests, note the parts of the Neem
tree (Azedarachta indica) are said to work like
malathion, but be harmless to people.
The primary pollinator of our crops is insects...
are you ready to use a cotton "Q-Tip" and climb
around your tree to pollinate for your fruit?
PESTS
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Present synthetic pesticides are largely oil based,
and will probably become very costly to
produce. Even if you have available chemical
insecticides, they may not be the "best" solution.
Insecticides can do more harm than good, in
particular if you destroy the natural enemy
and/or competitor of the pest.
Experience in Arizona has shown some sprays
are more likely to kill "other" ants, leaving an
open playing field for fire ants.
Conduct research for the likely pests in your
area, and for their appropriate natural predators.
Plan, if appropriate, for subsistence of your tiny
allies.
Healthy plants are less likely to attract pests, and
better able to withstand pest attacks. Also in
your research look for plant varieties that are
naturally resistant, or perhaps a "companion"
plant that either lures insects away from your
desired crop, or drives them away.
ANIMAL INTRUDERS
All vertebrate animals, from mice to man, have
potential to become pests. Your particular pest
depends on your local situation. Can you add the
rabbits, or deer, to your table?
Often the presence of an animal pest will, like
with insects, be evidenced by damage to crops,
before you actually see the culprit. The first line
of defense is your fence or wall, with minimal
size openings.
If you're in to high-tech, ultra-sound has been
somewhat successful on some species, in
particular rats. This and other "frightening"
animal control methods tend to quickly become
in-effective when the intruder leans that nothing
harmful happens.
PLANT DISEASE
All that "bugs" you, will not necessarily be
insects. Technically, a plant disease is any
alteration of a plant that interferes with its
normal structure or function, or renders it unfit
for its normal use. Problems can be caused by
living or non-living influences.
A famous plant disease was the potato blight in
Ireland in 1845 - 1846. There virtually the entire
crop of the staple food for the nation had the
same genetic susceptibility to a particular "pest",
wiping out the crop figuratively "overnight".
For disease to occur, there must be a susceptible
host, note that plants tend to be limited as to
what can effect them, in a stage of development
susceptible to infection by the disease.
There must of course be a pathogen present,
otherwise there cannot be a disease. DON'T
BRING IN FOREIGN MATERIALS OR
PLANTS.
The environment must be suitable to the
pathogen.
DISEASE TYPES
Bacteria and fungi generally cause spotting and
rotting of leaves, fruit, stems, and roots.
Virus type agents cause distorted growth.
Nematodes, microscopic worms that eat plant
roots generally show up as stunted growth and
distorted roots.
Plants can be "invaded" by other plants, such as
mistletoe, that taps into the victims circulatory
system.
While probably not exactly a disease, plants can
appear "ill" due to physical damage, nutrient
deficiencies, water or temperature stress.
PATHOGEN DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
Most pathogens need to be carried to their new
"home". DON'T BRING IN FOREIGN
MATERIALS OR PLANTS. Keep you working
surfaces free of outside contamination.
Penetration is the process of getting inside the
plant, whether thru an existing opening or thru
an active assault such as use of an enzyme to
dissolve plant cells. Keep your plants safe from
injury.
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If you find a diseased plant, you may be able to
cut off the diseased, or your best action may
simply be to remove the plant.
If your plant is under attack by insects, you may
be able to physically eliminate them. If visible,
trying picking them off, or washing them off
with soapy water. Soap is one example of a
product that can serve to coat the insects
spiracles (breathing holes).
DEFICIENCY DISEASE
Unavailability of nutrients, even some
microscopic quantify, can dramatically effect
plant growth, as can a surplus, or contamination
with toxic chemicals.
PHYSICAL DAMAGE
Presented in terms of a typical woody plant stem
structure, the visible stem is the bark, which is
the aged remains of the phloem. Working
inward, the phloem layer can be considered as
the arteries that transports the sugars and
enzymes from the leaves down to the roots. If
these arteries are severed, the supply of new
energy to the roots can be dramatically reduced,
or severed, effecting root growth. In this case,
although the plant may continue to visibly grow,
it's health is in jeopardy, or doomed.
The next inward layer is meristem tissue, which
is tissue which has not yet become "locked" into
developing into any particular part of the plant.
It may develop into phloem, or into xylem.
If the plant is wounded exposing the meristemic
tissue, and the would is kept moist and dark, root
tissue will grow. Meristemic tissue is also
typically located in root or young shoot growing
tips, and in dormant buds.
The next inner xylem layer can be considered
like veins, carrying water and "raw" nutrients up
to the leaves for processing.
PRUNING CAUTIONS
Plants in general, and in particular bushes and
trees, do not heal themselves as we and other
animals. In an animal, the blood clots and stops
loss, internal antibodies circulate to fight
infection, the wound heals over, and in general
damaged tissue is removed.
In a woody plant, is essence everything below
the meristem tissue, phloem and xylem, is
already "dead". If the living tissue is damaged,
chemical signals in the plant quickly tell the cells
to shut off flow in/out of the damaged area, and
the plant then attempts to grow new tissue to
surround the damaged area. The internal
blockages and new growth takes place faster
than that on the exterior, which in the case of a
large wound may never close. Consider:
You cut a rather large branch, several inches or
more from the intersection of the branch with the
main trunk. The tree isolates the branch, which
cannot then seal-off the wound. The trunk
attempts to cut-off the branch completely,
starting from inside the trunk where the original
"bud" from which the branch grew. This leaves
a large "wound" in the trunk, susceptible to
invasion, infection, rot. Had the same branch
been cut close to the trunk, the tree would have a
chance of growing bark over the wound.
MAN IS AN OMNIVORE
CHICKENS
Chickens can reach maturity in around 10 weeks,
with a death rate from 3-18%. Raised for meat
2 kg of feed becomes 1 kg of live weight. The
Leghorn has egg production up to 300 eggs per
year but not meat. Varieties such as Dominique
and Australorp for meat and eggs produce up to
170 eggs per year.
One egg provides 74 calories, 6.29 grams of
protein, and 4.97 grams of fat. One 3 ounce
serving of chicken provides 183 calories, 15
grams of protein, and 13 grams of fat. Assume
each person eats two eggs per day and a 3-ounce
servings of chicken meat per day. Maintained
for eggs, Dominique requires around 4 layers per
person, or 43 chickens for each of the 10 person
homesteads in this plan. To slaughter one per
week you need 10 more growing, or in total
taking into account the worst mortality rate
around 65 birds.
Assume six square feet of space per bird, your
chicken run is around 390 square feet, let's say
20 foot on a side if all one level (it can of course
be multi-level). You are going to want good
ventilation to avoid a concentration of ammonia
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from the manure. Your chickens are NOT going
to be trained to use a composting toilet, so you
need a mesh floor where the manure drops onto
appropriate absorption compost material. One
chicken layer generates an estimated 40 lbs of
waste annually, primarily phosphorus, nitrogen,
and potassium. Something to immediately
capture and divert chicken waste would be
useful. (Thoughts anyone?) Ammonia is a
colorless irritant gas produced by the microbial
breakdown of nitrogen, is prominent in poultry
manure. We're looking at a chicken run
potentially being on every urban family lot.
Chickens need three times more air volume than
humans per kilogram of body weight to meet
their specific oxygen requirements.
Expect to need at least 2.5 gallons of water per
day, examine the Lubing 2 Nipple Aqua to
provide constant water, avoiding the spills and
disease of bowls and troughs. The chickens will
have greater growth if low level light is
maintained, aim for 16 hours of lighting per day.
The optimal temperature for high productivity
and best health for laying hens is between 15 and
30 ° C (59-86° F), humidity to keep dust down
and provide cooling can come from a misting
system, for high-tech see the Top Climate
System.
CUTE - FUZZY - LUNCH
Under natural conditions a female rabbit can
deliver a litter every month. In controlled
conditions limit reproduction to only four or five
litter per year. Expect the litter to be between 4
and 12. A baby rabbit weighs around 1/2 ounce
at birth, doubles weight in a week, and in 30
days weight around eight times as much. At the
end of the second month a Californian or New
Zealand While should be expected to weigh over
4 pound. A rabbit can be considered fully
mature at 3 months, but can be slaughtered for
meat earlier.
Rabbits do not like noise, and prefer to rest
during the day. The litter is usually receives
milk once a day early in the morning or late in
the evening.
Provide each female rabbit a separate cage, say
48 inch deep by 24 inch wide by 24 inch high.
As long as the cages do not drop waste on each
other, the cages can be stacked. A week before
delivery put a nest-box (36 deep x 16 wide x 4
high) along with extra dry leaves and cloth in the
female’s cage, which the doe will line. Babies
open their eyes around day 11, venture about at
day 14, and between day 14 and 21 start to eat
greens.

The male cage should be about twice as wide.

For breeding, take the female to the cage of the
male. Two or more males are required.
(Examine genetics) Gestation period is around
31 days.

Several weaned (at 6 to 8 weeks) offspring of the

same age can be co-caged, about 8 foot wide by
3.5 foot deep by 2 foot high. At 3 to 3.5 months
put them in their own cage. Does are ready to
breed at 5 months.

Disinfect all cages weekly.

Temperatures above 100F may kill rabbits, as

will direct sun exposure, cold and wet.

GOATS - ROUGHAGE TO FOOD

Goat. Welded 16' stock panels. NOT barbed

wire, woven wire, or chicken wire. It is the fat
and bone of goat meat that give the meat a strong
taste. Separated meat only will have a much
milder taste.

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Tab 1 to Micro Environment Subsistence System

SOIL TEMPERATURE CONDITION FOR VEGETABLE SEED

GERMINATION1

MIN. RANGE OPTIMUM MAX DAYS TO

VEGETABLE
(°F) (°F) (°F) (°F) GERMINATION
ASPARAGUSa 50° 60° - 85° 75° 95° 21 - 30
BEANd 60° 60° - 85° 80° 95° 7 - 14
e
BEAN LIMA 60° 65° - 85° 85° 85° 10 - 14
b
BEET 40° 50° - 85° 85° 95° 7 - 14
CABBAGEa, b 40° 45° - 95° 85° 100° 7 - 10
CARROTb 40° 45° - 85° 80° 95° 10 - 21
CAULIFLOWERa, b 40° 45° - 85° 80° 100° 3 - 10
CELERYa 40° 60° - 70° 70° 85° 14 - 21
CHARD SWISSb 50° 50° - 85° 85° 95° 7 - 14
d
CORN 50° 60° - 95° 95° 105° 7 - 10
c, d
CUCUMBER 60° 75° - 95° 95° 105° 7 - 10
EGGPLANTc 60° 40° - 80° 85° 95° 7 - 12
LETTUCEa 35° 40° - 80° 75° 85° 7 - 14
MUSKMELONe 60° 75° - 95° 90° 100° 7 - 10
OKRAe 60° 70° - 95° 95° 105° 8 - 12
a
ONION 35° 50° - 95° 75° 95° 10 - 14
b
PARSLEY 40° 50° - 85° 75° 90° 10 - 21
PARSNIPb 35° 50° - 70° 65° 85° 14 - 21
PEAb 40° 40° - 75° 75° 85° 8 - 10
PEPPERc 60° 65° - 95° 85° 95° 14 - 21
PUMPKINd 60° 70° - 90° 95° 100° 7 - 10
RADISHb 40° 45° - 90° 95° 95° 3-7
b
SPINACH 35° 45° - 75° 70° 85° 7 - 10
d
SQUASH 60° 70° - 95° 95° 100° 9 - 12
TOMATOc 59° 60° - 85° 85° 95° 5 - 14
TURNIPb 40° 60° - 105° 85° 105° 6-7

http://www.verticalfarm.com/
 WATERMELONe 60° 70° - 95° 95° 105° 7 - 10
1
Compiled by J.F. Harrington, Dept. of Vegetable Crops, University of California, Davis.
2
Daily fluctuation to 60° or lowers at night is essential

http://www.verticalfarm.com/
http://www.verticalfarm.com/
i
Test Your Soil With Plants, by John Beeby
ii
One Circle, How to Grow a Complete Diet in Less Than 1000 Square Feet, by David Duhon
iii
The folks at Columbia University Medical School, New York City, New York, have worked up a multi aspect theoretical
food system where a city building is used to produce food for 50,000 city residents. A significant part of their theoretical
plan is use of electrical light vs natural lighting.
iv
Passive Annual Heat Storage, by John Hait
v
One Circle, How to Grow a Complete Diet in Less than 1000 Square Feet, by David Duhon
vi
Future Fertility, Transforming Human Waste to Human Wealth, by John Beeby
vii
Carrots Love Tomatoes, Louise Riotte
viii
Test Your Soil With Plants, John Beeby

ix
Plants from Test Tubes, by Lydiane kyte & John Kleyn
x
http://www.echotech.org/network/modules.php?name=Downloads
xi
Living Walls: How to Save the World with Used Tires and Old Plastic Bags, Folke Gunther http://www.holon.se/folke/
xii
Hydroponics, A practical Guide for the Soilless Grower, J. Benton Jones, Jr.
xiii
Plants for a Future, an organization in England with an online searchable database of useful plants, last noted on the web
at: http://www.pfaf.org/
xiv
See free online copies of the Overstory, tree crop information at http://www.overstory.org
xv
Plant Propagation, The Fully Illustrated Plant-by-Plant Techniques, Alan Toogood Editor in Chief American Horticultural
Society