0.

5 Non-clean drag polar

0.5 Non-clean drag polar

Drag polar curves according to the aircraft conguration
There may be several Drag Polars for a particular aircraft. We will consider
the following ones:

1. DRAG POLAR IN CLEAN CONFIGURATION. Flaps, slats and

landing gear retracted (δf laps = 0, δslats = 0, δgear = 0). It is the Drag
Polar we have usually considered.

2. TAKE-OFF OR LANDING DRAG POLAR OUT OF GROUND

EFFECT. Drag Polar in unrestricted ight with the landing gear de-
ployed, and aps and slats partially or totally deployed (δf laps 6= 0,
δslats 6= 0, δgear = 1).
3. TAKE-OFF OR LANDING DRAG POLAR IN-GROUND EF-
FECT. Drag Polar with the landing gear deployed, and aps and slats
partially or totally deployed (δf laps 6= 0, δslats 6= 0, δgear = 1) In-Ground
Eect .

0.5.1 High lift devices

The two main elements used
15 to increase the lift coecient of a wing are the

`slat' (or leading edge ap) and the trailing edge `ap'.

Generally they act increasing:

• The airfoil camber.

• The control of the boundary layer.

• The eective area of the wing.

• The airfoil chord.

The ap and the slat do not act in the same manner to achieve the increase in
the lift coecient.

The ap produces an increase in the wing camber introduced by the deection
of the device, which causes an increase in the airfoil lift coecient, as may be
seen in Figure 0.34. In the same Figure it may be seen that, in addition to

15 We will not go into details about these devices (that you will have seen in other courses already)
and we will go straight to the essential issues for us from a practical point of view.

79
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.34: Characteristic curves for a wing with and without aps.

the displacement of the lift curve upwards, there is an increase in the value of
the maximum lift coecient and a variation in the angle of attack at which
this maximum takes place. The zero-lift angle is also modied. The minimum
drag CL is altered as well.

The eect of the slat consists in an increase in the CLmax that may be reached,
without modifying the value of CLα 16 . Therefore, as may be seen in Fig-
ure 0.35, the aircraft will stall with a higher value of angle of attack, which is
advantageous.

16 In some cases, the wing surface suers a signicant variation.

80
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

Figure 0.35: Lift coecient for a wing with and without slats.

Both devices have an eect on the aerodynamic drag. This eect is propor-
tional to the ap deection, which leads to the use of moderate ap deections
◦
(from 10 to 15 ) in take-o conguration to take advantage of the acceleration
provided by the engines in a better way. The drag increase is more noticeable
in the one induced by lift.

NOTE: The positive deection (δF > 0) of a ap is the one in which the ap
trailing edge is lowered. The positive deection (δS > 0) of a slat implies that
its leading edge is lowered, as dened in Figure 0.36.

0.5.2 Take-o and landing drag polar

We will now try to establish the proper Drag Polars for the study of the take-
o and landing stages. To do so, we will assume the Drag Polar in clean
conguration to be known.

NOTE: Please remember that the angle α that appears in the mathematical
expressions that we use is the one that the pilot reads (or would read, if the
indicator existed) in its cabin instruments, whereas αZL is a dened reference
angle that is xed (constant). Thus, this α does not vary when the aps or

81
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.36: Criterion for the positive deection of a slat.

slats are deployed: the pilot keeps reading

17 the same α in its instruments,
even though the aircraft has substantially changed its lift and conguration.

1. CLEAN CONFIGURATION DRAG POLAR

CL = CLα (α − αZL )
2
CD = CD0 + K CL2 = CD0 + K CL2α (α − αZL ) (0.91)

where αZL is the zero-lift angle (for us, αZL ≈ 0).

Let's study now the Transitions Drag Polar (take-os and landings):

2. DRAG POLAR WITH LANDING GEAR DEPLOYED AND

FLAPS DEPLOYED
CLF LAP S = CL + ∆CLF LAP S [δF ]
K
CDF LAP S = CD0 + CDLGear + ∆CDF LAP S + CL2 f [δF ] ≤ 1
f [δF ]
(0.92)

17 In many commercial aircraft the indication of α in the cabin is omitted, but the stall speed
(Vstall ) is continuously shown for the conguration that the aircraft has in each moment. This is an
arguable practice.

82
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

It is usual to express the second expression of Equation 0.92 as shown in

Equation 0.93. This expression does not add anything new.

CDF LAP S = CD0 + CDLGear + ∆CDF LAP S + . . .

K 2
··· + (CLF LAP S − ∆CLF LAP S [δF ]) (0.93)
f [δF ]
There are some novel coecients here that require an explanation:

(a) The coecientCDLGear is the increase in parasitic drag due to the

Landing Gear deployment. It is not easy to evaluate it. In the
absence of accurate data, we can use Equation 0.94, with statistical
origin.

WT0.81
 
0.664 O
CDLGear ≈ (WT O in kg and Sw in m2 ) (0.94)
1000 Sw

(b) The coecient ∆CDF LAP S is the drag increase due to the deection
of the aps. (There is a signicant interference among the landing
gear and the aps, but we will not pay attention to this fact now).

1
(c) The coecient is an induced drag factor that modies the value
f [δF ]
of the K coecient of the Clean Drag Polar. In order to numerically
estimate these two latter coecients we will use a validated empirical
model that we will see later.

3. DRAG POLAR WITH LANDING GEAR DEPLOYED, FLAPS

DEPLOYED AND IN-GROUND EFFECT
The Ground Eect appears when the aircraft is close enough to the
ground. It is not easy to mathematically model it in a general way. Due
to the important inuence of this eect in take-o and landing, intense
research has been carried out about it, both through wind tunnels and
through theoretical methods. This eect starts being measurable when
the aircraft is at a distance equivalent to approximately its wingspan from
the ground.
For a conventional aircraft in a clean conguration, both the theoretical
research studies (that use the image vortex model) and the experimental
data point out that the proximity to the ground produces an increase in
the lift curve slope, a reduction of the aerodynamic drag and a reduction
of the pitching moment. (However, when the conguration is with de-
ployed aps it cannot be assured that the same behavior is found).

83
Chapter 0. Procedures

In general, it may be stated that the pressure below the wing increases,
thus increasing the lift. The eect, as shown in Figure 0.37, is equivalent
to an apparent increase of the aspect ratio due to the greater distance
among the core of the wingtip vortices, so that the induced drag decreases.
The mathematical model that we are going to follow consists in a modi-
cation of the CL CD of the Drag Polar Out of Ground Eect
and the
(OGE) to translate them into CL and CD In-Ground Eect (IGE).
This procedure is carried out through two new coecients: GL(h) and
GD(h), which are a function of the height h from the wing trailing edge
(with or without ap) to the ground, according to Figure 0.38, which
corresponds
18 to a CASA 101.

When the aircraft is moving on the runway, this distance depends on the
aircraft weight and the landing gear shock absorbers.
The corresponding drag polar will be given by Equation 0.95.

CLF laps,IGE = GL [h] (CL + ∆CLF laps [δF ]) with: GL [h] ≥1

CDF laps,IGE = CD0 + CDLGear + ∆CDF laps + . . .
K
 
2
· · · + GD [h] (CLF laps − ∆CLF laps [δF ]) with: GL [h] ≤1
f [δF ]
(0.95)

The values of the two coecients GL [h] and GD [h] may be obtained
from David Hull's model, whose plot will be shown. The functions
19 are
given by Equation 0.96.
 
5.2 1− h
GL [h] = 1 + [0.00211 − 0.0003 (ARw − 3)] e bw
 ! uv !2
 1.108 + 5.55 h − t29.8 h + 0.02

 u

 + 0.817 if h < 0.9bw
GD [h] = bw bw




1 if h ≥ 0.9bw

(0.96)

As an example for a particular aircraft, please see Figure 0.39. As you

h
 
can see, the coecients are expressed as a function of the variable .
bw
This means that when the height h20 over the runway is equivalent to a
wingspan, there is no Ground Eect.
18 The fuselage vertical width is delimited so that you can estimate the scale of the drawing.
19 There are many mathematical models that try to describe the ground eect, and none of them
is completely satisfying. We will be satised with one that is reasonably apt, with few complexity.
20 Do not mistake this `h' with the altitude over the sea level...

84
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

Figure 0.37: Vortex strength of an aircraft in ight. Left: Out of ground eect. Right:
In-ground eect.

Figure 0.38: Relevant geometry of the CASA 101 for the Ground Eect model calculations.

85
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.39: Example of the functions corresponding to the Ground Eect coecients.

86
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

With this, we have nished the exposition on the way of calculating the Drag
Polars in the two most signicant cases related to the aircraft take-os and
landings.

We will now proceed to apply the document  General Aviation Synthesis Pro-
gram , Vol. III. NASA-CR-152303, from Sanders & Hull, to obtain the numer-
ical values that we need.

0.5.3 Calculation procedure of the drag polar with aps and

landing gear
The application of the NASA-CR-15230321 is based on the identi-
cation of a number of constants from 20 plots that are the essence of
the procedure (these plotes are shown in the subsection 0.5.4). It is
quite artisanal. In the absence of experimental data, it may be used
hoping the results to be reasonably reliable.
It is divided into successive steps:
• Step 1: identifying the kind of Flap that the aircraft is provided
with, according to Figure 0.40.

• Step 2: identifying the reference values of the Flap (or Slat) of study,
according to the chart shown in Figure 0.41 (they are constant values).

• Step 3: introducing the Flap deection at which the Drag Polar

wants to be estimated in order to nd the value of the f [δF ] factor,
according to Figure 0.42.
If we do not desire to use a xed value for δF , but we pretend to eval-
uate the behavior of the aircraft for a continuous range of values of δF ,
Equation 0.97 can be used as the approximation to the behavior shown
in Figure 0.42.

2 3 δ F (◦ )
f [δF ] ≈ 1 − 0.12 (δ ∗ ) + 0.54 (δ ∗ ) − 1.08 (δ ∗ ) with δ∗ = (0.97)
60◦

The following parameters are of high interest since they provide important data
for an aircraft, but they must be taken with caution. (They must only be
taken as an orientation: they are better than not knowing ANYTHING, but

21 WARNING: Valid for general aviation only. Nevertheless, its results have shown a wider appli-
cability, though without guarantees. The further the aircraft model studied is from belonging to the
mentioned category, the less reliable the results will be.

87
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.40: Types of aps.

Figure 0.41: Reference values for ap input variables.

88
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

Figure 0.42: Eect of the ap deection δF on the induced drag factor f.

worse than any AUTHENTIC datum from the aircraft of study. Casually, they
could coincide...)

• THE LIFT INCREASE ∆CLF laps provided by the Flaps, according

to Equation 0.98.

∆CLF laps ≈ (∆CLF laps )REF (K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 ) (K13 K14 ) (0.98)

• THE DRAG INCREASE produced by the Flaps, according to Equa-

tion 0.99.

∆CDF laps ≈ (∆CDF laps )REF (K16 K17 K18 K19 K20 ) (0.99)

• THE MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT of the aircraft (CLmax )Clean

in clean conguration, given by Equation 0.100.

(CLmax )Clean ≈ (CLmax )REF (K1 K2 ) (K13 K14 ) + K15 (0.100)

• THE MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT WITH FLAPS AND

SLATS, given by Equation 0.101.

(CLmax )F laps+Slats ≈ K15 + . . .

h i
· · ·+K13 K14 K1 K2 (CLmax )Ref + K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 (∆CLF )Ref + K9 K10 K11 K12 (∆CLS )Ref
(0.101)

89
Chapter 0. Procedures

These coecients set important dierences in the behavior of the

aircraft.
Note: To use the graphics, it is convenient to take into account that
you will frequently need to interpolate and that the nomenclature of
the reference document may not coincide with the usual one in the
11889 course.
Comments:
• The size of the Slat is given by the fraction of the wing chord occupied
by it (cS /cw ) and by the fraction of the wingspan it occupies (bS /bw )
(dimensionless).

• Analogously, for the Flap: (cF /cw ) and (bF /bw ) (dimensionless).

• The correction FactorsKi are obtained from the attached gures as a

function of the geometry, the ight conditions (Mach and Reynolds),
deection angles, etc.

• For the Flap hinge-line angle, Equation 0.102 may be used (although it
is more practical to measure it on drawings).
 
cF
 
4
cw
 
ΛF ≈ ΛLE + arctan  (0.102)


 3 tan Λc/4 − tan ΛT E 


• ARw is the wing Aspect Ratio.

• ct i are the relative thicknesses of each element treated.


They are dimen-
sionless.

• Λqc = Λc/4
• ΛLE = ΛLeadingEdge
• RN = Re for some given conditions. Please observe that this parameter
will NOT remain constant if the ight conditions change, even if the
aircraft conguration does not vary. It is NOT geometry only.

• dB = fuselage width in the wing zone.

• λw = wing taper ratio (dimensionless).

90
 0.5 Non-clean drag polar

• crw/lb = wing root chord divided by fuselage length (dimensionless).

Please observe that, for a given aircraft with a xed wing geometry, the Ki
coecients are:

• K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 , K5 , K7 , K8 , K9 , K11 , K12 , K15 , K16 , K18 , K19 and K20

are constant.

• K10 is (practically) constant.

• K6 (δF ) and K17 (δF ).

• K13 (V, z).
• K14 (M ).
Therefore, we could theoretically dene mathematically a complete Drag Polar
that included all the posibilities (if we include the ground eect) as a function
of δF , M and z.

0.5.4 Plots
FINAL NOTE
The results that will be obtained from the application of these plots, published
by NASA for general aviation, will be more or less reliable depending on how
your aircraft resembles what is usually dened as GENERAL AVIATION AIR-
CRAFT. But, with this precautionary note in your mind, you may consider
that the results you obtain will not be too far from the correct ones.

On the other hand, from an academic point of view, the application of the
Flight Mechanics procedures to an aircraft whose basic aerodynamic features
have been established using the previously described procedures (even though
not reaching fully reliable nal results) shows which factors are important and
need to be taken into account, and the kind of inuence they exert.

You can also use authentic data, if they are known. If you spend time carrying
out a tedious search on the Web, it is possible that you nd reliable authentic
data about the features of the aircraft assigned to you. Logically, there is no
problem in doing so, but it is NOT necessary (for the 11889 course) to go
beyond what is provided in the present procedure.

91
Chapter 0. Procedures

92
0.5 Non-clean drag polar

93
Chapter 0. Procedures

94
0.5 Non-clean drag polar

95
Chapter 0. Procedures

96