Atmosphere

ISSN: 0004-6973 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tato19

Meteorological aspects of air pollution control

L. Shenfeld

To cite this article: L. Shenfeld (1970) Meteorological aspects of air pollution control, Atmosphere,
8:1, 3-13

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Atmosphere Volume 8, 1970

METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF A1 R POLLUTION CONTROL*

L. Shenfeld
A i r Management Branch
Department of Energy and Resources Management, Toronto

1. INTRODUCTION

Meteorological f a c t o r s have an i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t on t h e amount of

p o l l u t i o n i n t h e atmosphere. Temperature and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a f f e c t t h e
q u a n t i t i e s of p o l l u t a n t e m i t t e d by t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e amount of
s p a c e h e a t i n g r e q u i r e d . Sunshine i s r e q u i r e d i n a photochemical produc-
t i o n of o x i d a n t s forming smog. The wind v e l o c i t y , t u r b u l e n c e and
s t a b i l i t y a f f e c t t h e t r a n s p o r t , d i l u t i o n and d i s p e r s i o n of t h e p o l l u -
t a n t s . The r a i n f a l l llas a scavenging e f f e c t i n washing o u t ("rainout")
p a r t i c l e s i n t h e atmosphere. F i n a l l y , t h e humidity i s a f r e q u e n t and
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n determining t h e e f f e c t t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p o l l u -
t a n t s have on p r o p e r t y , v e g e t a t i o n and h e a l t h .

I n view of t h e s e e f f e c t s , m e t e o r o l o g i s t s a r e involved i n t h e follow-

i n g a s p e c t s of a i r p o l l u t i o n control:-

1) F o r e c a s t i n g a i r p o l l u t i o n p o t e n t i a l (Stackpole, 1967) s o
t h a t a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a g e n c i e s may a l e r t i n d u s t r y t o
c a r r y o u t temporary abatement a c t i o n .

2) S e l e c t i n g s i t e s and d e s i g n i n g emission systems f o r large

i n d u s t r i a l sources.

3) E s t a b l i s h i n g a i r monitoring surveys.

4) Carrying out research i n a i r pollution c o n t r o l methods.

*Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e J o i n t Conference of t h e Chemical I n s t i t u t e of

Canada and t h e American Chemical S o c i e t y a t Toronto on May 26, 1970, t h e
25th Anniversary of t h e C I C .
2. CLASSES QF SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS

The sources of pollution in an urban area may be divided into two

classes :-

1) Low-level emitters - vehic1es;combustion sources for space

heating houses and small commercial buildings; and,
privately owned incinerators.

2) High-level emitters - stacks serving: industrial sources;

central heating systems for industrial, commercial and
institutional multi-building complexes; and municipal
incinerators. These emitters are stacks at least 50
meters high.

Meteorological parameters affect differently the ground or "living"

level concentrations of pollutants which are produced by these two
classes of emitters. A knowledge of the micrometeorology and topography
of the area, as well as the characteristics of the principal sources of
emissions of pollutants and their locations in the area,must be known in
order to provide satisfactory forecasts of air pollution potential.

3. METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS

The meteorological parameters which have the most important

influence on the diffusion of pollutants in the atmosphere are wind
direction and speed, turbulence and stability.
(a) Wind D i r e c t i o n

The wind direction and its persistence are very important factors
in predicting the air pollution potential of an area when the principal
sources of the pollutants are high-level emitters located near each
other in an industrial-zoned portion of the city. These factors are not
important for areas in which low-level emitters cause the greater propor-
tion of the pollution.

Since the wind directs the travel of the pollutants, the expected
persistence of the wind direction,as related to the topographic features
and the locations of the receptors, must be considered both in forecast-
ing the air pollution potential as well as in selecting sites for plants.

For example, in an area which has the principal source of a pollu-

tant on a lakeshore site, high air pollution potential conditions could
be expected only when persistent on-shore winds are forecast. For a
city such as Sarnia which has most of its large industries located to
the south, the concentrations of pollutants are not high except during
periods with persistent southerly winds.
 Topographical f e a t u r e s s u c h a s v a l l e y s cause winds t o p e r s i s t i n
c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s much more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n i n o t h e r s . Obviously, s u c h
l o c a l i t i e s should b e avoided, i f p o s s i b l e , i n s e l e c t i n g s i t e s f o r l a r g e
industries.

(b) Wind Speed

The e f f e c t of a n i n c r e a s e i n wind speed on t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
r e s u l t i n g from low-level s o u r c e s of emissions i s t o d i l u t e t h e
p o l l u t a n t s - t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p o l l u t a n t s i n a downwind l o c a t i o n from
a ground-level s o u r c e i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e wind speed. High
a i r p o l l u t i o n p o t e n t i a l f o r e c a s t s f o r most l a r g e urban a r e a s where low-
l e v e l emissions a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n i n c l u d e l i g h t
wind speed a s one of t h e c r i t e r i a .

I n c o n t r a s t , w i t h high-stack s o u r c e s of h o t emissions, an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e wind speed w i l l lower t h e plume r i s e , a n d tend t o i n c r e a s e ground-
l e v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . There i s a c r i t i c a l wind speed f o r each s t a c k
d e s i g n a t which c o n c e n t r a t i o n s downstream r e a c h a maximum. A i r Manage-
ment Branch approval of a s t a c k r e q u i r e s a i r q u a l i t y c r i t e r i a (Ontario,
1970) t o b e m e t a t t h i s c r i t i c a l wind speed, which may range between 5
and 40 m i l e s p e r hour depending on t h e s t a c k d e s i g n (Nelson and Shenfeld,
1965)and t h e h e i g h t of and d i s t a n c e t o t h e r e c e p t o r . The e q u a t i o n s given
below, used i n t h e computation of plume rise and d i s p e r s i o n , a r e n o t
considered a c c u r a t e f o r wind speeds lower t h a n 5 miles p e r hour.

(i) Holland (1953) Plume Rise Equation

w h e r e n ~i s t h e plume rise (m), v, t h e gas e x i t v e l o c i t y (m/sec), d

t h e diameter of t h e t o p of t h e s t a c k (m),p t h e atmospheric p r e s s u r e
(mb),u t h e wind speed a t t h e top of t h e stack(m/sec), and Ta,Ts t h e
temperatures of t h e a i r and t h e gas a t e x i t , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( K ) .

( i i) Pasqui 11 (1 962) - G i f f o r d (1 961 ) Dispersion Formula

C = (Q/2 ruuYuz){exp [ - 1 1 2 ( ~ ) ~ ] +exp [ - 1 / 2 ( z + ~ y ] X e x p [ - 1 / 2 ( ~ / u ~ (2)

)~~
uz uz -
where C i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t p o i n t of impingement (gm/m3),
Q t h e r a t e of emission (gmlsec), z t h e h e i g h t of r e c e p t o r (m),
H t h e e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t ( h e i g h t of s t a c k h+plume r i s e A H ) ,
u t h e wind speed a s f o r Eq. ( I ) , and y t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
c e n t r e l i n e of t h e plume (m).uy ,uZ t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of
t h e plume c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l and
v e r t i c a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , (m) a r e f u n c t i o n s of t h e s t a b i l i t y of
t h e atmosphere and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e s o u r c e , x.
 VERY UNSTABLE - LOOPING
__ -. - -

SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE AND NEUTRAL - CONING

INVERSION - FANNING

-.

INVERSION BELOW, UNSTABLE ALOFT - LOFTING

TEMPERATURE UNSTABLE BELOW, INVERSION ALOFT - FUMIGATION

FIGURE I : A t m o s p h e r i c S t a b i l i t y E f f e c t s o n Plume B e h a v i o u r
 An a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a p o l l u t a n t a t
ground l e v e l a l o n g t h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e plume may b e computed from t h e
following equation:

with t h e maximum occurring a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e source such that

By assuming t h a t

cry /cz= a constant , (5

t h e c r i t i c a l wind speed u, may b e o b t a i n e d by s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n

d(Cmax)/du = 0. Ground-level c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i l l b e a maximum when t h e
plume rise, AH, i s e q u a l t o t h e s t a c k h e i g h t , h. Thus,

O n t a r i o l a w r e q u i r e s s t a n d a r d s t o b e met n o t o n l y a t ground l e v e l
b u t a t any p o i n t of impingement by t h e plume. Equation ( 2 ) i s u s e d by
t h e A i r Management Branch w i t h v a r y i n g v a l u e s of x, z and u t o p r e d i c t
t h e maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The computation h a s been programmed f o r a
computer t o p r e d i c t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e
s t a c k sources.

(c) Stabi 1it y and Turbulence

The l a p s e r a t e i s t h e p a r a m e t e r which p e r h a p s h a s t h e most

i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t on t h e d i f f u s i o n of t h e e f f l u e n t . F i g u r e 1 shows t h e
b e h a v i o u r of a plume under v a r i o u s l a p s e rate c o n d i t i o n s (U.S. Weather
Bureau, 1955).

1) LOOPING - S u p e r a d i a b a t i c l a p s e r a t e ; h i g h l y u n s t a b l e .
Good d i f f u s i o n w i t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o c c u r s o n l y
momentarily n e a r t h e s o u r c e .

2) CONING - S l i g h t l y u n s t a b l e . Ground l e v e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s from h i g h - s t a c k emitters may b e p r e d i c t e d more
s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r t h i s t y p e of c o n d i t i o n .
FIGURE 2: PI urres From W i q h and Low Level
E m i t t e r s D u r i n g a Lake-Breeze
 32 FANNING AND LOFTING - Inversion conditions; very
stable. There is little vertical motion. Kith light
wi'nds the plume meanders. Concentrations- resulting
from near ground-level sources will be highest for
this condition. In contrast, the plume from high-
stack emitters does not reach the ground until the
inversion breaks down. During the morning, due to
solar heating, thermal turbulence will cause high
concentrations at ground level for short periods of
time along the length of the plume. This condition
was designated "fumigation" by Hewson (1945).

The highest concentrations of pollution occur with lapse conditions

near the ground and inversions aloft. The height of the base of the
inversion is called the "mixing depth" and concentrations due to
emissions released within the depth will vary inversely with its thick-
ness. Estimates of the mean maximum depths have been determined by
Holzworth (1964) for many locations in the United States for each month
of the year.

Large-scale pollution involving thousands of square miles occurs

when a high pressure area (normally the western extension of the Azores
anticyclone), stagnates over the industrial regions of eastern North
America. High concentrations will then occur over urban and valley loca-
tions where there are large pollution sources. Associated with this
synoptic situation, there is little ventilation since light winds occur
not only near the surface but also aloft. Korshover (1957) determined
the frequency of these stagnation conditions for the period 1936-1956.

Lake breezes cause inversions to persist along shoreline localities

during the spring and early summer when water temperatures are compara-
tively cooler. The average depth of these inversions is about 100 meters.
The existence of a lake-breeze is thus a cause of high pollution concen-
trations for low-level sources. Hewson (1967) has pointed out that
plumes from high-stack sources will normally penetrate the inversion
layer or be emitted above it. It is very important that industrial
sources located on a lakeshore have stacks at least 150 meters in height
(cf. Figure 2).

4. CONTROL OF POLLUTION

The maximum concentration of pollution downstream from a source is

seen from equations (3), (4) and (5) to be directly proportional to the
emission rate of the pollutant Q and inversely proportional to the effec-
tive stack height, H. Pollution can thus be controlled by reducing Q or
increasing H. The first method is by far the preferred and most effec-
tive control. Removal of most of the particulates may be achieved by
 1
2M Increase i n Mortality
above Normal London 1962

- -

- -
Some Excess Deaths i n
Age Group >45
New York 1962

- Peak i n Death Rate super- -

imposed on High Deaths due New York 1963
t o Influenza

30Q
10% I n c r e a s e i n M o r t a l i t y London 1959
API above Normal

- -
Significant Increase
I n Deaths New York 1953

60 Excess Deaths Osaka 1962

- -

Episode Threshold Level

P a t i e n t s w i t h Chronic Re-
s p i r a t o r y Disease experience A l e r t I1
an a c c e n t u a t i o n of symptoms 75
above an API of 58 Alert I
- 50 -

32 Advisory Level

FIGURE 3: Levels of the Air Pollution Index

During Episodes and Ontario Alert
System
means of e f f i c i e n t p r e c i p i t a t o r s . Sulphur d i o x i d e e m i s s i o n may b e
reduced by t h e consumption o f f u e l w i t h a lower s u l p h u r c o n t e n t . The
e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t may be i n c r e a s e d by:

(a) i n c r e a s i n g t h e h e i g h t of t h e chimney
(b) i n c r e a s i n g t h e e x i t gas v e l o c i t y
(c) combining t h e e f f l u e n t s from more t h a n one s o u r c e i n t o one
l a r g e r diameter s t a c k
(d) i n c r e a s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e f l u e g a s e m i t t e d .

5. ONTARIO A I R POLLUTION INDEX

Most of t h e e x i s t i n g s o u r c e s of a i r p o l l u t i o n i n O n t a r i o a r e now
c o n t r o l l e d by abatement programmes. For l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s t h e i n s t a l l a -
t i o n of c o n t r o l equipment w i l l t a k e s e v e r a l y e a r s t o complete. However,
even t h e most advanced c o n t r o l of s o u r c e s may s t i l l b e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o
p r e v e n t a i r p o l l u t i o n build-ups d u r i n g t h e w o r s t weather s i t u a t i o n s .

An A i r P o l l u t i o n Index w a s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e O n t a r i o Government i n
A p r i l 1970 t o p r o v i d e t h e p u b l i c w i t h a day-to-day knowledge o f the
p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s and w a s d e s i g n e d t o be r e a d i l y comparable w i t h t h e
l e v e l s which were r e a c h e d d u r i n g "air p o l l u t i o n episodes", a few of which
a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e 3 . During t h e s e e p i s o d e s (which o c c u r r e d i n o t h e r
p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ) , a i r p o l l u t i o n caused a n i n c r e a s e i n human s i c k n e s s
and m o r t a l i t y f o r p e o p l e w i t h r e s p i r a t o r y problems.

E p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s ( B r a s s e r e t a l . , 1967; U.S. P u b l i c H e a l t h
S e r v i c e , 1969a, 1969b), i n d i c a t e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e v e r i t y of
u n h e a l t h y e f f e c t s and t h e d e g r e e of a i r p o l l u t i o n as i n d i c a t e d by
measured c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r and s u l p h u r d i o x i d e .
E x t e n s i v e d a t a were a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s e s of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
t h e s e p o l l u t a n t s f o r t h e e p i s o d e s , b u t o n l y a l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n concern-
ing the other pollutants. For t h i s r e a s o n ( a t l e a s t f o r t h e p r e s e n t ) ,
t h e Index c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e
o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s a l t h o u g h t h i s would seem t o b e d e s i r a b l e a l s o .

The A i r P o l l u t i o n Index i s u t i l i s e d by t h e A i r Management Branch as

a b a s i s f o r a c t i o n i n a n A l e r t System f o r t h e p r e v e n t i o n of a n a i r pol-
l u t i o n e p i s o d e i n O n t a r i o ' s communities.

L e g i s l a t i o n i n t h e P r o v i n c e of O n t a r i o ( O n t a r i o , 1970) a u t h o r i s e s
t h e M i n i s t e r of Energy and Resources Management t o o r d e r t h e c u r t a i l m e n t
o r shutdown of any s o u r c e n o t e s s e n t i a l t o p u b l i c h e a l t h o r s a f e t y
s h o u l d t h e p o l l u t i o n r e a c h a l e v e l which would b e i n j u r i o u s t o t h e
h e a l t h o f t h e c i t i z e n s i n the community. I n o r d e r t h a t t h e Index may b e
used a s one of t h e b a s e s o f s u c h c o n t r o l , i t was d e s i g n e d t o r e l a t e t o
p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s which c o u l d c a u s e s e v e r e h e a l t h e f f e c t s s u c h as t h o s e
Occurring d u r i n g a i r p o l l u t i o n e p i s o d e s . The o t h e r b a s i s of c o n t r o l
depends on t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of high p o l l u t i o n p o t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r a t
l e a s t s i x h o u r s a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l f o r e c a s t .

The A i r P o l l u t i o n Index e q u a t i o n f o r Toronto i s :

1.35
API = 0.2 [ 3 0 . 5 ( ~ 0 ~+) 126.0(s02) ] (8)

where COH i s t h e 24-hour running average i n d e x of t h e suspended p a r t i c u -

l a t e m a t t e r i n t h e atmosphere expressed a s C o e f f i c i e n t of Haze p e r 1,000
l i n e a r f e e t ; and SO2 i s t h e 24-hour running average of s u l p h u r d i o x i d e
concentrations i n p a r t s per million.

6. THE ALERT SYSTEM

An Air P o l l u t i o n Index of l e s s t h a n 32 i s considered a c c e p t a b l e .

A t t h e s e l e v e l s , c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s u l p h u r d i o x i d e and p a r t i c u l a t e s
should have l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t on human h e a l t h . A t t h e Advisory Level
a t which t h e A i r P o l l u t i o n Index i s e q u a l t o 32 and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s a r e expected t o remain a d v e r s e f o r a t l e a s t s i x more hours.
owners of s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n i n t h e community may be
advised t o make p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e c u r t a i l m e n t of t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s .

The F i r s t A l e r t o c c u r s when t h e A i r P o l l u t i o n Index r e a c h e s 50 and

i s f o r e c a s t t o continue f o r more t h a n s i x hours. Owners of major s o u r c e s
may be ordered t o c u r t a i l t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s . S t u d i e s (Lawther, 1958) have
shown t h a t a t l e v e l s over 50, p a t i e n t s w i t h c h r o n i c r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e s
may e x p e r i e n c e a n a c c e n t u a t i o n of t h e i r symptoms.

I f t h e abatement a c t i o n does n o t succeed i n lowering t h e l e v e l s of

t h e Index, t h e Second A l e r t w i l l be i s s u e d when t h e Index of 75 i s
reached and i s f o r e c a s t t o c o n t i n u e . F u r t h e r c u r t a i l m e n t of t h e opera-
t i o n s of s o u r c e s producing emissions of p o l l u t i o n w i l l be ordered.

A t t h e a i r p o l l u t i o n episode t h r e s h o l d l e v e l when t h e Index r e a c h e s

100 and i s f o r e c a s t t o c o n t i n u e , owners of a l l s o u r c e s n o t e s s e n t i a l t o
p u b l i c h e a l t h o r s a f e t y w i l l be o r d e r e d t o c e a s e o p e r a t i o n s . A t t h i s
l e v e l t h e c o n d i t i o n s could have mild e f f e c t s on h e a l t h y people and
s e r i o u s l y endanger t h o s e w i t h s e v e r e c a r d i a c o r r e s p i r a t o r y d i s e a s e s .

The Index has been computed f o r p a s t a i r p o l l u t i o n e p i s o d e s . Figure

3 shows t h e l o c a t i o n s where t h e s e o c c u r r e d , t h e peak reached by t h e Index
and t h e e f f e c t s of t h e p o l l u t i o n .

The Index and A l e r t System have been i n o p e r a t i o n i n t h e C i t y of

Toronto beginning i n A p r i l 1970. Owners of s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n have
co-operated i n d e c r e a s i n g t h e i r emissions when advised t h a t l e v e l s of
t h e Index were a t 32 and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l f o r e c a s t s i n d i c a t e d a d v e r s e
weather c o n t i n u i n g . These temporary abatement a c t i o n s have a s s i s t e d i n
m a i n t a i n i n g lower l e v e l s of p o l l u t i o n i n t h i s C i t y .
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