Introduction To Environmental Engineering

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Prepared by:
Engr. Paolo D. Dela Pena
ENVIRONMENT (BIOPHYSICAL)
- The biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism, or population,
and includes particularly the factors that have an influence in
their survival, development and evolution.
Biotic – living component of a community. Plants, animals, fungi,
protist and bacteria are all biotic or living factors
Abiotic – nonliving factors that affect living organisms.
Environmental factors such as habitat (pond, lake, ocean, desert,
mountain) or weather such as temperature, cloud cover, rain,
snow, hurricanes, climate regime etc. are abiotic factors.
ENGINEERING
- The creative application of scientific principles to
design or develop structures, machines, apparatus,
or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them
singly or in combination; or to construct or operate
the same with full cognizance of their design; or to
forecast their behavior under specific operating
conditions.
- The application of science and engineering principles
to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or
land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land
for human habitation and for other organisms, and to
remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water
management and air pollution control, recycling, waste
disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene,
environmental sustainability, and public health issues
as well as knowledge of environmental engineering
law. It also includes studies on the environmental
impact of proposed construction projects.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
• Sanitary engineering emerged as a separate engineering field
within civil engineering in the mid 1800's as the importance of
drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment became
recognized. Sanitary engineering, which had an emphasis on
water supply, water treatment, and wastewater collection and
treatment for many years, is the precursor of the present day
field of environmental engineering. Public concern about
environmental quality issues like air pollution and water
pollution emerged in the middle third of the 20th century,
leading to development of environmental engineering as a
separate discipline that deals with air pollution control,
hazardous waste management and industrial hygiene as well
as the traditional sanitary engineering fields of water supply
and waste water treatment.
SOME AREAS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
1) Water treatment
2) Wastewater treatment - prevent negative environmental impacts of the
discharged water and handle residuals generated, such as biosolids that
can be used as fertilizer
3) Air quality - design processes to prevent industrial emissions of air
pollutants
4) Surface water quality - prevent degradation of the quality of water in
rivers and lakes, so that natural populations of aquatic life and human
uses can be maintained
5) Solid waste - landfill design, recycling, destruction processes
6) RCRA (resource conservation and recovery act) hazardous waste -
treatment of currently generated hazardous industrial wastes
7) CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act) hazardous waste - clean-up of past contaminated sites
8) Industrial Waste Minimization/Treatment
9) Health and Safety
10)Permitting
COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
1) Lithosphere - The earth’s outer layer consisting of the soil and rocks. The
soil is ended upon non-living and natural matter. There are 2 types of
lithosphere namely oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere.
2) Hydrosphere - This comprise all water possessions both surface and
ground water. Only less than 1% of water resources are obtainable for
human exploitation. Water is considered to be a widespread compound
with unusual property.
3) Atmosphere - It is the state of layer adjoining the earth and extends up to
500 kms above the earth’s shell. Atmosphere is also called as layer of
gases. The atmosphere, which is a gaseous wrap, protects the earth from
cosmic radiations and provides life supporting oxygen. The atmosphere
plays a major role in asserting the heat balance of the earth by gripping
the re-emitted radiation from the earth.
4) Biosphere - The biosphere is a shell encompassing the earth’s surface
where all the living things subsist. This segment extends from 10000 m
underneath sea level to 6000 m above sea level. Biosphere is the total
computation of all ecosystems
ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
1) Collaborate with environmental scientists,
planners, hazardous waste technicians,
engineers, and other specialists, and experts
in law and business to address environmental
problems.
2) Provide technical-level
support for
environmental
remediation and
litigation projects,
including remediation
system design and
determination of
regulatory
applicability.
3) Inspect industrial
and municipal
facilities and
programs in order
to evaluate
operational
effectiveness and
ensure compliance
with environmental
regulations.
4) Assess the
existing or
potential
environmental
impact of land
use projects on
air, water, and
land.
5) Develop site-specific health and safety
protocols, such as spill contingency plans and
methods for loading and transporting waste.
6) Design systems, processes, and equipment for
control, management, and remediation of
water, air, and soil quality
7) Develop and present environmental
compliance training or orientation sessions
8) Serve on teams conducting multimedia
inspections at complex facilities, providing
assistance with planning, quality assurance,
safety inspection protocols, and sampling.
9) Monitor progress of environmental
improvement programs.
10) Provide administrative support for projects by
collecting data, providing project
documentation, training staff, and performing
other general administrative duties.
ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
- a community of organisms interacting with each other and with
their environment such that energy is exchanged and system-level
processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge.
- Ecosystems include living organisms, the dead organic matter
produced by them, the abiotic environment within which the
organisms live and exchange elements (soil, water, atmosphere),
and the interactions between these components
- Ecosystems embody the concept that living organisms continually
interact with each other and with the environment to produce
complex systems with emergent properties, such that "the whole is
greater tha the su of its parts" a d "e erythi g is o e ted
ECOSYSTEM TERMS
* Habitat - the natural environment in which an organism
lives.
* Species - consists of a group of organisms that look alike
and have similar characteristics, share the same ecological
niche and are capable of interbreeding.
* Population - consists of organisms living in the same
habitat at the same time.
* Community - a natural collection of plant and animal
species living within a defined area or habitat in an
ecosystem.
* Ecological niche - the function of an organism or the role it
plays in an ecosystem
Ecosystem Classification
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
1) Production – creation of new, organic matter. The synthesis
and storage of organic molecules during the growth and
reproduction of photosynthetic organisms.
Photosynthesis reaction :
CO2 + H2O -------> CH2O + O2 (light and enzymes)
done by phototrophs
• Chemosynthesis – inorganic substances are converted to
organic substances in the absence of sunlight
done by chemotrophs which are specialized bacteria
2) Respiration – process of unleashing bound energy for
utilization
CH2O + O2 -----> CO2 + H2O + released energy
3) Consumption – process in which a substance is completely
destroyed, used up, or incorporated or transformed into
something else. It acts as a regulator for production and
decomposition
4) Decomposition – responsible for the breakdown of complex
structures
* Abiotic decomposition – degradation of a substance by
chemical or physical processes
* Biotic decomposition (biodegradation) - the metabolic
breakdown of materials into simpler components by living
organisms
Production Respiration
Consumption Decomposition
NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS
* Producers - organisms, such as plants, that produce their own
food are called autotrophs. The autotrophs convert inorganic
compounds into organic compounds. They are called
producers because all of the species of the ecosystem depend
on them.
* Consumers - all the organisms that can not make their own
food (and need producers) are called heterotrophs. In an
ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they
depend on others. They obtain food by eating other
organisms. There are different levels of consumers. Those that
feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms that eat plant or
plant products are called primary consumers. Organisms that
feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers.
Those who feed on secondary consumers are tertiary
consumers.
• Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.
* Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products.
Example are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits, deer, beavers,
moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.
* Carnivores, on the other hand, are those that eat only
other animals. Examples of carnivores are foxes, frogs,
snakes, hawks, and spiders.
* Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a
primary consumers) and meat (acting as secondary or
tertiary consumers).
* Trophic level - corresponds to the different levels or steps in
the food chain. In other words, the producers, the
consumers, and the decomposers are the main trophic
levels.
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
4th Trophic Level (10 kcal)
3rd Trophic Level (100 kcal)
2nd Trophic Level (1000 kcal)
1st Trophic Level ( 10, 000 kcal)
Heat – lowest form of energy, less

useful form of energy
90% energy is lost in the transfer of
heat
Energy Pyramid 10% is utilized
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
1) Food chain – transfer of food energy from the
source through a series of organisms in a process of
repeated/sequential eating or being eaten pattern
Classification
a) Grazing food chain – starts from plants to grazing
herbivores to carnivores
b) Detritus food chain – starts from dead organic
matter to microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi,
etc.
Above: Grazing Food Chain
Below: Detritus Food Chain
2) Food Web – refers to the interconnected or
interlocking relationships among food chains in an
ecosystem
3) Food Pyramid – constitute the over – all structure
of dependency among the living elements
OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
1) Diversity - variety of habitats, living communities, and
ecological processes in the living world. It also refers to the
extent that an ecosystem possesses different species.
2) Distribution - the frequency of occurrence or the natural
geographic range or place where species occur
* Immigration - used to describe the process by which a
person moves into a country for the purpose of
establishing residency. In such a case, the individual is not
a native of the country which he immigrates to
* Emigration - process by which a person leaves his place
or country of residency, to relocate elsewhere. In this
case, the individual moving is referred to as an emigrant
(Immigration is movement to a country; emigration is
movement from a country)
* Migration – parent term of the aforementioned terms
3) Population
Density - the
number of
individuals of a
population per
unit of living
space (say,
number of trees
per hectare of
land)
4) Dominance - the degree to which a specie is more
numerous than its competitors in an ecological
community, or makes up more of the biomass. Most
ecological communities are defined by their dominant
species
* Keystone species - species that have a
disproportionately large effect on its environment
relative to its abundance. Such species play a critical
role in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community, affecting many other organisms in an
ecosystem and helping to determine the types and
numbers of various other species in the community.
The most important specie
5) Limiting Factors – environmental factors, chemical and
physical factors etc.
POPULATION PRINCIPLES AND ISSUES
Characteristics:
1) Natality - the birthrate, which is the ratio of total live
births to total population in a particular area over a
specified period of time; expressed as childbirths per
1000 people (or population) per year. It may also refer
to the inherent ability of a population to increase
2) Mortality - the ratio of deaths in an area to the
population of that area; expressed per 1000 per year
* Morbidity - an incidence of ill health. It is measured
in various ways, often by the probability that a
randomly selected individual in a population at some
date and location would become seriously ill in some
period of time
3) Sex ratio - the ratio of males to females in a population. The
sex ratio varies according to the age profile of the population.
It is generally divided into four:
* primary sex ratio — ratio at fertilization
* secondary sex ratio — ratio at birth
* tertiary sex ratio — ratio in sexually active organisms
* quaternary sex ratio — ratio in post-reproductive
organisms
(Measuring these is a problem since there are no clear
boundaries between them.)
4) Age Distribution - the proportionate numbers of persons in
successive age categories in a given population
POPULATION ISSUES
1) New characteristics because of immigration
2) Spread of diseases
3) Poverty
4) Environmental stress
5) Security issues
6) Health and Nutrition
Etc…..
ASSIGNMENT TO BE SUBMITTED NEXT MEETING
1) A term used to denote to moving or flowing waters
2) Layer of the atmosphere where the ozone layer exist
3) This corresponds to the different steps in the food chain
4) The role an organism plays in an ecosystem
5) Organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or
animal matter, returning essential nutrients to the
ecosystem
6) It acts as a regulator for production and decomposition
7) Organisms that cannot synthesize its own food and is
dependent on complex organic substances for nutrition
8) Degradation of a substance by chemical or physical
processes
9) The proportion of a specific disease in a
geographical locality
10) The frequency of occurrence or the natural
geographic range or place where species occur
11) The shell encompassing the earth’s surface where
all the living things subsist
12) The precursor of the present day field of
environmental engineering
13) The total computation of all ecosystems
14) The area or environment where an organism or
ecological community normally occurs
15) Consists of organisms living in the same habitat at
the same time
KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS
1) Competition - two species share a requirement for a
limited resource  reduces fitness of one or both
species
2) Predation - one species feeds on another  enhances
fitness of predator but reduces fitness of prey
Herbivory is a form of predation

3) Symbiosis – close long lasting relationship of 2
different species
3 Categories
a) Parasitism - one species feeds on another 
enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of
host
2 Kinds of Parasites
a.1) Ectoparasites – live on the bodies of the
host (ex. molds, flies, lice)
a.2) Endoparasites – live inside the bodies of
the host (ex. Tapeworms, bacteria, fungi)
b) Commensalism – one species receives a benefit
from another species  enhances fitness of one
species; no effect on fitness of the other species
c) Mutualism – two species provide resources or
services to each other  enhances fitness of both
species
SUCCESSION
- The orderly process of community development that involves
changes in species, structure, and community
- It results from the modification of the physical environment by the
community
• Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in
which the soil is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such
factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes, or rocks left from a
retreating glacier
* lichens – pioneering specie in primary succession, aids in
pedogenesis (the formation of soil)
• Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that
previously existed has been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale
disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the
environment
* climax community – a community in a final stage of succession.
Self – perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat
Lichens
Primary Succession
MATERIAL CYCLES
- Sometimes called nutrient cycles, material cycles
describe the flow of matter from the nonliving to the
living world and back again. As this happens, matter
can be stored, transformed into different molecules,
transferred from organism to organism, and returned
to its initial configuration. The implications of
material cycles are profound. There is essentially a
finite amount of matter on Earth (with some input
from meteors and other astronomical objects)
- Examples include the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle,
oxygen cycle, phosphorus cycle, sulfur cycle etc.
CARBON CYCLE
 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants.
In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas
called carbon dioxide (CO2). With the help of the Sun, through
the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is pulled from
the air to make plant food from carbon.
 Carbon moves from plants to animals.
Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the
animals that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the
carbon from their food too.
 Carbon moves from plants and animals to the ground.
When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves
decay bringing the carbon into the ground. Some becomes
buried miles underground and will become fossil fuels in
millions and millions of years.
 Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere.
Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas (CO2)
into the atmosphere. Animals and plants get rid of carbon dioxide
gas through a process called respiration.
 Carbon moves from fossil fuels to the atmosphere when fuels are
burned.
When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants,
cars and trucks, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide gas. Each year, five and a half billion tons of
carbon is released by burning fossil fuels. That’s the weight of 100
million adult African elephants! Of the huge amount of carbon that
is released from fuels, 3.3 billion tons enters the atmosphere and
most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater.
 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans.
The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from
the atmosphere.
OXYGEN CYCLE
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The process by which light energy is converted to
chemical energy
NITROGEN CYCLE
• The nitrogen cycle is the process by
which nitrogen is converted between its
various chemical forms.
• Important processes in the nitrogen cycle
include fixation, ammonification, nitrification,
and denitrification.
a) Nitrogen Fixation
• Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or
"fixed" to be used by plants.
• There are four ways to convert
N2 (atmospheric nitrogen gas) into more
chemically reactive forms:
1) Biological fixation: some symbiotic bacteria
and some free-living bacteria are able to fix
nitrogen as organic nitrogen.
2) Industrial N-fixation: Under great pressure, at a
temperature of 600 C, and with the use of an iron
catalyst, hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen can
be combined to form ammonia
3) Combustion of fossil fuels: automobile engines
and thermal power plants, which release various
nitrogen oxides (NOx)
4) Other processes: In addition, the formation of
NO from N2 and O2 due to photons and especially
lightning, can fix nitrogen
b) Ammonification
• When a plant or animal dies, or an animal
expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen
is organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases,
convert the organic nitrogen within the
remains back into ammonium , a process
called ammonification or mineralization.
c) Nitrification
• This is the biological oxidation of ammonium.
This is done in two steps, first from the nitrite
form then to the nitrate form. Two specific
chemoautotrophic bacterial genera are involved,
using inorganic carbon as their source for
cellular carbon.
Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
NH4+ + O2  NO2- + O2  NO3-
Ammonium Nitrite Nitrate
b) Denitrification
• This is the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen
gas. This can proceed through several steps in the
biochemical pathway, with the ultimate production of
nitrogen gas. A fairly broad range of hetrotrophic
bacteria are involved in the process, requiring an
organic carbon source for energy.
NO3- + organic carbon  NO2- + organic carbon  N2 + CO2 +
H2O
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Most of the orld’s phosphorus is lo ked up in
rocks–it can only be released by weathering
 Weathering - refers to a group of processes by which
surface rock disintegrates into smaller particles or
dissolve into water due to the impact of the
atmosphere and hydrosphere. The weathering
processes often are slow (hundred to thousands of
years).
• Weathering processes are divided into three
categories:
– physical weathering – abrasion, thermal expansion and
contraction, wetting and drying etc
– chemical weathering – hydrolysis, oxidation - reduction
– biological weathering - lichen
 A lot of the phosphorus that runs off into the ocean
also gets uried into the ocean floor because it
precipitates into solid form and settles to the bottom
as sediment. . Only the occasional upwellings in the
ocean can recycle phosphorus back to the top of the
ocean. **Note that birds are one of the few manners
of carrying phosphorus back to land because they eat
fish (that eat phosphorus-rich phytoplankton) and then
excrete the phosphorus back onto land
• The top 4 reservoirs for Phosphorus are:
1. sediment (lithosphere) 2. soil (lithosphere)
3. oceans 4. mineable rock (lithosphere)
SULFUR CYCLE
 Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions and
through emissions from hot springs. It enters the atmosphere
primarily in the form of sulfur dioxide, then remains in the
atmosphere in that form or, after reacting with water, in the form of
sulfuric acid.
 Sulfur is carried back to Earth's surface as acid deposition when it
rains or snows
 On Earth's surface, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid react with metals
to form sulfates and sulfides. The element is also incorporated by
plants in a form known as organic sulfur. Certain amino acids, the
compounds from which proteins are made, contain sulfur. Organic
sulfur from plants is eventually passed on to animals that eat those
plants. It is, in turn, converted from plant proteins to animal
proteins.
 When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it
is converted by microorganisms into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere, where it is oxidized
to sulfuric acid
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
ETHICS
• Ethics define the code that a society or group of
people adhere to
MORALS
• Morals delve into right and wrong at a much
deeper level, which is both personal and
spiritual.
- Ethics relates to a society whereas morality relates to

an individual person. Ethics relate more in a
professional life while morals are what individuals
follow independently.
• An area in which ethics and morals can clash is
at the workplace where company ethics can
play against personal morality.
• In society, we are all faced with the butting
heads of ethics and morals. Abortion is legal
and therefore medically ethical, while many
people find it personally immoral.
EUTHANASIA
• As of 2002, euthanasia is only legal in the
three countries: the Netherlands, Belgium,
and Luxembourg.
ABORTION
Ex. A 22-year-old woman in El Salvador, whose
pseudonym is Beatriz, is currently in the hospital,
waiting for an abortion that could save her life.
Her doctors want to terminate her pregnancy. So,
why ha en’t they? Because they fear being
prosecuted under El Sal ador’s laws, which
prohibit abortion in all cases with no exceptions
for rape, incest, the health of the mother or the
life of the mother.
• Countries banning abortion in all cases with no
exceptions whatsoever: Chile, El Salvador,
Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Malta
• Abortion is legal in nearly every European
country although there is a wide variation in the
restrictions under which it is permitted.
ANIMAL TESTING
PORNOGRAPHY
CONTRACEPTION
• Environmental issues also involve a
consideration of ethics and morals. Since
ethics is different from moral, it is quite
difficult to determine what is right and what is
wrong
ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND ETHICS
1) Development Ethics
• based on action
• it assumes that human race should be the
master of nature, and that earth and its
resources exist for the benefit and pleasure
of human
• reinforced by work ethics which dictates
that human should be busy creating
continual change, and that bigger and better
things represent progress which is good
2. Preservation Ethics
• Consider nature special in itself
• Some preservationists have an almost
religious belief regarding nature
• They hold reverence for and respect the
right of all creatures to live no matter what
the social or economical costs
• Preservationists also include those whose
interest in nature is primarily aesthetics or
recreational
3. Conservation Ethics
•Stresses a balance between development
and absolute preservation
•It recognizes the desirability of decent living
standards but works towards a balance of
resource use and resource availability
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS VIEWED AT DIFFERENT
PERSPECTIVES
1. Corporate Environmental Ethics

 Corporation – legal entity designed to operate at
a profit
• Ethics are involved when a corporation cuts
corners in production quality or waste disposal
to maximize profit
• These corporate decisions involve only
minimal considerations to the public interest,
while every effort is exerted to maximize profit
TOOLS USED TO EVALUATE ENVIRONMENTAL CORPORATE
RESPONSIBILITY
a) Valdez Principles
- have been formulated to guide and evaluate corporate conduct
towards the environment
- the Valdez Principles support a wide range of environmental
issues. Protection of the biosphere is one of its objectives, and it
encourages industries to minimize or eliminate the emission of
pollutants. The principles are also devoted to protecting
biodiversity and insuring the sustainable development of land,
water, forests, and other natural resources. The principles
advocate the use of recycling whenever possible, support safe
disposal methods, and encourage the use of safe and sustainable
energy sources. Energy efficiency is also a goal, as well as the
marketing of products that have minimal environmental impact.
- They are named after the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker which ran
aground off the Alaskan coast in 1989, causing considerable
environmental damage
b) ISO 14000 (International Standard Organization)
- certification for environmental management, i.e., on
meeting environmental responsibilities, controlling
risks and reducing liabilities
- a family of standards related to environmental
management that exists to help organizations (a)
minimize how their operations (processes etc.)
negatively affect the environment (i.e. cause adverse
changes to air, water, or land); AND (b) comply with
applicable laws, regulations, and other
environmentally oriented requirements
2. Societal Environmental Ethics
 Society – composed of a great variety of people with
different viewpoints
•many societies tend to exploit their resources
•Societies tend to continue to consume natural
resources as if the supplies were never ending
•Growth, expansion and domination remain the
central socio-cultural objectives of most advance
societies
•Economic growth and exploitation – attitudes
share by developing societies
3. Individual Environmental Ethics
• We have to recognize that each of us is individually
responsible for the quality of the environment we live
in and that our personal actions affect environmental
quality, for better or for worse
• Recognition of individual responsibility must then
lead to real changes in individual behavior
• In other words, our environmental ethics must be
reflected in changes in the ways we all live our daily
lives
o Environmental Movements – have been effective in
influencing public opinion and in moving the business
community towards environmental ethics
4. Global Environmental Ethics
• Much of the current environmental crisis is
rooted in and exacerbated y the widening gap
between rich and poor nations
• Industrialized countries contain only 23% of the
orld’s population and yet they control 80% of
the orld’s goods and are responsible for a
majority of its pollution
• Developing countries struggle to catch up with
developed countries and this seem to result to
destruction of their forests and the depletion of
their soils
• International Protocols - international conventions where nations can
work together to solve common environmental problems
Examples:
1) The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer
- a landmark international agreement designed to protect the
stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and
substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. The Montreal Protocol
stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that
deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons,
carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by
2000 (2005 for methyl chloroform). Scientific theory and evidence
suggest that, once emitted to the atmosphere, these compounds could
significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer that shields the planet
from damaging UV-B radiation.
* The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985), which
outlines states' responsibilities for protecting human health and the
environment against the adverse effects of ozone depletion, established
the framework under which the Montreal Protocol was negotiated
Kyoto Protocol – convention on the global climate change
- an international agreement that sets a target reduction
of GHG emissions for 37 industrialized countries and
European communities starting from 2008 to 2012.
Specifically, it requires an average reduction of five
percent from the GHG emission recorded in 1990
• Participating countries that have ratified the Kyoto
Protocol have committed to cut emissions of not only
carbon dioxide, but of also other greenhouse gases,
being:
- Methane(CH4)
- Nitrous oxide (N2O)
- Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
- Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
- Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
• Before, engineers were able to practice their
profession without having to address environmental
ethics to the same depth as it is now required
• Legislations require us to produce an environmental
report (EIS) prior to the design stage of a process
• Engineering as a profession has great achievements in
the general area of public health, water supply, sewage
treatment, waste treatment, etc. and we are proud of
all of these.
However, modern engineers now realize that there are
also negative and long-term impacts of engineering
projects on ecology as well as on human health
• The dilemmas for engineers for the design for such projects
are many since no longer can engineers and scientists hide
behind technology and economics
• Our profession must share responsibility for the ethical
dilemmas or face the long-term consequences of such
issues returning to haunt us
• Engineers today are very different from generations ago
• Traditionally, an engineer could live out a technical career
without public participation as a professional
• Engineers have the technical competence of a backroom
technician with the ability to interact with groups, other
than engineers, at a public level
• Engineers must be more adaptable, flexible and be able to
collaborate with groups (environmental and community
groups) for inputs at the inception of projects
CASE STUDY
AN EXCESS?
• Stephanie Simon knew Environmental Manager Adam
Baines would not be pleased with her report on the
chemical spill. The data clearly indicated that the spill was
large enough that regulations required it to be reported to
the state. Stephanie perceived Adam to be someone who
thinks industry is over-regulated, especially in the
environmental area. At the same time, he prided himself as
a major player in maintaining XYZ's public reputation as an
environmental leader in the chemical industry. "We do a
terrific job," he often said. "And we don't need a bunch of
hard to read, difficult to interpret, easily misunderstood
state regulations to do it. We got along just fine before the
regulators ran wild, and we're doing fine now."
When Stephanie presented her report to
Adam, he lost his temper. "This is ridiculous!
We're not going to send anything like this to
the state. A few gallons over the limit isn't
worth the time it's going to take to fill out
those damned forms. I can't believe you'd
submit a report like this. Stephanie, go back to
your desk and rework those numbers until it
comes out right. I don't want to see any more
garbage like this."
• What should Stephanie do?
• Stephanie refused to rework the report. Instead she
went back to her desk, signed the report, wrote a
memo about her conversation with Adam, and then
returned to Adam's office. She handed him the report
and said, "You don't want to see any more garbage like
this? Neither do I. Here's my original report--signed,
sealed, and delivered. I've had it here. I'm not fudging
data for anyone." As she turned to leave, she added,
"By the way, Adam, before you get any ideas about
making it hard for me to get another job, I have a nice
little memo about our earlier conversation. I won't
hesitate to send it right upstairs at the slightest
provocation."
• Discuss Stephanie's way of handling this problem
• Bruce Bennett was pleased to have the job vacated by
Stephanie Simon. It was an advancement in both
responsibility and pay. He knew about the circumstances of
Stephanie's angry departure. All went well for the first
several months. Then there was another spill. Bruce's
preliminary calculations indicated that the spill exceeded
the specified limit requiring a report to the state. He also
knew how Adam would react to the "bad news".
• Bruce had worked hard to get his present position, and he
looked forward to "moving up the ladder" at XYZ. He
certainly did not want to go job hunting at this time in his
career. He thought, "These numbers are so close to falling
below the limit that a little 'rounding off' here or there
might save us all a lot of grief."
• What should Bruce do?
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND
POLICIES
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES
• Environmental legislation includes all laws pertaining
to the management of natural resources and the
regulation of discharge of materials into the
environment
• It plays a critical role in promoting environmental
protection through:
– Sustainable use of natural resources
– Pollution prevention
– Integration of environment and development
objectives
 Provides an important framework for regulating
social behavior and transforming sustainable
development policies into enforceable norms of
behavior
• Environmental laws assist the government in

adhering to international protocols and building
national capacities to address major global, national,
regional and local environmental issues and
problems in the context of sustainable development
I. Pollution Control Legislations
1. Republic Act No. 3931 (July 10, 1967)
• An act creating the National Water and Air Pollution Control
Commission (NAPCC)
2. Presidential Decree No. 1251

• Imposing a fee on Operating Mining Companies to be
known as Mine Wastes and Tailing Fee to compensate for
Damages to Private landowners and for other purposes
3. Presidential Decree No. 1151 (June 6, 1977)

Philippine Environmental Policy:
• Defines the general policies on the pursuit of a better
quality of life for the present and future generations
• It mandates the undertaking of EIA for all projects which
may significantly affect the environment
Philippine Environmental Code:
• It defined the objectives of the policy and strategies for
various aspect of environmental management, such as air,
water quality, natural resource development, land and
waste management
• It tells about how to implement /enforce PD 1151

• November 7, 1985
• Providing penalty for improper disposal of garbage and
other forms of uncleanliness and for other purposes
6. Presidential Decree No. 984 (August 8, 1976)
Pollution Control Law:
• It seeks to prevent , abate, and control pollution of water,
air, and land for a more effective utilization of the
resources of the country

• Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of
air pollution from motor vehicles and other purposes
(installation of pollution control device)

• Vesting authority in Barangay captains to enforce
pollution and environmental control laws and for other
purposes
9. DENR Administrative Order No. 34 (DAO 34)
• Revised water usage and classification / water quality
criteria
10. DENR Administrative Order No. 35 (DAO 35)

• Revised effluent regulations
11. Republic Act No. 6969 (with IRR DAO 92-29)

• An act to control toxic substances, hazardous, and nuclear
wastes
12. DENR Administrative Order No. 14 ( series of
1993)
• Revised air quality standards
13.Republic Act 8749 – Clean Air Act of 1999
• Provides for a comprehensive air pollution control
policy
• Stipulates the development of an integrated air quality
improvement framework, standards on ambient air
quality from mobile and stationary sources and
mitigation of all sources of air pollution
14.Presidential Decree 856

• Sanitation Code of the Philippines
15.Republic Act 9003

• Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
II. EIS (Environmental Impact System)
Regulations
• Environmental Impact Statement System
• It declares the policy to ensure the attainment of
environmental quality that is conducive to a life of dignity
and recognizes the right of the people to a healthy
environment
2. DENR Administrative Order No. 08 (series of 1991)

• Guidelines on the issuance of Environmental Compliance
Certificate (ECC) or
• Environmental Clearance (EC) for the conversion of
agricultural lands to non-agricultural uses
3. DENR Administrative Order No. 21
(series of 1992)
• Amended the revised rules and regulations implementing
PD 1586 (EISS)
4. DENR Administrative Order No. 11

(series of 1992)
• Supplementing DAO 21 series of 1992 and providing for
Programmatic Compliance Procedures within the EIS
III. Preservation of Natural Resources
1. PD 705 : Amended Forestry Reform Code
• Codifies, updates and revises all forestry laws and
emphasizes sustainable utilization of forest resources
2. PD 953 & 1153

• Laws penalizing illegal cutting of trees
3. PD 331
• Requires all public forests to be developed on a sustainable
yield basis
4. PD 1067: Water Code of the Philippines
• Integrates all laws governing the ownership,
appropriation, use, exploitation development,
conservation and protection of the country’s water
resources
5. PD 1198
• Reinforces restoration of mined-out areas to their
original condition to the extent possible
6. RA 8550: Fisheries Code of the Philippines

• Defines policies on the protection, conservation, and
effective management of fisheries stock as well as
identifying allowable fishing methods in the country’s
coastal waters.
7. RA 9275: Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
(PCWA)
• An act providing for a comprehensive water quality
management and for other purposes
8. RA 9147
• Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act
of 2001
9. DAO 15-90
• Regulations governing the utilization, development
and management of mangrove resources
10. DAO 2000 – 29
• Guidelines regulating the harvesting and utilization
of forest products within community-based forest
management areas
11.RA 7586 – National Integrated Protected
Areas System Act of 1992 (NIPAS)
• DAO 25 –IRR
• Set forth in detail the processes by which DENR and
other concerned institutions and agencies will establish
and manage the NIPAS
12.RA 7942
• Philippine Mining Act of 1995
• An act instituting a new system of mineral resources
exploitation, development, utilization and conservation
• DAO Series of 1996
• IRR of RA 7942
13.RA 1219
• Coral Resources Development and Conservation
Decree
• A decree providing for the exploration,
exploitation, utilization and conservation of
coral resources
14. RA 9168 : Philippine Plant Variety Protection Act

of 2002
• An act to provide protection to new plant
varieties, establishing a national plant variety
protection board
IV. OTHERS
1. Executive Order No. 259
• An act to rationalize the soap and detergent surfactant
industry and thereby promote and expand the
utilization of chemicals derived from coconut oil and
for other purposes
2. RA 9211: Tobacco Regulation Act
3. DAO 2000 -92
• Chemical Control order for asbestos (CCO)
• In accordance to RA 6969 and DAO 29 Series of 1992
4. DAO 97-38
• CCO for cyanide and cyanide compounds
5. RA 8485 : Animal Welfare Act of 1998
• An act to promote animal welfare in the Philippines
6. RA 8435: Agriculture and Fisheries

Modernization Act of 1997
7. RA 3983
• An act to protect wild flowers and plants in the
Philippines
• To prescribe conditions under which they may be
collected, kept , sold, exported and for other purposes
8. RA 9792 : Climate Change Act of 2009
• An act mainstreaming climate change into government
policy formulations, establishing the framework
strategy and program on climate change, creating for
this purpose the Climate Change Commission and for
other purposes
9. RA 9367 – Biofuel Act of 2006

• A mandatory biofuels standard which requires a 5%
ethanol blend for gasoline within two years, increasing
to 10% within 4 years under the approval of a new
National Biofuels Board
• A 1% biodiesel blend for diesel is required within 3
months, to be increased to 2% within 2 years
HYDROLOGY
WATER
- A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid
essential for most plant and animal life
- Under nomenclature used to name chemical
compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the
scientific name for water, though it is almost
never used
SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure.
The intrinsic color of water and ice is a very slight blue
hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities.
Water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas
 Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the
universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in water,
e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases –
especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are
known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while
those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and
oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing)
substances.
 The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is
dependent on the barometric pressure. (On the
top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C, compared
to 100 °C at sea level) Conversely, water deep in
the ocean near geothermal vents can reach
temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain
liquid
 The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C.
It has the anomalous property of becoming less
dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its
solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9% greater
volume in this solid state, which accounts for the
fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in icebergs.
WATER TRIVIA AND FACTS
 Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh water, 97% is salt
water
 Over 90% of the world's supply of fresh water is
located in Antarctica
 The total amount of water in the body of an average
adult is 37 liters
 Human brains are 75% water
 A person can live about a month without food, but only
about a week without water. If a human does not
absorb enough water dehydration is the result
 Hot water weighs more than cold water
 Frogs do not need to drink water as they absorb the
water through their skin
 Although Mount Everest, at 29,028 feet, is often called
the tallest mountain on Earth, Mauna Kea, an inactive
volcano on the island of Hawaii, is actually taller. Only
13,796 feet of Mauna Kea stands above sea level, yet it
is 33,465 feet tall if measured from the ocean floor to
its summit
 Water is the only substance that is found naturally on
earth in three forms: liquid, gas, solid
 In a 100-year period, a water molecule spends 98 years
in the ocean, 20 months as ice, about 2 weeks in lakes
and rivers, and less than a week in the atmosphere
HYDROLOGY
HYDROLOGY
- The study of water and its movement along its
various pathways within the hydrological
cycle.
- It is applied by engineers who use hydrological
principles to compute river flows from rainfall,
water movement in soils from knowledge of
soil characteristics, evaporation rates from
water balance or energy balance techniques.
THE HYDROLOGICAL (WATER) CYCLE
- The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology
- As shown, water evaporates from the earth’s oceans
and water bodies and from land surfaces. (About
seven times more evaporation occurs from oceans
than from the earth’s land surfaces)
- The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until
the lower temperatures aloft cause it to condense
and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain
but sometimes as snow.
- Once on the earth’s surface, water flows into
streams, lakes, and eventually discharge into surface
waters.
• Through evaporation from surface waters or
transpiration from plants, water molecules return
to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle. The term
evapotranspiration is used referring to combined
evaporation and transpiration.
* Transpiration - the process where water
contained in liquid form in plants is converted to
vapor and released to the atmosphere. Much of
the water taken up by plants is released through
transpiration.
• In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on
grassland in temperate zones, 10 to 20 units will
go to groundwater, 20 to 40 units will transpire
and 40 to 70 units will become stream runoff.
GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES
- Ground water is both an important direct source of water
supply and a significant indirect source since a large portion
of the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water.
- Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil
pore spaces contain both air and water. Moisture from this
zone cannot be tapped as water supply source since this
water is held on soil particles by capillary forces and is not
readily released.
- Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in
which the pores are filled with water. Water within this
zone is referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a
substantial amount of groundwater is called an aquifer and
the surface of this saturated layer is known as the water
table. If the aquifer is underlain by an impervious stratum,
it is called an unconfined aquifer. If the stratum containing
water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is
known as confined aquifer.
SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES
- Surface water supplies are not as reliable as
groundwater sources because quantities often
fluctuate widely during the course of a year or
even a week, and the quantity of surface
water is easily degraded by various sources of
pollution.
WATER QUALITY
• Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporation
state, however, it acquires impurities once condensed
and additional impurities are added are added as the
liquid water travels through the remainder of the
hydrologic cycle and comes into contact with materials
in the air and on or beneath the earth’s surface.
• In addition, human activities contribute further
impurities in the form of industrial and domestic
wastes, agricultural chemicals, and other less obvious
contaminants. These impure water returns to the
atmosphere as relatively pure molecules through
evaporation.
• The impurities accumulated by water
throughout the hydrologic cycle and as a
result of human activities may be both
suspended (larger particles) and in dissolved
form (molecules, ions). Colloids are also very
small particles that are suspended but often
exhibit many characteristics of dissolved
substances.
PHYSICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS
1) Suspended Solids
• Sources:
* inorganic material- clay, silt, and other soil
constituents
* organic material - plant fibers and biological solids
(algal cells, bacteria, etc)
* Other suspended material may result from human
use of water (Domestic wastewater usually contains
large quantities of suspended solids that are most
organic in nature. Industrial use of water result in a
wide variety of suspended impurities of either organic
or inorganic in nature)
• Impacts: objectionable in water, aesthetically displeasing
and provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological
agents.
• Measurement
* Total solids – all solids in water, suspended and
dissolved, organic and inorganic. This parameter is
measured by evaporating a sample to dryness (104°C)
and weighing the residue expressed as mg/L.
* Suspended solids – solids removed by filtration. This
parameter is measured by filtering the water sample,
drying the residue and filter paper to a constant weight
and determining the mass of the residue retained in the
filter paper. This is expressed as dry mass per volume
(mg/L)
* Dissolved solids – solids that passes through a filter
paper also expressed as mg/L. This parameter is the
difference between total solids and suspended solids of a
water sample.
Total solids = suspended solids + dissolved solids
In the laboratory:
Filterable residues – pass through the filter along
with the water and relate more closely to dissolved solids
Nonfilterable residues – retained on the filter and
relate more closely to suspended solids
The organic fraction of the residue for both total and
suspended solids can be determined by firing the
residues in a muffle furnace at 550°C
• Use: to measure the quality of wastewater influent
and effluent and to monitor several treatment
processes. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) maximum suspended solids standards = 30
mg/L for treated wastewater discharges
2) Turbidity
• A measure of the extent to which light is
either absorbed or scattered by suspended
material in water. Turbidity is not a direct
quantitative measure of suspended solids.
• Sources:
* results from erosion of colloidal material –
clay, silt, rock fragments, metal oxides from
soil
* vegetable fibers and microorganisms
* soaps, detergents, emulsifying agents
• Impacts: aesthetically displeasing (opaqueness
or ilk oloratio is apparent), adsorption sites
for chemicals that are harmful, causes
undesirable taste and odor, interfere with light
penetration and photosynthetic reactions in
streams and lakes, accumulation results in
sediment deposits which affects the flora and
fauna of streams
• Measurement: measured photometrically by
determining the percentage of light of a given
intensity that is either absorbed or scattered (use
of turbidimeter).
• Use: EPA drinking water standards specify
maximum of 1 FTU (formazin turbidity units)
3) Color
• Pure water is colorless ( as perceived by the naked
eye) but water in nature is often colored by foreign
substances.
Apparent Color – color partly due to suspended solids
True Color – color contributed by dissolved solids that
remain after the removal of suspended solids
• Sources:
* yellowish brown water – after contact with organic
debris (leaves, weeds, wood etc.), water pick p
tannins, humic acid and humates
* reddish water – iron oxides cause it
* brown or black – due to manganese oxides
* industrial wastes add substantial color in water
• Impacts: not aesthetically acceptable to the
general public. Phenolic compounds, which are
common constituents of vegetative decay
products produce objectionable taste and odor
with chlorine. Some compounds of chlorine with
naturally occurring organic acids are suspected to
be carcinogenic
• Measurement: comparison with standardized
colored materials, use of tubes containing
standards (results expressed in TCUs – true color
units)
Spectrophotometric techniques – used by
industries in measuring color.
4) Taste and Odor
• Substances that produce an odor in water will
almost invariably impart a taste as well however,
there are many mineral substances that produce
taste but no odor
• Sources:
* minerals, metals, and salts from soil, products
of biological reactions
* Inorganic substances produce taste
unaccompanied by odor
alkaline – imparts bitter taste to water
metallic salts – give a salty taste to water
* Organic substances produce both taste and odor
petroleum based products
biological decomposition of organics like SO2
(imparts a rotten egg odor)
• Impacts: aesthetically displeasing, water is supposed
to be tasteless and odorless. Odors produced by
organic substances may be carcinogenic.
• Measurement: Gas or liquid chromatography is used
for organics. Human senses of taste and smell
(Threshold odor Number or TON)
• Use: Associated with drinking (potable water). A TON
of 3 has been recommended by the Public Health
Office
5) Temperature
• One of the most important parameter
• Temperature of surface waters governs the biological
species present and their rates of activity
• Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions
that occur in natural water
• Temperature has an effect on the solubility of gases in
water
• Sources:
* Ambient temperature – shallow bodies of water
are more affected than deeper bodies of water
* The use of water for dissipation of waste heat in
industry and its subsequent discharges may result to
dramatic temperature changes in receiving streams
• Impacts: At lower temperature, biological activity
(utilization of food supplies, growth, reproduction) is
slower. An increase of 10°C is usually sufficient to
double biological activity if essential nutrients are
present. At elevated temperatures and increased
metabolic rates, organisms that are more efficient at
food utilization flourish while others decline and are
perhaps eliminated. Accelerated growth of algae often
occurs in warm water and become a problem because
Eutrophication will occur. Fishes are affected by
temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. Temperature
changes also affect the reaction rates and solubility of
chemicals as well as other physical properties of water
such as viscosity, density, etc.
CHEMICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS
1) Total Dissolved Solids
• The material remaining in the water after filtration. This
material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the
water and constitutes a part of total solids. Dissolved
solids may be organic or inorganic
• Sources:
* Results from solvent action of water on solids, liquids,
and gases
* Materials from decay products of vegetation
* organic chemicals and organic gases
• Measurement : weight of the residue remaining after
evaporation of water sample that has been filtered to
remove suspended solids. The organic fraction can be
determined by firing the residue at 550°C in a muffle
furnace
Total Dissolved Solids:
• Ca, Mg, Na, K, anions such as chlorides,
sulfates, bicarbonates
• Common measure of water salinity
Fresh water - less than 1500 mg/L
Brackish water – can have values up to 5000 mg/L
Saline waters – above 5000 mg/L
Sea water – 30,000 to 34,000 mg/L
• Indicator of the usefulness of water for
various applications
• Upper limits for livestock (quoted by the US
Geological survey)
 Poultry = 2860 mg/L
 Pigs = 4290 mg/L
 Beef cattle = 10,100 mg/L
• For crops:
 Tolerance = 1500 mg/L
 Not suitable for irrigation >2100 mg/L
2) Alkalinity
• Quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize
hydrogen ions.
• It is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids
• This includes CO32-, HCO31-, OH1-, HSiO31-,HPO42-,H2PO41-
,HS1-, and NH3
• Sources:
* results of the dissolution of mineral substances in soil
and atmosphere
* Phosphates may originate from detergents in
wastewater, from fertilizers and insecticides from
agricultural lands
* Sulfides and ammonia may be products of microbial
decomposition of organic material
• Impacts: Alkalinity imparts bitter taste to
water, precipitates can foul pipes and other
water – system
• Measurement: Titration of the water with an
acid and determining the hydrogen equivalent
expressed as mg/L of CaCO3
• Use: Included in the analysis of natural water
to determine buffering activity
3) Hardness
• Concentration of all multivalent cations in
solution
• Sum of calcium and magnesium ions
• Source: multivalent metallic ion in natural water:
Ca2+ and Mg2+ with smaller quantities of Fe3+ ,
Mn2+ , Sr2+ , Al3+
• Impacts: Soap lathering problem, pipes and
boiler scaling
Mg 2+ hardness – laxative effect on persons not
used to it
50 mg/L – desirable for potable water
• Measurement: spectrophotometric techniques,
chemical titration to determine Ca2+ and Mg2+,
titrated with EDTA (ethylenediaminetetracetic
acid) using EBT (eriochrome black T) as indicator.
1 mL of 0.01M EDTA measures 1 mg of hardness
as CaCO3.
• Use: Analysis on natural waters and on water
intended for drinking and certain industrial uses
– Acceptability levels:
soft (< 50 mg/L as CaCO3)
moderately hard (50 – 150 mg/L as CaCO3)
hard (150 – 300 mg/L as CaCO3)
very hard (> 300 mg/L as CaCO3)
4) Fluorides
• Seldom found in appreciable quantities in surface
waters
• Appear in ground water in a few geographical regions
• Toxic to humans and animals in large quantities, small
concentrations are beneficial
Levels:
1.0 mg/L – can help prevent dental cavities
2.0 mg/L – can cause discoloration of teeth (mottling)
<1.5 mg/L – rare mottling
> 5 mg/L – can cause bone fluorosis
1.5 mg/L – recommended limit in drinking water
*Bone fluorosis – accumulation of fluoride
- can contribute to osteoporosis
5) Metals
• Metals are opaque, lustrous elements that
are good conductors of heat and electricity
• Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that
is they reflect most of incident light
• Basically, all metals are soluble to some
extent in water
• Excessive amounts may present health
hazards
* Toxic Heavy Metals – those metals that are
harmful in relatively small amounts.
• HM can be absorbed and can be accumulated
in the body
• Can be eliminated by the kidney
• Kidney - complex filters whose primary
purpose is to eliminate toxic substances
• The kidneys contain millions of excretory
units called nephrons.
• Nephrotoxins – chemicals that are toxic to
the kidneys.
• Cd, Pb, and Hg are nephrotoxic metals.
Impacts of HM on the body include:
• nervous system breakdown,
• kidney damage,
• creation of mutation,
• induction of tumors.
• Sources: Include dissolution from natural
deposits, and discharges from domestic,
industrial or agricultural wastewaters
• Non – toxic metals:
*Calcium and Magnesium – hardness ions
*Sodium, Iron, Manganese, Aluminum,
Copper and Zinc – nontoxic metals found in
water
* Sodium – most abundant in natural waters and
in the earth’s crust. It is highly reactive with
other elements. Excessive concentration cause a
bitter taste in water and a health hazard to
cardiac and kidney patients. It is also corrosive to
metal surfaces and is toxic to plants in large
concentrations.
* Iron and Manganese – not a health hazard but
cause color problems in water at concentrations
of 0.3 mg/L Iron and 0.05 mg/L Manganese.
Bacteria use these metals for energy source so
the resulting slime growth produce taste and
odor problems.
* Copper and Zinc – when both are present,
maybe toxic to biological species
• Toxic Metals – Toxic metals comprise a group
of minerals that have no known function in
the body and, in fact, are harmful. Today
mankind is exposed to the highest levels of
these metals in recorded history
- Include Cadmium, Chromium, Lead,
Mercury, Vanadium, Thallium, Osmium etc.
* Cadmium – used in metal plating, active
ingredient in rechargeable batteries
- causes high blood pressure and kidney
damage and a probable carcinogen
* Chromium – natural impurity in coal, used in
the manufacture of stainless steel. Hexavalent
Chromium causes a suite of adverse health
effects
* Lead – incorporated in pigments, used in house paints and
in glazes, applied to dishware, used in pipes and solder. It is
also used as a gasoline additive
- It interferes with the development of the nervous
system and is therefore particularly toxic to children,
causing potentially permanent learning and behavior
disorders
* Mercury - a naturally occurring element that is found
in air, water and soil. It exists in several forms:
- elemental or metallic mercury,
- inorganic mercury compounds, and
- organic mercury compounds
- For fetuses, infants, and children, the primary
health effect of mercury is impaired neurological
development. During these poisoning outbreaks
some mothers with no symptoms of nervous system
damage gave birth to infants with severe disabilities,
it became clear that the developing nervous system
of the fetus may be more vulnerable to mercury than
is the adult nervous system
6) Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
• Elements essential to the growth and
reproduction of plants and animals and
aquatic species depend on the surrounding
water to provide the nutrients
* Nitrogen
- The element nitrogen does not normally exist
as a single atom, but is usually combined with
another nitrogen atom very tightly in a triple
bond, This molecule, nitrogen gas, N2, is the
predominant gas in our atmosphere, making up
over 79% of air
- The bond is so tight that it is only broken by
very energetic natural events, like lightning.
When this happens, and it happens often, various
compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are formed in
a process called nitrogen fixation.
-
- Sometimes, fixed nitrogen is called reactive
nitrogen.
- The most oxidized form is called nitrate
• Sources: animal wastes, chemical fertilizers, and
wastewater discharges
- Over – enrichment problems may also lead to
Eutrophication (natural aging process in which
the water is organically enriched leading to
increasing aquatic weeds – algal bloom)
- Impacts: Excessive nitrogen can cause nitrate
poisoning on babies (blue baby syndrome or
methemoglobinemia)
* Phosphorus
• Next to calcium, phosphorus is the most abundant
mineral in the body. These 2 important nutrients work
closely together to build strong bones and teeth
• About 85% of phosphorus in the body can be found in
bones and teeth, but it is also present in cells and
tissues throughout the body
• Phosphorus is one of the key elements necessary for
growth of plants and animals. Phosphates PO4--- are
formed from this element. Phosphates exist in three
forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or
polyphosphate) and organically bound phosphate. Each
compound contains phosphorous in a different
chemical formula.
• Phosphorus enter waterways from human and animal
waste, phosphorus rich bedrock, laundry, cleaning,
industrial effluents, and fertilizer runoff. These
phosphates become detrimental when they over
fertilize aquatic plants and cause stepped up
eutrophication
• Phosphate will stimulate the growth of plankton and
aquatic plants which provide food for fish. This may
cause an increase in the fish population and improve
the overall water quality. However, if an excess of
phosphate enters the waterway, algae and aquatic
plants will grow wildly, choke up the waterway and use
up large amounts of oxygen
7) Organics
Sources: Come from natural sources or results from human
activity
* Natural organics – decay products of organic solids
* Synthetic organics – result of wastewater discharges or
agricultural practices
2 Categories of dissolved organics in water:
(a) Biodegradable Organics – organics that can be utilized for
food by naturally occurring microorganisms within a
reasonable length of time
- in dissolved form, these materials usually consist of
starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and esters
- end product of initial microbial decomposition of plant
or animal tissues, or from domestic or industrial wastewater
discharges.
* Microbial decomposition of organics is accompanied
by:
Oxidation – addition of oxygen to or removal of
hydrogen from elements of the organic molecule
Reduction – addition of hydrogen to or removal of
oxygen from elements of the organic molecule
* Decomposition is either aerobic or anaerobic
Aerobic – denotes the presence of oxygen. End –
products of microbial decomposition of organics are
stable and acceptable compounds
Anaerobic – denotes the absence of oxygen.
Decomposition results in unstable and objectionable
end - products
(b) Non – biodegradable / Refractory organics
- organics resistant to biological degradation
- examples include tannic and lignin acids, cellulose
and phenol
Characteristics of Refractory Organics:
- molecules with exceptionally strong bonds
- ringed structure
ex. ABS (alkyl benzene sulfonate) – a detergent
compound which causes frothing and foaming in waste
water. It is now being substituted by LAS (linear
alkylbenzene sulfonate) which is biodegradable
1 – 5) Physical Water Quality Parameters
6 -12) Chemical Water Quality Parameters
13 – 15) Toxic Heavy Metals
16) Metal which causes the Itai – itai Disease –
Cd
17) Metal which causes the Minamata Disease
– Hg
18) Element which causes the Blue a y
syndrome – N
19 – 20) Hardness Ions
• Pesticides:
 chemicals that kill organisms humans consider
undesirable
 includes more specific categories of insecticides,
herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides.
Main Groups of Organic Pesticides
• Organochlorines – chlorinated hydrocarbons;
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
• DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane), -
persistent, they last long in the environment
before being broken down into other
substances),
- quite soluble in lipids (meaning they easily
accumulate in fatty tissue).
• DDT biomagnify or bioconcentrate in fatty
tissues,
• Half life = 10 – 15 years
• DDT is the first pesticide manufactured by
man
• Used to kill insects (flies & mosquitoes)
Standard for Drinking Water:
Chlorides = 250 mg/L Color = 15 color units
Copper = 1 microgram/L
Foaming agents = 0.5 mg/L
Iron = 0.3 mg/L
Manganese = 0.05 mg/L
Odor = 3 TON
pH = 6.5 – 8.5
Sulfates = 250 mg/L
TDS = 500 mg/L
Zinc = 5 mg/L
Corrosivity = non-corrosive
BIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS
May cause:
• Water-borne diseases
• Water contact diseases
• Water hygiene problems
 Pathogens – biological organisms in water capable of
infecting or of transmitting diseases to humans. They are
not native to aquatic systems and usually require a HOST
for growth and reproduction. Species of pathogens can
survive in water and maintain infectious capabilities for
significant periods of time.
Water Borne – Pathogens
• Those acquired by ingestion of pathogens not only in
drinking water but also from water that makes into a
perso ’s mouth from washing food, utensils and hands.
Water-Contact Diseases
• Do not require that individuals ingest the water.
Example: Schistosomiasis (bilharzias) – common water-
contact disease in the world, affecting approximately
200 M people.
- Is spread by free-swimming larva in water called
Cercaria - they attach themselves to human skin,
penetrate it and enter the bloodstream.
• Cercaria mature in the liver into worms that
lay masses of eggs on the walls of the
intestine.
• When excreted into water, they hatch & find
snail hosts in w/c they develop into new
Cercaria.
• From the snails, the Cercaria find human as
another host and continue the cycle.
Water Hygiene
• Water also plays an indirect role in other
diseases common in developing countries.
• Insects that breed in water, or bite near water,
are responsible for the spread of malaria,
affecting some 160 million people killing 1
million each year.
• Yellow fever, sleeping sickness, & river
blindness spread in the same way.
Classification of Pathogens (causing
water-borne diseases)
1) Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms that
can exist either as independent (free-living)
organisms or as parasites (dependent on
another organism for life)
• Cocci : Spherical bacteria are called cocci (singular coccus). The
cells may occur in pairs (diplococci), in groups of four (tetracocci), in
bunches (staphylococci), in a bead-like chain(streptococci)or in a
cubical arrangement of eight or, more (sarcinae)
• Bacilli : Rod-like bacteria are called bacilli (singular bacillus). They
generally occur singly, but may occasionally be found in pairs (diplo-
bacilli) or chains (strepto bacilli).
• Spirilla : Spiral-shaped bacilli are called spirilla (singular, spirillum).
Short incomplete spirals are called vibrios or comma bacteria.
BACTERIA:
1.Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• (enteropathogenic) – Gastroenteritis, Diarrhea
2. Leptospira - Leptospirosis
• Jau di e, fever Weil’s disease
3. Salmonella typhi or Salmonella typhosa
• typhoid fever; High fever, diarrhea, ulceration
of the intestine
4. Salmonella – Salmonellosis, Food poisoning
5. Vibrio cholerae or Vibrio comma - Cholera
• Extremely heavy diarrhea, dehydration
6. Shigella – Shigellosis, Bacillary dysentery
7. Legionella pneumophila – Legionellosis
• Acute, Respiratory illness
2) Virus – smallest biological structures which are
known to contain all the genetic information
necessary for their own reproduction. They can't
multiply on their own, so they have to invade a 'host'
cell and take over its machinery in order to be able to
make more virus particles
3) Protozoa – lowest form of animal life, they are complete
and self contained organisms that can be free – living or
parasitic, pathogenic or non – pathogenic. Most protozoa
are microscopic in size, and can only be seen under a
microscope. However, they do breathe, move and
reproduce like multicelled animals
PROTOZOA:
1. Giardia lamblia – Giardiasis
• Mild to severe diarrhea, nausea, indigestion
• Also called Beaver disease and a kpa ker’s
disease
• Giardia lamblia can be carried by wild animals
living in or near natural water systems.
2. Entamoeba histolytica – Amoebiasis
• Prolonged diarrhea w/ bleeding
• Epidemic in Chicago, drinking water was
contaminated by sewage containing Entamoeba
histolytica.
• over 1400 people were affected, 98 died.
3. Cryptosporidium parvum – Cryptosporidiosis
• debilitating w/ diarrhea, vomiting &
abdominal pain lasting for several weeks.
• Cryptosporidium cannot be disinfected and it
can be fatal
• Filtration provides the best barrier
4. Balantidium coli - Balantidiasis
• Diarrhea, Dysentery
4) Helminths – parasitic worms. The life cycles of
helminths often involve 2 or more animal hosts, one
of which can be human and contamination may
result from human or animal waste that contain
helminths. Contaminations could also be via other
species such as snails or insects.
HELMINTHS:
1. Ascaris lumbricoides
• Ascariasis - Roundworm infestation
2. Enterobius vericularis
• Enterobiasis - Pinworm
3. Taenia saginata
• Taeniasis - Beef tapeworm
4. Taenia solium
• Taeniasis - Pork tapeworm
5. Trichuris trichiura
• Trichuriasis - Whipworm
RADIOLOGICAL WATER – QUALITY PARAMETERS
• Excessive exposure to radioactive materials is
harmful
• Unnecessary exposure should be avoided
(including drinking water).
• Naturally occurring RA compounds include
Radon & Radium 226 found in GW.
• Strontium – 90 and Tritium are also found in
surface water resulting from atmospheric
nuclear weapon testing fallout.
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)
• For radium 226 + radium 228 = 5 pci/L
• For alpha particle activity including radium
226 but excluding radon & uranium = 15 pci/L
• for beta particles & photon activity = 4
mrem/yr (annual dose to the whole body or
any particular organ)
• The most significant radionuclides associated
with drinking water is dissolved radon gas.
• Radon is colorless, odorless & tasteless gas occurring
naturally in ground water.
Additional Terms:
• Endemic – refers to a disease prevalent in and
confined to a particular population.
• Epidemic – is an outbreak of an infectious disease
spreading widely in an area.
• Pandemic – if the outbreak of an infectious
disease is widely spreading worldwide.
• Epidemiology – is the study of the causes of a
disease spreading in a community.
• Microbiology – is the study of microorganisms
and their activities.
EPIDEMIC example
Meningococcemia
• an acute contagious disease that is caused by
Neisseria meningitides bacteria and spread
through close contact. It is also known as
meningococcal meningitis or cerebrospinal fever.
• In the Philippines, the disease became familiarly
known as meningo after an outbreak in Baguio
during the Christmas season of 2004.
• The disease was spotlighted after some cases
reported in Baguio and the Cordilleras from
the end of 2004 to early 2005 resulting in
more than 50 deaths. The crowds that flocked
to the area during the Christmas season were
considered a main contributing factor to the
outbreak.
• Efforts to contain the spread of the disease
included the distribution of antibiotics and the
clean-up of the public marketplace.
PANDEMIC example
The Black Death
• one of the most devastating pandemics in human
history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350.
• carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that
were regular passengers on merchant ships. It spread
throughout the Mediterranean and Europe.
• The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60
percent of Europe's population[ and reduced the world
population from an estimated 450 million to between
350 and 375 million in the 14th century.
HIV and AIDS
• HIV spread to the United States and much of
the rest of the world beginning around 1969.
• HIV is transmitted primarily via sexual
intercourse contaminated blood transfusions
and hypodermic needles, and from mother to
child during pregnancy, delivery, or
breastfeeding. Some bodily fluids, like saliva or
tears, do not transmit HIV
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS for
WATER PURIFICATION
• Many aquifers and isolated waters are of high water
quality and may be pumped from the supply and
transmission network directly to any number of end
uses, including human consumption, irrigation,
industrial processes, or fire control. However, such
clean water sources are the exception to the rule,
particularly in regions with dense populations or
regions that are heavily agricultural. Here, the water
supply must receive varying degrees of treatment prior
to distribution. A typical water treatment plant is
diagrammed. Such plants are made up of series of
reactors or unit operations, with water flowing from
one to the next and when stacked in series, achieve a
desired end product. Each operation is designed to
perform a specific function and the order of these
operations is important.
KEY:
(1) Chemical mixing basin Coagulation & (4) Rapid sand filter
(2) Flocculating basin Flocculation (5) Disinfection with chlorine
(3) Settling tank (6) Clean water storage basin
(7) Pump for water distribution
1) Coagulation and Flocculation
• Raw surface water entering a water treatment facility
usually has significant turbidity caused by tiny
colloidal clay and silt particles. These particles have a
natural electrostatic charge that keeps them
continually in motion and prevents them from
colliding and sticking together. Chemicals such as
alum (aluminum sulfate) are added to water (stage 1),
first to neutralize the charge on the particles and then
to aid in making the tiny particles sticky so they can
coalesce and form large particles (stage 2). The
purpose is to clear the water of suspended colloidal
solids by building large particles from the stable
colloidal solids so that these large and heavier
particles could be readily settled out of water.
• Coagulation – the chemical alteration of the colloidal
particles to make them stick together forming large
particles called flocs. It is the destabilization of the
colloids. Two mechanisms are thought to be involved in
coagulation.
1) Charge neutralization – the aluminum ions are used
to counter the charges on the colloidal particles. The
colloidal particles in natural waters are commonly
negatively charged and when suspended in water, repel
each other due to their like charges. Aluminum ions in
aluminum sulfate are positively charged and when
these are drawn to the negatively charges particles,
they compress the negative charge on the particles,
making them less stable in terms of their charges.
They form then larger particles.
2) Interparticle bridging – this involves the
sticking together of the colloidal particles by
virtue of the macromolecules formed by the
aluminum hydroxides. The polymers bridge the
gap between adjacent particles, thereby creating
larger particles. In addition, because aluminum
hydroxide is soluble in low pH, there is a need to
raise pH and that is done by addition of calcium
hydroxide. Some of the calcium precipitates as
calcium carbonate which assist also in settling.
Flocculation – the physical combination of the
coagulated particles forming flocs
2) Sedimentation or Settling
• Flocs formed must be separated from the water. This
is done in gravity settling tank that simply allow the
heavier – than – water to settle at the bottom. The
sludge in water treatment plants is aluminum
hydroxides, calcium carbonates, and clays, is not
highly biodegradable and will not decompose at the
bottom of the tank. Typically, sludge is removed every
few weeks through a valve at the bottom and is
wasted either into sewer or into a sludge holding/
drying pond. Settling tanks work because the density
of the solids exceeds that of the liquid. The
movement of a solid particle through a fluid under
the pull of gravity is governed by a number of
variables such as particle size, particle shape, particle
density, fluid density and fluid viscosity.
Important calculations:
1) Overflow rate (surface loading)
vo = Q (m3/s) = H (critical particle settling velocity)
A (m2) t
• Velocity of the particles (vp) must overcome vo for it
to settle
2) Residence time (retention time)
t = V (m3) = s
Q (m3/s)
3) Filtration
• Environmental engineers have learned to apply
natural purification of water through its movement to
soil and sand. They have developed what is now
known as the rapid sand filter. The operation of this
process involves two phases, the filtration and
backwashing. The suspended solids that escape the
flocculation and settling processes are caught on the
filter sand particles and eventually the rapid sand
filter becomes clogged and must be cleaned through
a process called backwashing. The suspended solids
trapped within the filter are released and escape with
the wash water. Other filters make use of activated
carbon (powder or granules in form) as filtering media
in place of sand and gravel.
4) Disinfection
• Water is disinfected in order to destroy whatever
pathogenic organisms present. The disinfectant
commonly used is chlorine, purchased as liquid but is
released to the water as gas using a chlorine feeder
system. The presence of a residual of active chlorine
in the water is an indication that no further organisms
remain to be oxidized and that the water can be
assumed to be free of disease – causing organisms.
Usually, 5 mg/L is added but residual chlorine must be
2 mg/L to ensure disinfection. Possible formation of
the following compounds makes chlorination quite
dangerous:
Formation of trihalogen methanes (THM),
chlorinated phenols, halogenated methanes, ethanes
and ethenes, halogentaed polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons and chlorinated aldehydes and ketones.
• Chlorine dioxide can also be used as a disinfectant. It
possesses theoretically 25 times greater oxidizing
power than chlorine. Advantages of using this as
disinfectant are: no deterioration of taste and odor,
formation of THM can be neglected, and it does not
react with ammonia. Drawbacks include, formation of
toxic chlorite (ClO2-) and chlorate (ClO3-) which can
cause methemoglobinemia in babies just like nitrates if
concentration in water exceeds 0.1 mg/L.
• Ozone is also used as disinfectant. This is produced
from oxygen in pure form or from ionization of clean
dry air. Drawbacks include it being expensive. ( 2-3
times higher than chlorine)
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES
IN NATURAL SYSTEMS
• Natural forms of pollutants have always been
present in surface waters. Many of the impurities
were washed from the air, eroded from land
surfaces or leached from the soil and found their
way into surface water. Natural purification
processes were able to remove or otherwise
render these materials harmless.
• Human activity increased the amount and
changed the nature of pollutants entering
watercourses
Settlements  Villages  Towns  Cities
• Quantity of waste products increased until the
self – purification capacity of local bodies of
water was exceeded. Smaller streams were first
affected then larger streams and lakes ultimately
becoming polluted.
• Only in recent decades have POLLUTION
CONTROL PROGRAMS been initiated in an
attempt to reduce contaminants discharged to
bodies of water to the level that the natural
purification processes can once again assimilate
them.
• Self –purification mechanisms of natural water
systems include: physical, chemical, and
biological processes.
• Speed and completeness with which these
processes occur depend on many variables that
are system specific. System variables that have
an influence on the natural purification process
are: (a) hydraulic characteristics (b) physical
characteristics of bottom and bank material (c)
variations in sunlight (d) temperature (e)
chemical nature of the natural water
• The same physical, chemical and biological
processes that serve to purify natural water
systems also work in engineered systems. In
water and wastewater treatment plants, the rate
and extent of these processes are managed by
controlling the system variables.
• A thorough knowledge of the natural
purification processes is essential to the
understanding of
1) the assimilative capacity of surface waters
2) the operations of engineered systems
PHYSICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION OF
WATERCOURSES
1) Dilution
• Wastewater disposal practices were based on the premise
that the solution to pollution is dilution
• It was considered the most economical means of wastewater
disposal and was considered good engineering practice
• Although a powerful adjunct to self – cleaning mechanisms
of surface water, its success depends upon discharging
relatively small quantities of waste into large bodies of water
• Growth in population and industrial activity, with
increasing water demand and wastewater quantities
precludes the use of many streams for dilution of raw or
poorly treated wastewaters
• Under present regulations, maximum allowable loads are set
independently of dilution capacity – only when the standard
maximum load is violated then dilution capacity is considered.
• The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculated using the
principles of mass balance. If the volumetric flowrate and the
concentration of a given material are known in both the stream
and waste discharge, the concentration after mixing can be
calculated as:
CsQs + CwQw = CmQm
where: C – the concentration of selected material (in mass/volume)
Q – the volumetric flowrate (volume/time)
s,w and m – means stream, waste and mixture conditions
Ex.
1) A treated wastewater enters a stream as
shown. The concentration of sodium in the
stream at point A is 10 mg/L and the flowrate
is 20 m3/s. The concentration of sodium in
the waste stream is 250 mg/L and the flowrate
is 1.5 m3/s. Determine the concentration of
sodium at point B assuming complete mixing
has occurred.
2) Effluent from a wastewater treatment is discharged
to a surface stream. The characteristics of the
effluent and stream are as follows:
FLOW BOD5 AMMONIA NITRATE CHLORIDE
EFFLUENT 8640 m3/d 25 mg/L 7 mg/L 10 mg/L 15 mg/L
STREAM 1.2 m3/s 2.1 mg/L 0 mg/L 3.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L
Determine the stream characteristics after mixing with

the waste has occurred.
2) Sedimentation and Re – suspension
• Suspended solids are one of the most
common water pollutants and in suspension,
solids increase turbidity and reduce light
penetration may restrict the photosynthetic
activity of plants, inhibit vision of aquatic
animals, interfere with feeding of aquatic
animals that obtain food from filtration and
be abrasive to respiratory structures such as
gills of fish.
• Sedimentation – nature’s method of removing
suspended particles from a watercourse and most
large solids will settle out readily in quiescent water.
Particles in the colloidal size range can stay in
suspension for long periods of time though eventually
most of these will also settle out. This natural
sedimentation is not without drawbacks. Anaerobic
conditions are likely to develop in sediments and any
organics trapped in them will decompose, releasing
soluble compounds into the stream above. Sediments
deposit can also alter streambed by filling up the pore
space and creating unsuitable conditions for the
reproduction of many aquatic organisms. It can also
alter its course or hamper navigation activities and it
reduce reservoir storage capacities and silt in harbors
and increase flooding due to channel fill – in.
• Resuspension of solids is common in times of
flooding or heavy runoff. Increased
turbulence may resuspend solids formerly
deposited along normally quiescent areas of
stream and carry them for considerable
distances downstream and eventually they
will settle again.
In this photo taken by Canadian Peter Mark in the end of April, 2012, and released
on Wednesday, May 2, a Harley-Davidson motorbike lies on a beach in Graham
Island, western Canada. Japanese media say the motorcycle lost in last year's
tsunami washed up on the island about 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles) away. The
rusted bike was originally found by Mark in a large white container where its owner,
Ikuo Yokoyama, had kept it. The container was later washed away, leaving the
motorbike half-buried.
3) Filtration
• Large bits of debris lodge on reeds or stones as
they move along streambeds and they remain
caught until high waters wash them into
mainstream again. Small bits of organic matters
and inorganic clays and other sediments may be
filtered out by pebbles or rocks along the
streambed. A water percolates from the surface
downward into groundwater aquifers, filtration
of much more sophisticated type occurs. If the
soil layers are deep and fine enough, removal of
suspended material is essentially complete by
the time waters enters the aquifer.
4) Gas Transfer
• The transfer of gases into and out of water is an
important part of the natural purification
process. The replenishment of oxygen lost to
bacteria degradation of organic waste is
accomplished by the transfer of oxygen from the
air into the water. Conversely, gases evolved in
the water by chemical and biological processes
may be transferred from the water to the
atmosphere. Gas transfer is affected by
solubility (extent to which gas is soluble in
water) and transfer rate (rate at which
dissolution or release occurs)
5) Heat Transfer
• Bodies of water lose and gain heat much more slowly
than do land or air masses and under most
circumstances, water temperature is fairly constant
and changes gradually with the seasons.
Meteorological variables and other factors such as
channel characteristics (depth, width, surface area),
channel volume etc. affect the rate of heat transfer in
bodies of water. For streams heated by solar
radiation over several miles of heat. Aquatic plants
and animals have not developed sufficient
adaptability to deal with abrupt changes in
temperature and only the most hardy species survive
such changes.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION
OF WATERCOURSES
• Natural watercourses contain many dissolved minerals
and gases that interact chemically with one another.
• Redox (reduction – oxidation), dissolution – precipitation
and other chemical conversions may alternately aid or
obstruct natural purification processes in natural water
systems
Chemical Conversions:
1) Oxidation – reduction conversion – biochemically
mediated
2) Dissolution – precipitation – solid dissolve in water are
essential to the metabolic and reproductive activities of
microorganisms that degrade and stabilize organic waste –
this is directly or indirectly influenced by dissolution –
precipitation
3) Natural chemical conversions that take place
in water can change materials into a form
that is soluble and therefore usable by
various aquatic organisms. Ex. N and P –
most essential nutrients for the growth of
microorganisms and plankton.
4) Chemical conversions can help stabilize pH of
water bodies. Ex. HCO3- acts as a buffer to
protect a stream from pH fluctuations
harmful to aquatic systems.
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION
OF WATERCOURSES
• Chemical reactions are biologically mediated –
these reactions are not spontaneous and require
external sources of energy for initiation.
* Metabolism – sum total of the processes by
which living organisms assimilate and use food
for subsistence, growth and reproduction.
Metabolic processes and the organisms involved
are a vital part in self – purification of natural
water system.
Types of Metabolic Processes:
1) Catabolism – provides the energy for the
synthesis of new cells, as well as for the
maintenance of other cell functions
2) Anabolism – provides the material necessary
for cell growth
• When external food source is interrupted,
organisms will use stored food for
maintenance energy – a process called
Endogenous catabolism.
MICROORGANISMS THAT PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN
NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS
1) Bacteria – the primary decomposers of organic material. They
are classified according to the energy and material sources that
they require:
(a) Autotrophs – organisms that derive both energy and
material from inorganic sources. Their major function is to
convert N and S compounds into stable end – products
(b) Heterotrophs – bacteria that obtain both energy and
material from organic sources. Most important bacteria in the
degradation of organic material. They are further classified
into:
* aerobic heterotrophs – require O2 in their metabolic
process
* anaerobic heterotrophs – utilize organics in the absence
of O2
* facultative heterotrophs – functions as aerobes when O2
is present and anaerobic in the absence of O2
Phototrophs – utilize sunlight for energy and inorganic
substances for material source
2) Algae – these are autotrophic, photosynthetic
organisms which metabolize the waste product of
heterotrophic bacteria while obtaining energy from
sunlight.
3) Protozoa – single – cell organisms that reproduce by
binary fission. Protozoa are voracious consumers of
organic material and are important members of the
aquatic community.
Other organisms: Rotifers and crustacea, sludge
worms, etc,
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
WATER POLLUTION
• Defined as the presence in water of impurities in
such quantity and of such nature as to impair the
use of the water for a stated purpose
• Water pollution is any chemical, physical or
biological change in the quality of water that has
a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or
uses or lives (in) it. When humans drink polluted
water it often has serious effects on their health
COMPONENTS OF WASTEWATER FLOWS
The components that make up the wastewater flow
from a community depend on the type of
collection system used and may include the
following:
1) Domestic (also called sanitary) wastewater
• wastewater discharged from residences and
from commercial, institutional and similar
facilities.
2) Industrial wastewater
• wastewater in which industrial wastes
predominate
3) Infiltration/Inflow
• water that enters the sewer system through
indirect and direct means. Infiltration is
extraneous water that enters the sewer system
through leaking joints, cracks and breaks, or
porous walls. Inflow is storm water that enters
the sewer system from storm drain connections
(catch basins), roof leaders, foundation and
basement drains, or through manhole covers.
4) Storm water
• Runoff resulting from rainfall and snowmelt.
TYPES OF SEWER SYSTEMS
1) Sanitary sewer system – wastewater flows in
sanitary sewers consist of major
components:
(a) domestic wastewater
(b) industrial wastewater
(c) infiltration/inflow
2) Storm sewer system
3) Combined water system
CONTAMINANTS OF CONCERN IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
CONTAMINANTS REASON FOR IMPORTANCE
Suspended solids can lead to the

development of sludge deposits and
anaerobic conditions when untreated
SUSPENDED SOLIDS wastewater is discharged in the aquatic
environment
Composed principally of proteins,

carbohydrates, and fats, biodegradable
organics are measured most commonly in
BIODEGRADABLE ORGANICS terms of BOD (biochemical oxygen
demand) and COD (chemical oxygen
demand). If discharged untreated to the
environment, their biological stabilization
can lead to the depletion of natural
oxygen resources and to the development
of septic conditions.
Communicable diseases can be
transmitted by the pathogenic organisms
PATHOGENS in wastewater.
Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with

carbon, are essential nutrients for growth.
When discharged to the aquatic
environment, these nutrients can lead to
NUTRIENTS the growth of undesirable aquatic life.
When discharged in excessive amounts
on land, they can also lead to the
pollution of groundwater.
Organic and inorganic compounds

selected on the basis of their known or
suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS teratogenicity, or high acute toxicity.
Many of these compounds are found in
wastewater.
These organics tend to resist conventional
methods of wastewater treatment.
REFRACTORY ORGANICS Typical examples include surfactants,
phenols, and agricultural pesticides.
Heavy metals are usually added to

wastewater from commercial and
HEAVY METALS industrial activities and may have to be
removed if the wastewater is to be
reused.
Inorganic constituents such as calcium,

sodium and sulfate are added to the
DISSOLVED INORGANICS original domestic water supply as a result
of water use and may have to be removed
if the wastewater is to be reused.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Treatment Objectives:
1) Removal of suspended and floatable material
2) Treatment of biodegradable organics
3) Elimination of pathogenic organisms
4) Removal of toxic compounds such as
refractory organics and heavy metals
5) Removal of nutrients
DIVISION OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
1) Preliminary WW Treatment
• The removal of large solids to prevent
damage to the remainder of the unit
operations. Examples of preliminary
treatment are screening and comminution
for the removal of debris and rags, grit
removal for the elimination of coarse
suspended matter that may cause wear or
clogging of equipment, and flotation for the
removal of large quantities of oil and grease.
2) Primary WW Treatment
• Removal of a portion of suspended solids and
organic matter by settling or sedimentation.
Primary treatment systems are usually physical
processes. The effluent from a primary
treatment will ordinarily contain considerable
organic matter and will have a relatively high
BOD. Removes about 60% of the solids and
about 30% of BOD.
3) Secondary WW Treatment
• Treatment which is directed principally for the
removal of biodegradable organics and
suspended solids. Includes biological treatment
by activated sludge, fixed – film reactors,
lagoons, and pond systems.
4) Tertiary Wastewater Treatment
• Polishing of secondary effluent. This is primarily
the removal of nutrients, Nitrogen and
Phosphorus. Removal of constituents such as
toxic compounds, increased amounts of organic
material and suspended solids are also included
here. Also, removal of ions and salts through ion
exchange and reverse osmosis processes are
under this treatment.
5) Solids Treatment and Disposal
• The collection, stabilization and subsequent
disposal of the solids removed by other
processes.
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT
METHODS
1) Physical Unit Operations – the application of physical
unit operations such as screening, mixing,
flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, filtration and
gas transfer.
2) Chemical Unit Processes – treatment methods in
which the removal or conversion of contaminants is
brought about by the addition of chemicals or by
other chemical reactions known as chemical unit
processes. Precipitation, adsorption, and disinfection
are the most common examples used in wastewater
treatment. Chemical precipitation is accomplished by
producing a chemical precipitate that will settle.
Adsorption involves the removal of specific
compounds from the wastewater on solid surfaces
using the forces of attraction between bodies.
3) Biological Unit Processes – treatment is
brought about by biological activity in what is
known as biological process. Biological
treatment is used primarily to remove the
biodegradable organic substances (colloidal or
dissolved) in wastewater. Biological treatment
is also used to remove nutrients in
wastewater.
1) PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
1.1) Screening
• The first operation performed on incoming
wastewater for the purpose of removing
materials that might damage equipment or
hinder further treatment. Screening devices are
used to remove coarse solids from wastewater.
Coarse solids consist of sticks, rags, boards, and
other large objects that find their way to the
wastewater collection systems. Removal of these
materials protects pumps and other mechanical
equipment and prevents clogging of valves and
other appurtenances in the wastewater plant.
Classification:
a) Coarse screens – usually consist of vertical bars
spaced 1 or more centimeters apart and inclined
away from the incoming flow. Solids retained by
the bars are usually removed by manual raking
in small plants while mechanical cleaner units
are used in larger plants.
b) Fine screens – consist of woven – wire or cloth
perforated plates mounted on a rotating disk or
drum partially submerged in the flow or on a
traveling belt. Fine screens should be
mechanically cleaned on a continuous basis.
Cleaning Method:
a) Mechanically – cleaned bar screens ( has to be in
angles)
1) Bar racks – 3 to 4 inches apart, filter out larger
particles
2) Bar screen – 0.5 to 1.5 cm apart to filter out smaller
particles
b) Manually cleaned bar screens
* A straight channel should be provided a few meters
ahead of the screen to ensure good distribution of
flow across the screen and flow velocity should not
exceed 1 m/s with 0.3 m/s considered as good design.
Clean bars and screen result in a head loss of less than
0.1 m.
• Disposal of Screenings: Screenings are coated with organic
material of very objectionable nature and should be
promptly disposed to prevent health hazard. Oftentimes,
the screenings are stabilized with lime before disposal.
1) Removal by hauling to disposal areas (landfilling)
2) Disposal by burial on the plant site (small installation
only)
3) Incineration either alone or in combination with sludge
and grit (large installations only)
4) Disposal with municipal solid wastes
5) Grinding and returning to the wastewater flow (for food
trimmings and other organic wastes)
• Screening is inefficient when there is backflow of influent
wastewater. This may result to septic shock loading with
H2S being produced. (In 2 hours, fermentation in
wastewater can begin)
1.2) Comminution
• Screening are sometimes shredded and returned
to the wastewater flow. A hammermill device is
most often used for this purpose. The shredder
or comminutor is located across flow path and
intercept the coarse solids and shred them to
approximately 8 mm in size. These solids remain
water.
• A comminutor device called a barminutor uses a
certical bar screen with a cutting head that
travels up and down the rack bars, shredding the
intercepted material. Channel design for
comminutors is similar to that for screens
1.3) Grit Removal
• Grits are not biodegradable and occupies
valuable space in digesters. It is therefore
desirable to separate them from the organic
suspended solids. The most common grit in
municipal wastewaters are solids such as pebbles,
sand, silt, egg shells, glass, and metal fragments.
They are abrasive in nature and will cause
accelerated wear on pumps and sludge handling
equipment with which it comes in contact with.
• Grit removal facilities basically consist of an
enlarged channel area where reduced flow
velocities allow grit to settle out.
• One is known as the channel-type horizontal-flow grit
chamber. Grit chambers are designed to remove discrete
particles with diameters of 0.20 mm and specific gravity of
2.65. In channel-type horizontal flow grit chamber, it is
important to maintain a horizontal velocity at
approximately 0.3 m/s. A 25% increase may result in
washout of grit while a 25% reduction may result in the
retention of non-target organics.
• Another type is the aerated grit chambers (used in larger
treatment plants). Compressed air is injected to keep
lighter organic material in suspension while the heavier grit
falls to the bottom. Roll velocity rather than horizontal
velocity serves to separate the non-target organics from the
grit. Adjustments of air quantities provides settling control.
Aeration in this type of grit chamber is usually extended
from 15-20 minutes when elimination of the noxious gases
from the wastewater is desired
• Vortex – type grit chamber use vortex flow
pattern. A rotating turbine controls velocity.
The grit settles by gravity into the hopper in
one revolution of the basin’s contents.
Purposes of Grit Chamber:
• Protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion
and accompanying abnormal wear
• Reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines,
channels, and conduits
• Reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by
excessive accumulation of grit
Flow measurement
• The most common devices used are Parshall flumes
and Palmer-Bowlus flumes. These devices are
essentially open channel venturi meters.
Fluid Velocities
• Sewer: 0.6 m/s ; grit removal = 0.3 m/s ; primary
treatment = fraction of 0.3 m/s
2) PRIMARY TREATMENT
Sedimentation
• The separation, from water, by gravitational
settling, of suspended particles that are heavier
than water. Sedimentation and settling are used
interchangeably. Likewise, a sedimentation basin
may also be referred to as sedimentation tank,
settling basin, or settling tank. The primary
purpose of sedimentation is to produce a clarified
effluent simultaneous with production of
concentrated sludge that can easily b handled
and treated
Design Parameters:
1) Overflow rate (surface loading)
3
Q m /s H (critical particle settling velocity)
vo  
A m2 t
• Velocity of the particles (vp) must overcome vo
for it to settle
2) Residence time (retention time)
3
V m
t  s
Q m3 /s
Factors affecting settling tank efficiency:
1) Types of solids
2) Age of wastewater
3) Rate of solids flow
4) Cleanliness
5) Mechanical condition of the tank
Removal efficiency of sedimentation:
• Settleable solids (90 – 95%)
• Suspended solids (50-65%)
• BOD (20-35%)
• Colloidal solids (not removed unless coagulants
are added)
Flow Distribution:
1) Inlet Structure – slows down the flow and
distributes it evenly, kinetic energy is
dissipated
2) Short circuiting – major problem in the
design of sedimentation tanks, water has
preferred route (tends to follow shorter
route)
3) SECONDARY TREATMENT
• Usually consists of biological conversion of
dissolved and colloidal organics into biomass
that can subsequently be removed by
sedimentation. Contact between
microorganisms and the organics is optimized
by suspending the biomass in the wastewater
or by passing the wastewater over a film of
biomass attached to solid surfaces.
BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
• In biological treatment, microorganisms use the
organics in wastewater as food supply and
convert them into biological cells or biomass.
Wastewater contains a wide variety of organics
and therefore needs a wide variety of organisms
or a mixed culture for complete treatment. The
different cultures will utilize the food source most
suitable for their metabolism. Most mixed
cultures also will contain grazers (organisms that
prey on other species). The newly created
biomass must be removed from the wastewater
to complete the treatment process.
• The microorganisms involved in wastewater
treatment are essentially the same as those
that degrade organic material in natural fresh
water systems. However, the processes are
not just allowed to proceed in their natural
fashion but are carefully controlled in
engineered reactors to optimize both the rate
and completeness of organic removal. As an
effect, removal efficiencies that would be
effected over a period of days in natural
systems are accomplished in a period of hours
in engineered systems.
Phases:
• Lag phase – acclimation period
• Log – growth / exponential phase – growth is
at logarithmic rate
• Stationary phase – growth of some
microorganisms is offset by death of some
(food becomes limiting)
• Endogenous phase – microorganism
metabolizes their own protoplasm, others lyse
and add to food supply (food scarcity
continues and eventually microorganism dies)
Factors affecting rate of biomass production and
food utilization
1) Temperature – rate constants increase with
temperature with the range of 0 – 55°C with a
corresponding increase in biomass production
and food utilization. Increases in reaction rates
approximately follow the Van’t Hoff – Arrhenius
rule of doubling with every 10°C increase in
temperature up to a maximum temperature.
Excessive heat denatures the enzymes and can
destroy the organism.
2) pH – enzyme systems have a fairly narrow range
of tolerance. Microorganisms that degrade
wastewater organics function best near neutral
pH with a tolerance range from about pH 6 to
pH 9.
3) Toxins, salt concentration and oxidants –
toxicants poison the microorganism, salt
concentrations interfere with internal-external
pressure relationships and oxidants destroy
enzyme and cell materials.
4) Nutrients deficiency in incoming wastewater
5) DO level – needs air to maintain growth
• Microorganisms are capable of adjusting to a
wide range of most environmental factors
provided changes occur gradually. Sudden
changes such as rapid drop in pH or a slug of
salt, may do irreparable damage to the culture.
Design of biological systems requires knowledge
and understanding of:
1) The biological principles

2) Kinetics of metabolism necessary to control the
3) Principles of mass balance environment in the
4) Physical operations reactor
Two Types of Biological Growth/Culture used in
Wastewater Treatment
1) Suspended Cultures/Growth – will include
activated sludge, ponds and lagoons
• The microorganisms are suspended in the
wastewater either as single cells or as clusters of
cells called flocs. They are thus surrounded by
the wastewater which contains their food and
other essential elements and nutrients
necessary for their growth and reproduction.
Three types are completely mixed without
sludge recycle, completely mixed with sludge
recycle, and plug flow with sludge recycle.
1.1) Activated sludge process – the process
derives its name from the fact that settled
sludge containing live or active
microorganisms is returned to the reactor to
increase the available biomass and speed up
in the reactions. The activated-sludge process
is thus a suspended – culture process with
sludge return and may be either a completely
mixed or a plug-flow process. The process is
aerobic with oxygen being supplied by
dissolution from entrained air.
Common Variations of Activated Sludge Process
a) Step Aeration – influent addition at intermediate
points provides more uniform BOD removal
throughout the reactor tank.
b) Tapered Aeration – air is added in proportion to
BOD
c) Contact Stabilization – biomass adsorbs organics in
contact basin
d) Pure – oxygen activated sludge – oxygen added
under pressure keeps dissolved oxygen level high
e) Oxidation ditch
f) High rate – short detention time, high food to
microorganism ratio in aerator to maintain culture in
log – growth phase
g) Extended Aeration – long detention time, low F/M
ratio in aerator to maintain culture in endogenous
phase
Design Parameters/ Operational Parameters in
Activated Sludge Process
1) F/M (food to microorganism ratio) – measures
organic loading
Extended Aeration – When this ratio is low (little food for
a lot of microorganism), usually the aeration period is
long (retention time is long) and the microorganisms
make maximum use of the food available resulting to
a high degree of treatment. Little biomass is produced
hence, little or no waste activated sludge to dispose.
High Rate – when F/M ratio is high (more food for few
microorganism), aeration period is very short (smaller
tank requirement) but treatment efficiency is lower.
2) MLSS (mixed liquor suspended solids) –
represents the suspended solids in the reactor. It
is useful in the determination of F/M since
sometimes microorganisms are expressed in
terms of suspended solids.
3) MCRT/SRT (mean cell residence time/solids
retention time or sludge age) – represents the
average time in which the microorganisms stay
in the reactor or the average time in which the
solids stay in the reactor.
4) HRT (hydraulic retention time) – the average
time in which the liquid remain in the system.
5) DO (dissolved oxygen) – concentration of DO
is very important in aerobic processes
because m.o. need oxygen for their
metabolism. Optimum value is 1.5 – 2.5
mg/L. For DO level of 4 (max), the aeration is
said to be high, for DO level of 5 and 6, it is
said to be over aerated. Over aeration will
provoke undesirable m.o. and may result to
filamentous bulking
6) SVI (sludge volume index) – describes the
settleability of activated sludge.
* Filamentous Bulking – becomes a problem in
secondary clarifiers. When the solids in the
secondary clarifier are very difficult to settle,
the sludge is said to be bulking sludge. This
condition is characterized by a biomass which
is comprised of almost totally filamentous
m.o. The success or failure of an activated
sludge system often depends on the
performance of the final clarifier.
Causes of Poor Settling due to Filamentous Bulking
Operational Causes
1) Wrong DO (low)
2) Insufficient nutrients
3) Widely varying organic waste loading
4) Wrong F/M ratios (low)
5) Insufficient soluble BOD gradient
Wastewater characteristics
1) Fluctuations in flow and strength
2) Fluctuations in pH, temperature, staleness
3) Deficiencies in nutrients in incoming ww
4) High concentrations of heavy metals
Operating causes of Non – filamentous Organisms
1) Over aeration
2) Improper organic loading
3) Presence of toxic substances
Cures
1) Change or adjust F/M ratio
2) Change or adjust DO level in the aeration tank
3) Dosing with H2O2 to kill the filamentous m.o.
4) Pre – treat ww to remove toxins, check nutrients
and maintain temperature and pH
5) Check ww characteristics and process loading
Aeration Techniques:
1) Use of Air Diffusers – used in plug flow.
Compressed air is injected.
Fine bubble diffusers – more efficient because of
larger surface area per volume of air. (bubble
diameter of 2 to 2.5 mm) larger energy
requirement for greater compression (lesser
headloss). Also, compressed air must be filtered
before diffusion to remove particulates that
would cause clogging.
Coarse bubble diffusers – (bubble diameter is up
to 25 mm), requires less maintenance and lower
head loss, but poorer oxygen transfer.
2) Mechanical Aerators – used in completely
mixed reactors. Mechanical mixers are used
to stir the contents violently enough to entrain
and distribute air through the liquid. This
produce turbulence at the air-liquid interface
and this turbulence entrains air into the liquid.
It may consist of high-speed impellers that
add large quantities of air to relatively small
quantities of water. Mixing is by velocity
gradient. Brush types aerators are used to
provide both aeration and momentum to
wastewater in the oxidation ditch.
1.2) Ponds and Lagoons – a wastewater pond,
alternatively known as stabilization pond,
oxidation pond or sewage lagoon, is a shallow
earthen basin in which wastewater is retained
long enough for natural purification processes to
provide the necessary degree of treatment. At
least part of the system must be aerobic to
produce an acceptable effluent. Although some
oxygen is provided by diffusion from air, the bulk
oxygen in ponds is provided by photosynthesis.
Lagoons are distinguished from ponds in that
oxygen for lagoons is provided by artificial
aeration.
- Shallow ponds in which dissolved oxygen is present at
all depths are called aerobic ponds. Most frequently
used as additional treatment processes, aerobic ponds
are often referred to as polishing or tertiary ponds.
Deep ponds in which oxygen s absent except for a
relatively thin surface layer are called anaerobic ponds.
Anaerobic ponds can be used for partial treatment of a
strong organic wastewater but must be followed by
some aerobic treatment to produce acceptable
products. Under favorable conditions, facultative
ponds, in which both aerobic and anaerobic zones exist
may be used as the total treatment system for
municipal wastewater. Facultative ponds and lagoons
are assumed to be completely mixed reactors without
biomass recycle.
2) Attached Growth – trickling filters – classical attached
biomass system (round), biotowers (rectangular,
square and taller) and Rotating biological contactors
(RBC)
• Organisms present: heterotrophic (mostly) and
facultative bacteria (predominant), fungi and
protozoa (abundant), algae (present where there is
light), animals such as rotifers, sludge worms, insect
larvae, snails etc.
• Biomass growth: the organisms attach themselves to
the medium and grow into dense films of a viscous,
jelly like nature. Wastewater passes over this film in
thin sheets with dissolved organics passing into the
biofilm due to the concentration gradients within the
film. The suspended solids and colloids are retained
on the sticky surfaces where they decompose into
soluble products.
2.1) Trickling Filter – uses randomly packed solid
medium usually fist size rocks. The medium is
stationary and the wastewater is passed over the
biofilm in intermittent doses. Primary clarifier is
needed in this reactor to avoid clogging of media.
To increase treatment efficiency, multistage, high
rate filters are designed to meet secondary
effluent standards.
Packings: when packed with stones, height is
limited to 3 m; when packed with plastics, height
is up to 6 – 8 m.
Features: simple, low operating costs
Disadvantage: odor problem, vector problem
(flies, mosquitoes, moths etc), pretreatment
of ww is required (primary sedimentation),
not suitable for degradation of suspended
organic matter, clogging problem may occur (if
this occurs, there is a need to remove all
media to remove clogs)
2.2) Biotowers – uses modular synthetic media
of high porosity and low weight and this
enables a vertical arrangement of medium
several meters high. Basically, these are deep
trickling filters. The medium is stationary, and
the wastewater is passed over the biofilm in
intermittent doses. Primary clarifiers maybe
omitted but there is a nedd to grind the solids
in the ww to sufficiently small sizes prior to
application to avoid clogging of void spaces.
Packings: light weight flat PVC sheets in alternating
patterns (vertical stacking), height is 6 – 8m.
Advantages: porosity and nature of packing allow
greater loading rates and eliminate clogging
problems. Increased ventilation minimizes odor
problems under most operating conditions,
compact nature of the reactor allows for
economical housing for operation in severe
climates.
Disadvantages: relatively high pumping cost
required by large recycle and head loss through
deep bed.
2.3) Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) – uses
rotating disks partially submerged in the ww. The
medium moves the biofilm alternately through water
and air thus also maintains aerobic condition. Primary
clarifiers maybe omitted in this process.
• The medium consists of plastic sheets ranging from 2
– 4 in diameter. One module consists of each shaft full
of disk along with its tank and rotating device. Several
modules may be arranged in parallel and or in series
to meet the flow and treatment requirements. The
disks are submerged in the ww to about 40% of their
diameter and are rotated ( rotational speed ranges
from 1-2 rpm) by power supplied to the shaft.
Disadvantages: lack of documented operating
experience, high capital cost, and sensitivity to
temperature. Covers must be provided to
protect media from damage by elements and
from excessive algal growth.
4) TERTIARY TREATMENT
1) Chlorination and dechlorination – disinfection
to kill pathogens and removal of excess chlorine.
If secondary treatment is sufficient in treating
the ww, chlorination becomes its tertiary
treatment.
2) Filtration – to remove residual suspended solids
(through rapid sand filters)
3) Oxidation ponds – to polish BOD before
discharge to water courses
4) Use of activated carbon to reduce BOD
5) Nutrients removal
TERTIARY TREATMENT – NUTRIENTS REMOVAL
A. Nitrogen
• In the Philippines, where almost all of the lakes,
rivers and estuaries are undergoing various
stages of eutrophication, the Philippine Effluent
Standards (DAO 35) does not have nitrogen as a
regulated parameter. Unfortunately, industrial
discharges contribute significantly to the
nutrient load of a receiving body water. Equally
disturbing are the domestic discharges from the
household who either have poorly designed
septic tank or do not have a tank at all, making
the heavily clogged canals the carrier of their
sewage waste.
• Sources of Nitrogen
Natural sources or transport mechanisms of
nitrogen substances include atmospheric
precipitation, dust fall, non – urban and non –
agricultural run – off and biological fixation.
Nitrogen measured in precipitation is most often
a result of both soluble and particulate nitrogen
forms scrubbed from the atmosphere. Natural
components would include nitrogen oxides fixed
by lightning and emitted from volcanic eruptions,
wind – blown dust originating from natural areas
and ammonia released from decaying animal and
plant matter.
Sources of nitrogen related to human activity
include untreated and treated domestic
sewage and industrial wastes, leachates,
atmospheric deposition and surface run – off.
1) Domestic waste – untreated sewage flowing
from municipal collection systems typically
contains 20 – 85 mg/L of total Nitrogen.
2) Industrial wastewater – industries
contributing to nitrogen discharges include
fertilizer manufacturing, paper and pulp
industries, mining and metal ore processing,
and food processing industries.
3) Landfill leachates – a survey of leachate
characterization studies for many landfills
shows ammonia values 0 – 1160 mg/L and
nitrite and nitrate nitrogen of 0.2 – 10.3
mg/L.
4) Atmospheric deposition – inorganic or
particulate nitrogen and mineralized nitrogen
that settles by gravity.
5) Surface run – off – fertilizers from farmlands,
leakages from landfills, leakages from failing
sanitary sewers and septic systems etc.
Effects of Nitrogen Discharges
• Excessive accumulation of various forms of nitrogen in
surface and groundwater can lead to adverse ecological
and human health effects. One of the major effects has
been the direct and indirect depletion of dissolved
oxygen in receiving waters. In-stream nitrification
directly consumes oxygen while bio-stimulation of
aquatic plant growth lowers oxygen indirectly when
plant dies and undergoes bacterial decomposition.
Other impacts can be of major importance in particular
situations. These include ammonia toxicity to aquatic
life, adverse public health effects and a reduction in the
suitability of water for re-use.
• A major problem in the field of water
pollution is eutrophication which is defined as
excessive plant growth and algal blooms
resulting from over - fertilization of rivers,
lakes and estuaries. Eutrophication can result
in a deterioration in the appearance of
previously clear waters, odor problems from
decomposing plant growth and a lower DO
level, which can adversely affect the
respiration of fish, benthic aquatic animals
and attached bottom plant growth.
TWO STEPS IN NITROGEN REMOVAL FROM
TREATED WASTEWATER
a) Nitrification
• This is the biological oxidation of ammonium.
This is done in two steps, first from the nitrite
form then to the nitrate form. Two specific
chemoautotrophic bacterial genera are
involved, using inorganic carbon as their
source for cellular carbon.
Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
NH4+ + O2  NO2- + O2  NO3-
Ammonium Nitrite Nitrate
b) Denitrification
• This is the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas.
This can proceed through several steps in the
biochemical pathway, with the ultimate production of
nitrogen gas. A fairly broad range of hetrotrophic
bacteria are involved in the process, requiring an organic
carbon source for energy.
NO3- + organic carbon  NO2- + organic carbon  N2 + CO2 + H2O
• It is important to note that if both oxygen and nitrate are
present, the bacteria will typically prefer the
consumption of oxygen in the oxidation of the organic
matter because it yields more energy. Thus for
denitrification to proceed, anoxic condition (nitrate
without oxygen) must exist, although this is not strictly
the case for all bacteria.
• Anaerobic - Condition in which free and dissolved
oxygen is unavailable. Requiring or not destroyed by
the absence of air or free oxygen.
• Anoxic - condition in which oxygen is available in the
combined form only; there is no free oxygen. Anoxic
sections in an activated sludge plant may be used for
denitrification.
B) Phosphorus Removal
• Phosphorus is an ubiquitous constituent of
municipal wastewater, averaging around 10
mg/L in most cases.
• Forms: originally bound phosphorus (body
and food wastes, released as
orthophosphates when decomposed),
polyphosphates (from synthetic detergents),
and orthophosphates (hydrolyzed
polyphosphates).
TWO STEPS IN PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL FROM TREATED
WASTEWATER
a) Chemical Method of P – Removal (Chemical Precipitation)
a.1) Metal addition
- Alum or Al2(SO4)3
- Iron or FeCl3
b.1) Lime addition
- Ca(OH)2
• The addition of lime also provides pH adjustment necessary
for the process. The reaction requires a pH at least 9.0 for
significant phosphorus removal.
Note: Phosphorus removal can be incorporated into primary or
secondary treatment or separate as a tertiary process.
Selection of the point depends on efficiency requirements,
ww characteristics and the type of secondary treatment
employed. Common point of addition/ application of
chemicals is in the final clarifier (2° clarifier)
b) Biological P – Removal
• Phosphorus is utilized by the microorganisms for cell
maintenance, synthesis, and energy transport. The
m.o. also store phosphorus for subsequent use.
• Biological methods of phosphorus removal rely on the
fact that microorganisms when stressed, they release
phosphorus. The microorganisms can be stressed by
cutting off their supply of oxygen (anoxic condition)
and fooling them into thinking that all is lost and they
will surely die! When this anoxic condition is followed
by a sudden reintroduction of oxygen, the cells will
store phosphorus in their cellular material exceeding
their normal need. The Phosphorus can therefore be
removed by settling in a clarifier.
• Biological phosphorus removal is accomplished
by sequencing and producing the appropriate
environmental conditions in the reactors.
Phosphorus is released from cells under
anoxic/anaerobic conditions and luxury uptake of
phosphorus by the m.o. takes place under
aerobic/oxic conditions.
• Acinetobacter are one of the primary organisms
responsible for removal of phosphorus. These
organisms utilize the volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in
the influent wastewater under anaerobic
conditions by releasing stored phosphorus.
Combined Biological Nutrients Removal (BNR)
– Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus
1.) A2/O Process
2) 5 – Stage Bardenpho Process
3) UCT (University of Cape Town) Process
4) VIP (Virginia Initiative Plant)
SLUDGE TREATMENT AND
DISPOSAL
SLUDGE
• By – product of wastewater treatment
Sources:
• Primary clarifiers (TSS removed by gravity) – primary
sludge
• Secondary clarifiers (Biomass or biological solids) –
secondary sludge
Characteristics:
1) Primary sludge – contains both organic (BOD) and
inorganic solids (sand, silt, etc). Contains about 5%
solids (heavier than secondary sludge)
2) Secondary sludge – consist of dead bacteria. For
activated sludge, it is 1% solid, TF & RBC’s, it is 5%
solids
Regulations:
EPA has standards for sludge, depending on final use or
disposal. Can be applied to agricultural use, compost,
landfilling & incineration.
Sludge Disposal Philippine Context:
RA 6969 (Toxic, Hazardous, & Nuclear Wastes Control Act)
Reasons for Regulations:
1) Toxics tend to concentrate in sludge (HM, PCB’s,
pesticides, dioxins, RA materials)
2) Restrictions on sludge use depending on
concentration of toxics and pathogens
Potential Hazard of Sludge:
HM, Refractory organics, PCB’s, Dioxins, Acidic wastes,
Radioactive contaminants
Goals for Sludge treatment:
1) Stabilize primary & secondary sludges
2) To kill pathogens
3) To decrease water content (untreated = 0.5
to 8% solids, treated = 6 to 12% solids)
Sludge Processing:
1) Conditioning
2) Thickening
3) Stabilization
4) Disinfection
5) Sludge dewatering
6) Solids reduction
7) Beneficial use system
8) Biosolids disposal
1) CONDITIONING
• Improve dewatering and thickening efficiency
1) Chemical addition / Chemical treatment – to
prevent destabilization
Addition of coagulants (chemical conditioning)
a) Alum – prevent destabilization, prevents/controls
odor
b) FeCl3
c) FeSO4 + lime
d) Organic polyelectrolytes or polymers – usually
cationic polymers
2) Elutriation – washing of sludge (removal of
soluble compounds & fine solids)
3) Heat Treatment / Thermal Conditioning
- releases boundwater and reduces water
affinity of the residual solids
- destroys biological cells, cellular component
of biological sludge breaks down
- it produces sterile sludge
- temperature = 180 - 200°C, retention time =
20 – 30 min
- pressure = 1500 kPa
2) THICKENING
• To reduce water content, decrease volume
and concentrate solids
1) Gravity thickeners/Picket fence thickener –
similar to sedimentation basins but smaller in
size and it is provided with picket fence
2) Flotation thickeners – used to thicken light
sludges
3) Centrifugation – settling/concentration by
centrifugal force
3) STABILIZATION
• Reduce and stabilize organics, reduce threat to

human health
• Eliminate odors and concentrate solids
• Kill pathogens/reduce m.o. levels (render
sludge pathogen free)
• Stabilized solids are called biosolids
1) Aerobic digestion – generally restricted to biological
solids in the absence of primary sludge. It is achieved
by extended aeration, maintaining the m.o. in the
endogenous respiration, a process wherein the m.o.
are forced to metabolize their own protoplasm.
2) Anaerobic digestion – most common process in
dealing with wastewater sludge containing primary
sludge. Anaerobic sludge digestion divides the
organisms into broad groups namely the acid and
methane formers.
a) Acid formers – consist of facultative and anaerobic
bacteria. They ferment soluble organic solids to acids
and alcohols of low molecular weights.
b) Methane formers – consist of strict anaerobic
bacteria that convert acid and alcohols along with
hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane.
Primadonnas
3) Chemical Stabilization or Lime Stabilization –
addition of hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2 or quicklime,
CaO to sludge to raise pH to about 11 or above.
This reduces odor and helps in the destruction
of pathogens. Odor control is only temporary.
4) Composting – an aerobic biological method of
sludge stabilization, can produce a product
which has high quality, is reasonably safe and is
aesthetically acceptable. Composting is aerobic
to a certain degree and takes 30 – 40 days.
5) Sludge melting – used when inorganics are
dominant
6) Pyrolysis or Incineration
7) Thermal drying – serves as disinfection method
4) DISINFECTION
• Killing of pathogens that survive after
stabilization process.
• Physical process – Heat/Cooling
• Chemical process – Chlorination or lime
addition
5) SLUDGE DEWATERING
• Remove water from stabilized sludge
Methods:
1) Centrifugation – use of centrifugal force to increase
sedimentation rate
2) Filtration – use of belt filter, vacuum filter, plate and
frame filter press, to remove water from sludge
3) Drying in drying beds – dewatering by evaporation or
percolation through the sludge bed or underlying
media. This is weather dependent, land and labor
intensive
4) Sludge lagoons – this is common in industrial plants
or very large communities with available land space.
However, odor problem becomes a disadvantage.
5) Sludge freezing beds – for cold climates
6) SOLIDS REDUCTION
1) Incineration
2) Thermal drying
3) Pyrolysis – combination of thermal cracking
and condensation reactions into gases, liquid
and solid
7) BENEFICIAL USE
1) Composting – stabilize organics by reclaiming
nutrients, eliminating pathogens. Compost can
be used as fertilizers or soil conditioners.
2) Alkaline/Lime stabilization – Ca(OH)2 or CaO
addition (stabilized sludge). It can be used as
cement mix
3) Thermal drying – P & N are retained, dried
sludge. For agricultural use as soil conditioner.
4) Vitrification – vitrified sludge can be used as
material for floorings
8) BIOSOLIDS DISPOSAL
1) Land Application
2) Landfill
3) Market (for composted sludge)
4) Deep well injection/ soil injection
5) Ocean dumping
6) Land spreading (to agricultural lands or forestry)
7) Land reclamation
8) Land revegetation
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND
• When biodegradable organic matter is released
into a body of water, microorganisms, especially
bacteria, feed on wastes, breaking it down into
simpler organic and inorganic substances.
• When this decomposition takes place in an
aerobic environment, the process produces a non
– objectionable, STABLE end products such as
CO2, SO4, PO4 and NO3.
• This AEROBIC decomposition process is
represented by the following reaction:
Organic matter + O2  CO2 + H2O + New cells +
other stable products
• When insufficient oxygen is available, the
resulting anaerobic decomposition is
performed by completely different
microorganisms.
• They produce products that are highly
objectionable, including H2S, NH3, and CH4.
• This ANAEROBIC decomposition is
represented by the following reaction:
Organic matter  CO2 + CH4 + New cells +
other unstable products
• The CH4 (methane) produced is a potent
greenhouse gas (called swamp gas when emitted
from bodies of water). When produced in
excessive amounts such as in landfills, it can be
collected and used as an energy source.
• The amount of oxygen required by
microorganisms to oxidize organic wastes
aerobically is called the BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND (BOD). BOD is most often expressed as
mg of Oxygen required per liter of wastes (mg/L)
or ppm (parts per million)
• Oxidation of organics is slow and will require an
extended period of time to go to completion. As a
result, it has become standard to simply measure
and report the oxygen demand over a shorter,
restricted period of 5 days.
• The 5 – day BOD is the total amount of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms during the 1st 5
days of biodegradation. It is estimated that
oxidation of the organics in wastes is 60 – 70%
complete in 5 days, and about 95 – 99% after 20
days.
• The 5 – day BOD test involves putting a
sample of waste and diluted to 300 ml into a
stoppered bottle, measuring the
concentration of DO in the sample at the
beginning of the test and again after 5 days of
incubation. The difference in DO
concentration is the 5 – day demand.
• The procedure is standardized to test at a
temperature of 20°C
• The 5 – day BOD of a diluted sample is given by:
5 – day BOD = DOI - DOF (unseeded dilution water)
P
5 – day BOD = DOI - DOF - (BI - BF) f (seeded dilution water)
P
where: DOI - DO concentration in sample before incubation
DOF – DO concentration in sample after incubation
BI – DO concentration of blank (control) before
incubation
BF – DO concentration of blank (control) after
incubation
f – ratio of seed in sample to seed in control
P - decimal fraction of wastewater sample used. (vol. of
wastewater)/(vol. of dilution water plus wastewater)
Purposes of BOD measurement:
• To determine the approximate quantity of
oxygen that will be required to biologically
stabilize the organic matter present
• To determine the size of waste treatment
facilities
• To measure efficiency of some treatment
processes
• To determine compliance with wastewater
discharge permits
Limitations:
• Biochemical oxidation is a slow process and
theoretically takes an infinite time to go to
completion
• Not a reliable measure of organic content of
wastewater, only biodegradable organics are
measured and long period of time is required to
obtain results.
• It has a variation of up to 20 ppm
• Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic
wastes and effects of nitrifying bacteria must be
reduced.
Types of BOD
1) NBOD – Nitrogenous BOD, BOD associated
with the oxidation of NH3 to NO3-
• Nitrification must be suppressed using
inhibitory agents
• Methods of suppression include
pasteurization, chlorination and acid
treatment
2) CBOD – Carbonaceous BOD, BOD associated
with the oxidation of carbon to CO2
• True BOD, the result of suppressed BOD
• BOD reactions are formulated in accordance to 1st
order kinetics
• The amount of BOD remaining after time t is:
BODt = BODue-kt
• The amount of BOD that has been exerted after
time t is: Yt = BODu – BODt = BODu ( 1- e-kt )
• Take note that 5 – day BOD is:
Y5 = BODu – BOD5 = BODu ( 1- e-k5 )
• The typical value of k is 0.23/day at 20°C for
polluted water
• For temperatures other than 20°C, k is
determined from:
kT = k20θ (T-20)
where: θ = 1.056 (for T = 21 – 30° C)
= 1.135 (for T = 4 – 19° C)
BOD PROBLEMS:
1) What is the BOD of a waste sample that yields
an oxygen consumption of 2.0 mg/L from a 1 %
sample?
2) What sample size is required for a BOD of 30
mg/L if the oxygen consumed is limited to 6
mg/L?
3) In a BOD determination, 6 ml of wastewater is
mixed with dilution water containing 8.6 mg/L of
DO. After a 5 – day incubation at 20°C, the DO
content of the mixture is 5.4 mg/L. Calculate the
BOD of the wastewater sample. Assume that the
initial DO of wastewater is zero.
4) Determine the 1 - day BOD and the ultimate
first stage BOD for a wastewater whose 5 –
day BOD @ 20°C is 200 mg/L. The reaction
constant k is 0.23/d.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
͞ Waste is a resource that
has not yet found its right
place or proper use.͟
Common practice:
• Non – sorting at the source, mixed solid wastes,
burning of wastes, open dumping, sanitary
landfill
* Open Dumping – has brought about a variety
of health, ecological and aesthetic problems.
* Burning – gases are produced that can pollute
air, gases that contribute to global warming and
gases that can destroy the ozone layer.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT and DISPOSAL
What is a Solid Waste?

• A solid waste is a non – liquid waste material
arising from domestic, trade, commercial,
industrial and mining activities. It also includes
waste arising from the conduct of public services
such as street sweepings, landscape maintenance
and the clearing of typhoon – wrought debris.
Note that the term o – li uid is relative
because it includes sludge coming from industrial
sources and sewage treatment plants.
What is Solid Waste Management?
• Solid Waste Management refers to all
activities pertaining to control, transfer and
transport, processing and disposal of solid
wastes in accordance with the best principles
of public health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics and other
environmental considerations. It includes
attendant administrative, financial, legal,
planning and engineering functions.
Why manage municipal solid waste?
• Improper management of solid wastes has
direct adverse effects on health
• The uncontrolled fermentation of garbage
creates a food source and habitat for bacterial
growth.
• Inadequate storage of solid wastes provides
breeding ground for vermin such as flies,
mosquitoes, cockroaches, rodents and birds
which may act as passive vectors in disease
transmission
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF SWM
Solid wastes may contain:
1) Human Pathogens – diapers, handkerchiefs,
contaminated food and surgical dressings
2) Animal Pathogens – wastes from pets
3) Soil Pathogens – garden wastes
Pathogens and Diseases:
Bacteria: diarrhea / Campylobacterfetus; cholera /
Vibrio comma; Typhoid fever/Salmonella typhi
Virus: Hepa – A, Hepa – B, polio virus
Protozoa: amoebic dysentery / Entamoeba histolytica;
giardiasis / Giargia lamblia etc
Helminths: flat worms, round worms, tape worms
Routes for Pathogenic transfer:
1) Inhalation – (air – aerosol – inhalation)
2) Percutaneous – (skin – percutaneous)
3) Ingestion – (hands – mouth – food – ingestion;
passive vector – food – ingestion). This can be
negated by good hygiene and dietary habits
* Those involved on a regular basis with solid waste
are usually vaccinated for a range of pathogenic
diseases. Rodent control is also essential as they
are carriers of serious illnesses. Storage and
handling techniques to reduce risk of SW
contamination to employees must be observed.
Automation must prevail.
THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES OF SOLID WASTE
1) Municipal Wastes – will include residential,
commercial solid wastes.
2) Industrial Wastes – will include waste arising
from industrial activities and typically include
rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction
wastes, and special wastes.
3) Hazardous Wastes – wastes that pose a
substantial danger immediately or over a period
of time to human, plant, or animal life.
Hazardous wastes exhibit any of the following:
a) ignitability b) corrosivity c) reactivity d)
toxicity
• Hazardous wastes are also grouped into the
following categories:
(1) radioactive substances
(2)chemicals – includes wastes that are
corrosive, reactive or toxic
(3) biological wastes – principal sources are
hospitals and biological research facilities
(4) flammable wastes
(5) explosives
1) MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
Classification of materials comprising Municipal Solid
Wastes (MSW)
1) Garbage (food wastes) – meat, fruit or vegetable
residues resulting from handling, preparation,
cooking and eating of food. These are putrescible
and will decompose rapidly especially in warm
weather.
2) Rubbish – combustible and non – combustible solid
wastes, excluding food wastes or other putrescible
materials. Typically combustible consists of materials
such as paper, cardboard, plastics, rubber, leather,
wood, furniture, and garden trimmings. Non
combustible rubbish consists of items such as glass,
tin cans, aluminum cans, ferrous & non – ferrous
metals, dirt and construction waste.
3) Ashes and Residues – materials remaining from
burning of wood, coal, coke and other combustible
wastes. Ashes and residues are normally composed
of fine, powdery materials, cinders, clinkers and
small amounts of burned and partially burned
materials
4) Demolition and Construction Wastes – wastes from
construction, remodeling, and repairing of
residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. This
includes dirt, stones, concrete, bricks, plaster,
lumber, shingles and plumbing, heating and electrical
parts.
5) Special Wastes – wastes such as street
sweepings, roadside litter, catch – basin
debris, dead animals, abandoned vehicles
6) Treatment Plant Wastes – solid and semi –
solid wastes from water, wastewater, and
industrial waste treatment facilities.
7) Trash – larger items such as refrigerators, tree
limbs, mattresses, and other bulky items not
collected in the household refuse.
Sources of Municipal Solid Wastes
1) Residential – wastes generated at the household
level, i.e. food wastes, rubbish, ashes, and special
wastes from family dwellings, apartments
2) Commercial – food wastes, rubbish, ashes, demolition
and construction wastes, special wastes, occasionally
hazardous wastes from stores, restaurants, markets,
office buildings, hotels, motels, print shops, auto
repair shops, medical facilities and institutions
3) Open Areas – special wastes, rubbish from streets,
alleys, parks, vacant lots, playgrounds, beaches,
highways, recreational centers etc.
4) Treatment plant sites
Composition of Municipal Solid Waste
A. Physical Composition
Important Properties of Municipal Solid Waste
1) Moisture content
2) Density
3) Field Capacity
B. Chemical Composition
1) Proximate analysis: moisture (loss at 105°C
for 1 hour), volatile matter (additional loss on
ignition at 950°C), ash (residue after burning)
and fixed carbon (remainder)
2) Fusing point of ash
3) Ultimate analysis - % C, % H, % O, % N, & S
and % ash
4) Heating Value
• Heating value can be estimated using the following
methods:
a) By Dulong Formula:
HHV, Btu/lb – 145 C + 610 (H - 0.125 O) + 40 S + 10 N
Where: C = % carbon ; H = % hydrogen ; O = % O ; N = % N
S=%S
b) Hu, MJ/kg = (Hawf X B) – (2.445 X W)
B & W – fraction of flammables & waster respectively
Hu – lower heat value (from waste as collected), LHV
Hwf – normal heat value ( from water-free waste), NHV
Hawf – higher heat value ( from ash – free & water – free waste),
HHV, calculated from Dulong Formula
C) Kha ’s equation
E = 0.051 [F +3.6CP] + 0.352PLR
E - energy content, MJ/kg CP - % cardboard and paper by weight
F - % food by weight PLR - % plastic & rubber by weight
Building Principles of Solid Waste Management
1) Waste is a resource
2) Waste prevention is better than waste regulation control
3) There is no single management and technological
approach to solid waste. An integrated solid waste
management system will best achieve solid waste
management goals
4) All elements of society are fundamentally responsible for
solid waste management
5) Those who generate waste must bear the cost of its
management and disposal
6) Solid waste management should be approached within
the context of resource conservation, public health,
environmental protection and sustainable development.
7) Solid waste management programs should take into
consideration the physical and socio – economic
conditions of the concerned communities and be
designed according to their specific needs.
Hierarchy of Solid Waste Management
Waste Prevention
Reduction (minimization)
Recycling and Reuse
Transformation
Disposal
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SWM
Interrelationship of functional elements comprising SWM
I. Waste Generation
• Waste generation is very difficult to control.
The amount of waste generated depends on
the level of economic activity, the greater the
activity, the higher the generation rate. All
activities that lead to the identification and
understanding of the sources, amounts,
nature, type and characteristics of solid
wastes generated belong to this functional
element.
Factors Affecting Waste Generation
1) State of the national (and individual) economy
– as standards rise, there is a corresponding
increase in the quantity and quality of wastes.
2) Lifestyle of the people – reflected in product
marketing technique trends. The clearly
perceptible shift in consumer preferences for
pre – packaged foodstuff, the increase in use of
paper lined with plastics for packaging and the
use of disposable diapers are a few examples.
3) Size and Type of Dwellings - has direct effect on
waste generation. Those who dwell in larger and
more expensive type of homes produce more
wastes.
4) Demographic profile of the Population – in
general, the greater the number of persons per
household, the less volume of waste generated.
As an example, in the US, it was found that in a
household of two persons, the average per
capita waste generation is 1.28 kg/day. On the
other hand, families consisting of six members
had per capita generation of 0.52 kg/day. In
India, an average family of six has a per capita
generation of 0.42 kg/day.
5) Age – has also a perceptible effect on the type
and rate of waste generation. The composition
of products in fact can be categorized by age
groupings. Young consumers patronize set of
products different from those consumed by
their elders.
6) Religion – also has a pronounced effect on waste
generation. The consumer preferences in Islamic
countries differ greatly from those predominantly
Christian nations.
7) The extent to which the three R’s of waste
management are carried out – where the population is
more concerned with the environment in general and
waste management in particular, there is a concerned
effort to cut down waste at the originating level.
8) Seasonal variations – consumer preferences are
affected by seasonal variations
9) Presence of pets and domestic animals
10) Presence of laws and ordinances governing waste
management
Three R’s of Solid Waste Ma age e t at the Source
1) Reduce – avoid wasteful consumption of goods. Begin by
asking, Do I really need it? In so doing, we minimize our
waste and conserve our natural resources.
2) Reuse – any activity that considers waste as a resource or as
another input material without changing the physical
features of the item or undergoing transformation.
3) Recycle – any activity that considers waste as a resource to
recover valuable materials or inputs or can be used in
another process. This involves change in physical feature or
transformation of material into another form or product.
Waste can be a valuable resource. Sort waste and use for
something of benefit to yourself or to others.
II. On – Site Handling, Storage and Processing
• It is not practical to design a solid waste
management system that collects and
disposes waste at the instant it is generated.
For this reason, waste must be stored prior to
collection. A good on – site storage must
meet the following requirements: (a) it must
be aesthetically acceptable (b) it must isolate
wastes from the environment to avoid
creating health hazards (c) it must facilitate
collection
• On – Site Handling – refers to activities
associated with the handling of solid wastes until
they are placed in the containers used for their
storage before collection.
• On – Site Storage – factors that must be
considered in the on – site storage include (1)
type of container to be used (2) the container
location (3) public health and aesthetics (4) the
collection methods to be used
• On – Site Processing – used to recover usable
materials from solid wastes, reduce the volume,
or to alter the physical form. The most common
on – site processing operations include manual
sorting, compaction, and incineration.
III. Collection
• This involves gathering of solid wastes and
hauling them to transfer stations, processing and
recovery stations, or to final disposal sites. In
most solid waste management systems, the cost
of collection accounts for a significant portion of
the total cost (from 40 to 80%)
• The type of collection, types of waste and
distance to the disposal site all determine the
type of collection vehicle to be used. Collection
deserves careful considerations as it can become
the most expensive of the functions of solid
waste management.
Types of Collection:
1) Curb service – containers with wastes on curb
side
2) Alley service – containers of wastes on alleys
3) Backyard carry – collection crew enters the
ho eow e ’s property and removes wastes
from containers
4) Set – out service
5) Set – out – set back service
Types of Containers:
1) Hauled container system (HCS)
2) Stationary container system (SCS)
Collection Routes:
• The selection of a proper route for collection vehicles
known as route optimization can result in significant
savings in a city. The problem of route optimization was
first addressed in 1736 by the famous mathematician
Leonard Euler (1707 – 1783). He was asked to design a
parade route for Konigsberg such that the parade would
not cross any bridge over River Pregel more than once and
would return to its starting place. Euler showed that such
route was impossible for the ki g’s parade but he
generalized the problem by specifying the conditions
necessary to establish such route, now known as Eule ’s
tour.
• The objective of truck routing is to create a Eule ’s tour,
where a street is traversed only once and deadheading,
traveling twice down the same street, is eliminated. In
waste collection, the Eule ’s tour is called unicoursal
oute .
IV. Transfer and Transport
• When the location of the final disposal site is at a
considerable distance from the waste collection
points, it is often more economical to transfer the
collected wastes to larger transport vehicles
(larger container trucks, rail cars, or barges)
before transporting them to the final disposal
site. In this system, relatively smaller collection
vehicles carry the wastes to a transfer station
where the wastes are loaded into much larger
transport vehicles. Properly designed transfer and
transport system normally reduces the cost of
collection and transport of wastes from on-site
storage to final disposal sites.
Transfer station – a place where waste from
small collection trucks is transferred to larger,
long – distance hauling vehicles. The transfer
station may include a facility for temporary
storage. This is an advantage if the landfill has
to shut down temporarily, the station will be
able to absorb the surge for a short time, so
that collection can continue. It may also have
facilities for materials recovery and waste
shredding and/or compaction, which are
meant to reduce the volume of waste to be
hauled away.
Transfer Means and Methods:
1) Motor vehicle transport: open – top trailers and semi –
trailers, with compaction mechanism.
2) Railroad Transport – used where highway travel is difficult
and railroad is available.
3) Water Transport – use of barges, scows, special boats to
transport solid wastes
4) Pneumatic Transport – use of low pressure air and
vacuum conduit transport system
Ex. The one used in Walt Disney amusement park in Orlando,
Florida
Costs:
1) Cost of owning and operating the facility
2) Cost of hauling operations, including repair and
maintenance of transport equipment
Classification of Transfer Stations
1) Direct discharge – elevated or located in a
depressed ramp; waste is directly discharged to
larger vehicles.
2) Storage discharge – storage pit; waste is
temporarily stored for purposes of processing
3) Combined direct and storage discharge
Important Factors in the Design of Transfer Stations
1) Transfer station to be used
2) Capacity requirements
3) Equipment and accessory requirements
4) Environmental requirements
Considerations for Locating a Transfer Station
1) Nearness to solid waste scaling and disposal
2) Accessibility to major routes or other
secondary routes
3) Minimal public and environmental objection
4) Economical construction and operation
V. Processing and Recovery
• This functional element includes size reduction,
magnetic separation, and density separation using air
classifier and other processes and operations
designed to recover or produce usable materials like
compost or energy such as electricity,
A. Material Recovery (Material Recovery Facility –
MRF)
• Materials recovery facilities recover as much reusable
waste material as possible including paper,
cardboard, glass, metals, aluminum cans, PET and
HDPE plastics etc. An example is the material
recovery facility at San Marco, San Diego, California.
It is the largest material recovery facility in the world,
recovering recyclable materials form over 2100
tons/day.
CODE CHEMICAL NAME NICKNAME TYPICAL USE
1 polyethylene terephthalate PETE/PET soft drink bottles
2 high – density polyethylene HDPE Milk cartons
3 polyvinyl chloride PVC food packaging, wire

insulation, pipe
4 low density polyethylene LDPE plastic film for food

wrapping, trash bags,
grocery bags, baby diapers
automobile battery casing,
5 polypropylene PP bottle caps
food packaging, foam cups
6 polystyrene PS and plates, eating utensils
7 mixed plastics fence posts, benches,

pallets
B. Energy Recovery
• May involve recovering material but essentially it is
the recovery of the fuel value of the waste. This
include the following:
1) Incineration – the heat given off in the process of
incinerating waste may be utilized to produce steam
which in turn can be used.
2) Pyrolysis – a process that brings about a chemical
change in the waste through the action of high
temperatures without oxygen. This process is also
called destructive distillation. It results to the
production of liquids and gases which can be
recombined to produce fuel such as methanol. The
residual solids are inert vitrified materials (glassy slag)
and ashes.
3) Bio – digesters – organic waste is ground up and
mixed with water and the slurry is kept in sealed
tanks equipped with pipes to extract the
methane gas produced under anaerobic
conditions.
4) Refuse – Derived Fuel (RDF) – involves the
segregation of the combustible portion of the
waste and processing it into fuel for burning
5) Landfill Gas Extraction – utilization of landfill
gases as process fuel for generating electricity or
as a chemical feedstock, through the application
of various technologies such as drilling
techniques, plant, equipment and gas pipeline
systems.
C. Reduction of Waste Volume
1) Thermal volume reduction: Incineration and Pyrolysis
– reduce waste volume by as much as 90% leaving
behind only ashes or slag to be disposed of. The
normal temperature for incineration is 1200 °C, but a
minimum temperature of 850°C is sufficient for
complete combustion of ordinary municipal solid
wastes. When raised to a temperature level between
1500 to 3000°C, both systems can have the advantage
of being able to change the physical, chemical, or
biological composition of hazardous materials to
render them harmless. At high temperature, these
systems have the ability to detoxify toxic materials
such as PCB’s, chlorinated HC’s, pesticides, herbicides,
distillation residues and oil wastes. In
incineration, emissions of fly ash and other
particles is often controlled by wet scrubbers,
electrostatic precipitators and bag filters. In
pyrolysis, HC’s in the wastes are converted
into stable gases with the addition of steam.
The inorganic portion of the waste (glass,
metals, dirt etc) are vitrified or melted into
glassy slag.
2) Mechanical volume reduction: Shredding –
increases density by as much as 25%.
3) Manual component separation: manual
sorting of solid waste can be accomplished at
the source where solid wastes are generated,
at a transfer station, at a centralized process
station or at the disposal site. Aluminum cans,
plastics, glass can be separated thus reducing
waste volume. Papers and newsprint can also
be baled to increase its density and reducing
its volume.
BIOLOGICAL MSW TREATMENT
1) Composting – another material recovery
process. It is a biological process in which
organic matter is broken down into simpler
compounds by the action of microorganisms.
Requirements: moisture content = 50 to 60%;
temperature = 15 to 20°C; oxygen = 15 to
20% for aerobic biodegradation; C/N ratio =
30, ensures adequate nitrogen for cell
synthesis and carbon for energy source; pH =
6 to 8 optimum.
Methods of Composting:
a) In – vessel – use of reactors; plug flow, vertical
continuous flow reactors, rotating drums. Takes about
3 – 4 weeks for composting.
b) Traditional windrow – MSW is piled up in long rows
of almost triangular cross – section, height = 2m, base
= 3-4 m, composting takes 2 – 3 months.
c) Aerated static pile – MSW is piled up in a windrow
about 1 to 2 m high and 3 – 4 m wide and 20 m long
on floors of ventilation piping system and
decomposition is enhanced by forcing air through the
perforated pipes at regular intervals.
Rapid Composting Technique
• Composting is the breakdown of organic substance by
microorganisms. It is atu e’s way of cleaning in the
environment of its own debris. Composting is not a new
technology but the discovery of Trichoderma
harzianum, a fungus compost activator has been fond
to shorten the decomposition process, which normally
takes more than 4 months to only 4 – 5 weeks. This
technology issue aims to promote organic farming and
the practice of composting yard and household waste
for sanitary disposal purposes.
• The use of fungus compost activator which hastens
composting of household waste materials is a product
of about ten (10) years study and research of Dr. Virginia
C. Cuevas of University of the Philippines in Los Banos ,
Laguna.
Fertilizer value of the compost:
• Composting household waste is an effective
means of putting the waste to good use. The
mineral elements present in the waste can be
recycled as fertilizers and soil conditioners and at
the same time, waste disposal problem is solved.
As source of nutrients, matured compost contains
as high as:
1) Nutrient value: 3.99% nitrogen, 1.65%
Phosphorus, 4.48% Potassium
2) It is also a rich source of iron, aluminum,
manganese and zinc.
3) It also serves as energy source for beneficial soil
microorganisms
4) It serves as a buffer to change soil pH, improve
soil tilt, aeration and water holding capacity.
2) Anaerobic Digestion
Organic matter + H2O  new cells + CO2 + CH4 + NH3 + H2S
Requirements: no oxygen, 6.5 < pH < 7.5 with adequate

alkalinity of 1500 – 7500 mg/L CaCO3, sufficient
nutrients, temperature steady at thermophilic or
mesophilic conditions, constant solid loading rate.
VI. Ultimate Solid Waste Disposal
• The final step in any solid wastes
management system is disposal. In selecting
the final disposal method, the nature,
amount and characteristics of waste
materials must be taken into consideration
to prevent secondary environmental
problems. The most common and most
widely accepted final disposal method is the
use of sanitary landfill.
Sanitary Landfill
• Engineered method of disposing solid waste in
land (EPA). It is a contained and engineered
bioreactor and attenuation structure, designed to
encourage anaerobic biodegradation and
consolidation of compacted refuse materials
within confining layers of compacted soil.
• Aspects of implementation:
(1) Site selection (2) landfilling methods and
operations (3) Occurrence of gases and leachate
in landfills and (4) movement and control of
landfill gases and leachate.
• Landfilling Methods:
a) Trench Method – a trench is first excavated,
then its base and sides are properly lined. Waste
is then spread and compacted in an excavation,
the cover material used comes from the
excavated soil. This is best suited for flat or
gently sloping land where the ground water
table is deep below the surface.
b) Area Method – in this method, the waste is
spread and compacted on the natural surface of
the ground and cover material is spread and
again compacted over it. This method is best
suited for flat or gently sloping landsite where
no natural slopes exist. It can be adapted
however to ravines, valleys, quarries,
abandoned strip mines or other land
depressions.
c) Ramp Method – combination of the area and
trenching techniques. The waste is spread and
compacted on an existing slope. Cover material is
excavated directly in front of the working face
and then spread over the waste then compacted.
The excavated area thus becomes a part of the
cell to be worked the following day.
• Aspects of Implementation:
1) Site selection
2) Landfilling methods and operation
3) Occurrence of gases and leachate
4) Movement and control of leachate and gases
• Twin dangers of sanitary landfill: leachate and
methane gas
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
• Defined by the EPA as any substance that because
of its quantity, concentration, or physical,
chemical or infectious characteristics may cause,
or significantly contribute to, or an increase in
mortality, or cause an increase in serious
irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness;
pose a substantial present or potential hazard to
human health and the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, or
disposed of, or otherwise managed.
• Hazardous waste is a term given to a material
that when intended for disposal meets one of
two criteria:
1) Contains one or more criteria pollutants or
chemicals explicitly identified as hazardous.
2) Waste that exhibit at least one of the ff:
a) Flammable/Ignitable d) Toxic
b) Corrosive e) Radioactive
c) Reactive
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
1) Ignitability
• Identifies wastes that pose fire hazards
during routine management. These are
liquids with flash points below 60°C. Fires not
only present immediate dangers of heat and
smoke but can also spread harmful particles
over wide areas.
2) Corrosiveness
• Identifies wastes requiring special containers
because of their ability to corrode standard
material, or requiring segregation from other
wastes because of their ability to dissolve
toxic contaminants
• Include materials that, in aqueous solution,
have pH values outside the range of 2 to 12.5
or liquids that exhibit corrosivity to steel at a
rate greater than 6.35 mm/yr.
3) Reactivity (or explosiveness) – identifies
wastes that, during routine management,
tend to react vigorously with air or water, to
be unstable to shock or heat, to generate
toxic gases, or to explode
4) Toxicity – identifies wastes that, when
improperly managed, may release toxicants
in sufficient quantities to pose a substantial
hazard to human health or to the
environment.
5) Radioactive – identifies wastes that emit
ionizing radiation that are highly detrimental
to human health.
Toxicity – defined by EPA in terms of four
criteria:
a) Bioconcentration
b) LD50
c) LDC50
d) Phytotoxicty
a) Bioconcentration
• Ability of a material to be retained in animal
tissue.
Ex: Many pesticides will reside in the fatty
tissues of animals and will not break down
very fast. As smaller creatures are eaten by
larger ones, the concentration in the fatty
tissues of the larger organisms can reach
toxic levels.
b) Lethal Dose 50
• A measure of how much of a certain
chemical is needed to kill half of a group of
test specimens such as mice. Mice are fed
progressively with higher doses of the poison
until half of them die. The lower the amount
of the toxin used to kill 50% of the specimen,
the higher the toxic value of the chemical.
c) Lethal Dose Concentration 50
• The concentration at which some chemical is
toxic, used where the amount ingested
cannot be measured, such as in the aquatic
environment or in evaluating the quality of
air. Specimens such as goldfish are placed in
series of aquariums and increasingly higher
concentrations of toxins are administered.
d) Phytotoxicity
• Toxicity to plants. All herbicides are toxic
materials and must be disposed of and
treated as hazardous wastes.
I. HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION
• Some Industries producing hazardous wastes
1) Battery industries – Cd, Pb, Ag, Zn
2) Chemical processes/manufacturing
3) Electrical/electronics – Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Zn, Se,
organics
4) Electroplating – Co, Cr, Cu, Zn
5) Printing – As, Cr, Cu, Pb, Se, organics
6) Textiles – Cr, Cu, organics
7) Pharmaceuticals – As, Hg, organics
8) Paint industries – Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Se
9) Plastic industries – Co, Hg, Zn, organics, HC’s
10) Leather – Cr, organics
• Medical Hazardous Wastes
1) Obsolete medicines past expiry date
2) Cytostatica
3) Infectious material (used wound dressings,
used transfusion equipment)
4) Pathological wastes
5) Sharp and pointed objects (injection needles)
6) Wastes from dental clinics
• Household Hazardous Wastes
1) Kitchen – cleaners, insect killers and sprays, aerosols,
floor care products, metal polish with solvents,
glass/window cleaners, oven cleaners
2) Bathroom – bathroom and toilet cleaners,
disinfectants, hair relaxers
3) Garage – antifreeze, batteries, brake fluids, car wax w/
solvent, diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene, metal polish
w/ solvent, paint brushes, paint latex, paint thinner,
paint stripper, glue, varnish, etc.
4) Garden – fertilizers, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide,
rat killer etc.
5) Medicine cabinet – expired medicine
6) Miscellaneous – solidified nail polish, perfumes,
lotions, etc.
II. COLLECTION SYSTEMS FOR HAZARDOUS WASTES
Transfer station – serves a multitude of tasks to facilitate
collection of hazardous wastes. It includes the ff:
1) Organizing a pick-up service – The service will, on
request, use a certified transporter and collect the
agreed wastes type and amount. A condition for
collection is that the waste is packed and marked
according to the ADR transport rules
2) Makes a visual assessment of the packing of the waste
3) Inspect the documentation (manifest)
4) Reload the waste into trucks or railroad wagons for
final transport to the treatment plant.
5) Fill out the necessary papers for final
transport.
6) Transmit data from the manifest to the
treatment plant.
7) Sell suitable containers for waste packing.
8) Organize the distribution of multiple journey
containers
9) Give advice to waste generators about
classification, handling, packing and
transport of HW.
III. TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Regulations governing transport of HW
1) ADR (Accord Dangereuse Routiers) –
transport of dangerous goods by road
2) RID - Regulations Concerning the
International Transport of Dangerous Goods
by Rail
3) IMDG – International Maritime Dangerous
Goods Code
4) ICAO – transport of dangerous goods by air
Requirements for containing HW
1) Appropriate drums or containers must be
selected
2) A manifest (declaration) must be filled out.
The manifest should include the ff:
a) Information on waste generator
b)Composition of the waste/physical
appearance
c) Method of packaging
d) ADR/RID classification
3) The containers should be equipped with
warning labels, marked with manifest
number on top and on the sides.
4) Large scale transport involve IBC’s
(Intermediate Bulk Containers) with
capacities of 20 – 30 m3.
5) Truck transporting HW should include orange
warning signs (front and rear of truck)
IV. REMEDIATION METHODS FOR HW
1) Immediate Removal – the material needs to
be removed immediately for treatment or
disposal when there is imminent threat to
human health.
2) Containment – used when there is no need
to remove the offending material and/or if
the cost of removal is prohibitive as was to
the case of Love Canal.
3) Extraction and Treatment – pumping of the
contaminated groundwater to the surface for
either disposal or treatment, or excavation of
contaminated soil for treatment
4) In – situ Treatment – involves the injection of
either bacteria or chemicals that will destroy
the hazardous material. For HM, it may be tied
up chemically or fixed so as not to leach on
GW. Organic solvents can be degraded by
injecting freeze – dried bacteria.
V. HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT FACILITY
1) Biological Method – treatment by using
microbial population that makes use of wastes
as food source.
Corynebacterium pyrogens – degrade
toxaphene
Hydrogenomonas – converts DDT to p-
chlorophenyl- acetic acid which is then attacked
by Arthrobacter species.
2) Thermal Treatment – Use of rotary kiln
incinerators, liquid injection incinerators,
plasma incineration, wet air oxidation, fluidized
bed combustion.
3) Chemical treatment – neutralization,
detoxification, precipitation, ion exchange
4) Physical treatment - flocculation,
sedimentation, centrifugation, filtration
5) Ultimate disposal
a) Deep well injection
b) Land disposal – spreading of waste on land
c) Specially designed landfill
• One concern with hazardous waste disposal is
the speed with which the chemical can be set
free to produce toxic effects in plants or
animals.
• One often used method of hazardous waste
disposal is to mix the waste with slurry
consisting of cement, lime, and other
materials. When the mixture is allowed to
harden, the toxic material is safely buried
inside the block of concrete from which it
cannot escape and cause trouble.
• The rate at which such potential toxins can
escape from the material in which it is at
present embedded is determined from a
procedure termed as TCLP (toxicity
characteristics leaching procedure). Many of
the toxic materials such as heavy metals are
not destroyed during incineration and escape
with ash. If these metals leach into the water
when the ash is placed in a landfill, then the
ash would have to be treated as a hazardous
waste and disposed off accordingly.
Some US HWM Agencies / Act
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) – addresses acute
problems caused by improper disposal of HW or
accidental discharge.
TOSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) – aimed at preventing
the creation of wastes that may eventually prove
damaging or difficult to dispose safely.
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) – addresses
disposal of hazardous materials by establishing standards
for secure landfills and treatment processes.
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act) – directed at correcting
the mistakes of the past by cleaning up old hazardous
wastes sites, referred to as the Superfund Act.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
• Radioactivity is referred to as the decay or
nuclear disintegration of isotopes.
• Isotopes decay by emitting protons, neutrons
or electromagnetic radiation to carry off
energy
• The isotopes that decay in this manner are
called radioisotopes and the energy emitted is
called ionizing radiation.
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF RADIATION
1) Alpha Particles – hazards: ingestion and
inhalation.
• The least penetrating but most energeic of all
radiation types, easily stopped in a few
centimeters of air, requires no shielding.
2) Beta Particles – hazards: ingestion and
inhalation.
• Charged electrons, more penetrating than
alpha particles, requires some level of
shielding
3) Gamma radiation – pose hazards, internal
and external.
• Most penetrating of the radiation types,
similar to X – rays but more energetic,
requires some shielding.
4) Neutron radiation – hazard: external
exposure
• High energy neutral particles, can travel long
distances in air and other materials, present
the greatest hazard.
RADIATION MEASUREMENTS / UNITS
1) Roentgen – exposure to gamma or X – ray radiation
equal to a unit quantity of electrical charge produced
in air. This measure is purely physical quantity, has
nothing to do with absorption or effect of the
radiation.
2) Rem (roentgen equivalent man) – measure the
biological injury that would result from the absorption
of nuclear radiation.
3) Gray (Gy) – quantity of ionizing radiation that results I
the absorption of 1 Joule/kg of absorbing material.
Absorption may be the same but the damage is
different.
4) Sievert (Sv) – absorbed radiation dose that does the
same amount of biological damage to tissue as 1 Gy
of gamma radiation or X – ray. (1 Sv = 100 rem)
SOURCES AND EFFECTS
1) Background radiation – due mostly to cosmic
radiation from space, natural decay of RA
materials (Radon 222, radium)
2) Voluntary radiation – diagnostic x – rays
exposure from high – altitude flights.
3) Involuntary incidental radiation – nuclear
powerplants, weapon facilities, industries
4) Accidents (Chernobyl, Ukraine and Three
Mile Island Nuclear Power Facility in
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania)
SOME BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
75 rem – exposure is likely to cause nausea in 10%
of people
100 rem – exposure is likely to cause depilation in
10% of people
200 rem – exposure can cause disabling sickness in
90% of people
400 – 500 rem – median lethal exposure
>600 rem – lethal in 3-5 days from intestinal
damage
>10,000 rem – lethal in 24 hours from central
nervous system damage
LOCALIZED EFFECT
Fetus : 10 – 20 rads – significant probability of
malformation if irradiated early in pregnancy
Gonads: 50 rads – brief functional sterility
250 rads – sterilty for 1 – 2 years
600 rads – permanent sterility
Eye: 200 rads – change in optic lens
600 rads – clinically significant cataract
Skin: 300 rads – threshold erythema
1000 rads – erythema
5000 – 7000 rads – ulceration, slow healing
Stages of Damage are as follows:
1) Physical – 10 -17 to 10 -15 s, ionizations and
excitations
2) Chemical – 10 -14 to 10 -13 s, creation of free
radicals and excited molecules yielding
biologically harmful products and damaging
chain reactions
3) Biomolecular – s to hrs – damage to proteins,
nucleic acids, etc.
4) Biological – hrs to decade – cell death or
prevention or delay in cell division; permanent
modification which can be passed to daughter
cells.
LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE
a) Molecular – damage to enzymes, DNA, etc. and
interference to biological pathways.
b) Subcellular – damage to cell membranes, nucleus,
chromosomes etc.
c) Cellular – inhibition of cell division, cell death,
transformation to malignant state
d) Tissue, organ – disruption to central nervous system,
bone marrow, intestinal tract; induction of cancer
e) Whole animal – death
f) Populations – changes in genetic characteristics of
individual members
CATEGORIES OF RADIATION EFFECTS
1) Acute Somatic effects – include skin burns, vomiting
(intestinal cells), hair loss, temporary sterility or sub-
fertility in men (sperm cells), and blood changes
(bone marrow cells, depression of white cell count0
2) Chronic somatic effects – include development of eye
cataracts and cancers. (DNA changes within cells).
Cancer is the most notable long – term somatic effect.
(non – heritable effects)
3) Genetic effects – those expressed in the future
generations (heritable effects)
4) Bystander effect
SUSCEPTIBLE TISSUES
1) Blood Cells (bone marrow) – immature cells
2) Gonads – rapidly dividing cells
3) Eye lens – no cell replacement
4) Nerve tissue – no cell division of tissues
EXPOSURE LIMITS
Whole body – 5 rems/year
Eye – 15 rem
Skin or Extremities – 50 rem (shallow dose)
RADIATION PROTECTION METHODS
1) Time of exposure – needs monitoring
Use of PDM (pocket dosimeter), film badge, TLD
(thermoluminescent dosimeter); these are
commonly used in occupational exposure
2) Distance from the source: radiation levels
decrease proportionally with the square of the
distance
3) Amount of shielding present – shielding is used
to absorb or scatter the radiation before it
reaches the receptor.
TREATMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
1) Sorting – separation from other wastes
2) Compaction – volume reduction
3) Decontamination – co – precipitation of
contaminated liquids, metallic wastes soaked in
a chemical bath, elimination of surface
contamination in metals by sanding, etc.
4) Reuse or Recycling – recycling of spent fuels in
nuclear power plants
5) Thermal treatment – melting, evaporation,
incineration, other thermal methods.
IMPORTANT MEASUREMENTS
MPC – maximum permissible concentration
a) Air – MPC is based on 40 hours work/wk
b) Water – MPC is based on a normal
consumption of 2 liters in a day (drinking water)
MPBB – maximum permissible body burden –
amount of isotope maintained in the body which
will result in the bloodstream and deposit in the
body.
ICRP – International Commission on Radiation
Protection
DISPOSAL OF RA WASTES
1) High Level Wastes (HLW) – curies/L ; requires
long term storage
2) Low Level Wastes (LLW) – microcuries/L ; can be
handled by direct contact and be disposed to a
secure landfill
3) Intermediate Level Wastes – millicuries/L ;
requires long term storage
Radiation protection guideline:
ALARA – as low as reasonably allowable/acceptable
NOISE POLLUTION
• Pure sound is described by pressure waves
traveling through a medium. These pressure
waves are described by their amplitude and
frequency. Pure sound travels as a perfect
sinusoidal wave.
• Noise is defined as a sound unwanted by humans.
However, noise can be more than just unpleasant
sound. Research has shown that exposure to
noise can cause physical, as well as mental harm
to the body.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
1) Frequency – function of the sound’s wavelength
and the transmitting medium and is expressed as
f = v / λ.
3 Zones:
a) Infrasonic: f < 20 cps
b) Audible: 20 cps f 20,000 cps
c) Ultrasonic: f 20,000 cps
2) Sound Level (Pitch)
CATEGORIES OF SOUND
1) Wide band – wide range of frequencies (ex.
Manufacturing operation)
2) Narrow band – narrow range of frequencies (ex.
Tools)
3) Impulse – a temporary sound that may or may
not be repetitive.
Sources of Noise: Traffic noise, Factory noise,
Entertainment noise, Alarm noise, Aircraft noise,
Motor boats/jet ski noise, railway, construction
noise, domestic noise, residential noise.
MOST SIGNIFICANT SOURCES OF DAMAGING NOISE
1) Occupational Sources
2) Loud Music – rock concerts, earphones tuned too
high.
3) Airports
Some Sound Sources and Sound Intensities
• Air can no longer carry pressure waves = 194 dB
• A typical classroom = 50 dB
• Lawn Mower = 90 dB
• Conversational speech = 60 dB
• Ringing alarm next to one’s ear = 80 dB
• Passenger jet take off = 115 – 145 dB
• Rock concerts often averages to 110 dB
• Unmuffled motorcycle = 110 dB
• Heavy city traffic = 90 dB
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND
1) Sound Pressure Level (SPL) – measured as
dB. The loudness of a noise is measured by
decibels (dB). Decibel scales are logarithmic
rather than linear.
2) Sound Level – dB(A) – filtered sound
MEASURING DEVICES FOR SOUND
1) Sound pressure level meter – measures sound
as a flat response; dB
2) Sound level meter – measures the filtered
sound, dB(A). Some very low – frequency sound
and much of the very high – frequency sound
are filtered by the meter and the measured
sound represents the hearing of human ear.
* Typical sounds that healthy human ears can
hear range from about 15 Hz to about 20,000
Hz. Speech usually range from 1000 to 4000 Hz.
3) Audiometer – measures the hearing ability at
various frequencies producing an audiogram. The
audiogram is used to identify the frequencies
where hearing aids must be able to boost the
signal.
General effects of Noise:
1) Hearing Loss
2) Heart disease
3) Sleep disruption
4) Mental and social well – being
5) Danger to people
Effects of Noise on Human Health
1) Very loud impulse can burst the ear drum,
causing mostly temporary loss of hearing
2) A torn ear drum heals poorly and can result in
permanent damage
3) The bones in the middle year are not usually
damaged by loud sounds but they can be hurt
by infections
4) Middle ear infection can be debilitating, since
our sense of balance depends on middle ear
5) Very loud sounds will stun the hair cells and
cause them to cease functioning though most of
the time, temporary and can be healed with
time.
6) When the insult to the ear is prolonged, the damage
can be permanent and cannot be corrected by
hearing aids.
7) Permanent damage to young people is inflicted by
most frequently loud music
8) Loud music does more than cause permanent
damage, it is, in the Darwinian sense, synonymous to
danger.
9) The human body reacts to loud noise as to protect
itself from imminent danger.
10) The bodily reactions include the following:
a) the eyes dilate d) heartbeat is altered
b) adrenaline flows e) senses are altered
c) blood vessels dilate f) blood thickens, all to get the
person up
11) Noise cause other ailments such as nervous tension,
headaches to neuroses. Research has shown that
noise may cause blood vessels to constrict which
reduces blood flow to the different key body parts
12) Noise also disturbs unborn children, and sometimes
cause seizures in epileptics.
13) People who live and work in noisy environments have
measurably greater general health problems, are
grouchy and ill – tempered and have trouble
concentrating.
14) Noise that deprives one of sleep carries with it an
additional array of health problems.
15) Most importantly, we cannot adapt to high noise
levels. Often times, industrial workers are seen
walking around with their ear protectors hanging
around their neck
NOISE ABATEMENT
OSHA (Occupational Health and Safety Act) – the
most effective single legislation to pass Congress
in the noise control area.
Regulations Promulgated by OSHA
• Limits of industrial noise
• Sound levels greater than 115 dB(A) are clearly
detrimental and should not be permitted
• Industrial noise is mostly constant over an 8 – hr
working day
• Community noise is intermittent noise.
OSHA Noise Limits
DURATION, hr SL, dB (A) Hrs SL, dB (A)
8 90 2 100
6 92 1 105
4 95 0.5 110
3 97 0.25 115
• Noise from traffic has become one concern
• Other countries (US) has established maximum
sound levels for different vehicles
• Acoustic engineers have tried to reduce noise
produced by commercial aircraft
• Modern airlines are amazingly quiet compared to
the much louder models such as the Boeing 727,
one of the loudest large planes still in service
• Noise in the urban environment or noise
produced by machines and other devices should
be given attention by government
NOISE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
I. Isolation or noise reduction at its Source
a) Replacement of deteriorating or simply
outdated equipment and engines with newer
models that perform quietly. Current models
were redesigned to incorporate noise reduction
features which may be changes in the physical
components or in the operation mode.
b) Air sources – design modification, redesign
nozzles or orifices
c) Damping – substitution of construction
material, special damping tapes or spray – on
coatings
e) Enclosure
f) Valving – used in piping systems, liquid flow,
cavitating conditions, air or steam flow
g) Location – relocating noise source away from work
places if possible
II. Suppression – apply filtering to noise transmitted
through the ears.
a) Use of hearing protection - Ear plugs/ ear muffs
b) apply multi – layer covering – in conduits
c) Use of mufflers – alternate sound waves with
minimal back pressure
d) use of silencers
III. Shielding
a) Absorption – sound proof material
b) Barriers – walls/earthen berns/noise walls
Barriers change paths of noise
- dense growth of trees can reduce sound
pressure level by several dB per 100 ft of
dense forest
- cutting down natural growth to widen
highway invariably causes increased noise
problems.
AIR QUALITY, AIR POLLUTION
AND CONTROL
AIR QUALITY
• Pure air is described as a mixture of the

following gases:
78.0% N2, 20.1% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.03% CO2,
0.002% Ne, 0.005% He plus other gases. Such
pure air does not exist but it serves as a
reference for clean air.
4 MAJOR LAYERS OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
1) Troposphere (contains more than 80% air)
2) Stratosphere (contains 90% ozone)
3) Mesosphere
4) Thermosphere
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
I. PARTICULATES
II. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
I. PARTICULATES
a) Dust (100µ) – solid particles created by the break up
of larger masses through processing or handling of
materials such as coal, ash, cement, grains by
crushing or grinding.
- direct offspring of a parent material undergoing
mechanical operation (sawdust from wood works)
- entrained materials used in mechanical operations
(sand blasting)
- natural phenomena (volcanic eruption)
b) Fume (0.03 – 0.3µ) – a solid particle frequently a
metallic oxide formed by the condensation of
vapors by sublimation, distillation, calcinations,
or chemical reaction processes.
ex. Zinc and lead oxides from oxidation and
condensation
c) Mist (0.5 – 3.0µ) – an entrained liquid particle
formed by the condensation of a vapor,
dispersion of a liquid (as foaming or splashing)
and by chemical reaction (formation of sulfuric
acid mists)
- Mist is also called fog when its concentration
is high enough to obscure visibility.
d) Smoke (0.05 – 1.0µ) – entrained solid
particles formed as a result of incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous materials (wood,
coal, tobacco, other combustibles)
e) Spray (10 – 1000µ) – a liquid particle formed
by the atomization of a parent liquid, settles
out by gravity
f) Fly ash – consists of finely divided, non –
combustible particles contained in flue gases
arising from combustion of coal and other
combustibles.
MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES
a) Measurement of Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
- High – volume sampler is used which operates
like a vacuum cleaner by simply forcing more than
2000 m3 of air through a filter for 24 hours
- Analysis is gravimetric and the air flow is
measured by small flow meter (calibrated in
ft3/min)
b) Measurement of Respirable Particulates
(particulates < 0.3µ)
- Measurement done in relation to health
c) Measurement of PM10 : Particulate Matter less than
10 microns
- a measure used in ambient air quality standards
II. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
• Gaseous pollutants include substances that
are gases at normal temperature and
pressure as well as vapors of substances that
are liquid or solid at normal T and P.
• The following are some gaseous air
pollutants: SO2, SO3, H2S, N2O, NO2, CO, CO2,
O3, HC’s, CH4, CFC
• Measurement: use of bubbler in
combination with colorimeter of other
spectrophotometers
SOME GASEOUS POLLUTANTS & THEIR EFFECTS:
a) SO2 – colorless gas, intense choking odor, highly
soluble in water to form H2SO3. Can damage
property, health and vegetation.
b) SO3 – soluble in water to form H2SO4, highly
corrosive
c) H2S – has a rotten egg odor at low
concentrations and odorless at high
concentrations, highly poisonous
d) N2O – colorless gas, used as carrier gas in
aerosol bottles, relatively inert, not produced in
combustion
e) NO – colorless gas produced during high
temperature – high pressure combustion,
oxidizes to NO2
f) NO2 – brown to orange gas, major component in
the formation of photochemical smog
g) CO – colorless and odorless gas, product of
incomplete combustion, poisonous
h) CO2 – colorless and odorless gas, formed during
complete combustion, greenhouse gas
i) O3 – highly reactive, can damage vegetation and
property, produced mainly during the formation
of photochemical smog
j) HC’s CXHY – some are emitted from
automobiles and industries, others are
formed in the atmosphere
k) CH4 – highly combustible, odorless,
greenhouse gas
l) CFC (cholorofluorocarbons) – non-reactive,
with excellent thermal properties, depletes
ozone layer
Air Pollutants are also classified as:
a) Primary Air Pollutants
• Materials released directly into the atmosphere
in their unmodified forms and in sufficient
quantities to pose health risk. Among them are
CO, HC’s, particulates, SO2, NO and NO2.
b) Secondary Air Pollutants
• Products from the interaction of the primary air
pollutants with one another in the presence of
an energy source. *Photochemical smog is a
mixture of pollutants resulting from the
interaction of NO & NO2 w/ ultraviolet light.
• Comes from chemical reactions
Photochemical Smog
Two Most Destructive Formed:
1) Ozone, O3 – destroys chlorophyll and injures
the lung tissue, can damage rubber such as
tires.
2) Peroxyacetylnitrates – eye irritants. These are
excellent oxidizing agents, they react readily
with many other compounds causing
destructive damage.
Other Classification of Air Pollutants
a) Criteria Pollutants – emissions to the urban
air traditionally sees as polluting: NOx, CO,
SOx, PM10, VOC, HC, O3, Pb
b) Non - criteria Pollutants – pollutants whose
emissions are set
C6H6, C7H8, CS2, VC, PAH (polynuclear
aromatic HC’s), Arsenic, Asbestos, TCDD
(2,3,7,7 tetrachloro – dibenzon – p – dioxin)
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
I. Natural Processes
• Particulates from pollen grains, fungus
spores, smoke and dust particles from forest
fires, ash from volcanic eruption, natural
breakdown of CH4 into CO, HC’s in the form
of terpenes from pine trees, H2S and CH4
from anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter, NOx from fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen
II. Man – made Pollutants – classified as:
a) Stationary Combustion
- Comes from residential, commercial, or
industrial power and heating, burning of coal or
oil fuels
b) Mobile Transportation
- Motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads, ships,
handling or evaporation of gasoline
c) Industrial Process
- Chemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper
industries, petroleum refineries
d) Solid waste Disposal
- Household/commercial refuse, coal refuse
etc.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1) Reduce in visibility – particulates reduce visibility both
by adsorbing the light and by scattering the light
2) Causes allergies (aeroallergens) – airborne substances
cause allergies from sources such as pollens and
spores, common to asthmatic people
3) Global warming – CH4, N2O and CO2, greenhouse
gases cause heating of the earth’s surface
4) Damage to plants animals and other living things
• Acid rain may result to acidic surface waters which
may not be able to sustain marine life, fishes and
marine plants. Acid rain also destroys forests. Acid
causes abnormal bone development in fishes causing
their death.
5) Ozone depletion – destruction of the ozone
layer (which protects us from UV rays) because
of the use of CFC’s that destroy the ozone layer,
thus potential effect on the incidence of skin
cancer, Radiation from space is less filtered
causing skin cancers.
6) Damage to non – living things - particulate
matter can damage materials by soiling clothing
and textiles, corroding metals. Acid rain is
corrosive to galvanized iron, materials for roofs,
even zinc and steel materials, discolors and
destroys painted surfaces; ozone can also
damage rubber in automobile tires.
7) Causes Health problems – affects especially
the respiratory system; diseases and illnesses
such as lung cancer, asthma and other
respiratory diseases; emphysema; irritates
eyes (O3) or skin (acids); blood hemoglobin
has greater affinity to CO than oxygen thus
hemoglobin to carry oxygen is decreased and
may cause death by Asphyxiation; H2S causes
nausea, nervous breakdown and is also
detrimental at high concentrations.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
• Indoor air quality is important to human health
simply because we spend so much time indoors
and the quality of the air we breathe is not
monitored.
• Indoor air may contain: asbestos from
fireproofing and vinyl floors; CO from smoking,
space heaters, stoves; formaldehyde from
carpets, ceiling tiles and paneling; particulates
from smoking, fireplaces, dusting; nitrogen oxides
from kerosene stoves, gas stoves; ozone from
photocopying machines; radon diffused from soil;
etc
METHODS OF CONTROL OF INDOOR POLLUTION
1) Decrease pollutant source – modify
behaviors (no smoking)
2) Change of consumer products of lower
emission rates of toxic compounds
3) Increase rate of pollutant removal – increase
ventilation, use filters and air conditioning
units
Air Pollution Legislation (RA 8749) Clean Air Act
• Set emission and ambient air quality limits.
AIR QUALITY CONTROL
Air Pollutant Emission and Control
1) Control Emissions
2) Understand process (transport,
transformation and removal)
3) Monitor concentration
4) Protection from effects
CONTROL OF PARTICULATES
1) Settling chambers – consist of wide places in the
exhaust flue where large particles can settle out,
usually with baffle to slow the emission stream. Only
particulates > 100 µm can be removed.
2) Cyclones – most effective means of controlling
particulates. The dirty air is blasted into a conical
cylinder but off center line. This creates a violent
swirl within the cone and the heavy solids migrate to
the wall of the cylinder where they slow down due to
friction, slide down the cone and finally exit at the
bottom. The clean air is in the middle of the cylinder
and exits out at the top.
3) Bag filters (fabric filters) – operate like the common
vacuum cleaner. They are used to collect dust then
removed from the bag. This filter can remove
submicron sizes of particulates but are sensitive to high
temperature and humidity. Filter bags are widely used
in many industrial applications. The dust particles
adhere to the fabric due to entrapment and surface
forces.
4) Spray Tower or scrubber – effective for
removing large particulates. Drawbacks
include producing visible plume, albeit only
water vapor. The waste is converted to liquid
which needs treatment.
5) Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) – widely used in power
plants, because power is readily available. The
particulates are first charged by electrons jumping
from one high – voltage electrode to the other and
then migrating to the positively charge collecting
electrode. Effective in removing submicron particles.
CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
1) Wet Scrubbers – the gaseous pollutants are
dissolved in water. Alternatively, a chemical may
be injected which reacts with the pollutants
(usually done to remove SO2 and SO3)
2) Adsorption – used when it is possible to bring
the pollutant into contact with an adsorber
like activated carbon.
3) Incineration or Flaring – used when organic
pollutant can be oxidized to CO2 and water,
catalytic combustion.
CONTROL OF SOx
1) Change to low sulfur fuel (coal to natural gas,
more expensive)
2) Desulfurize the coal
3) Tall stacks to disperse SO2
4) Flue gas desulfurization – reduce SO2 emitted
by cleaning the gases coming from the
combustion process
DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS
• Dispersion is the process of spreading out the
emission over a large area and thereby
reducing the concentration of the specific
pollutants. Dispersion is in two dimensions:
horizontal or vertical. The amount of
dispersion is directly related to the stability of
the air, or how much vertical air movement is
taking place.
STABILITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• As the air rises in the earth’s atmosphere, it
experiences lower and lower pressure from the
surrounding air molecules and thus expands. This
expansion lowers the temperature of the air.
• Ideally, a rising air cools at a rate of 1°C/100 m
and warms at a rate of 1°C/100 m if it is coming
down.
• The warming or cooling is termed the dry
adiabatic lapse rate
• The adiabatic lapse rate is independent of
prevailing atmospheric temperatures
• When there is moisture in the air, the lapse rate
becomes the wet adiabatic lapse rate
1) Superadiabatic lapse rate – strong lapse rate
- Occurs when the atmospheric temperature
drops more than 1°C/100 m
- Atmospheric conditions are unstable
- A great deal of vertical movement and
turbulence are produced, and dispersion is
enhanced.
2) Subadiabatic lapse rate – weak lapse rate
- Characterized by a drop of less than 1°C/100
m, stable atmospheric condition
3) Inversion – special case of a weak lapse rate
- Extreme subadiabatic condition
- A condition that has warmer air above colder
air
- Stable atmospheric condition
4) Adiabatic
5) Inversion over superadiabatic
DENR Administrative Order
No. 34
Water Usage and Classification
Water Quality Criteria
Water Usage and Classification
• The quality of Philippine waters shall be

maintained in a safe and satisfactory condition
according to their best usages .
Fresh Surface Waters
Classification Beneficial Use
Class AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is intended
primarily for waters having watersheds which are
uninhabited and otherwise protected and which
require only approved disinfection in order to meet
the National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW)
of the Philippines
Class A Public Water Supply Class II. Public Water Supply
Class II. For sources of water supply that will
require complete treatment in order to meet the
NSDW.
Class B Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact
recreation such as bathing swimming, skin diving.
Fresh Surface Waters
Class C •Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of
fish and other aquatic resources;
•Recreational Water Class II (Boating, etc.)
•Industrial Water Supply Class I (For
manufacturing processes after treatment).
Class D •For agriculture, irrigation, livestock, watering, etc.
•Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling,
etc.)
•Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to
this classification
Coastal and Marine Waters
Class SA •Waters suitable for the propagation, survival and
harvesting of shellfish for commercial purposes;
•Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves
established under Presidential Proclamation No. 1801
Class SB •Recreational Water Class I
•Fishery Water Class I
Class SC •Recreational Water Class II

•Fishery Water Class II
•Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and
wildlife sanctuaries
Class SD •Industrial Water Supply Class II
•Other coastal and marine waters, by their quality,
belong to this classification

Introduction To Environmental Engineering

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Introduction To Environmental Engineering

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ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

4th Trophic Level (10 kcal)

3rd Trophic Level (100 kcal)

2nd Trophic Level (1000 kcal)

1st Trophic Level ( 10, 000 kcal)

Heat – lowest form of energy, less

Herbivory is a form of predation

- Ethics relates to a society whereas morality relates to

1. Corporate Environmental Ethics

• Environmental laws assist the government in

2. Presidential Decree No. 1251

3. Presidential Decree No. 1151 (June 6, 1977)

5. Presidential Decree No. 825

7. Presidential Decree No. 1181

8. Presidential Decree No. 1160

10. DENR Administrative Order No. 35 (DAO 35)

11. Republic Act No. 6969 (with IRR DAO 92-29)

14.Presidential Decree 856

15.Republic Act 9003

2. DENR Administrative Order No. 08 (series of 1991)

4. DENR Administrative Order No. 11

2. PD 953 & 1153

6. RA 8550: Fisheries Code of the Philippines

14. RA 9168 : Philippine Plant Variety Protection Act

6. RA 8435: Agriculture and Fisheries

9. RA 9367 – Biofuel Act of 2006

FLOW BOD5 AMMONIA NITRATE CHLORIDE

EFFLUENT 8640 m3/d 25 mg/L 7 mg/L 10 mg/L 15 mg/L

Determine the stream characteristics after mixing with

CONTAMINANTS REASON FOR IMPORTANCE

Suspended solids can lead to the

Composed principally of proteins,

Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with

Organic and inorganic compounds

Heavy metals are usually added to

Inorganic constituents such as calcium,

1) The biological principles

• Reduce and stabilize organics, reduce threat to

What is a Solid Waste?

1 polyethylene terephthalate PETE/PET soft drink bottles

2 high – density polyethylene HDPE Milk cartons

3 polyvinyl chloride PVC food packaging, wire

4 low density polyethylene LDPE plastic film for food

7 mixed plastics fence posts, benches,

Organic matter + H2O  new cells + CO2 + CH4 + NH3 + H2S

Requirements: no oxygen, 6.5 < pH < 7.5 with adequate

• Pure air is described as a mixture of the

• The quality of Philippine waters shall be

Class SC •Recreational Water Class II

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