Geomoxphology 12 (1995) 91-107

Use of soils and colluvial deposits in analyzing tectonic

events - The southern Arava Rift, Israel
R. Amit a, J.B.J. Harrison b, Y. Enzel a
aThe Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
b Department of Geosciences, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM 87801, USA

Received 15 August 1994; revised 15 November 1994; accepted 16 November 1994

Abstract

Buried soils in colluvium units developed on downthrown fault blocks have been presumed to form during periods of tectonic
quiescence. This assumes however, that all colluvial units on a fault scarp are tectonically induced, particularly for a multiple-
event fault scarp. To test this hypothesis we compared the colluvial stratigraphy and pattern of soil development on two non-
tectonic scarps (terrace risers) and a nearby multiple-event fault scarp on the same alluvial fan surface. Both slopes developed
under extremely arid climatic conditions. The colluvial stratigraphy and soil catenary relationship developed on terrace risers
were found to be substantially different from those on the multiple-event fault scarp. The fault scarp colluvium contained several
colluvial units separated by soils, whereas only two colluvial units without buried soils were found on the terrace risers. The
colluvial units on the fault scarp were triangular in shape, while those on the terrace riser were concave and overlapped up the
slope. Cumulic soils, indicating a continuous and low rate of deposition during pedogenesis, were formed along the terrace riser.
In contrast, buried soils indicating episodic deposition occurred on the downthrown block of the multiple-event fault scarp.
Accordingly, the colluvial stratigraphy developed on the fault scarp can be viewed as a record of distinct tectonic events with
no climatically controlled deposition. The data indicate that soils and sedimentary stratigraphy can serve as useful indicators to
distinguish terrace risers and single-event fault scarps from multiple-event fault scarps. These indicators can be helpful in
distinguishing phases of tectonic activity and in evaluating recurrence intervals on a multiple-fault scarp.

1. Introduction
Colluvium along a fault scarp consists of debris
derived from the upper segment of the slope which has
been deposited at its lower part (Wallace, 1977). Col-
luvial units are formed in response to topographic dis-
placements created by faulting and hence can be used
as a means of distinguishing faulting events (Machette,
1978; Schwartz and Coppersmith, 1984; McCalpin,
1987; Nelson, 1987; Machette, 1988; Machette et al.,
1992; McCalpin et al., 1994). Stratigraphic relations
indicate the amount of vertical displacement for an
individual slip event on a fault. Such information can
be used to estimate the approximate magnitude of past
earthquakes (Bonilla et al., 1984).
The stratigraphy of deposits adjacent to young faults,
however, is often very complex. This complexity is due
to many factors including: (a) diverse initial patterns
of surface rupture (Crone et al., 1987; Nelson, 1992))
(b) fragmentary records resulting from erosion and
truncation of previously deposited colluvial, alluvial
and eolian sediments (Nelson, 1992), and (c) insuf-
ficient information about the colluviation process, the
colluvial stratigraphy and the catenary relationship on
non-tectonically induced slopes.

0169-555X/95/$09.50 0 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDIO169-555X(94)00081-6
Fig. 1.Aerial view and location map of the Nahal Shehoret alluvial fan (Tl, T2, T6 refer to trench locations).
 R. Amit et al. /Geomorphology
The complexity can be resolved in part, by using the
degree of soil development on fault scarps and by the
degree of buried soil development to determine the
hiatus in deposition in the colluvium. Soils can also be
used to estimate the age of faulted and unfaulted depos-
its in order to ascertain the time of the tectonic event
(Borchardt et al., 1980; Swan et al., 1980; McCalpin,
1982; Bull and Knuepfer, 1987; Knuepfer, 1988; Nel-
son and Van Arsdale, 1986, Gerson et al., 1993).
Where no clear colluvial or sedimentary stratigraphy
exists, buried soils can be used as stratigraphic markers
in separating colluvial and alluvial units (Gerson et al.,
1993).
It is possible however, that some of the colluvial
units within fault scarp colluvium may be a result of
slope processes related to extreme storm events rather
than to tectonics. The ability to unequivocally relate
colluvial stratigraphy to tectonic events is crucial in
determining the frequency and magnitude of recent and
paleoseismic events. This has particular relevance in
extremely arid areas where intense storms are common
and the fault scarps as well as the alluvial surfaces are
bare of vegetation. This study is aimed at distinguishing
colluvial units which are tectonically induced from
those which are not, by using pedogenic and strati-
graphic characteristics.
2. The study site
In the southern Dead Sea Rift, along the western
margins of the Arava valley and the Gulf of Eilat, there
are many alluvial fans which are displaced by normal
faults (Bentor et al., 1965; Zak and Freund, 1966; Gar-
funkel, 1970; Garfunkelet al., 1981; GersonandGross-
man, 1991; Gerson et al., 1993). These numerous
normal faults striking 15”-45” from the apparent trace
of the plate boundary, the strike slip lineament (Gerson
et al., 1984; Gerson and Grossman, 1991). The alluvial
fan surfaces formed primarily during the Pleistocene
period (Amit et al., 1993; Gerson et al., 1993). They
are characterized by poorly sorted cobbles and boulders
composed of a variety of lithologies including lime-
stone, chert, sandstone, granite, schist and diorite, with
all derived from the Nahal Shehoret drainage basin.
The average slope is l”28’.
12 (1995) 91-107 93
A salic-gypsic Reg soil, typical to this extremely
arid region, developed in the non-consolidated alluvial
and colluvial material composing these alluvial sur-
faces (Dan et al., 1982; Amit and Gerson, 1986; Amit
et al., 1993). According to Soil Survey Staff (1975)
and ICOMID (1989) these soils are classified as Tor-
rifluvents, Typic Haplogypsid and Gypsic Haplosalide
according to their degree of development.
A distinct fault trace that offsets the Pleistocene age
(Qal ) stable surface of the Nahal Shehoret alluvial fan
(Figs. 1, 2) was trenched and logged by Gerson et al.
( 1993). The colluvium composition on the down-
thrown block was homogeneous, but the presence of
buried soils indicated a hiatus in the depositional rec-
ord. This was interpreted as an indicator of periods of
tectonic quiescence (Figs. 3, 4). The entire offset on
the fault occurred during nine discrete events over a
period of 100,000, years with a 1000-3000 year recur-
rence interval (Gerson et al., 1993). The Nahal She-
horet stream flows normal to the fault trace and has cut
a series of terraces in the Shehoret alluvial fan (Fig.
2). Two terrace risers, one from Qal to Qa2 and another
from Qal to Qa3, were chosen to represent non-tectonic
terrace scarps. The surface characteristics of the desert
pavement and the degree of soil development on these
surfaces suggest the Qa2 is middle to late Holocene in
age (Fig. 5) while Qa3 is late Holocene. Degradation
of these scarps should be controlled primarily through
slope processes not tectonically induced. It was
expected that by comparing the soils and colluvial stra-
tigraphy on the terrace risers to the fault scarp, we
would be able to distinguish between a tectonically and
non-tectonically controlled sedimentation process on
scarps. The research site enabled us to compare terrace
risers and fault scarps that developed in the same sur-
face (Qal ) and were formed under the same climatic
conditions.
The present climate in the southern Arava valley is
extremely arid. Mean annual precipitation is 30 mm
and the mean annual temperature is 25°C (Atlas of
Israel, 1985). During most of the Quatemary the region
experienced mildly ( 150-250 mm yr- ’) to extremely
arid conditions ( < 80 mm yr-‘) (Begin et al., 1974,
1985; Neev and Hall, 1977; Horowitz, 1979; Gat and
Magaritz, 1980)
94

- Observed fault
. .. Buried fault
- Trench
- + stream

Fig. 2. The study site displaying the alluvial fan surfaces of Nahal Shehoret.

3. Methods A well-developed Holocene Reg soil ( 14 ka) (Fig.

3.1. Relative age dating
The age estimates of the different alluvial fan sur-
faces and the colluvial units in this study are based on
the degree of Reg soil development correlated to Nahal
Zeelim chronosequences as well as older soils on allu-
vial surfaces dated from prehistorical artifacts in the
Zin valley (Amit and Gerson, 1986; Amit et al., 1993 ).
In these previous studies five stages of Reg soil devel-
opment were determined (Fig. 6).
6. stage D) has the following characteristics: The C
horizon occupies most of the soil profile. It is 30-70
cm thick, gravelly with less than 10% fine material. The
average composition of the fine material is sand 60%,
silt 35%, and clay 5%. Salinity of the soil profile is not
very high, with 9-10% gypsum and l-2% salts in the
fine soil fraction. Sixty percent of the large clasts are
shattered by salts. The B horizon is thin ( 5 cm thick)
and gravelly. The A horizon is a thin ( < 5 mm), silty,
vesicular Av horizon. A gravely bar and swale topog-
raphy typifies the surface. A mature Reg soil of Pleis-
 Description of units: WEST
1,4 Sandy silt
2 Grit, granules and sand
3,8,9,11,13,23 Coarse gravel
5-7 Sand and fine gravel
6 Sand and coarse gravel
10,12,22 Fine gravel
14.24 Silt, sand and fine gravel
15-21 Sand, silt and fine gravel
1518,20-21.24 Colluvial units

EAST

m Gravel
D Fine gravel
m Sandy silt

D Sand and silt

Well developed Reg soil

Petrosalic horizon

- Sedimentary contact
:: Rotated clasts
T6-4 Soil profile
---- Fault A Qal Alluvial fan surface
N63W90E
11 - I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
01234567;;
I
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
DISTANCE (m)
Fig. 3. Log of trench T6 across a fault scarp of a Late Pleistocene Qal surface in Nahal Shehoret (from Gerson et al., 1993).
96 K. A& et crl. / Geomorphology
Fig. 4. The colluvial sequence in trench T6. Note the Reg soil buried by the colluvium.
tocene age (older than 50 ka) ( Fig. 6, stage E) has the
following characteristics: The soil profile is 80-l 60 cm
thick. The ground surface usually consists of a well-
developed desert pavement covering > 85% of the sur-
face. It is composed of small stones most of which are
l-5 cm in size. Bar and swale topography is not dis-
cernible. The surface is barren of vegetation. The silty.
vesicular A horizon is 5 cm thick. The B horizon is 5-
40 cm thick, entirely or almost entirely gravel-free. The
C horizon is 70-120 cm thick. The salinity of the lower
part of the B horizon and C horizon is very high, with
lo-30% gypsum and 50-70% soluble salts. A petros-
alit horizon developed, at an average depth of 80 cm.
From the surface to a depth of 60 cm, 60-80% of the
gravel are mechanically shattered by salts.
The most useful Reg soil characteristics for provid-
ing age estimates of surfaces in very arid environments
are in situ shattered gravel in the B and C horizons and
the presence of a petrosalic horizon. In situ shattered
gravel is gravel which, although shattered by salts,
maintains its original form. As the shattering process
occurs within the upper 50 cm of the soil profile (Amit
et al., 1993) the shattered gravel at depths greater than
50 cm indicates a buried soil ( Amit et al., 1993; Gerson
12 (1995) 91-107
et al., 1993 ) Salt-shattering of gravel is estimated to
occur over a period of 100&2000 years, whereas the
development of a petrosalic horizon requires tens of
thousands of years on flat stable surfaces (Amit and
Gerson, 1986; Amit et al., 1993: Gerson et al., 1993).
The soils were described after Soil Survey Staff
( 1975 ) , ICOMTD ( 1989), Yaalon ( 1966). and Bir-
keland, (1984).
-3.2. Trenching, mapping and description
Two trenches were excavated perpendicular to the
terrace riser (Tl and T2; Fig. 2). The trenches were up
to 10 m long, 5 m deep and 1 m wide with vertical
walls. Topographic profiles of both the terrace riser and
the fault scarp were measured perpendicular to the
scarps and prior to trenching. One wall in each trench
was selected for mapping. A metric horizontal datum
line was established along the trench wall and vertical
rod sections were taken to delineate contacts of alluvial
and colluvial units and pedogenic horizons. The differ-
entiation between alluvial and colluvial stratigraphic
units was based on texture, structure, type of boundary.
color, degree of cohesion and pedogenic features.
 R. Amit et al. /Geomorphology 12 (1995) 91-107 91

Fig. 5. Terrace riser T2 and the Holocene surface Qa2.

3.3. Laboratory analyses Na+, K+, Mg*+ and Ca*+ were measured by atomic
absorption. Gypsum content was determined by the
Salinity was determined by measuring electrical con- Schleiff (1979) method. The granulometric analysis
ductivity in an 1: 1 extract. Cation concentrations of included dry sieving to separate the gravel from sand

g o-
i
L _
Y
20-

40-

60.

SO-

IOO-

I20

Fig. 6. Stages of Reg soil evolution (from Amit et al., 1993).

 R. Amit et al. / Geomorphology
Fig. 7. Terrace riser of trench T2 and its colluvium. Note the relation between the alluvium and the colluvium.
and fines, and wet sieving to separate the sand and fines.
A sedigraph was employed for silt and clay separation
after salt removal, using Sodium Diphosphate 10
Hydrate as a dispersive agent.
4. Results
4.1. The terrace riser (non-tectonic scarp)
Reg soil development (Amit et al., 1993; Gerson et
al., 1993) and infrared stimulated luminescence
(IRSL) (Porat et al., 1994) indicate that the alluvial
fan surface Qal (Fig. 3) was formed in the late Pleis-
tocene. Reg soils developed on surfaces Qa2 and Qa3
suggest that they are early to mid Holocene in age,
respectively. The terrace risers Qal to Qa3 (Tl ) and
Qal to Qa2 (T2) are considered to be slightly younger
than the lower terrace tread to which they descend. The
terrace riser is discussed using a combination of terms
common to morphologic segments of slope (Ruhe and
Walker, 1968) and to fault scarp studies (Wallace,
1977; Berry, 1990).
The terrace risers were divided into four segments
(Figs. 10 and 11) :
A. Surface Qal - the original late Pleistocene sur-
face.
12 (1995) 91-107
B. The backslope - the degrading part of the ter-
race riser to the point of inflection.
C. The footslope -the aggrading part of the terrace
riser from the point of inflection down to the
lower Holocene terrace tread.
D. Surfaces Qa2 and Qa3 - the original lower
Holocene terrace surfaces.
The two terrace risers Tl and T2 have a very similar
morphology, height 3.54 m, length 12-15 m and
declivity 23”-24” (Figs. 8 and 9). The surface are cov-
ered by approximately 80% rounded and moderately
weathered gravel with an average diameter of 10 cm.
A thin silty crust occurs between the surface gravel.
The shape of the colluvium is concave and its depth
‘decreases upslope (Fig. 7). It consists of weathered
and un-weathered coarse and fine alluvium with wash
and eolian deposits. The lower colluvial unit Cl is
composed of two sub-units, C 1a and C 1b. Unit C 1a is
composed of rubbly coarse gravel with low amounts of
fine material (Figs. 8 and 9; Tables 1 and 2) and was
deposited primarily by gravity collapse processes
immediately adjacent to the near vertical scarp. Over-
lying this unit is Clb composed of rounded and angular
poorly sorted gravel finer than that in unit Cla. The
average diameter of the gravel is 4 cm and there is a
 R. Amit et al. /Geomotphology 12 (1995) 91-107 99

Qal
Colluvial unit C2 m Tl-I
Ti-2
Colluvial unit Cla m I
m0
Colluvial unit Clb m

Petrosalic horizon I
Alluvium 0
Alluvial fan surface Qal

Bottom of trench
//
I I I I I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10m

Fig. 8. Log of trench Tl.

higher amount of a matrix composed mainly of fine deposited parallel to the slope, with occasional gravel
sand and silt. The upper colluvial unit C2 is composed of 0.5 cm average diameter. The finer layers have a
mainly of fine material thinly stratified (OS-1 cm) and vesicular structure. The sedimentary texture and struc-

Qal

T2-2 ‘T-1
m0 T2-3 I

1 INTWCTION

Colluvial unit C2

Colluvial unit Cla

Colluvial unit C lb

Petrodic horizon
6
Alluvium
Alluvial fan surface

7
-r
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 llm
Fig. 9. Log of trench T2.
100 R. Amir et d. / tieomorpholo~y I2 f 1995) 91-107

Table I
Field and laboratory characteristics of a soil catena along a terrace riser. Nahal Shehoret alluvial fan (Trench Tl in Fig. IO)

Soil Depth EC Gypsum Ca? Mg” K Na ’ Shattered Gravel Boundary” Sand Silt Clay
horizon (cm) (mS/cm) (meq/lOO (mg/IOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO (mgi100 gravel (R) (%I (%‘o) (%I
g soil ) g soil 1 f wil 1 g soil) g soil) (5%)

TI-I
Av” O-3 5.‘) 4.3 65.0 13.2 Y.0 31.5 - <I c 55.3 32.7 12.0
BlgP 3-10 6.8 3.0 77.0 IS.6 7.3 4I.O 5 <I c 78.9 14.6 6.6
B2y l&20 31.0 377.5 186.0 ‘5.6 76.5 483.3 4&50 80-90 g 56.4 40.2 3.4
BUY 2wo 13.7 147.4 123.0 20.6 10.5 I64.0 10 20 g 87.1 11.0 I .‘)
Clyz 40-60 19.7 103.9 144.0 34.0 14.0 ‘530
_. _. 5 60 g X7.3 10.5 2.3
C2zmy 60-150 140.5 123.0 188.3 78.3 17.1 3750.0 - 80 a 81.7 18.2 0.2
c3z 150-250 72.4 144.1 185.0 3 1.o ‘0.7 1850.0 60 a 77.6 22.1 0.3

TI -2
AV” O-3 3.4 50.8 56.0 4.4 3.‘) 7.8 - <I C 62.2 30.9 6.9
BY 3-1s 7.9 16.3 56.0 2.7 I .h 2.8 40-50 60 c 72.3 25.7 2.0
CY 15-50 8.S 34.1 74.S IS.0 Y.0 x3.5 20 80 a 88.3 8.8 2.9

T/-3
AV” o-o.5 1.6 2.1 24.0 7.0 3.5 3.0 <I c 70.0 24.3 5.7
C’Y 0.5-9 3.6 43.3 55.0 5.1 4.X 12.0 l&IS 70 # 80.8 14.7 4.S
C2Y 940 4.9 57.6 60.0 6.4 5.Y 32.0 - 70 C 86.2 1 I.8 1.9
C3Y 40-78 Il.0 14.3 73.0 Y.X 12.5 170.0 - 70 C 92.9 5.5 1.7
C4zmb 80+ 59.8 30.9 65.0 21.6 23.5 1233.3 - 70 _ 86.4 7.1 6.5

TI-4
Al o-10 1.7 1.x 23.0 2.4 4.3 6.X - S 77.3 18.2 4.5
A2 l&25 2.3 2. I 21.5 -1.-l 7.3 17.5 5 70 70.2 20.7 9.1
Cl 25-40 7.5 14.8 65.0 x.7 X.S 79.0 5 70 93.0 5.2 I.8
C2zmb 40-70 11.2 11.4 74.0 7.Y 7.5 177.0 - 70 93.3 5.2 I .S

n-5
Al &IO 4.5 11.4 s7.0 S.X X.S 26.0 - <I c 71.1 25.3 3.1
A2 lo-24 4.0 2.6 37.5 5.9 10.0 32.0 IO 70 s 70.3 20.7 Y.0
Cl 24-38 11.0 2.3 45.0 Y.5 IO.5 178.0 I0 70 a 76.5 15.6 7.X
c2 38-68 12.4 38.4 79.0 13.4 IO.0 178.0 - 80 a 87.4 11.8 0.X

TI-6
Al O-4 3.1 2.9 15.0 3.6 7.0 40.5 <I g 73.6 21.5 4.x
A2 4-20 5.0 3.8 12.0 2.0 10.4 XI.S - 60 B 72.9 21.9 5.3
Cl 2%40 9.4 6.1 IS.0 7.1 21.0 180.0 - 60 g 77.5 16.3 6.’
C2Y 4G50 17.9 17.0 90.0 14.4 29.0 316.0 2-5 80 g 82.5 I 1.9 5.6
C3Y 50-75 69.8 27.6 153.3 14.6 30.0 1815.0 - 70 a 80.6 17.2 2.2
Czmb 75-100 49.3 70.0 143.3 22.3 33.0 1185.0 - 70 a 73.5 19.9 6.7

TI-7
Al &24 8.7 2.X 13.5 ‘.I 22.0 172.0 - 20 g 73.4 20.2 6.4
A2 24-35 14.8 12.0 31.0 X.0 24.0 308.0 - 70 g 80.4 13.6 6.0
Clyz 35-50 15.5 6.5 60.0 14.4 21.0 256.0 5 70 C 89.1 7.2 3.6
c2z 50-65 19.0 12.3 97.0 17.0 20.0 320.3 - 80 a 90.0 7.5 2.5
Czmb 65-100 173.8 305.7 200.0 25.0 32.0 4950.0 - 80 a 65.2 32.4 2.4
Czb 100-130 8.8 6.2 74.0 Il.6 6.6 98.0 - 80 a 93.7 4.4 1.9
 R. Amit et al. IGeomotphology 12 (1995) 91-107 101

Soil Depth EC Gypsum Ca*+ Mg*+ K+ Na+ Shattered Gravel Bounda$’ Sand Silt Clay
horizon (cm) (mS/cm) (meq/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO gravel (%) (%) (%) (%)
g soil) g soil) g soil) g soil) g soil) (%)

Tl-8
Al Gl2 11.6 5.3 23.5 4.1 14.0 256.0 - 20 c 74.2 20.2 5.6
A2 12-19 22.1 7.0 108.0 20.8 31.0 376.0 - 80 c 62.8 33.1 4.1
ClY 19-37 19.1 11.1 151.7 25.3 30.0 322.0 10 80 g 76.5 20.9 2.6
czyz 37-50 15.5 9.1 121.7 23.1 21.0 256.0 2-5 80 g 91.2 7.1 1.8
Czmb 5CL95 107.6 79.2 176.7 31.7 36.0 3200.0 - 80 a 15.0 20.3 4.7

n-9
Al G3 5.7 3.9 35.0 6.4 8.4 75.0 - 20 c 74.7 19.7 5.5
A2 3-6 10.6 5.1 49.0 9.6 20.0 169.5 - 50 a 68.0 23.2 8.8
Bw 68 16.1 7.8 88.0 14.6 21.0 265.0 - 20 c 63.5 24.8 11.8
Clzy 8-28 12.6 8.2 90.0 15.6 21.0 169.0 60 60 g 85.4 10.0 4.6
c2z 28+ 13.2 8.4 81.0 16.0 20.0 188.0 - 70 - 88.7 11.1 0.2

Tl-10
Av” @-0.5 3.8 2.7 33.0 5.4 7.5 38.0 - 10 c 58.0 33.2 8.8
Bw 0.5-I .5 5.0 3.3 30.0 6.8 9.4 57.0 - 70 a 36.5 41.7 21.8
ClY 1.5-20 8.5 7.5 73.5 10.0 12.8 90.0 1G15 70 g 90.3 7.4 2.3
c2 2wo 8.6 8.3 71.0 11.4 14.9 85.0 - 80 g 93.2 4.2 2.6

Key to table: for definitions see Soil Survey Staff ( 1975) and Birkeland ( 1984).
a Av = vesicular A horizon, gf = gravel-free B horizon.
b c =clear, g = gradual; a = abrupt,

ture of this unit indicate that it was deposited mainly
by wash processes rather than by gravity and debris
processes.
4.2. Soil projiles description along the terrace riser
Twenty soil profiles were described and analyzed
along the terrace riser at two locations Tl and T2 (Figs.
10and 11).
(A) The Qal su$ace. A Pleistocene Reg soil was
developed on this surface (Table 1, Tl-1 and Table 2,
T2-1) (Amit et al., 1993). The main pedogenic fea-
tures of this Reg soil are: a 0.4 cm thick vesicular A
horizon; a gravel-free, reddish B horizon, with up to
30% silt and clay; a powdery, alabastrine gypsic hori-
zon. The gypsic horizon contains 40-50% shattered
gravel down to a maximum depth of 23 cm with 370
meq/ 100 g of gypsum. At a depth of 60-150 cm, there
is a petrosalic horizon cemented by soluble salts with
no shattered gravel. The maximum salinity value at this
depth is 140 mS/cm (profile Tl-1, Table 1).
(B) The backslope (Table 1, Tl-2,3; Fig. 10, Tl-3;
Table 2, T2-2,3; Fig. 11, T2-3). This section is char-
acterized by weakly developed gypsic-salic AC
profiles. The gypsic C horizons have an average gyp-
sum amount of 57 meq/lOO g soil. The gypsum is
highly crystalline, non-powdery, disseminated in the
fine matrix, and deposited as cutans inside the shattered
gravel cracks. The salinity of these soils is far lower
than the Qal soils ( 11 mS/cm) . The maximum con-
centrations of the gypsum, salts, fines and shattered
gravel in these soils decreases downslope (Table 1, Tl-
2,3; Fig. 10 Tl-3,4; Table 2, T2-3,5,6; Fig. 11 T2-3,6).
Shattered gravel are distributed from the surface down
to a maximum depth of 40 cm. Salinity values in Tl-
3, increase abruptly at a depth of 80 cm from 11 mS/
cm to 59 mS/cm (Table 1).
(C) The footslope (Table 1, Tl-4,5,6,7,8; Fig. 10
Tl-6,7,9 and Table 2, T2-4,7,8,9; Fig. 11 T2-6,8,10).
This segment is characterized by weakly developed
gypsic-salic soils with AC profiles. The A horizons are
fine textured (up to 30% fines) with a vesicular struc-
ture. The Av horizons thin toward the toe of the slope.
The amount of soluble salts and gypsum increases
abruptly to a maximum gypsum concentration of 330
meq/lOO g soil and 173 mS/cm EC from the surface
to a maximum depth of 100 cm. The shattered gravel
(5-10%) occurs at a depth between 25 and 50 cm
102 R. Amit et ul. /Gromorpholo~y 12 (lYY5) Yl-107

Table 2
Field and laboratory characteristics of a soil catena along a terrace riser,, Nahal Shehoret alluvial fan (Trench T2 in Fig. 11)

Soil Depth EC Gypsum Ca” Mg” K’ Na’ Shattered Gravel Bounda$ Sand Silt Clay
horizon (cm) (mS/cm) (meq/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO (mg/lOO gravel (8) (%) (%) (%)
g soij) g soil) g sOi1) g soil) g soil) 7%)
-
r2-I
Av” G? x.2 5.5 55 7 IS.71 165.0 - <I c 49.30 38.72 11.97
BlgP 2-23 17.6 202.0 123 10.6 18.57 332.0 4G50 <5 c 70.97 28.65 0.39
BUY 23-43 128.4 367.3 384 57.6 X2.86 4925.0 - 70 c 60.71 38.79 0.50
Clyz 43-83 89.0 111.7 228 34.8 38.57 3250.0 70 a 74.70 21.61 3.69
C2Z 83-l I8 20.3 17.1 106 15.X 17.14 368.0 - 80 a 88.29 9.10 2.61

T2-2
Av” O-O.5 2.7 3. I 5x 4.4 3.86 x.0 - <l 69.44 21.66 8.90
ClY 0.5-33 10.3 139.3 x4 1O.h 18.57 192.0 l&IS 70 66.86 25.73 7.41
C2Y 33-80 14.9 31.4 87 13.4 20.7 I 256.0 - 70 86.70 10.49 2.81
c3 80-120 25.0 14.3 106 I3 20 624.0 80 86.99 9.05 3.95
C4 120+ 7.0 5.1 56 4.7 6.7 I 144.0 - 80 92.05 4.24 3.71

T2-3
Ava O-O.3 3.0 2.1 5x 5.4 5.7Y IS.0 <I c 67.46 23.94 8.60
ClY 3.5-20 IO.4 59.0 91 16.6 19.29 178.0 I5 70 g 70.22 24.73 5.05
C2Y 20-80 13.7 42.3 99 15.8 25.71 268.0 - 80 g 88.00 7.65 4.35
c3zy 80-120 19.5 26.0 102 16.6 30.7 I 388.0 - 80 g 82.66 14.83 2.51

T2-4
Al O-2 I .3 2. I 17 I .3 i.7Y I-1.0 -- <I g 74.88 18.15 6.98
A2 2-26 6.3 24.0 75 7 17.86 80.0 10 <l g 77.20 20.57 2.23
ClY 26-36 9.8 125.8 87 10.1 21.33 159.0 lo-15 70 g 83.45 13.75 2.80
C2Y 36-66 16.5 45.9 99 12 25.71 328.0 - 80 a 89.48 9.24 1.28
Czb 66-96 59.5 80.7 162 17.8 48.57 2070.0 90 a 80.66 15.25 4.09

T2-5
Al &3 0.4 1.6 5 0.75 I.5 I.4 - <I c 76.89 17.16 5.94
CIY 3-30 2.8 29.7 65 4 3.1 I h.5 30-40 70 g 90.76 7.08 2.16
C2Y 40-55 13.6 110.3 84 7.8 35.71 268.0 - 80 g 77.96 18.27 3.78
c3 55-70 10.8 19.8 81 5.6 25.71 205.5 - 80 g 93.19 4.79 2.01
c4 70-l 15 22.4 45.2 113 8.2 36.43 ___.
$5’0 - 80 C 88.44 10.28 1.28
C5 115-155 8.7 27.8 81 1.8 17.14 159.0 - 90 g 93.05 5.11 1.84

R-6
Al &3 0.5 1.8 5 0.9 7.2 275.0 - 5 c 78.02 15.81 6.18
ClY 3-43 8.2 38.0 92 8.6 14.5 135.0 10 90 g 88.81 7.11 4.08
C2Y 43-79 13.1 39.2 99 10.4 20.0 200.0 - 80 c 92.74 4.75 2.51
c3z 79-109 26.2 50.7 Ill 12.2 20.5 510.0 - 80 g 90.26 6.90 2.84
c4yz 109+ 10.4 18.7 89 8.6 IS.0 170.0 - 80 _ 87.83 7.09 5.09

72-7
Al O-17.5 4.1 3.6 25 5.6 13.0 60.0 - 70 g 75.77 15.97 8.36
ClY 17.5-44 9.6 19.4 95 10.4 14.0 162.0 10 80 g 82.55 12.24 5.22
C2Y 44-76 7.2 58.2 85 8.0 10.0 120.0 - 80 c 92.56 5.43 2.01
c3z 76-l 16 7.5 37.9 87 8.0 10.0 120.0 - 90 c 91.73 7.22 1.05
c4 116+ 6.8 10.1 80 6.6 6.2 116.0 - 90 _ 94.79 3.33 1.88
 R. Amit et al. /Geomorphology 12 (1995) 91-107 103

Soil Depth EC Gypsum Car+ mg/ Mg’+ K+ Na’ mg/ Shattered Gravel Bounda$ Sand Silt Clay
horizon (cm) (mS/cm) meq/lOOg 1OOg soil mg/lOOg mg/lOOg 1OOg soil gravel (%) (o/o) (%) (%)
soil soil soil (%)

72-8
Al O-10 3.0 2.6 16 3.6 12.5 37.5 - 20 g 73.01 19.53 7.46
A2 lo-20 6.2 4.3 31 7.0 19.0 126.0 20 g 74.32 19.43 6.25
A3 20-32 8.8 4.4 37 9.6 21.0 174.0 1 70 g 73.31 18.46 8.23
Cl 32-57 10.3 6.7 44 10.1 18.0 210.0 1 70 g 80.69 13.93 5.38
C2Y 57-97 11.9 19.4 99 12.4 17.0 220.0 - 90 g 83.5 15.94 0.56
c3zy 97-145 7.3 8.0 81 8.4 11.0 128.0 - 90 g 94.88 4.55 0.57
c4 145+ 9.0 17.7 91 11.5 11.5 156.0 - 90 - 92.6 5.77 1.63

n-9
Al &5 8.0 4.0 22 2.9 15.0 174.0 - 10 c 70.42 21.64 7.94
A2 5-10 12.1 4.8 22 5.0 17.5 312.0 5-10 70 c 72.72 17.8 9.48
ClY lo-35 16.8 16.6 116 24.0 21.0 352.0 - 80 c 83.21 13.77 3.02
c2zy 35-63 7.8 38.1 64 16.8 13.5 121.0 - 80 g 84.19 14.73 1.08
c3 63+ 7.8 23.2 89 14.4 13.0 114.0 - 80 - 92.38 5.94 1.68

R-IO
Al O-O.2 3.2 3.0 23 6.2 5.8 39.5 - 10 g 64.72 26.86 8.42
ClY 0.240 13.5 39.1 84 7.4 18.6 288.0 20 70 c 73.49 20.17 6.34
C2Y 40-70 10.1 14.4 115 32.0 13.0 128.0 - 85 g 85.71 13.49 0.8
C3Y 70-95 7.6 10.6 95 23.6 7.8 78.0 - 85 g 88.95 9.94 1.11
c4 95+ 7.1 34.3 101 20.4 5.3 72.0 - 90 - 89.32 10.47 0.21

Key to table: for definitions see Soil Survey Staff (1975) and Birkeland (1984).
aAv = vesicular A horizon: gf = gravel-free B horizon.
b c = clear; g = gradual: a = abrupt.

kiIELocENE
SURFACE Qal
\

MIDDLE xc’
HOL.OCFBE
GYPSLMne$lmgrail
TI-1
SURFACE Qa3
020406080
ax-
Tl-3

zoi’
Tl-9
Fig. 10. Distribution of gypsum with depth and along the terrace riser Tl, from the Pleistocene Qal surface to the toeslope and the Holocene
Qa3 surface.
104 R. Amit et al. / Geomorpholog~ I2 (1995) 91-107
l!d
T2-IO
Fig. 11,Distribution of clay and silt with depth and along the terrace riser T?. from the Pleistocene Qal surface to the toeslope and the Holocene
Qa2 surface.
(Table 1, Tl-4-8; Table 2, T2-7.8). The gypsum is
disseminated in the fine matrix and deposited as gyp-
sum crystals on the gravel surface and in the cracks of
the shattered gravel.
(D) The Holocene stable surfaces Qu:! and Qu3.
The Reg soil T2- 10, developed on Qa2 surface. has an
AC gypsic salic profile. Horizon A is thin (O-O.2 cm)
silty and has a vesicular structure. The C horizon, at a
depth of 0.2-40 cm has 20% shattered gravel and a
maximum gypsum concentration of 39 meq/ 100 g soil.
The concentration of the gypsum decreases with depth.
Profile Tl -9 and T 1- 10 were developed on surface Qa3.
These soils are slightly less developed then the soils on
Qa2. Profile Tl-9 is partially buried by the fine material
derived from the C2 colluvial unit (Table 1, profile T l-
9). Profile Tl- 10 is a young Reg soil with a cambic B
horizon, 10-l 5% shattered gravel and a maximum gyp-
sum concentration of 8 meq/ 100 g soil.
A petrosalic horizon extends from the petrosalic
horizon of the Qal soil to the footslope beyond the
location of the original vertical riser both Tl and T2 at
a depth of approximately 60 cm. The horizon is
between 30 and 80 cm thick, (Figs. 8 and 9) and with-
out shattered gravel. The salinity is high (173 mS/
cm), with continuous salt cutans which envelope the
LATE
PLEISTOCENE
SURFACE Qal
\
gravel and bridge between them. In T2 the degree of
cementation varies along the slope; it is high close to
the crest and less at the footslope (Fig. 9).
5. Discussion
The colluvium of a terrace riser and that of a multiple
event fault scarp clearly differ in their morphology,
sedimentology and pedology characteristics. On the
terrace riser the shape of the alluvial/colluvial contact
is concave and the depth of the colluvium decreases
upslope (Fig. 7 ) , whereas on a single or multiple fault
scarp the colluvium has a triangular shape with a sharp
contact between the fault plain and the colluvium (Figs.
3 and 4). The thickness of the colluvial layer increases
upslope to the point where it is bounded by the fault
plane.
The colluvium on the fault scarp is very poorly sorted
and is deposited primarily by rapid mass movement
processes (Wallace, 1977; Crone et al., 1987; Lubetkin
and Clark, 1988; Forman et al., 1991; McCalpin et al.,
1993). The colluvium is very homogeneous, and indi-
vidual stratigraphic units are recognized only by the
presence of pedogenic features such as shattered clasts
 R. Amit et al. /Geomorphology 12 (1995) 91-107
and increased salinity (Gerson et al., 1993). Similar
colluvial sedimentary structure and composition was
also observed on a single-event fault scarp by Wallace
( 1977), McCalpin ( 1982), Berry ( 1990), McCalpin
et al., ( 1992) and Nelson ( 1992). In contrast, the col-
luvium of the terrace risers is composed of three distinct
colluvial units, with a coarse poorly sorted and non-
stratified deposit found at the base of the colluvium
(Figs. 8 and 9; unit Clb) . This is considered to be the
result of initial scarp collapse to an angle of repose.
Two other colluvial units were deposited on this col-
lapse deposit; Cla and C2 with the upper unit C2 being
finer than the lower one (Figs. 8 and 9). The finer
texture of the C2 unit and its vesicular structure reflects
the increasing prominence of wash-dominated proc-
esses as the slope degrades to a lower angle.
The different geomorphic histories of the fault scarp
and the terrace risers is also reflected in the soils devel-
oped on the slopes. Although both the fault scarp and
the terrace risers are formed between the same aged
surfaces Qal and Qa3, the pattern of the soils is very
different. On the terrace risers, above the point of inflec-
tion, erosion and pedogenesis processes occurring
simultaneously. However, pre-weathered soil material
from eroded Qal soil moves down slope and has a
significant influence on soil development. Soils close
to the top of the slope display the most influence of the
pre-weathered soil material. For example, in T2-3 and
Tl-3 there are relatively high amounts of gypsum, silt
and clay close to the surface. This values decrease
downslope such that soils close to the point of inflection
show very minimal soil development (see T2-6 and
Tl-4, Figs. 10 and 11). Below the point of inflection,
deposition occurs. The A horizons of these soils are
thick (20 cm) and consist of fine colluvium accumu-
lated as thinly layered wash deposits oriented parallel
to the slope and with a well-preserved vesicular struc-
ture. The soils have relatively high total gypsum, silt
and clay values. The maximum gypsum is found at a
depth of 50-60 cm, and is much higher than that of the
soil on the Qa2 and Qa3 surfaces. As the terrace riser
and the lower terrace tread are similar in age, the
increased gypsum and salts in the catena are derived
from reworking of the Qal soil. No buried soils were
formed on the terrace risers. Instead cumulic soils have
formed under a slow, continuous deposition process. A
similar trend was found by Birkeland and Get-son
105
( 1991) who studied soil catenas on alluvial terrace
risers.
The soils on the catena along the multiple-event fault
scarp, however, are weakly developed with no variation
downslope and no evidence of material from the
reworked Qal soil. Several buried soils were found in
the colluvium downslope from the fault plane, with
each representing a tectonic displacement event fol-
lowed by a period of tectonic quiescence (Gerson et
al., 1993). No cumulic soils were observed on the fault
scarp. The buried soils and the homogeneity of the
colluvium indicate that the colluvium was deposited by
episodic mass movements and that these processes have
continued since the Late Pleistocene.
The different patterns of catenary development
between fault scarps and terrace riser slopes indicate
different rates and types of slope processes. The more
strongly developed soils on the terrace risers and the
colluvial stratigraphy indicate that these slopes are rel-
atively stable and that minor slope wash is occurring at
present. On the fault scat-p, episodic activation of the
slope along the same fault line has produced more rapid
and intense erosion than on the terrace riser.
A thick, moderately cemented, petrosalic horizon
developed parallel to the slope and below the point of
inflection on both terrace risers. Such an horizon is
found at a depth of 80-l 20 cm in well-developed Pleis-
tocene Reg soils developed on stable alluvial surfaces
(Amit et al., 1993). It is absent from the soils developed
on the lower Qa2 and Qa3 surfaces and along the fault
scarp. It is possible that this horizon was formed as a
result of solution and redeposition of the petrosalic
horizon of the Qal surface. Another possibility is that
the salts were pushed down vertically from the original
Reg soil during the formation of the terrace riser by the
advanced wetting front or shallow throughflow. Two
of the above possibilities can occur only under lower
rates of slope degradation processes. The absence of
this horizon along the fault scarp, despite its presence
on the upper Qal surface, indicate a more active erosion
process and instability of this slope. In two of the buried
soils developed on two colluvial units of the fault scarp,
a thin moderately developed petrosalic horizon was
found (Gerson et al., 1993). This indicates that under
stable slope conditions a petrosalic horizon will
develop on the fault scarp.
106 R. Amit rt al. / Gromorpholog~
6. Conclusions
In extremely arid regions, for non-cohesive. coarse
gravelly material, the difference between non-faulted
terrace risers and multiple-event fault scarps is not
always clear from the slope morphology. In our study,
significant differences were found in the colluvial stra-
tigraphy and the soil catenary relationships of the ter-
race riser in comparison to the multiple-event fault
scarp. The colluvial deposits of the terrace riser, which
is analogous to one fault event scarp, are fining upward
and are composed of basal collapse and debris facies,
with wash facies deposited above them. The lower con-
tact of the colluvium with the alluvium is concave and
the colluvium retreats upslope. The soils along the
footslope of the terrace riser are cumulative while the
soils along the upslope inherit some characteristics
from a reworking of the soil on the upper surface. The
soils and the sedimentary stratigraphy of the terrace
riser indicate that the rates of erosion and deposition
are very low and that the slope is relatively stable. The
colluvium of the multiple-event fault scarp displacing
the same surface, as the terrace riser consists of several
colluvial units. These colluvial units have a wedge mor-
phology and are composed mainly of debris facies. The
wedges were truncated by later faulting events, and fine
grained material did not have enough time to accumu-
late. Each has a triangular shape with a sharp contact
between the fault plane and the colluvium. A different
soil developed in each colluvial wedge. The soils are
buried soils and their pedogenic characteristics are
dependent on the time period elapsed between the fault-
ing events. A weakly developed catena along the mul-
tiple event fault scarp indicates that the rate of erosion
is still very high and that the slope is unstable.
This study has demonstrated that soils and sedimen-
tary stratigraphy can be used as suitable indicators for
distinguishing single-event fault scarps and unfaulted
terrace risers from multiple-event fault scarps. As col-
luvial stratigraphy on a fault scarp in this environment
is formed primarily by episodic tectonic activity and
not by climatic events, the colluvial stratigraphy can be
used to determine the frequency and magnitude of tec-
tonic events.
Acknowledgements
This work was made possible through the financial
support of the Licensing Division, Israeli Atomic
I2 (1995) 91-107
Energy Commission. This division, and especially Dr.
Y. Weiler, were instrumental in initiating and setting
up the project. Additional support was provided by the
Hebrew University internal funds for research. Grateful
acknowledgements are extended to Dr. Y. Weiler and
Mr. Simon Berkowitz for their constructive reviews.
We thank Mrs. Iris Tzicha for helping with the field
and lab work, Anat Altman-Bloch for drafting the fig-
ures, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments.
We thank Dr. N. Porat, Geological Survey of Israel, for
the IRSL dates which were made in collaboration with
Dr. A.G. Wintle, Institute of Earth Science, The Uni-
versity of Wales, Aberystwyth.
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