IEEE TRANSACTIONSON ARTENNU AND PROPAGATION, VOL. AP-21, NO.

4, JULY 1973

Measurement of Near Fields of

Antennas and Scatterers
JOHN D. DYSON

Abstract-A tutorial review of techniques used for the measure- include, for example,radiationmeasurementsmade on
ment of near-fields of antennasand scatterers, and an extensive very large apertures or arra.ys n-here it is not possible or
bibliography of the readilyavailableliterature in this area,are
presented.
pract.ica1 to makemeasurements at a distance great
enough to be in the far field. We will consider, in order,
measurements made in these two regions, with primary
I. INTRODUCTION emphasis upon t.he reactive near field region.
From an experimental point of view, the problem is t o
M OST of the cxperirnental measurementsmadeon
antennas are concerned with the determination of design
the fundamental characteristics of theantenna
or
obt,a.in probes or receiving antennaswith
t.hat. associa.ted a.pparatus for determining theamplitude,
have to do wit.h their immedia.te application: the input, phase, and polarization of the electromagnetic field at any
impedance, the far-field radiat.ion patt,ern, and the gain point in space in the immediate vicinity, including the
or the efficiency. There are however, occasionswhen it surface (orsurfaces), of the radiatingantenna.The
is desirable t o havc in addition t,o, or in lieuof, t.he techniques to be discussed are equally suitable for measur-
preceding properties, information about. the current. or ing the fields from scattering bodies.
charge distributionon the ant,enna, and/or t.he distribution The availability of the excellent phase and amplitude
of the near fields, i.e., the fields in the immediate vicinit.y receivers, vector volt.meters, and network analyzers,
of the antenna. which pernit direct measurement and recording of the
The near fields of theantenna canbe conveniently relative amplit,ude and phase of an RF signal, has eased
divided int.0 the “reactive near field” and the “radiating or eliminated many problems for t,he experiment,er.
near field” [l]. The formermaybe considered tobe Therefore we will limit the discussion on instrumentation
that, region immediately surrounding t,he ant.enna, with to a fen- systenls that. are of particular interest.
a usual out,er linit approximately a wavelength orless.
The latter is that region, beyond the reactive near field, 11. n’IEASUXEbfENT OF SURFACE CURRENT AND
in which t,he radiationpattern is dependentupon t.he CHARGE DISTRIBUTIOK
distance from the antenna. This latter region is usually
considered t o extend to a distance 2D2/X from a uniformly A. Sampling Probe
illuminat.ed radiating aperture of diamet,er Dl and much At, the boundary bet.ween a medium of high con-
greater distances for apcrtures excited with noncophasal ductivity and free space, the electromagnetic field equa-
distribut>ions. tions reduce to simple form. On a perfectly conducting
These two regions may present different measurement. surface, t.he surface-charge density u, andthe surface-
problems. Rleasuremcnt, of the current or surface charge current density J arerelated tothe electric (-@ and
distributions on t.he surface of anantenna involves magnet,ic (a)fields by the boundary conditions
measurement of the normal electric field and tangential
?l.* E = fJ/Q (1)
magnetic field verynear this surface. Similarly, the
measurement. of aperture field distributions usually are n.XB=l
made within or very near this aperture. These measure-
ments are thus usually made in the reactive nea.rfield n-here n ist.he unit norma.1 direct,ed outward from the
and the requirement that they bemadeinvery close surface and EO is the permittivity of free space.
proximity to the a.ntenna may dictate the use of very Inthe electrostatic case, and for periodically time-
small probe ant,ennas to sample these fields. varying fields in t,he usable range of radio frequencies,
There is a large class of measurements which can be the normal component of the electric field may be con-
made at, somewhat greater distance from the antenna but sidered to be zero within a.11 high conductivity materials.
still well within theradiating near field. This would Thus the surface charge density may be measured by a
probe whose output. is proportional to the magnitude of
t,he normal electric field at the mediumboundary.
Manuscript received October 4, 1972; revised January 29, 1973.
This paper was presented in part at an Antenna Forum sponsored Similarly, thedepth of penetration of thetangential
by the University of Illinois, Urbana. magnetic field in a good conduct,oris so small in and above
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 61801. the VHF range of frequencies thatthetrue current
DYSON: MEASORENENT OF NEAR FIELDS 447
20
4 c

-7-
h

Coaxial
Coble

(0) Sub-surface
J zL
Monopole Charge Probe ( b ) Equivalent Circuil

Surface Mounted
Housing

CooxiolCoble TO 2'L

( c ) Next-To-Surface Monopole Probe ( d l Above-Surface

Asymmetric
Dioole Probe

Fig. 1. Charge probes.

distribution is very closely approximat,ed by the surface
distribution on a perfect conductor. Thus if the output
of a probe is proportional only t o t,he magnit,ude of t,he
tangent,ial magnetic field it may be considered to bc a
measurement of the t-rue surface current..
Ideally it is desired to measure the unperturbed normal
electric andtangential magnet,ic fields onarbitrarily
shaped surfaces. Suit,able probes for the measurement of
t,hese quantities would be an infinitesimal electric dipole
andan infinitesima.1 magnetic dipole. The small finite
size electric dipole is a good physicaI approximation of
the former; the small finite size loop antenna may, under
restricted conditions, provide a. physical approximation
of the latter.
For accurat,e measurementof the field intensity distribu-
tion near a radio-frequency source, the probe must. meet
the following requirements [ 2 ] .
1) Any distortion of the fields by t,he probe and
associated equipment must, not. seriously affect the
accuracy of measu,rement,.
2) The aperture of t,he probe must be small enough to
essentially measure trhe field at. a point.
3) The probe must have the desired polarization to a
high degree of accuracy. Since it. is usuaIIy desired to
measure some linearly polarized component, of the field,
it. would be desirable t o have the probe linearly polarized.
4) The probe must deliver a signal voltage large enough
to permit accurat.e measurement.
It is axiomat.ic, however, that if the probeextracts
energy from the field for measurement, purposes t.he field
is no longer unperturbed, The problem is to bring about
a compromise between the maximum allowable perturba-
tion of the fieldsa.nd t,heextraction of the minimum
energy that. will permit the desired identific.ation of the
characteristics of the fields.
The measurement, of the current and charge on linear
ant,ennas dates back at. least to 1935 when Gihring and
Brown measured thecurrent onmodels of broadcast
towers [SI. Ea,rly measurement,swere also made on
antennas consisting of essent-iallylinear elements by other
investigators. I n t.he period following t.he World War 11,
however,met,hods of probing the nearfields of t,rans-
mission lines, antennas,andaircraft modelswere the
subject of a series of ext,ensiveinvcstigat>ionsby R. W . P.
King and his associates a.t Harvard University, and much
of our present knowledge of the characterist.ics of near-
field probes is due to t<hework of this group.
B. Nonopole-Charge Probe
The normal component. of the electrical fieldon a
m e h l surfacecanbe measured by a short,, cylindrical
wire receiving ant,ennaorientedparallel to this field.
If the geometry of the met,al surface permits it, t.his may
consist of a simple extension of thc centcr conductor of a
coaxial cable protrudingthrougha hole in t,hemetal
surface as shown in Fig. 1(a,).
This center conductor is a linear antenna loaded with
a transmission line terminat,edin an impedance ZL.
The electric field normal t o the met.al int.erface E , will
excit,ea current in t,he load. This a,ntenna may be analyzed
in t,ernls of t,he simplified equivalent, circuit of Fig. 1(b)
&ere the antenna has bcen replaced by t,he ideal Thevenin
generator with open-circuit. voltage V o in series with Z.4
the input impedance of t.he antenna when driven.
The use of asubsurfaceprobeprotruding from the
underside of a metal surface, to measure thespatial
448
Brass body
Polystyrene or foam
4 Since the probe should couple to thenormal component
from probe
L T u n i n g sireve
(d Transmission Lina Tunrr
,-Polgstyrrnr rlervr
Tapered sleeve of machinable
microwave absorber
--?
(b) Transmission Line Loading Sleeves
Fig. 2. Chokes and loading sleeves to suppress current induced on
exterior surface of coaxial line.
distribut,ion of chargedensity, is only possible if t.he
surface may be perforated or slotted to allow movement
of the probe. If the presence of t,he holes or if the slot, is
object,ionable, thesecan becoveredwhen not occupied
by the probe. However, the utility of this image plane
system is limit,ed anditfrequently becomesnecessary
to use a probe system which is external to the surface.
For flat, metal surfaces t,his may ta.ke the form of a
probe protruding from a small surface mount,ed housing
with bevelled edges as shown in Figure IC. Reynolds [4]
termedthese “next-to-surface” probes and uscd short.
monopoles, loops andcavitybackedslotsmounted in
this form of housing. Although there is some dist.ortion
of the magnetic field due to the change in the contour of
the surface caused by the housing and connecting coaxial
cable, such twhniqucs have been used at VHF and UHF
frequencies.
A more flexible chargeprobe can be constructedin
the form of an asymmet.rica1dipole as shown in Pig. 1 (d) .
A rigid coaxial line is positioned perpendicular to t,he
surfaceand theprotrudingcenter conductor,with the
out.er conductor, forms a receiving antenna. Because
there are currents inducedon the outer surface of t,he
coaxial line, and there is direct capacit,ive coupling t.o t.he
lower rim of t.his outer surface, the equivalent circuit is
complica,t.cd. Thiscircuit would incorporat,e t,hree gen-
erators,andbysuperpositiontheprobeoutput would
be thc sum of t,he complex volt,ages impressed upon t.he
load ZL by these generators [53. Since only coupling to
the center conductor is desired, t,he capacitance between
the lower rim of t.he line and the surface should be kept.
low. Coupling t.0 t,he out.er surfacemay beminimized
IEEE TaANSACTlONS OK AYTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, JUJAY 1973
by placing a quarter wave detuning sleeve, such as shown
in Fig. 1 ( c ), a half-wavelengthfrom t,heend of the
coaxial line.
of the elect,ric field, it is necessary that it be maintained
perpendicular to the surface and a constantdistance
from the surface as it is moved. The latter can be insured
by extending the coaxial line insulation past the end of
the center conductor for a short distance and then main-
taining cont,act bet,ween t.his insulation and the surface
t.obeprobed. Precise positioning and movement of the
probe requires a carriage and track mechanism driven by
a lead screw or an equivalent mechanical arrangement.
Since this mechanism is in the field of the a.ntenna its
backscatkering cross section must be kept small. Most
parts of t.he probe positioning mechanism can be made of
polystyTene, foam, wood, or other low dielectric const,ant
material, a.nd whenever possible t.his mechanismshould
be shielded wdh RF absorbing material.
It is essential to eliminateresonantlengths of meta.1
from the system. The radial arm on which the probe is
mounted is usually a smalldiameter met.al tube since
the metaltransmission lies within or on it anyway. Induced
current.s on this metal conductor radiate a fieldwhich
distort6 the original field distributioninthe region of
the probe. This effect can be reduced by placing quarter-
wave1engt.h sleeves or chokes at intervals to prevent these
induced currents frombecoming resonant and building
up to large values. The sleeves mustbeadjusted t.0 a
resonantlength, which is slight,ly less t.hanquarter-
wavelength, and be of a diameter appreciably larger than
t,hat of the outer conductor of the coaxial line to be
effective. If it is desirable to change the frequency of
measurement. easily, t.he currents on the outside of t.he
probe line can be dissipated in properlyplaced1oa.ding
sleeves of lossy material such as shown in Fig. 2. Coating
the line with carbonbased lacquer has sometimesbeen
helpful.
C . Loop-Current Probe
1 ) Simple Loop: The most common device used for
the measurement of high-frequency magnetic fields and
surface currents is the loop ant.enna, and t,he use of the
small loop as a probe hasbeen t.rea,t.edin detail in[5-j[8].
In its simple form t.he loop a.nt.ennaconsists of a single
turn of wire as shonn in Fig. 3(a). For the moment, we
assume that t’his loop is immersed in a planelinearly
pohrized electromagneticwave in free space, and that
t,he loop is orientedsucht.hat it lies in the yz plane,
perpendicular t.0 the magnetic field E , which is considered
to be const,ant over the area of the loop. The loop cir-
cumference is assumed small in wavelengths, andthe
load impedance can be considered t.0 be connected across
a slice or gap in the cont.our of the loop. Underthese
conditions the current, I H induced inthe loop by the
magnet,ic field, is equal in magnitude a t all points on the
contour. The voltage Tle across t,he gap may be obtained
by equating the line integral of the electric field around
DYSON: MESSUREMEXT OF NEAR FIELDS 449

Conducting Surface
unboloncad
lood Z,

-
IC) Holf Loop
obove
Shielded
Id) bolonced [e) Shielded loop
balun conducting
with plone loop
Fig. 3. Loop antenna probe for measurement of surface current.

t.he closed contour, to the time derivative of t,he magnet,ic Fig. 3 (c) will provide the symmetry required to minimize
flux through the loop. the response to the electric field. This ma.y be made into
For the caleulat,ion of the current. IL through t.he load, a pract,ica.lprobe antenna as in Fig. 3(d) by constructing
the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3(b) may be used. The loop the loopfrom coa,xial cable withanarrowgapint,he
is repla.ced by an equivalent generator with open circuit, outer conductor or shield. The advantage of t.his shielded
voltage V e in series with its internal impedance equal to construction results fromthe fact t,hat t.he current. excited
the self-impedance of the loop at the input, terminals Z A on t-heloop by t.he external ficld flowson the symmetrically
and a load impeda,nce ZL. I n addition to the circulating constructed outer surface of the shield. Energy is t.rans-
or loop currents due t.0 the magnet,ic field there will be ferred to the load ZL as a result of the field set. up across
codirectional, or a.ntenna,currents induced in the sides t.he gap. When the gapis small it. approaches t>hecondit.ion
of the loop that are parallel to the electric field. If the of the idealized slice load impedance of Fig. 3(a) and
ctlectricfield is linearly polarized and oriented along the because of symmetry I L will be due only to I H .
x axis, thesecurrents will notcontribute to V e . If the The shielded loop may be converted for use with an
clectric field, or a linearly polarized component of this unbalanced coaxial line by incorporating simple
a
field, is orient.ed along the y axis there will be a current. balanced-to-unbalanced (balun) t,ransformer as a part
Iu excited in t,he loop due to the asymmet.ry about t.he of the loop structure. The eent.er conductor of the coaxial
xy plane caused by the presence of the load. The tot.al line is terminated on the outer conductor, or shield, of t.he
current t.hrough the load will be opposite half-loop at the gap. Energy will still be t,rans-
= III+ + r, I,,. (2)
ferred t.o load ZL in the desired mode since t.he configursG
tion at. the gap merely represents a series impedance Do
Since weca.n construct.a loop with the load locat,ed the loop currents.Somewhatgreatersymmetrycan be
on one of t.he lines of symmetry, one of these components achieved atthe gap by 1ett.ing the centerconductor
( I z in Fig.3 (a)) nil1vanish a t thislineandcan be extend into the 0pposit.e ha.lf-loop and making this half
ignored. If t,hen the electric field t o be measured is linearly loop a. coaxial line t,hat is open or short circuited. It is
polarized in t.he plane of the loop, t.he loop may beoriented possible to use this line extension as a tuning stubin some
so that Iu is zero and 1 is equal t.0 I H . If, however, the cases, but.thisisfrequencysensitive andnot usually
ficld is ellipt,ically polarized, as it. is in many near-field convenient. if the loop is very small in wa.velengths.
measurements, no such orient.at.ion is possible unless the As with t.he subsurface charge probes, the utility of
loop is constructed wit,h a second plane of sgm1et.ry. these probes is limited t,o t,hose cases Tvhere t.he position
This requiressymmetrically placed loads on opposit,e of the probe is fixed, or if it. must be moved, t o those
sides of t,he loop. ca.ses where a slot. can be cut in the conduct.ing surface.
2 ) Shielded Singly Loaded Loop: For surfacecurrent. On large flat. surfaces a next-t.0-surface mounting may be
measurements on flat metal surfaces, a loop such as in practical. Where neither of these are pract.ica1 the ex-
450 IEEE TRANSACTIOKS ON ANTEXXAS -4-PROPAGATION, JULY
3 1973

TO ZL
Rigid conductor
lo positioning
mechanism

(0) Shielded
Circular loop (b) Shielded
Reclongulor loop
Fig. 4. Above-surface shielded singleloaded loop probes.

Solid Rod

y-::-? I I
GODS

'Conduclinp
Surfoce

6.5 ZL

(01 Doublelooded loop (b)Above-surface double

looded loOD

. .

"A

I Cwilh
) Loop double lood Id) Bolonced loop wilh hybrid

Fig. 5. Doubleloaded shielded loop probes.

ternallysupportedprobes of Fig. 4 may be used. The
comments made in regard to the positioning mechanism
and use of detuning sleeves for the externally supported
probes again apply.
The magnetic sensitivity of small loops is proportional
to the loop area and hence the loop must be of suflicient
size t.0 provide a useful out.put. Ba.la.nced aga.inst,t.his is
the fact that the out.put of the probe is proportional t.0
the average value of t.he magnetic field t.hrough the loop
aperture, hence the aperture of the probe must be small
enough t o essentially. measure the field at a point. The
square loop has been shown to be the optimum shape
for minimizing the averaging error for a given magnetic
sensitivity in a general incident field [SI. However, at
UHF and microwave frequencies, where the shielded
loops must be formedof coaxial lines of small cross section,
the circular loop is usually the easiest to construct..
While the area of a circular loop of diameter 2d is ap-
proximately 20 percent less tha,n that of a square loop
having sides 2d, so that its sensitivity is not optimum,
t,his disadvantage is small. It is compensated by the fact
t.hat t,he undesired response of the circular loop to the
electric field is also less because the perimeter of the
circular loop is reduced inthe same ratio as its area[7].
Considerable care must be exercised in the use of the
singly loaded loop, since the electric field might not be
normal to a plane surface at a very sma.11 distance from
the metal surface at edge discont.inuities such as apertures
in the surface. I n addition, on even the relatively simple
linear antenna, alt.hough t.he Ampere-Maxwell equation
indicates that the tangential magnetic field at the surface
of theantenna proportional to the total axial current
on the antenna, the presence of a non-vanishing longi-
tudinal electric field at points awayfrom the antenna
surface means t.hat the magnetic field awayfrom the
surface is no longer exactly proportional to the current.
DYSON: MEASUREMENT OF XE.4Fi FIELDS 45 1

Most probes measure the fields a finite distance, however 0-

small, away from the surface.
3) Doubly Loaded Loop: Symmetricdouble
loops are shown in Fig. 5. These loops may be round or
loaded
-m
n
a)
rect,angular. The t.ota.1 current. in Z L duetothe fields 0 ZL= IOOohms
across the two gaps can be resolved into symmetric and W
0 fdrlO-'
antisymmetric components. As indicated in Fig. 5(c) the cI. Y =-26db
symmetric or in-phase loop currents ( I S )are proportional I" -20 CIRCULAR LOOP
t o the magnetic field B,, and t.he antisymmetric or out- + -___ SQUARE LOOP
t SINGLY
LOADED
of-phase loop currents ( I A )to the electric field E,. There-
fore, the sum of these components I B is proportional to
B, and the difference of t,hese currents IE is proportional
to E,. I n a practical systemIg a.ndIE can be obtained from
a 180" hybrid as in Fig. 5 (d) . However, since t.he hybrid
junction will not have perfect isolation between the sum
and difference ports, t.he available currents will be
I B = Ir. + YIA (3)
IE = I A + 712 (4)
where y is the isolation of the hybrid. LOOPSIDE OR MAMETER
4 ) Loop-Probe Error Ratio: To compa.re t.heability BJ WAVELENGTHS

of different. probes andthe connecting circuit. to dis- Fig. 6. System error ratio e, ratio of output currentdue to unit
electric fieldparallel to loop, to output currentdue tounit
criminateagainst electric field effects, Whit.eside and magnetic field through loop. ( a = wire radius) (after Whiteside
King [SI defined a "system error ratio" e,. This is the and King [8]).
ratio of t,he output current due t.0 a unit electric field
parallel to the loop t o the out,put current due to a unit,
magnetic field through the loop. The subscript n indicates
the number of symmetrical loa.ds on the loop. The error
ratios are dimensiodess constants given by
el = KEJKB, (*?1
e2 = KE*/KB* (6)
where KE and K B are sensitivity constants of t.he probe Fig. 7. Symmetricalbridgedloopprobe.
t o t-he elect.ric and magnet.ic fields andare dependent
upon t.he probe geometry alone.
OUTER CONDUCTOR
Whiteside [7] determined that for t,he singly loaded 7
loop, the error ratio el is independent of load impedance
and,for wire radii less than 0.003 wavelengths, in- COPPE
dependent of wire size. For the doubly loadedloop, g CRYSTA

is a function of load impedance and wire size, with small

wire and small loads reducing the value of e?. The error
ratio el of the singly loaded loop decreases markedly
with loop diameter. The measurement error in a system
using a doubly loaded loop is much less than el by an
amount dependent. upon the isolation t,hrough the hybrid
used as a combiner.Measured values of the magnitude
and phase of the system-error rat.io e, in d B (i.e.,
20 log e,) are plotted in Fig. 6 for square and circular
loops as afunction of the side length or diameterin
wavelengths. These curves are based upon y of -26 db.
Commercial coaxial hybrids are readily available for use
over octave bandwidt,hs up to 2400 MHz with y greater
than 45 dB and up to 10 500 MHz wit.h y greater than
35 dB. I n t.he HF, VHF region hybrids are available for
use over several oct,aves w4t.h y greater t.han 30 dB. I n
waveguide, matched magic tees are available -4th 40 dB
of isolation.
COUPLlmj LOOP
Pig. 8. Combined magnetic loopdiode detector (after Degenford
et al. [lo]).
The va.lues of error ratio shown in Fig. 6 were measured
with image plane loops such as in Fig. 5 (a). The presence
of t.he transmission line leading to t.he above-surface
loops will increase thisratio.Fora singly loaded loop
the load gap should be directly opposite the t,ransmission
line. With a. doubly loaded loop this is not possible unless
the loop is constructed with a conducting bridge as shown
in Fig. 7. The bridged loop has a reduced sensit.ivity to
the elect,ric field and hence the error ratio is reduced a
few d B [SI. The improvement over the unbridged double
loaded loop is less than 1 dB for large probes or for image

452
probes, but may reach 5 dB for small free-space or above-
surfa.ce probes. This reduction in g may be of importance
insituationswhere the cross coupling of modes is
sig&ca.nt.
5 ) Loop for Use ai Millimeter Wavelengths: A combined
magnetic loop, diode detector has been devised for use
a t millimeter wavelengths [lo]. As shown in Fig. 8, a
crystal chip is soldered to the endof a tungsten rod which
becomes the center conductor of a coaxial line. A small
diameter tungsten wire formed into a small loop between
the outer conduct,or and the crystal serves as a coupling
loop and whisker for a point contact diode, An experi-
mentalunit has been tested at 75 GHz. It should be
possible t o construct units t o go much higher in frequency.
This is an unshielded loop and hence must be used with
some care t,o minimize t,he response to the electric field.
Its disadvantages in this respect may be outweighed by
its efficiency and increased sensitivity over othertypes
of probes and waveguide mounted diode detectors a t
' wavelength [SI. This balunis frequency sensitive, andif it
these extremely short wavelengths.
6 ) Current and Charge Probes Using Scattering Tech-
niques: It should be mentioned that it ispossible t o
measure the current and charge on metal surfaces and
antennas by using aradicallydifferent t.echnique. This
technique 'depends upon using the properties of the
probe as a scatterer. A discussion of the use of t,his type
of probe to measurecurrentand charge distributions
will be delayed until the technique is developed in the
next few sections.
111. hfEASUREJIENT O F APERTURE DISTRIBUTION
AND
NEARFIELDS
Aperture field distributionscan be measured by two
general classes of probes. The first class provides a direct
sample of the field. For example, the magnetic field may
be measured by the above-surface loop probes considered
ina preceeding section andthe electric field maybe
measured by anelectric dipole or waveguide horn antenna.
The second class depends upon t.he measurement of t.he
backscattering from a small probe which may or may not
havea direct electrical connection t,o the measurement
circuit.
A . Probes for Di,rect Measurement
1 ) The Electric Dipole: Consider alinear antenna of
length 2h and diameter 2a, center loaded with a t.rans-
mission line terminatedinits characteristicimpedance
2~ as shown in Fig. 9 (a). For small diameters this dipole
.is a good electric field probe, responding only tothe
tangential component of the electric field.
The measurement of near fields is, in general, affected
in a complicat.ed way by the presence and characteristics
of the probe antenna. Thisproblem, which will be discussed
later, has been considered by a number of workers and
correction of t.he measured data is possible. Without
such correction Borts a.nd Wooton have shown that the
dipole as a probe should certainly not be larger than a
half-wavelength [11], [la]. Alt.hough the sensit.ivity of
- -
IEEE TFtANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, JULY 1973
the dipole is a maximum for a resonant length, the resonant
antenna scatters muchmore energy than a shorter dipole,
and such a long probe responds to an average field and
not a field at a point. For this reason the probe is usually
kept small. Similarly, althoughthe thick antenna is
somewhat more sensitive, the
thin
antenna has a
greater resolution for t.he det.ermination of the polarization
characteristics of the electric field. If the probe is known
to be linearly polarized, the polarization of the electric
field may be obtained by rotating t.he probe about axis
A in Fig. 9 (a) , and recording the amplitude of the field
as a function of ohis rotation, when this axis, and hence
the plane of rotation, is oriented for maximum response.
The balanced dipole mustbe connected to t.he un-
balanced line through a suitablebalun.Thismay take
the form shown in Fig. 9 (e), where the center conductor
is connected t o one dipole a n n and the outer conductor
t o the other, with this outer conductor slit for quarter-
is desirable t.0 use the probe over wide bandwidths,
another type must beused.
A technique that may be used over octave and wider
bandwidths is indicated in Fig. 9(d), The dipole arrns are
connected to equal length individual coaxial lines, which
in turn are connected to the side ports of 180' coaxial
hybrid. The series port and the two side ports of this
hybrid function as a shielded balun and since t,he fourth
port (the sum port) is not necessary it should be termi-
nated in a 5 0 4 load. The two center conductors of the
coaxial lines become abalanced, shielded transmission
line of 100-t2 characteristic impedance [13]. The outer
conductors of the two coaxial lines should be in contact
with each other, or bonded together in the region near
the dipole to prevent these outer conductors from acting
as a tmo wire line that can become resonant, in length.
The two lines may be enclosed in a small diameter tube
of length 1 to provide support for proper positioning. As
for all such supported probes, detuning or absorbing sleeves
are usually necessary to minimize the backscatter from
this metal t.ube. The dipole and balun must be carefully
constructed andthe connecting lines t.0the hybrid matched
in length t.0 obt,ain satisfactoryresults.
It is usuallyadvisable to check the polarization dis-
crimination of a dipole probe by rotating it in a known
linearly polarized field. The fields inside an open-ended
reduced heightrectangular waveguideexcited in the
dominant.mode provide a convenient check on the
polarization of probes which are small compared to the
dimensions of the waveguide.
2) Wi.reless Probes: The conventional probing arrange-
mentst.hathave been discussed presentanumber of
difficulties. The probe, andparticularly its associated
metal clad coaxial cable or waveguide, are a major source
of field perturbation. Methods of minimizing this distortion
have been discussed, but there is always a question of the
reliability of the measured data.
At HF and VHF frequencies, it is possible to overcome
many of these difficulties by telemetering the data from
DYSOK: MEASUREYEh-T OF NE.%R FIELDS 453

A __-

I
(a) DIDOIDRobe (b) SimplifiedEquivalent
Circuit

(3Practical Mpde
Balun
with (dl Practical Dipole with
BalancedFeed

Fig. 9. Dipole electric field probes.

necessary t.0 bring the RF signal from t,he probe back

to the receiving apparatus by means of a relatively long
waveguide or transmission line. When the probe is moved
to obtain the spatial distribution of the fields, there will
bean unavoidable flexing of the t,ransmission line or
MICRWAVE
ABSORBER
mot.ion of required rotary joints. This movement ca.n
Fig. 10. Waveguide probe(after Richmond and Tice [2]). cause serious errors in the measurement Of t'he phase
of the fields.
To circumventthese difficult.ies, JusticeandRumsey
the probe. Iizuka [14] developed a small battery operated [15] proposed. a met,hod of probing an electric field by
tunnel diode oscillator t.o be mount.ed on a dipole probe means of a s n d l scatkerer. The principle of t.he method
for measuring the radiation from a t.est antenna a t 114 rests upon the measurement of the reradia.ted or scattered
MHz. I n this system the radiat.ed signal from the test field from a small probe as it is moved through the field
ant,enna, amplitude modulated at 1000 Hz, was received of interest. The observed quantity is the signal V due t o
by the probe where it was detected. The 1000 Hz signal this scat,tered field, received by the antenna under test.
was used to frequency modulate a 7 MHz tunnel diode It follows from the reciprocit,y theorem tha,t this voltage
e
oscillator. The 7-lIHz 1731 signal was f e d to the probe 17 is related t.0 t.he electric field at t.he position of the
dipole through a. duplexer consist,ing of two-t,ank circuits, scatt,erer [lS], [17].
radiated,and received byaremote receiving antenna. Torelate t.hese quant,ities, we assume thescatterer
The probe was designed for use under wat,er as well as is very small in terms of wavelengt.hs and use a Rayleigh
in free space. With the dipole replaced by a small shielded approximation [lS]. In thevicinity of this small scatterer,
loop, the probe would telemeter eit,her the H field or t,he the electromagnetic field distributioncanbe calculated
current, distribution along an antenna. as though t.he wavelength were infinite, making available
3) Waveguid Probe: In the microwave and millimeter the results of potential theory. Thus, a very small scatterer
region, sma.11horns or open-ended waveguides a.re used a5 of any arbitrary shape immersed in a field (e,a),
probes. One x-band open-end waveguide probe developed characterized as a.n elementary electric dipole with current
can be
by Richmond and Tice C2] isshown in Fig.10. The moment p , where
open-end guide was loaded t o permit, a reduct,ion in -
cross section, and covered withabsorber t o reduce re- = aE. (7)
radiat.ion and distortion of t.he fields. The polariza,bilit,yof t.he scattering body (a)is, in general,
a 3 x 3 ma.trix which can be evaluated by considering
B. Indirect Methods of Measurement the problem of t,he scatterer immersed in a static field e.
1 ) Th.e Use of Small Scatterer as Probe: The presence For a few simple geometries a can be found a.nalytically.
of the waveguide or coaxial lines leading to the probe I n other cases it hasbeen det,ernined experimentally,
causes difficult.ies other than t,hose due t,o field perturba- somet,imes using analog techniques, In the pract,ical case,
tions. Whenphasemeasurementsareundertaken, it is a. convenient scatterer is a very short straight cylinder.
454
I n this case the matrix a reduces t o a single t.ernl, and p
is equa.1 to a times E l , the component of E parallel to
cylinder axis
p =d l . (8)
Thus p is proportional to the undisturbed field I? radi-
ated by the antennaunder test. It is assumed that
(E,&!) is generated by impressing a current io across
a pair of terminalsconnected to the test antenna. By
reciprocity, there d be a voltage V developed across
the terminals of this antenna when it is immersed in the
radiat,ed field due t.0 p (i.e., the scatterer) and
-
&I’ = P.E. (9)
From (8) and (9), Re see t,hat
1’ = AE2 (10)
where A is a constant. I n addition to theassumption that
the scatterer is small, we have assumed that t.he scatterer
stays in t,he same medium.
Equation (10) indicates that the reradiated field or
echo signal V- from the scatterer is. proportional to the
square of the component of the electric field El oriented
along the scatterer and the phase a.ngle of V is twice the
relative phaseangle of El plus a constant (the phase of A ) .
Equation (10) assumes the scatterer issufficiently
far removed from all conducting bodies to be essentially
in free space. Justiceand Rumsey [15] estima.ted the
magnitude of error in the determination of E when the
scatterer approaches an infinitely large, perfectly con-
duct.ing sheet.. They ca.lculated that this error did not
exceed 1 percent, provided the distance from the re-
flecting surface is greater than thelength of the scatterer.
I n a closely related study, Plonsey[19] took into account
the radius of a cylindrical scat,terer when investigating
the interaction beheen anactive scatterer and aninfinit.e
reflecting pla.ne, and obtained the error that could be
expected when the scatterer is in close proxinuty t o a
reflector. Fig. 11, which has been extracted fromPlonsey’s
work, indicated that we might. expect an error of approxi-
mately 2 percent for a very small diameter probe of length
X/16, spaced h/20 from a reflect.or. This error rises to
approximately 6 percent for the same diameter scatterer
of length h/8, and for any lengt,h the error rises as t.he
radius of t.he scatterer increases.
Thismethod of sampling a electromagnet.ic field has
major si,gificance. Since the scatterer can be supported
and positioned by very thin nylon thread, it eliminates
the metal clad coaxial cable or waveguide leading to the
probe, and eliminates phase errors due t.o flexing of the
coaxial cable or those due t o movement of waveguide
rotary joints in t.he lines leading from the probe. Given
mEcient sensitivity in the receiving system, it permits
very small simple probes and hence it is very useful a t
microwave frequencies. It also pernuts t.he measurement
of fields in confined space such as inside waveguides, in
liquid, and since the scatterer can be slid through very
small holes, in solid dielectrics.
IEEE TRSXSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGA’ITON, JULY 1973
24
ecting
e
22
16
.008- L
12
/A zx ,062
8 t .0024-\\\ \
d/x
Fig. 11. Error due to interaction of probe of length L with spacing
d t o infinite conducting plane for various values of probe radius
(after Plormey [19]).
AMPLITUDE
NYLON SUPPORT
ANTENNA
UNDER T E S T
Fig. 12. Instrumentation for measurement of field distribution
with small scatterer. If receiver is not available, system described
in [15]m y be used.
The
scattering method of measuring electric-field
distributions can be inst,rumented as shown in Fig. 12.
A hybridjunct.ion is used to isolate the receiver or detector
from the signal source. The collinear (or side) arms are
connected to the antenna under test and to a resistive
load, and t.he E and H arms (series and para.lle1 arms)
are connected to t,he signal source and the receiver. If
the reflect.ion coefficient of the load is equal to that of the
antenna no power would be transmitted from t,he signal
source to thereceiver through anidea.1hybrid. In practice,
beca.use t.hesignal t o be received isvery small, the antenna
must be t.uned until the isolation between signal source
and receiver is about 90-100 dB. An undesired signal
to the receiver due to imperfect balance of the hybrid
junction which is 20 dB below the desired scattered signal
would still c0ntribut.e a =t5 percent error to electric-field
measurements [20]. I n addition, care must be t.aken to
preventmotion of any bodies, except t,he scatterer, in
the antenna field during measurements.
To overcome the disadvantages of this system,
Richmond [20] proposed thatthe scattered wave be
modulated by electronic means.Independently,Cullen
and Parr[21] proposed tha.t anelectromagnetic field could
be measured by perturbing it with a small scatterer and
DYSON: MEASUREMENT OF h'EAR FIELDS 455
CONDUCTOR WIDTH, 0 0 8 CM
that this scattererbea spinning dipole. Thisin effect 7 Ah
.
provides a scathered signal t.hat is modulated by mechan-
ical means.
2) ModulatedScattering
Technique: If a nonlinear SQUARE WPVE
impedance such as a diode is placed a t t.he center of a
wire scatterer, and a 1000 Hz square-Tvave modulation
current is applied to this diode through slight,ly conducting
thread leads, as shown in Fig. 13, it ca.n be shown [22 J
that t,he observable voltage V is given by -' GRAPHITE
IMPREGNATED
THREAD
ALL I

Fig. 13. Diodeused as modulated scatter for field measurements

(after Richmond [ZO]).

where t.he first term is a continuous signal whichwill

I
not be detect,ed by t.he system to beused, C is a const,ant
proportional to the source excit,ation, E and Z are the
effective length andinput impedance, respectively, of
I E I
H
SHIFTER
this dipole scatterer and ZL is the diodejunction im-
pedance. This impedance ZL,the load impeda.nce at the

9
COATED

t,
ANTENNA
ATTEN
effective terminals of thescatterer, willchange a t t,he \
modulating frequency and, hence, the resuking scattered
field will bemodulated. The magnitude of V is stillpropor- REFERENE ARM
$AD TUNER
SCATT~ER'
f i
tional to t.he square of the magnit.ude of the component
NYLON i
of E along t.he direction of the diode and the phase of COUPLER

V is equal to twice the phase angle of E plus a constant

phase shift. This phase shift depends upon Z and the t x o
values of Z L corresponding to the two stat.es of t>he square
wave modulating signa.1.
1nst.rument.ation t,ha.t. can be used to monitor t.hs ~

SOURCE ISOLATOR
scattered field is shown in Fig. 14. This will be recognized
Fig. 14. Instrumentation for measurement of field distribution
as a coherentdetection . systemwith balancedmixer with small modulated scatterer.
[23], and thc voltage output from the selective amplifier
at t,he angularmodulation frequency urncanbe shown
to beof t.he form coa.ted with colloida.1solutions of graphite, which is used
tocarry t.he modulationvoltage,has negligible effect
v N K [ E ~ ECOS~ (29
~ - e) 1COS wmt (12)
on the nlea,surements if the resistance near the dipole is
K is aconstant, El, and 0 the amplitude a.nd relative approximately 200 000 Q/ft or greater.Three inches of
phase of t,he signal in the reference arm, E? and 9 the coated cot,ton thread at. both ends of the dipole should
amplitude and relative phase ofbhe signal received from providesufficient isolation from the rest of the audio
the scat.ter. If t,he amplitude of t.he reference signal El circuit [ X ) ] at microwave frequencies.

-
is held const.ant, and its phase adjusted to make 24 = 0 The backscattered field from the scat,tcring probe can
then V EZ2.The output of t.he mixer is independent of he enhanced by making the probes resonant or by using
the phase or amplitude of any unmodulated unbalanced active elements t.o load t,he probe [26>[38].
signal. It is possible to measure the magnetic field by using a
Othermethods of detecting the modulatedscattered scattering loop formedof two diodes [Z219[24]. As far
signal have beenproposed [ 2 5 ] , however because these as i . 1 Inagnetic
~ field is concerned, the diode loop can be
syst,ems depend upon differentiation between the modu- considered simply as an ordinary conduct.ing loop loaded
lated scattered signal and unmodulated signals, most of with two impedances due t,o the diode junct,ions. This is
the phase-amplitude measuring setscannot be directly an unsbieldedloopwhichwillrespond toboththe I?
used. a.nd fields. It, is possible, however, to use a single
The modulated scat.tering technique not only dispenses diode scatterer to determine the direction of E , and with
witahthe necessit,y of a transmission line leading from the the direct,ion of I? known, the B field ca.n be determined
dipole probe but also relaxes t.he requirements on tuning by properly orient.ing the diode loop probe. long as t.he
and frequencyst,ability. Signals scattered ba.ckfrom direction of the diodes are kept, perpendicular to I?,
supportingframesandot,herst,at,ionarystructuresare the .I? field effect is minimized or not detected.
not, modulated, therefore, they do not unduly a.ffect the If the presence of some RF circuit.ry at. the probe can
accuracy of the experimental results. be tolerat,ed, King [29] has proposed a scheme (Ivith an
The effects of the nylon supporting threads have been excellent. discussion of t,he possible errorsinvolved) in
found to be negligible. Similarly, the cot,t,on thread which the signa.1 from the probe is single sideband
456
a 1
CIRCULATOR
DKlECTlONPL COVRER
HYBRID TEE
Fig. 15. Instrumentation for real-time
measurement of field
distribution with SSBSC homodyne system (after Hing W1).
modulated (SSBSC) andthen reradiatedas shown in
Fig. 16. Under these condit.ions the output of the detector
is proportional t o
17 N KEIE? COS [umt + 241 (13)
and the amplitude and phase of the field is immediately
available. The reader is referred to [23] for a general
discussion of the effect of different types of modulation
in these systems. Using this “SSBSC Homodyne” syst,em
with low-noise detectors IGng hasdemonstrated sensi-
tivities of - 110 t o - 120 dBm [29].
There is an effective method of modulating the field,
which is scatt,eredby the probe, withoutmakingany
electrical connection t o the probe. As shown in Fig. 16,
a small photoelectric panel or cell is used in place of the
diode scatterer [30]-[35]. Focused pulses of a light beam
shine on the cell at an audio rate and the modulating
mechanism relies on thc pcriodic change in conductivity
of the photoconductive mat.eria1. Wohlleben and Hennig
[33] have st-udied thestaticanddynamic “reaction-
factor’’ (defined t.o be one m i n u s the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient) of light modulated photoconductor
probes as a function of the maximum dimension of the
probe.
3) PerturbationTechnique: An interesting met.hod of
obtaining the sca.lar amplitude distribution inthe aperture
of anantennahas been used by Cornbleet [35]. The
method is based upon the single precise measurement of
the aberration of t.hc direction of the peak of t.he radiated
beam caused by pa,rtially obscuring the aperture with a
reflectionless dielectric sheet,strip, or disk, of known
small phase-insertion de1a.y.
4) Measurement of Surface Charge and Current Dis-
tribution with Modulated Scatterers: Within t.he limi-
tations implied by Fig. 11, it, is possible t.o measure
the charge and currentdistribut.ionon la,rge surfaces
of antennas or scattering bodies, a.nd the surface im-
pedance of plane stratified media [36]. In the HF,VHF,
and UHF range of frequencies, it is practical t o measure
these a.forementioned distributions on the surface of thin
linear antennas as well. The scatterers may take forms
shown in Fig. 17.
A small shielded copla.nar loop, loaded with a photocell,
has been used by Iizuka t o measure the current distribu-
tion on monopole and dipole antennas a t 600 MHz [31].
IEEE TBAXSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS A N D PROPAG.4TION, JULY 1973
-MOOULATEO
A LIGHT S 0 U R E - A
PANEL
SCATTER
(a) ( b)
Fig. 16. Lightmodulated scatterin probes for measurement of
electnc fields. (a) After Potta 1301. (b? After Vural and Cheng 1341.
ANTENNA WIRE
(a) RADIALDIPOLEPERTURBER
(E) COPLANAR LOOP
(C)MAGNETICLOOP
Fig. 17. Perturbers or scatterers that can beused to meaaure
current or charge distribution on thin linear antenna (after Cory
and Fenwick [37]).
Cory and Fenwich [37] extended this technique to the
H F ra.nge by measuring the current distribution on one
arm of a loaded T‘ antenna a t various frequencies in the
3-30 MHz range.They used a coaxial loop perturber
whichwas effectively opened andshorted bya diode
sw-itch. The battery operated perturbing (i.e., scattering)
package consisted of a magnetic loop, a diode switch,
switchdrivercircuits, a,n FN receiver andasmall
monopole antenna. The snitching signal for the diode
was obtained by modulating 100-108
a MHz FM generator
with a 1615-Hz audio signal. This 108 MHz signal was
then t,ransmitt.edto the perturbing package where it was
received by t.he monopole on this package. A t t.he input
t o the antenna under test, the transmitted and reflected
signa.ls were combinedin a coaxial T rather than ahybrid.
To discriminate or identify the small scattered signal in
the presence of the strong tra.nsmitted signal,
the combined
signals were fed t o a spectrum analyzer. Thus, the carrier
and its sidebands could be displayed. The amplitude of
one of the two sidebands was monitored since the com-
ponents of the signal a t the sideba.nd frequencies were
due to the modulatedscattered signal.
FIELDSDYSON: MEASUREMEKT OF NEAR 457

m. h/IEASUREMENTS IN RADIATING NEARFIELD has given a significant. improvement over a single lens
Measurement,s of the fa,r-field radiat,ion pattern of any system [54]. For good results, t.hc collimat,inglens should
aperture involves probing t.he field at a const,ant. radius in general be several t.imes t>hesize of the antenna under
far enough awa.y that, the aperture a,pproximates a, point t.est..
source. This distance depends upon thedegree of approxi- 2 ) CoElima.ting Xystems--Co?npact Range: In an ingen-
mation desired. A typical criterion is that distance at ious arrangement., Johnson [55] showed t,hat,uniform
which a maximumphase error of 22.5” or wavelength plane wa.ves can be generated across the aperture of a
occurs overa region of t.he same size asthea.perture target or antenna. by using large paraboloids or parabolic
plane [38]-[40]. For a uniformly illuminated aperture cylinders as collimators. ,4 “compa,ct, range,” based
of diameter D, t.his distance is given by R = 2D2/X. At. upon these devices, has been used for antenna and radar
this distance the antenna directivity is wit.hin 1 percent reflectivity measurements uit;hgood results [56]. This
of the valueat)an infinite distance. Fornon-cophasal technique would appear to deserve more attention.
aperturesthis 2D’lX criterion can bevery unreliable, 3) FocusingAntenna: Conventional antennasare fo-
a.nd much great,er dista.nces ma.y be required. cused a t infinit,y. Techniques have beendeveloped for
As the observer moves nearer to the ant,ennaunder the measurement of far-field patterns in the near field,
observation two effect,s are not,ed. Themain beam which dependupon designing theantenna so that it
broadens, the nulls between lobes fill in and the sidelobes focuses at a finite point in space. These designs produce,
are slight,lyraised [41]. These effectsbecome progressively in a region about the focal point., the pattern normally
more pronounced as the distance decreases until a point found in the far field. The patkern exhibits a depth-of-field
is rea.ched at which the ma.in beam tends t.o bifurcate behavior analogous to optical lenses. This technique has
into twobeams, depending uponthe aperture and aperture proved to be practical for large arraysandapertures
didribution [42)-[46]. which can be molded or curved about a. spherical surface
Since in the ncar field the angular distribut,ion of the [57], [58], and for large paraboloidal reflectors [59]-[62].
radia,t.ed fields, i.e., the radiation pattern of the antenna
under t.est. is a. function of the distra.nce b e k e e n this B. Techniques for Deteminilzg Fa.r-Field from Xear-Field
ant,enna and the receiving or probe antenna, it is highly Data
desirable thatpattern measurementsbemadebeyond The extrapolation frommeasured near-field data to
this nea,r ficld. For large antennas t.he required distance far-field informationcanbeapproachedfrom various
t o the far field may be thousands of feet and obtaining a points of view. I n principle, it is possible to measure
suit,able test. sit.ebecomes aformidable problem. Many t,he fieid distribution in theaperture of thc a,ntenna,
attemptshave been ma.de to overcome t.his problem. and use the Fourier transformrelationbetween the
These att,empts havein the main t.aken twoforms. I n aperturedistribution a.nd theradiation patkern [63].
the first., the test, range or antenna. under test maybe However, the actual field dist,ribut,ion obtained by
physically modified. In the second, the measured near- measurement. can seldom be expressed by a simple closed
field patterns or near-field distributions are accepted and form expression, and hence t,ho transition t.o thc far-field
computational techniques used to predict t.he approximate pattern is difficult, [MI.
far-field pattern. It. is possible t o represent the near field as a collection
of pla.newaves traveling in all possible directions. The
-4.ilfoclijcaiion of Test Range amplitude of these wa.ves can be calculated if eit.her t,he
1) Collinaating System-Lenses: I n t,he microwave electric or the magnet.icfield is known over a. suitably
range of frequencies it is feasible to use a lens to collimate chosen aperture plane. The aperture dist.ribution is then
the radiatedenergy a,nd attempt tJo simulate a plane expressed asa Fourier integral and t.ho radiated field
wave [47+[50]. The difficulty with this t,echnique is calculated by relating the component exponential terms
the fact thatavaihblc microwavelenses are relatively in the int,egral t.o plane waves [SS], [66]. The a.pproxima-
small, and conseyucntly, diffraction effects are pronounced tions involved restrict the use of measurements to t.hose
andthe emergentwave devia,tes from its plane wave made at apprecia,ble dist.ances from the antenna, alt.hough
characteristics. Reflections at t,he lens surface can cause st,ill in t,hc near field. This complicates tlhe picture some-
nmlt.iple scattering but these can be reduced by the use what because it is seldom possible to make t.he required
ofreflect.ionless surface matching layers [51>[52]. An measurementswith a small ncar-field probe. A larger
improved lens arrangement, uses two lenses [53]. The receiving or probing antenna is used, and the results so
second lens allom the phase a.ndir.tensit.y distribution obtainedaredependentupon the size of this receiving
over the collimator to be suitably adjusted. Calculat.ions antenna and itsdirectional pattern. For example, although
have shown that in order to obtain a plane phase front diffraction theory suggests that sidelobe levels measured
at,some preassigned distance from the collimator, a int,he near-field are alwa.ys higher than those inthe
quadrat,ic phase error must be intxoduced of such a form far-field pattern, experiment.a.1measurements have shown
as t,o cause t,he emergent, wave to converge t.owards a. that in the near field the measured sidelobelevelis a
definite point, in t,he image space. A Gaussian amplitude function of t,hedirectivity of t.he receiving antenna as
distribution combined w3h a quadrat,ic phase variation well as t,he separation between the ant.ennas, andt,he
458
measured sidelobe levels can be either larger or smaller
than those in the far field [66], [67].
Kerns [SS],[69] has developed a method for cor-
recting for the presence of a.n arbitrary size probe antenna
by characterizing an arbitrary two-antenna. system by a
plane-wave scattering matrix. For the case where multiple
reflections between these two a.ntennas can be neglected,
and the scattering parameters of the probe a.re known,
the measurednear field dat.a ca.n be corrected for the
perturbing effects of the probe.
This work is of major significa,nce and has led t.0 results
of high accuracy [70 ]-[72]. The method is applicable in
principle to any type antenna, however the amount. of
inputdata required maybe large, a.nd the suit.abi1it.y
of ita application will depend upon t.he precision of the
far-field information t.hat is desired.
Joy andParis [73], [74] have established a sample
spacing criterion for these near-field measurements made
ona plane surface near anarbit.raryantenna,and de-
veloped a near-field data minimization t.echnique for
reducing the required computational effort.
Another approach to the correction of the near field
patterns is t o express theradiated field as a Fourier
series or a sum of cylindrical or spherical modes [75], [76].
The modes are the radia,lly expanding fields which would
arise in a radial t,ransmission line, andthe essential
feature of t.he method is that the amplitudes and phase
of these modesa.re deduced from measurements at any
convenient distance from the antenna. I n principle t,his
procedure places no restriction on the distance at which
measurements can be made. Thus there is no distinct>ion
between what. can be regarded as near-field measurenlenh
and the measurement of t.he aperture distribution.
In very recent, work, Leach and Paris [llj] describe
a method for determining the fa.r-field pattern of a.n
ant,ennafromprobecompensated near-field measure-
mentsover the surface of a. right circular cylinder en-
closing theantenna.Themethod is derived by first.
expanding bot,h the field radiated by the antenna. and the
field radiated by the measurement probe when it is used
as a transmit,ter,into cylindrical waveexpansions. The
Lorentz reciprocity theorem is then used t.o solve for t,he
field radiatedby theantenna from the probe output
voltage. Theantennapattern canbedetermined in-
dependently of the chara.cterist,ics of themeasurement
probeprovided that certain calibration data. for t.he
probe are known, and a met.hod for determining these
da.ta from the measured far field of the probe is described.
This method appears to be very interesting because of
the ease wit.h which the sampling can be accomplished.
C. Radio-Frequency Holography
Within the last few years there has been great interest.
in the possibilit,y of reconst,ructing visible images from
radio-frequency holograms [77],[78]. The literahre is
extensive and no attempt has been made to reference it
in depth. Althoughnot yet perfected, this work raises
&EE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROP.4G-4TION, JULY 1973
the possibility of obtaining visible images corresponding
to the radiating near fields of radiating structures.
I n order t o solve the problem of reconstruction it is
necessary to reproduce in a coherent optical system, a
distribution of fieldwhich corresponds to the measured
field of theantenna. Since a reproduction of a phase
distribution is difficult at. optical frequencies, a ho1ogra.m
of the antenna field ma.y be taken as the initial distribu-
t,ion. This dependsuponmeasurements of the inter-
ference pa.ttern of t.he antenna field and a reference field.
This reference field however, need not be introduced
through spa.ce. It may be introduced in the transmission
line system [79] and t.he measurements then reduce t o
simple probing over a surfa.ce in the vicinity of the
antenna,. In optical processing of a hologram of an antenna
field, Iiurochkin [SO] has point,ed out that the effect of
the probecan be compensated by introducing into the
proper plane of the optical system, a mask whose am-
plitude t,ransmission coefficient varies in inverse proportion
tothe radiationpatiern of the probe. However, the
effect of t.he probe can be neglected if its angular dimen-
sion, as seen from the center of the antenna being tested,
is an order of magnitude smaller than the width of the
lobes of this antenna.
v. NEAR-FIELDhIEASUREMENTSIN GENERAL
We have been concernedwith the fundamentals involved
in sampling the surface currentandcharge densities,
a.nd/or t.he field dist,ribution, near these surfaces or over
agivenaperture.Much of the available literature on
near-field measurements has been referenced. The serious
experimentor will alsofind much valuable information
in [39,ch.141,svhich is concerned with t.he probing of
fields to eva1uat.e antenna ranges. In addition t.0 those
sources already referenced, some of t,he additional 1it.era-
ture has been cataloged for convenience of the investigator
who mustapply t.hesc measurement techniques toa
particular problem [Sl>[114].
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