Environment

BIODIVERSITY
What is biodiversity?
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at
three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of species within a community, and the
organisation of species in an area into distinctive plant and animal communities constitutes ecosystem diversity.
1. Genetic diversity: Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its
genetic makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in the genes that give every
individual specific characteristic. This genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of
a species. If the number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic makeup is
reduced and in-breeding occurs. Eventually this can lead to the extinction of the species. The diversity in
wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which our crops and domestic animals have been developed
over thousands of years. Modern biotechnology manipulates genes for developing better types of
medicines and a variety of industrial products.
2. Species diversity: The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes
its species diversity. Natural undisturbed tropical forests have a much greater species richness than
plantations developed by the Forest Department for timber production. Areas that are rich in species
diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity. India is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally
rich in species diversity.
3. Ecosystem diversity: There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own
complement of distinctive inter linked species based on the differences in the habitat. Ecosystem
diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or a political entity such as a country, a
State or a taluka. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains, etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea. Each region also has
man-modified areas such as farmland or grazing pastures.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Consumptive use value: The direct utilisation of timber, food, fuel wood, fodder by local communities.
2. Productive use value: Genetic diversity enables scientists and farmers to develop better crops and
domestic animals through careful breeding. Preservation of biodiversity has now become essential for
industrial growth and economic development. A variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals are highly
dependent on identifying compounds of great economic value from the wide variety of wild species of
plants located in undisturbed natural forests. This is called biological prospecting.
3. Social values: The consumptive and productive value of biodiversity is closely linked to social concerns in
traditional communities. ‘Ecosystem people’ value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as well as
through cultural and religious sentiments. A great variety of crops have been cultivated in traditional
agricultural systems and this permitted a wide range of produce to be grown and marketed throughout
the year and acted as an insurance against the failure of one crop. In recent years farmers have begun to
receive economic incentives to grow cash crops for national or international markets, rather than to
supply local needs. This has resulted in local food shortages, unemployment (cash crops are usually
mechanised), landlessness and increased vulnerability to drought and floods.
4. Ethical and moral values: Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are based on the
importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have the right to exist on earth. Man is only a
small part of the Earth’s great family of species. Indian civilization has over several generations
preserved nature through local traditions.
5. Aesthetic value: Knowledge and an appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its own sake is
another reason to preserve it. Quite apart from killing wildlife for food, it is important as a tourist
attraction. The ‘Tulsi’ has been placed at our doorsteps for centuries.
6. Option value: Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value. It is impossible to
predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and domestic animals will be of great use in
the future. To continue to improve cultivars and domestic livestock, we need to return to wild relatives
of crop plants and animals.
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Bio-diversity in India: INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION
Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high levels of biological diversity. As the
intervening shallow Tethis Sea closed down, plants and animals that had evolved both in Europe and in the Far
East migrated into India before the Himalayas had formed. A final influx came from Africa with Ethiopian species,
which, were adapted to the Savannas and semi-arid regions.
Among the biologically rich nations, India stands among the top 10 or 15 countries for its great variety of plants
and animals, many of which are not found elsewhere. It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are endemic to
the country and found nowhere else in the world. Among amphibians found in India, 62% are unique to this
country. Apart from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals there is also a great diversity of
cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock. This is a result of several thousand years during which
civilizations have grown and flourished in the Indian subcontinent. The traditional cultivars included 30,000 to
50,000 varieties of rice and a number of cereals, vegetables and fruit. The highest diversity of cultivars is
concentrated in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and the North-
Eastern hills.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a thousand major ecoregions
in the world. Of these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas. These areas are
referred to as the Global 200. It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global
plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countries which have a relatively large proportion of
these hot spots of diversity are referred to as ‘megadiversity nations’. The rate at which the extinction of species
is occurring throughout our country remains obscure. It is likely to be extremely high as our wilderness areas are
shrinking rapidly. Our globally accepted national ‘hot spots’are in the forests of the North-East and the Western
Ghats, which are included in the world’s most biorich areas. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are extremely
rich in species and many subspecies of different animals and birds have evolved. Coral reefs in Indian waters
surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, the Gulf areas of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
They are nearly as rich in species as tropical evergreen forests!

diversity – from microscopic unicellular plants and animals, to the giant trees and major mammals – can all be
preserved.
However species cannot be protected individually as they are all inter dependent on each other. Thus the whole
ecosystem must be protected. The biologist’s view point deals with areas that are relatively species rich, or those
where rare, threatened or endangered species are found, or those with ‘endemic’ species which are not found
elsewhere. As rare endemic species are found only in a small area these easily become extinct due to human
activity. Such areas must be given an added importance as their biodiversity is a special feature of the region.
Animals such as elephants require different types of habitat to feed in during different seasons. They utilize open
grasslands after the rains when the young grass shoots are highly nutritious. As the grasses dry, the elephants
move into the forest to feed on foliage from the trees. A Protected Area that is meant to protect elephants must
therefore be large enough and include diverse habitat types to support a complete complement of inter linked
species.
What needs to be done?
1. Protected Areas, to be effective, must be established in every biogeographic region. A relatively larger
representation must be included of highly fragile ecosystems, areas of high species diversity or high
endemism. Protected Areas must also be integrated with each other by establishing corridors between
adjacent areas wherever possible so that wildlife can move between them.
2. The residual areas that have high levels of species richness, endemism or endangered plants and animals
must be notified as National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Other areas can be made into Community
Conserved Areas which are managed by local people.
3. There are only a few good grasslands left in our country that are notified as Protected Areas. Some are
overgrazed wastelands in areas that were once flourishing grasslands. Most of these areas have a low
biological value and need careful management to allow them to revert to a more ‘natural’ state, with
their full complement of plants and animals. Only a few wetlands have been made into Sanctuaries.
These require better management.
4. A major strategy to reduce impacts on the biodiversity of the PAs should be to provide a sustainable
source of resources for local people living around them. A Protected Area curtails their traditional
grazing practices and access fuelwood sources. These resources must be provided by developing them in
buffer areas. Plantations of fuel wood and good grassland management in areas outside Protected Areas
can help reduce the pressure on the habitat of wildlife in the Protected Area. Management must ensure
that local people derive a direct economic benefit from the presence of the PA. Involving local people in
Protected Area management and developing tourist facilities that support the income generation for
local people helps in involving their support for the Protected Area.
5. A carefully designed management plan which incorporates an ‘eco-development’ component aimed at
providing a source of fuel wood, fodder and alternate income generation for local people, is an
important aspect of PA management.
6. There are several species of plants and animals that survive without protection outside our current
network of PAs. As it is not practical to notify more PAs without affecting the lives of people, alternate
strategies such as Community Reserves or Community Conserved Areas need to be created. These
should be managed by local people to bring about the conservation of biodiversity while using the area’s
resources in an equitable and sustainable way. A Community Conserved Area must have specific
conservation goals that can be achieved without compromising the area’s utilitarian potential.
Ex-situ conservation: Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other
species that live in it in nature. This is known as in-situ conservation, which is conserving a species in its own
environment by creating National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. However, there are situations in which an
endangered species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be
rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e. outside its natural habitat in a
carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a zoological park for animals, where there
is expertise to multiply the species under artificially managed conditions. These breeding programs for rare
plants and animals are however more expensive than managing a Protected Area.

There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germ plasm in a gene bank so that it can be
used if needed in future. This is even more expensive. When an animal is on the brink of extinction, it must be
carefully bred so that inbreeding does not lead to the genetic makeup becoming weak. Modern breeding
programs are done in zoos that provide for all the animal’s needs, including enclosures that simulate their wild
habitats. Thus while most zoos are meant to provide visitors with a visual experience of seeing a wild animal
close up, and provide the visitors with information about the species, a modern zoo has to go beyond these
functions that include breeding of endangered species as a conservation measure.
In India, successful ex situ conservation programs have been done for all our three species of crocodiles. This has
been highly successful. However the most important step of a successful breeding program is the reintroduction
of a species into its original wild habitat. This requires rehabilitation of the degraded habitat and removal of the
other causes such as poaching, disturbance, or other manmade influences that have been the primary cause of
reducing the population of the species.
POLLUTION
Definition
Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals
and human beings. This occurs when only short-term economic gains are made at the cost of the long-term
ecological benefits for humanity.
Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural abundance produced due
to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on our environment. From an ecological perspective
pollutants can be classified as follows:
Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken down by natural processes. Eg: domestic
sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.
Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in an
unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and most plastics.
Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are released into the
environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are
harmful to human health and the environment. Air may get polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which
release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by lightning.
However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere
for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural events (for example,
dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (emission from vehicles, industries, etc.). These are
called primary pollutants. There are five primary pollutants that together contribute about 90 percent of the
global air pollution. These are carbon oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic
compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter.
Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among the primary
pollutants are called secondary pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and toxic gas produced when organic materials such as natural gas,
coal or wood are incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest source of carbon monoxide. The
number of vehicles has been increasing over the years all over the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained
and several have inadequate pollution control equipment resulting in release of greater amounts of carbon
monoxide. Carbon monoxide is however not a persistent pollutant. Natural processes can convert carbon
monoxide to other compounds that are not harmful. Therefore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if
no new carbon monoxide is introduced into the atmosphere.
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt.
Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are involved in the
production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone.
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They either evaporate from
fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely. Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when
it rains and run into surface water. They cause an oily film on the surface and do not as such cause a serious
issue until they react to form secondary pollutants. Using higher oxygen concentrations in the fuel-air mixture
and using valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting of catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of the
modifications that can reduce the release of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust
particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of particulates range from soot to
the carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants that are
dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs
and interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.
Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have
been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the primary source of airborne lead
emissions in Indian cities. Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltration of polluted outside air and from
various chemicals used or produced inside buildings. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally harmful.
Effects of air pollution on living organisms:
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air pollution. The hair in our
nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the upper respiratory tract captures smaller
particles and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. When the upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants
sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus. Prolonged smoking or exposure to air pollutants can
overload or breakdown these natural defences causing or contributing to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma,
chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease,
asthma or other respiratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air pollution.
Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air containing even
0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma and even death. As carbon
monoxide remains attached to haemoglobin in blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen
carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes headaches,
drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon monoxide in heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred
vision.
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis. It also reacts
with water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur-containing acids. The acids can become attached
to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to the lung.
Nitrogen oxides especially NO 2 can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and also increase
susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza or common colds. Suspended particles aggravate
bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to these particles over a long period of time damages lung tissue and
contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and cancer. Many volatile organic compounds
such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations,
reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone, a component of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest
pain, breathlessness and irritation of the eye, nose and the throat.

Effects on plants:
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores they damage the leaves of crop plants. Chronic exposure of the
leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and leads to
damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth,
reduces nutrient uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether. At a higher
concentration of sulphur dioxide majority of the flower buds become stiff and hard. They eventually fall from the
plants, as they are unable to flower. Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air pollutants from smelters,
coal burning power plants and industrial units as well as from cars and trucks can damage trees and other plants.
Effects of air pollution on materials
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down exterior paint on cars
and houses. All around the world air pollutants have discoloured irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings,
marble statues, etc.
Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere
The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which works as an effective screen for
ultraviolet light. This region called the ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the surface of the earth. The
ozone layer does not consist of solely ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases. In the most
dense ozone layer there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000 gas molecules. Therefore even small
changes in the ozone concentration can produce dramatic effects on life on earth.
Ozone is produced naturally from the photo-dissociation of oxygen gas molecules in the atmosphere. The ozone
thus formed is constantly broken down by naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone
layer. In the absence of pollutants the creation and breakdown of ozone are purely governed by natural forces,
but the presence of certain pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. In 1985 that the large scale
destruction of the ozone also called the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some British researchers
published measurements about the ozone layer.
It is established that CFC’s were leading to its depletion. These CFCs (chloro-flurocarbons) are extremely stable,
non-flammable, non-toxic and harmless to handle. This makes them ideal for many industrial applications like
aerosols, air conditioners, refrigerators and fire extinguishers. Many cans, which give out foams and sprays, use
CFCs. (eg: perfumes, room fresheners, etc.) CFCs are also used in making foams for mattresses and cushions,
disposable Styrofoam cups, glasses, packaging material for insulation, cold storage etc. However their stability
also gives them a long life span in the atmosphere.
Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain bromine atoms instead of chlorine. They are more
dangerous to the ozone layer than CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents as they do not pose a harm
to people and equipment exposed to them during fire fighting.
The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they are released. As they are heavier than air
they have to be carried by air currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and then they slowly diffuse into
the upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and can take as long as five to fifteen years. In the stratosphere
unfiltered UV-radiation severs the chemical bonds releasing chlorine from the rest of the CFC. This attacks the
ozone molecule resulting in its splitting into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen atom.
Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute over the globe, the ozone depletion is especially pronounced
over the South Pole due to the extreme weather conditions in the Antarctic atmosphere. The presence of the ice
crystals makes the Cl-O bonding easier. The ozone layer over countries like Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
and parts of South America is also depleted. India has signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992, which aims to
control the production and consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances.

Effects of Ozone Depletion
1. Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by increased
ultra-violet radiation. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the resistance of the whole body to
certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic diseases
such as malaria introduced through the skin.
2. Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy during the
process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen
especially in legumes and cabbage. Plant and animal planktons are damaged by ultra-violet radiation. In
zooplanktons (microscopic animals) the breeding period is shortened by changes in radiation. As
planktons form the basis of the marine food chain a change in their number and species composition
influences fish and shell fish production.
3. Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to fade faster.
4. Effect on climate: It contributes to global warming.
Air pollution in India
The World health Organization (WHO) which rates only mega cities of the world has rated Delhi the
fourth most polluted city ion the world. However compared to other cities in India, Delhi is not at the top
of the list of polluted cities.
According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)’s report – Parivesh Indian cities show high
particulate pollution with 14 cities hitting critical levels.
Rapid urbanization of smaller cities especially those situated near the big commercial centers have an
enormous increase in traffic load especially in the most polluted segment such as two and three
wheelers and diesel vehicles combined with poor quality fuel contribute to the deteriorating air quality
in a big way.
Air pollution control in India
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was legislated in 1981. The Act provided for
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
After the Bhopal disaster, a more comprehensive Environment Protection Act (EPA) was passed in 1986.
This Act for the first time conferred enforcement agencies with necessary punitive powers to restrict any
activity that can harm the environment.
To regulate vehicular pollution the Central Motor Vehicles Act of 1939 was amended in 1989. Air quality
management as a well-defined program has yet to emerge in India. This would also need an integrated
approach with strict air pollution control laws. Some of the suggestions for doing this include:
a. Putting a greater emphasis on pollution prevention rather than control
b. Reducing the use of fossil fuels
c. Improving the quality of vehicular fuel
d. Increasing the use of renewable energy
WATER POLLUTION
When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of man’s activities such that it
becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted.
Point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a definite source
and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source. Eg. Municipal and Industrial Discharge
Pipes.
Non-point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as agricultural
runoff, acid rain, etc, they are said to be non-point sources of pollution.

Causes of water pollution
1. There are several classes of common water pollutants. These are disease-causing agents (pathogens)
which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from domestic sewage
and untreated human and animal wastes. Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform
bacteria such as Escherichia coliand Streptococcus faecalis. These bacteria normally grow in the large
intestine of humans where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the production of
vitamin K. These bacteria are not harmful in low numbers. Large amounts of human waste in water,
increases the number of these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.
2. Another category of water pollutants is oxygen depleting wastes. These are organic wastes that can be
decomposed by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen
present in water to degrade these wastes. In the process this degrades water quality. If too much
organic matter is added to the water all the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and other forms
of oxygen dependent aquatic life to die.
3. A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates
that cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The excessive growth of algae and aquatic
plants due to added nutrients is called eutrophication. They may interfere with the use of the water by
clogging water intake pipes, changing the taste and odour of water and cause a buildup of organic
matter. As the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die. The
quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times more than is actually required by the plants.
The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess fertilizers cause
eutrophication, pesticides cause bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
4. A fourth class of water pollutants is water soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids, salts and
compounds of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water
unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and accelerate corrosion of equipment
that use this water.
5. Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, plastics,
pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic life and
human health. They get into the water directly from industrial activity either from improper handling of
the chemicals in industries and more often from improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.
6. Sediment of suspended matter is another class of water pollutants. These are insoluble particles of soil
and other solids that become suspended in water. This occurs when soil is eroded from the land. High
levels of soil particles suspended in water, interferes with the penetration of sunlight. This reduces the
photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants and algae disrupting the ecological balance of the aquatic
bodies. When the velocity of water in streams and rivers decreases the suspended particles settle down
at the bottom as sediments. Excessive sediments that settle down destroys feeding and spawning
grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs etc.
7. Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water pollution. These can be
concentrated in various tissues and organs as they pass through food chains and food webs. Ionizing
radiation emitted by such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage.
8. Hot water let out by power plants and industries that use large volumes of water to cool the plant result
in rise in temperature of the local water bodies. Thermal pollution occurs when industry returns the
heated water to a water source. Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to drive the turbines
that generate electricity. For efficient functioning of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed into
water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by taking water from a water body to
absorb the heat. This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher than the normal is discharged back into
the water body. The warm water not only decreases the solubility of oxygen but changes the breeding
cycles of various aquatic organisms.
9. Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from roads and parking lots which also pollutes groundwater.
Leakage from underground tanks is another source of pollution. Accidental oil spills from large transport
tankers at sea have been causing significant environmental damage. Though accidents such as the Exxon
Valdez get worldwide attention, much more oil is released as a result of small, regular releases from
other less visible sources. Nearly two thirds of all marine oil pollution comes from three sources: runoff
from streets, improper discharge of lubricating oil from machines or automobile crankcases and

intentional oil discharges that occur during the loading and unloading of tankers. Oil tankers often use
sea water as ballast to stabilize the ship after they have discharged their oil. This oil contaminated water
is then discharged back into the sea when the tanker is refilled.
10. Groundwater pollution: While oil spills are highly visible and often get a lot of media attention, a much
greater threat to human life comes from our groundwater being polluted which is used for drinking and
irrigation. While groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute it gets renewed very slowly and hence must
be used judiciously. Groundwater flows are slow and not turbulent hence the contaminants are not
effectively diluted and dispersed as compared to surface water. Moreover pumping groundwater and
treating it is very slow and costly. Hence it is extremely essential to prevent the pollution of groundwater
in the first place. Ground water is polluted due to:
Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated waste water and garbage
Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifers
Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides,
animal feeding operations, etc. in the rural sector
Leakage from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous substances
Leachate from landfills
Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
Mining wastes
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place to another. While
erosion is a natural process often caused by wind and flowing water it is greatly accelerated by human activities
such as farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning of grass cover and deforestation. Loss of the
topsoil makes a soil less fertile and reduces its water holding capacity.
Causes
• Excess use of fertilizers.

• Pesticides may be persistent or non-persistent. Persistent pesticides once applied are effective for a long
time. However as they do not break down easily they tend to accumulate in the soil and in the bodies of
animals in the food chain.
• Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and in dry climates much of the water in the saline solution
evaporates leaving its salts such as sodium chloride in the topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is
called salinization, which can stunt plant growth, lower yields and eventually kill the crop and render the
land useless for agriculture.
MARINE POLLUTION
Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine environment directly or
indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction of marine activities
and lowering the quality of sea water.
Causes
• The most obvious inputs of waste is through pipes directly discharging wastes into the sea. Very often
municipal waste and sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly discharged into the
sea.
• Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the land by rain, enter water courses and
eventually reach the sea.
• Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the sewage system but stormwater
overflows carry these materials into rivers and eventually into the seas.
• Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides, industrial chemicals, etc.
Ship accidents and accidental spillages at sea therefore can be very damaging to the marine
environment.
• Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a large extent.
Effects of Marine Pollution
• Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of organic wastes can also result in the development
of red tides. These are phytoplankton blooms of such intensity that the area is discoloured.
• Oil slicks (thin film of oil over sea) damage marine life to a large extent. Salt marshes, mangrove swamps
are likely to trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for these ecosystems thus suffer.
• If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its water repellent properties are lost.
• Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic conditions and result in the production of toxic
sulphides in the bottom sediment thus eliminating the benthic fauna.
Control Measures
Different types of treatment plant should be set up according to the needs.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. What may be considered as music to one
person may be noise to another. It is not a substance that can accumulate in the environment like most other
pollutants. Sound is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’. The permitted noise level is 125 decibels, as per the
Environment (Protection) (second amendment) Rules, 1999.
There are several sources of noise pollution that contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise pollution. Noise
emanating from factories, vehicles, playing of loudspeakers during various festivals can contribute to outdoor
noise pollution while loudly played radio or music systems, and other electronic gadgets can contribute to indoor
noise pollution.
Effects of noise pollution
• The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and the temporary or
permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold shift (TTS). People suffering from this
condition are unable to detect weak sounds.
• Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety and stress. Lack of
concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effects of noise.
• It increases the rate of accidents especially in industries.
Noise Control techniques
There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled:
1. Reduce noise at the source

2. block the path of noise
3. increase the path length
4. Protect the recipient.
CLIMATE CHANGE
• The average temperature in many regions has been increasing in recent decades. The global average
surface temperature has increased by 0.6° + 0.2° C over the last century.
• Many countries have experienced increases in rainfall, particularly in the countries situated in the mid to
high latitudes. In some regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa, the frequency and intensity of droughts
have been observed to increase in recent decades. Episodes of El Niño, which creates great storms, have
been more frequent, persistent and intense since mid-1970s compared with the previous 100 years. All
these are signs that the earth is sick. Its climate is changing, making it more difficult for mankind to
survive.

• The studies have shown that in the near future, the global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4° to
5.8°C. Warming will be greatest over land areas, and at high latitudes. The projected rate of warming is
greater than has occurred in the last 10,000 years.
Effects of CC:
• The frequency of weather extremes is likely to increase leading to floods or drought. There will be
fewer cold spells but more heat waves.
• The frequency and intensity of El Niño is likely to increase.
• More than half of the world’s population now lives within 60km of the sea. They are likely to be
seriously impacted by an ingress of salt water and by the rising sea. Some of the most vulnerable
regions are the Nile delta in Egypt, the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh, and many small
islands including the Marshall Islands and the Maldives.
• Human societies will be seriously affected by extremes of climate such as droughts and floods.
• A changing climate would bring about changes in the frequency and/or intensity of these extremes.
This is a major concern for human health. To a large extent, public health depends on safe drinking
water, sufficient food, secure shelter, and good social conditions.
• Fresh water supplies may be seriously affected, reducing the availability of clean water for drinking
and washing during drought as well as floods. Water can be contaminated and sewage systems may
be damaged.
• The risk of spread of infectious diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases will increase.
• Food production will be seriously reduced in vulnerable regions directly and also indirectly through
an increase in pests and plant or animal diseases. The local reduction in food production would lead
to starvation and malnutrition with long-term health consequences, especially for children.
• Food and water shortages may lead to conflicts in vulnerable regions, with serious implications for
public health.
• Climate change related impacts on human health could lead to displacement of a large number of
people, creating environmental refugees and lead to further health issues.
• Changes in climate may affect the distribution of vector species (e.g. mosquitoes) which in turn will
increase the spread of disease, such as malaria and filariasis, to new areas which lack a strong public
health infrastructure. The seasonal transmission and distribution of many diseases that are
transmitted by mosquitoes (dengue, yellow fever) and by ticks (Lyme disease, tickborne encephalitis)
may spread due to climate change.
Acid rain:
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned, chemicals like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
are produced. These chemicals react with water and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid
and other harmful pollutants like sulfates and nitrates. These acid pollutants spread upwards into the
atmosphere, and are carried by air currents, to finally return to the ground in the form of acid rain, fog or snow.
The corrosive nature of acid rain causes many forms of environmental damage.
Effects of Acid Rain:
• Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil which are needed by plants. It can also dissolve
naturally occurring toxic substances like aluminium and mercury, freeing them to pollute water or
poison plants.
• Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in which they grow. It affects trees
more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves, causing brown dead spots which affect the
plant’s photosynthesis. Such trees are also more vulnerable to insect infestations, drought and cold.
Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations seem to be most at risk. Farm crops are less affected by acid
rain than forests.
• Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes and wetlands, causes the water in
them to become acidic. This affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems.

and water. There are also programmes for nontimber forest produce-based livelihood, promotion of
organic and low-chemical agriculture, and increased soil health and fertility to sustain agriculture-based
livelihoods.
• Various policy measures are being implemented across the domains of forestry, pollution control, water
management, clean energy, and marine and coastal environment. Some of these are policies like Joint
Forest Management, Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment, Coastal Zone Regulation Zone, eco
labelling and energy efficiency labelling, fuel efficiency standards etc .
• Over the years arguments in favour of looking beyond the conventional measure of GDP and taking into
account the environmental damage caused by production of goods and services received attention. An
expert group under the chairmanship of Prof Sir Partha Dasgupta has been set up to develop a
framework for 'Green National Accounts' for India.
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION ANDEFFORTS
World leaders in 2012 continued to engage and deliberate in international forums dedicated to climate and
environment and also in forums like the G20 where sustainable development and climate change were an
integral part of the discussions. Ambition or goal setting to reach targets, provision of finance and technology for
developing countries, and institutions and mechanisms for capacity building were the common threads of
negotiations running through all these forums.
Rio + 20
The objective of the Rio+20 Conference was to secure renewed political commitment for sustainable
development, review progress made and identify implementation gaps, and assess new and emerging challenges
since the UNCSD held 20 years ago in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Towards this end, the Conference had two themes,
1) Green economy in the context of sustainable development & poverty eradication

2) The institutional framework for sustainable development.
The most significant outcomes of the Rio Summit have been the restoration of the principles of equity and of
common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) in the global environmental discourse and placing poverty
eradication at the centre of the global development agenda. The outcome also ensures the required domestic
policy space to countries on a green economy and launched four processes/ mechanisms:
I. developing SDGs,
II. financing strategy,
III. technology transfer,
IV. defining the format and organizational aspects of the proposed high level political forum to follow up on
the implementation of sustainable development.
Convention on Biological Diversity:
Global concerns about biodiversity found expression in the CBD adopted in 1992. The objectives of the
Convention are: conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. The Convention has near universal membership
with 193 countries. The USA is the only major country that is not a Party. Following the ratification of the CBD,
India also enacted the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 and notified the Rules in 2004 to give effect to the
provisions of the CBD.
Being committed to the cause, India successfully hosted the COP 11 to the CBD, and the sixth Conference of the
Parties serving as Meeting of the Parties (CoP/MoP-6) to the CBD's Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in
Hyderabad from 8-19 October 2012. The event provided India an opportunity to consolidate, scale up, and
showcase its initiatives and strengths on biodiversity.
• One of the most important outcomes is the commitment of the Parties to doubling the total
biodiversity-related international financial resource flows to developing countries by 2015 and at least

adverse environmental effects, even after the mitigation is implemented. By considering the environmental
effects of the project and their mitigation early in the project planning cycle, environmental assessment has
many benefits, such as protection of environment, optimum utilisation of resources and saving of time and cost
of the project. Properly conducted EIA also lessens conflicts by promoting community participation, informing
decision makers, and helping lay the base for environmentally sound projects. Benefits of integrating EIA have
been observed in all stages of a project, from exploration and planning, through construction, operations,
decommissioning, and beyond site closure.
Principles of EIA
Participation: The process should provide appropriate opportunities to inform and involve the interested and
affected publics and incorporate their input in decision-making.
Transparency: Assessment process, outcomes & decisions should be open and accessible. Certainty: The process
and timing of the assessment should be agreed in advanced and followed by all participants.
Accountability: The decision-makers and project proponents are responsible to all parties for their action and
decisions under the assessment process.
Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.
Cost-effectiveness: The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least
cost to the society.
Practical - the process should result practical outputs, which can be implemented by proponent. Relevant - the
process should focus information that is relevant for development planning and decision-making.
Focused - the process should concentrate on significant environmental effects and key issues that need to be
taken into account in making decisions.
Interdisciplinary - the process should ensure that the appropriate techniques and experts in the relevant
disciplines are employed, including use of traditional knowledge as relevant. Integrated - the process should
address the interrelationships of social, economic and biophysical aspects.
The EIA process- The stages of an EIA process will depend upon the requirements of the country or donor.
However, most EIA processes have a common structure and the application of the main stages is a basic
standard of good practice.
The environment impact assessment consists of eight steps with each step equally important in determining the
overall performance of the project. Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure time and resources
are directed at the proposals that matter environmentally and ends with some form of follow up on the
implementation of the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of the EIA process
are presented in brief below:
• Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an EIA and if it
does, then the level of assessment required.
• Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that should be further investigated. This stage
also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.
• Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the likely environmental and social impact of
the proposed project and evaluates the significance.
• Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse
environmental consequences of development activities.
• Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision-making body and
other interested parties.
• Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides the
information necessary for decision-making.
• Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.
• Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks to ensure that
the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation
measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.
Forms of impact assessment- There are various forms of impact assessment such as Health Impact Assessment
(HIA) and Social Impact Assessment (SIA) that are used to assess the health and social consequences of
development so that they are taken into consideration along with the environmental assessment. One of the
forms of impact assessment is strategic environment assessment, which is briefly discussed below:
Strategic environment assessment- Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) refers to systematic analysis of the
environmental effects of development policies, plans, programmes and other proposed strategic actions. This
process extends the aims and principles of EIA upstream in the decision-making process, beyond the project
level and when major alternatives are still open. SEA represents a proactive approach to integrating
environmental considerations into the higher levels of decision-making.
Despite its wide use and acceptance, EIA has certain shortcomings as a tool for minimising environmental effects
of development proposals. It takes place relatively late at the downstream end of the decision making process,
after major alternatives and directions have been chosen.

Limitation of India’s effort in EIA
• Limited involvement of public and government agencies in the initial phases.

• No provision in place to cover landscape and visual impacts in the Indian EIA regulations.
• Screening done on the basis of a defined list. Threshold values on the size of the project has been used
to decide whether the project will be cleared by the state government or the central government.
• Most reports in English and not in the local language.
• Expertise in this area is not well developed.
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25 VISIONIAS ™
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ENVIRONMENT: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND RELATED NATIONAL

AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
Contents:
Introduction
International Conventions and Treaties
1971: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat ("Ramsar
Convention")
1972: Stockholm Declaration
1973: Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild flora and fauna (CITES)
1982: Nairobi Declaration
1985: Vienna convention for the protection of ozone layer
1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
1987: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development ("Brundtland
Report")
1992: Agenda 21
1992: Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
1992: Convention on Biological Diversity
1997: Protocol to the UNFCCC ("Kyoto Protocol")
1998: Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in
International Trade ("Rotterdam Convention")
2000: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety ("Cartagena Protocol")
2001: Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants ("Stockholm Convention")
2010: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity (‘Nagoya Protocol’)
Recent Development:
United Nations Climate Change Conference - Conference of the Parties (COP)
At COP13 in Bali (2007)
At COP15 in Copenhagen (2009)
At COP16 in Cancun (2010)
At COP 17 in Durban (2011)
At COP18 in Doha (2012)
At COP19 in Warsaw (2013)
Convention on Biological Diversity – Conference on Parties
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development – RIO +20
Ecology Related Legislations in India
National Wildlife Conservation Projects
National Action Plan on Climate Change

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS
www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS
Student Notes:
Introduction
The importance of international cooperation across a diversity of topics is increasingly
recognized. An ever more interconnected world demands multilateral approaches to trade,
security, migration, and a host of other issues. In the environmental context, in particular, there
is an appreciation that environmental degradation is often a global problem and, as such,
requires global responses. The depletion of the ozone layer, loss of biodiversity and spread of
persistent organic pollutants, for instance, resulted from human activity in countries around the
world and have impacts that extend far beyond national borders. As a result, domestic
conservation and environmental management strategies alone are insufficient to conserve
shared natural resources and safeguard the global ecosystem. International cooperation is not
only fundamental; it has also been recognized as the best and most effective way for
governments to tackle trans-boundary or global environmental problems.
The growth of international concern to protect migratory wild life, marine animals and fisheries
started during 1872 itself i.e. a century before Stockholm conference but due to the absence of
institutional machinery, treaties proved to be not so effective. The machinery that was chosen
for international concern was a group of private citizens i.e., the non-governmental congress for
protection of nature.
The environment has always been critical to life but concerns over the balance between human
life and the environment assumed international dimensions only during the 1950’s. The 1970’s
was the foundation of modern environmentalism. It was for the first time when various
countries for the first time came together to discuss the concerns of environmental pollution,
global warming and threat to ozone layer.
The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities is elaborated in the Rio Declaration:
“States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the
health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to global
environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The
developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit
of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global
environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.”
In light of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, MEAs1 seek to address
environmental problems in a balanced and equitable manner, acknowledging the different
contribution of countries to the causes of environmental problems and their diverse capacities
to resolve them. To accomplish this, each MEA contains different sets of measures intended to
complement and support each other, typically with provisions establishing regulatory
parameters.
International Conventions and Treaties

International environmental policies are in the form of treaties, multilateral agreements,
conventions and conferences. An overview of some of the major multilateral agreements,
treaties and conventions on environment obligations are discussed below:
1
Multilateral Environmental Agreements
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Student Notes:
1971: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as

Waterfowl Habitat ("Ramsar Convention")
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable
utilization of wetlands, i.e. to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now
and in the future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their
economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational value. The Ramsar Convention is the only global
environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem. The treaty was adopted in the
Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and the Convention's member countries cover all geographic
regions of the planet. The Convention uses a broad definition of the types of wetlands covered
in its mission, including lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peat lands,
oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marine areas, mangroves and coral reefs, and
human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
1972: Stockholm Declaration
The United Nations Conference on the human environment held at Stockholm on 5th and 6th
June 1972, generally called as the Stockholm Conference, was the first declaration of
international protection of the environment. In the conference, 113 States, including India,
participated and accepted the declaration. The Stockholm Declaration contains 26 principles.
These principles provide the basis of an International Policy for the Protection and
improvement of the environment. The United Nations Environment Programme has been
established by the United Nations General Assembly in pursuance of the Stockholm Conference.
The UNEP worked as catalyst stimulator and coordinator among the member states on the
environmental action.
1973: Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild flora
and fauna (CITES)
The Conference aimed to control or prevent international commercial trade in endangered
species or products derived from them. The Convention did not seek to directly protect
endangered species, rather it aimed to reduce the economic incentive to poach endangered
species and destroy their habitat by closing off the international market.
1982: Nairobi Declaration
The Nairobi Declaration was adopted at Nairobi for celebrating the 10th Anniversary of the
Stockholm conference on human Environment in 1972. The Declaration envisaged the creation
of a special commission to frame long term environment strategies for achieving sustainable
developments upto the year 2000 and beyond. The Declaration was endorsed by the governing
Council of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1987.
1985: Vienna convention for the protection of ozone layer
The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985. It became an important legal basis for taking
international action to protect the Earth’s stratospheric ozone layer. Among the objectives set
out in the Convention is for Parties to promote cooperation by means of systematic
observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human activities on the
ozone layer and to adopt legislative or administrative measures against activities likely to have
adverse effects on the ozone layer.
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Student Notes:
1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing
out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.
The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been
shown to play a role in ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either
chlorine or bromine (substances containing fluorine-only do not harm the ozone layer). The
treaty was opened for signature in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. Since then, it has
undergone five revisions, in 1990 (London), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1995 (Vienna), 1997
(Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). In a major innovation the protocol recognized that all nations
should not be treated equally. The agreement acknowledges that certain countries have
contributed to ozone depletion more than others. It also recognizes that a nation’s obligation to
reduce current emissions should reflect its technological and financial ability to do so.
1987: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment
and Development ("Brundtland Report")
The concept of 'sustainable development' was crystallized in the 1987 report of the United
Nations World Commission on Environment and Development - The Brundtland Commission -
which drew upon long established lines of thought that had developed substantially over the
previous 20 years. The Brundtland Commission's characterization of 'sustainable development'
is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. The prominence given to 'needs' reflects a concern to
eradicate poverty and meet basic human needs, broadly understood. The concept of
sustainable development focused attention on finding strategies to promote economic and
social development in ways that avoided environmental degradation, over-exploitation or
pollution, and sidelined less productive debates about whether to prioritize development or the
environment.
1992: Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organisations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans affect
the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century. The full text of Agenda 21 was
revealed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED /
"Earth Summit"), held in Rio de Janeiro on 14 June 1992 where 179 governments voted to
adopt the program. The implementation of Agenda 21 was intended to involve action at
international, national, regional and local levels. In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held
a special session to appraise five years of progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 (+5).
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (Earth Summit 2002) affirmed UN commitment to 'full implementation' of
Agenda 21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other
international agreements.
1992: Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty produced at the Earth Summit in 1992.
The treaty aims at reducing emissions of greenhouse gas in order to combat global warming. Its
stated objective is "to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a low enough level to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system." The treaty as originally framed set no mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions
for individual nations and contained no enforcement provisions; it is therefore considered
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Student Notes:
legally non-binding. Rather, the treaty included provisions for updates (called "protocols") that
would set mandatory emission limits. The principal update is the Kyoto Protocol, which has
become much better known than the UNFCCC itself. The treaty was opened for signature in
1992 and entered into force in 1994.
1992: Convention on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty that was adopted at the Earth
Summit in 1992. The Convention has three main goals:
1. Conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);
2. Sustainable use of its components;
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity. The convention recognized for the first time in
international law that the conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of
humankind" and is an integral part of the development process. The agreement covers all
ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation efforts to the
economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It sets principles for the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology
through Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer,
benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding; countries
that join it are obliged to implement its provisions.
1997: Protocol to the UNFCCC ("Kyoto Protocol")
The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement made under the UNFCCC. Countries that ratify this protocol
commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases (Methane,
Nitrous Oxide, Sulphur Hexafluoride, Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons), or engage in
emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases. Under the protocol,
Governments are separated into two general categories: countries among the developed
nations, referred to as Annex 1 countries (who have accepted GHG emission reduction
obligations and must submit an annual greenhouse gas inventory); and countries among
developing or least developed nations, referred to as Non-Annex 1 countries (who have no
GHG emission reduction obligations but may participate in the Clean Development Mechanism).
The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries, including
countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions.
By 2008-2012, Annex 1 countries have to reduce their GHG emissions by an average of 5%
below their 1990 levels (for many countries, such as the EU member states, this corresponds to
some 15% below their expected GHG emissions in 2008). While the average emissions
reduction is 5%, national targets range from 8% reductions for the European Union to a 10%
emissions increase for Iceland. Reduction targets expired in 2013. Kyoto Protocol includes
"flexible mechanisms" which allow Annex 1 economies to meet their GHG targets by purchasing
GHG emission reductions from elsewhere. These can be bought either from financial exchanges
(International Emissions Trading Scheme) or from projects which reduce emissions in non-
Annex 1 economies under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), or in other Annex-1
countries under the Joint Implementation (JI).
Only CDM Executive Board-accredited Certified Emission Reductions (CER) can be bought and
sold in this manner. Under the aegis of the UN, Kyoto established this Bonn-based Clean
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Student Notes:
Development Mechanism Executive Board to assess and approve projects (“CDM Projects”) in
Non-Annex 1 economies prior to awarding CERs. (A similar scheme called “Joint
Implementation” or “JI” applies in transitional economies mainly covering the former Soviet
Union and Eastern Europe).The Protocol entered into force in 2005.
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted.2 During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by
at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the
composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first. Belarus,
Cyprus, Kazakhstan, Malta are the country added to Annex B3 to the Kyoto Protocol. While
Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, USA are out of the Annex B list.
1998: Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade ("Rotterdam
Convention")
The objectives of the Rotterdam Convention are: to promote shared responsibility and
cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in
order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm; and to contribute to
the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating information
exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a national decision-making process on
their import and export and by disseminating these decisions to Parties. The Convention
creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
procedure. The Rotterdam Convention was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in 2004.
2000: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety ("Cartagena Protocol")
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an
international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living
modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects
on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. It was adopted on 29
January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. lt establishes an advance informed
agreement (AlA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information
necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into
their territory. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the
exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the
implementation of the Protocol.
2001: Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants ("Stockholm Convention")
The Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent organic
pollutants. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to
environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of
2
For detailed amendments to the Kyoto Protocol, refer COP 18 reference, later in the notes.
3
Annex B lists party quantified emission limitations or reduction commitments.
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Student Notes:
this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range
transport, bio accumulate in human and animal tissue, bio magnify in food chains, and to have
potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. Intergovernmental Forum
on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme for Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared
a list, known as the Dirty Dozen, including eight organochlorine pesticides: aldrin, chlordane,
DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene; two industrial chemicals:
hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) group; and two groups of
industrial by-products: dioxins and furans. The convention entered into force in 2004. Co-
signatories agree to outlaw nine of the "dirty dozen" chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria
control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and furans.
2010: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (‘Nagoya Protocol’)
It is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of
genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to genetic
resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights
over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding, thereby contributing to
the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. It was
adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its tenth
meeting on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan.
The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources
is one of the three objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Strategic Plan
consists of 20 new biodiversity targets for 2020, termed the ‘Aichi Biodiversity Targets4’. Official
decisions on an indicator set to measure progress towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets will
help cement the role the Partnership will play in supporting the CBD.
Recent Development:
United Nations Climate Change Conference - Conference of the Parties (COP)
The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework
of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They serve as the
formal meeting of the UNFCCC Parties (Conferences of the Parties) (COP) to assess progress in
dealing with climate change, and beginning in the mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to
establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions. Also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol can participate in
Protocol-related meetings as observers. The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The
Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997 after the negotiations at COP 3.
At COP13 in Bali (2007)
The Bali Road Map was adopted at the 13th Conference of the Parties and the 3rd Meeting of
the Parties in December 2007 in Bali. The Bali Road Map includes the Bali Action Plan, which
charts the course for a new negotiating process designed to tackle climate change. The Bali
Action Plan aimed at (i) shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a long-term
4
http://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/
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Student Notes:
global goal for emission reductions, (ii) enhanced national/ international action on mitigation of
climate change, (iii) enhanced action on adaptation, (iv) enhanced action on technology
development and transfer to support action on mitigation and adaptation, & (v) enhanced
action on the provision of financial resources and investment to support action on mitigation
and adaptation and technology cooperation. There was a strong consensus for updated changes
for both developed and developing countries. Although there were not specific numbers agreed
upon in order to cut emissions, the Decision recognized that there was a need for "deep cuts in
global emissions" (plural countries proposed 100% reduction in 2050) and that "developed
country emissions must fall 10-40% by 2020".
At COP15 in Copenhagen (2009)
The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference raised climate change policy to the highest
political level. It advanced many key issues like it raised climate change policy to the highest
political level; it advanced the negotiations on the infrastructure needed for well-functioning,
global climate change cooperation; It produced the Copenhagen Accord. The accord endorsed
the continuation of the Kyoto protocol and emphasised a "strong political will to urgently
combat climate change in accordance with the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities and respective capabilities”. It was not adopted by all governments, but it
advanced a number of key issues; and it committed developed countries to $30 billion fast-start
financing (in 2010-2012) for adaptation and mitigation in developing countries, with priority
given to the least developed countries.
At COP16 in Cancun (2010)
The agreements encompassed finance, technology and capacity-building support to help such
countries meet urgent needs to adapt to climate change, and to speed up their plans to adopt
sustainable paths to low emission economies that could also resist the negative impacts of
climate change. The Cancun Agreements main objectives covered Mitigation plans to establish
clear goals and a timely schedule for reducing human-generated greenhouse gas emissions over
time to keep the global average temperature rise below two degrees. It aimed at promoting
transparency of actions and use of technology to boost efforts to address climate change. It
also aimed to set up the Green Climate Fund5 to provide support to developing countries to
assist them in mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.
At COP 17 in Durban (2011)
In Durban, governments clearly recognized the need to draw up the blueprint for a fresh
universal, legal agreement to deal with climate change beyond 2020. All governments
committed in Durban to a comprehensive plan that would come closer over time to delivering
the ultimate objective of the Climate Change Convention: to stabilize greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent our dangerous interference with
the climate system and at the same time will preserve the right to sustainable development.
Four main areas of coordinated and complementary action and implementation, designed also
5
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a fund within the framework of the UNFCCC founded as a mechanism
to transfer money from the developed to the developing world, in order to assist the developing
countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change. It will support projects,
programmes, policies and other activities in developing country and is intended to be the centrepiece of
efforts to raise Climate Finance of $100 billion a year by 2020.
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to build and preserve trust among countries, were agreed:

1) Second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol - The continuation of the current
international legal system through a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol
till 2020.
2) Launch of new platform of negotiations - The launch of a new platform of negotiations
under the Convention to deliver a new and universal greenhouse gas reduction
protocol, legal instrument or other outcome with legal force by 2015 for the period
beyond 2020. This new negotiation critically includes finding ways to further raise the
existing level of national and international action and stated ambition to bring
greenhouse gas emissions down.
3) Conclusion in 2012 of existing broad-based stream of negotiations - A decision to
conclude within 2012 the work of the existing broad-based stream of negotiations that
includes all member nations under the Convention. This includes work to make existing
national emission reduction or emission limitation plans more transparent. It also
encompasses the launch and long-term implementation of the comprehensive global
support network that will deliver funding and technology to help developing countries
build their own clean energy futures and construct societies and economies which are
resilient to climate change.
4) Global Review - To scope out and then conduct a fresh global review of the emerging
climate challenge, based on the best available science and data, first to ensure whether
a maximum two-degree rise is enough or whether an even lower 1.5 degree rise is
required, and then to ensure that collective action is adequate to prevent the average
global temperature rising beyond the agreed limit.
At COP18 in Doha (2012)
Governments consolidated the gains of international climate change negotiations and opened a
gateway to necessary greater ambition and action on all levels. The governments agreed to
strengthen their resolve and set out a timetable to adopt a universal climate agreement by
2015, which will come into effect in 2020; to streamline the negotiations, completing the work
under the Bali Action Plan to concentrate on the new work towards a 2015 agreement under a
single negotiating stream in the Ad hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced
Action (ADP); launched a new commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.
Timetable for the 2015 global climate change agreement and increasing ambition before 2020 -
So that the world has a chance to stay below an agreed maximum 2 degrees Celsius
temperature rise, beyond which even more serious climate change impacts will occur,
governments agreed to speedily work toward a universal climate change agreement covering all
countries from 2020, to be adopted by 2015.
Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol - The Kyoto Protocol, as the only existing and binding
agreement under which developed countries undertake quantitative commitments to cut
greenhouse gases, was amended so that it could seamlessly continue.
1) Governments decided on an 8 year second commitment period that started on January
1st 2013.
2) The legal requirements that will allow a smooth continuation of the Protocol were
agreed, and the valuable accounting rules of the Protocol were preserved.
3) Countries that are taking on further commitments under the Kyoto Protocol agreed to
review their emission reduction commitments at the latest by 2014, with a view to
increasing their respective levels of ambition.
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4) The Kyoto Protocol's Market Mechanisms – the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
Joint Implementation (JI) and International Emissions Trading (IET) – will continue.
5) Access to the mechanisms remains uninterrupted for all developed countries that have
accepted targets for the second commitment period.
6) Surplus assigned amount units (AAUs) can be carried over without limit from the first to
the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol by Parties included in Annex I
that have a target for the second commitment period.
COP 18 endorsed the selection of the Republic of Korea as the host of the Green Climate Fund
(GCF) and the work plan of the Standing Committee on Finance. The GCF was expected to start
its work in Songdo in the second half of 2013. Developed countries reiterated their
commitment to deliver on promises to continue Long-term climate finance support to
developing nations, with a view to mobilizing USD 100 billion annually from a variety of sources
both for adaptation and mitigation by 2020.
Governments would continue a work programme on long-term finance during 2013 to identify
pathways for mobilizing scaled-up finance to reach the 100 billion target by 2020. Also, the
Governments launched a robust process to review the long-term temperature goal, which is to
start in 2013 and conclude by 2015, aimed at providing a reality check on the advance of the
climate change threat and the possible need to mobilize further action.
At COP19 in Warsaw (2013)
Governments took further essential decisions to stay on track towards securing a universal
climate change agreement in 2015. The objective of the 2015 agreement is twofold: First, to
bind nations together into an effective global effort to reduce emissions rapidly enough to chart
humanity's longer-term path out of the danger zone of climate change, while building
adaptation capacity; second, to stimulate faster and broader action. The governments decided
to move towards a universal agreement that required monitoring, reporting and verification
arrangements for domestic action have been finalized for implementation, thereby providing a
solid foundation for the 2015 agreement, which will enter into force in 2020. The conference
strengthened efforts to mobilize USD 100 billion by 2020. It was also decided to convene
Ministerial meetings on long-term finance every two years for the period 2014-2020. Also, the
rulebook for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was agreed,
together with measures to bolster forest preservation and a results-based payment system to
promote forest protection.
The framework for measuring, reporting and verifying mitigation efforts, including by
developing countries, is now fully operational. It means that the mitigation, sustainability and
support efforts of countries can now be better measured. This will also provide confidence to
donors and investors who are potentially interested in financing nationally appropriate
mitigation actions. The Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) was established with an
aim to stimulating technology cooperation and transfer to developing countries.
However, The G77 and China bloc led 132 poor countries in a walk out during talks about “loss
and damage6” compensation for the consequences of global warming. Poor countries have
6
It is associated with the impacts of climate change in developing countries that are particularly
vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. It aims that unless developed countries reduce their
emissions significantly; the burden on the poor, vulnerable countries will further increase, leading to
more loss and damage.
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demanded that the developed world give them $100 billion annually by 2020.
The COP 20 will be held in 2014 at Lima, Peru.
Convention on Biological Diversity – Conference on Parties
CBD COP 11 was held at Hyderabad, India in October 2012. It addressed issues such as capacity
building, technology development and transfer, the adverse effects of climate change on
developing and least developed countries, and several financial and budget-related issues,
including guidelines to the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which serves as the Convention’s
financial mechanism. After lengthy negotiations, the COP also agreed on a process for
considering future action beyond 2012 under the UNFCCC. Developed countries agreed to
double funding to support efforts in developing states towards meeting the internationally-
agreed Biodiversity Targets, and the main goals of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-
2020. It included new measures to factor biodiversity into environmental impact assessments
linked to infrastructure and other development projects in marine and coastal areas.
The COP also set targets to increase the number of countries that have included biodiversity in
their national development plans, and prepare national financial plans for biodiversity, by 2015.
The 193 Parties to the CBD agreed to classify a diverse list of marine areas, some renowned for
containing ‘hidden treasures’ of the plant and animal world, as ecologically or biologically
significant.
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development – RIO +20
The future we want – The Head of government of the various states assembled at Rio de
Janeiro in 2012 to mark the 20 years of the Earth Summit. They recognized that opportunities
for people to influence their lives and future, participate in decision-making and voice their
concerns are fundamental for sustainable development. It aimed at renewing political
commitment via reaffirming the Rio Principles and past action plans; Advancing integration,
implementation and coherence by assessing the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the
implementation of the outcomes of the major summits on sustainable development and
addressing new and emerging challenges. The summit emphasized on Green economy7 in the
context of sustainable development and poverty eradication. The summit gave due
consideration to International financial institutions and United Nations operational activities at
regional, national, sub national and local levels. The framework for action included poverty
eradication, food security and nutrition and sustainable agriculture, water and sanitation,
energy, sustainable transport, sustainable cities and human settlements, human health and
promoting full and productive employment, decent work for all and social protection. It also
emphasized on climate change, forest protection, and conservation of biodiversity, land
degradation, sustainable consumption, gender equality and women empowerment.
7
A green economy is one whose growth in income and employment is driven by public and private
investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and
prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalyzed and
supported by targeted public expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes. This development path
should maintain, enhance and, where necessary, rebuild natural capital as a critical economic asset and
source of public benefits, especially for poor people whose livelihoods and security depend strongly on
nature.
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Ecology Related Legislations in India

Considering the complexity in terms of conservation of biodiversity, sustainability of the natural
ecosystems and the livelihood dependence of the local communities, the government needs to
address national and global issues related to carbon accumulation, biodiversity conservation,
and continued flow of ecosystem services. These measures provide opportunities for
strengthening documentation and data collection; empowering local communities by
recognizing responsibilities, ownerships, rights, and concessions; and creating suitable
institutions. The legislative provisions developed as a follow-up to such national policies are
listed below:
Indian Forest Act, 1927: This Act recognises forest dwellers' rights and makes conservation
more accountable. The Act basically does two things: (i) Grants legal recognition to the rights of
traditional forest dwelling communities, partially correcting the injustice caused by the forest
laws, and (ii) Makes a beginning towards giving communities and the public a voice in forest
and wildlife conservation.
The law recognises three types of rights: Land Rights- Land rights are given to people, who have
been cultivating land prior to December, 13, 2005. Use Rights- The law provides for rights to
use and/or collect the minor forest produce things like tendu patta, herbs, medicinal plants etc
“that has been traditionally collected, use of grazing grounds and water bodies and use of
traditional areas by nomadic or pastoralist communities i.e. communities that move with their
herds, as opposed to practicing settled agriculture. Right to Protect and Conserve- Besides, the
law also gives rights to protect and manage the forests to people of village communities.
The Act also categorises forests into three categories: Reserve forest- These forests are the
most restricted forests and may be constituted by the State Government on any forest land or
waste land which is the property of the Government or on which the Government has
proprietary rights. In reserved forests, most uses by local people are prohibited, unless
specifically allowed by a Forest Officer in the course of settlement. Protected forest- The State
Government is empowered to constitute any land other than reserved forests as protected
forests over which the Government has proprietary rights. Under ‘Protected Forests’, the
Government retains the power to issue rules regarding the use of such forests and retains the
power to reserve the specific tree species in the protected forests. This power has been used to
establish State control over trees, whose timber, fruit or other non-wood products have
revenue-raising potential. Village forest- ‘Village forests’ are the one in which the State
Government may assign to ‘any village community the rights of Government to or over any land
which has been constituted a reserved forest’.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (with Amendment Acts of 2003 and 2006): The act provides for
the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and matters connected with them, with a view
to ensure the ecological and environmental security of India. The act constitutes a National
Board for Wildlife that provides guidelines for framing policies and advising Central and State
Government on promotion of wildlife conservation and controlling poaching and illegal trade of
wildlife and its products; Making recommendations for setting up and managing national parks,
sanctuaries and other protected areas; and Suggesting measures for improvement of wildlife
conservation. It also sets up National Tiger Conservation Authority. The acts sets up various
provisions related to trade and penalties for hunting the animals in wild.
Five kinds of protected areas can be notified in the Act. These are: Sanctuaries- The State or
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Central Government may by notification declare its intention to constitute any area as a
sanctuary for protecting wildlife and the environment. The government determines the nature
and extent of rights of persons in or over the land within the sanctuary. National Parks- The
State or Central Government may declare an area, whether inside a sanctuary or not, as a
national park for the purpose of protecting and developing wildlife and its environment. The
State Government cannot alter the boundaries of a national park except on the
recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife. No grazing is allowed inside a national park.
All provisions applicable to a sanctuary are also applicable to a national park. Conservation
Reserves- The State Government after consultations with local communities can declare any
area owned by the Government, particularly areas adjacent to national parks or sanctuaries, as
conservation reserves. The government constitutes a Conservation Reserve Management
Committee to manage and conserve the conservation reserve. Community Reserves- The State
Government can, in consultation with the community or an individual who have volunteered to
conserve wildlife, declare any private or community land as community reserve. A Community
Reserve Management Committee shall be constituted by State Government for conserving and
managing the reserve. Tiger Reserve- These areas were reserved for protection tiger in the
country. The State Government on the recommendation of the Tiger Conservation Authority
may notify an area as a tiger reserve, for which it has to prepare a Tiger Conservation Plan.
The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 - The Environment Protection Act, 1986 was
constituted on 19 Nov, 1986, to provide for the protection and improvement of environment
and for matters connected with environment that lays down the standards, policies and act of
environmental degradations and policies for improvement of environment and prevention of
human beings from environmental hazards. It describes rules to regulate environmental
pollution, laying down procedures and standards for industrial waste, emissions, hazardous
waste etc. Besides, it deals with the prevention, control and abatement of environmental
pollution.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 - The government passed the biodiversity act to conserve and
promote sustainable use of biological diversity and to regulate the access to biological
resources of the country with equitable share in benefits. It sets up National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Board (SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees.
Besides, it aims to respect and protect knowledge of local communities traditional knowledge
related to biodiversity and secure sharing of benefits with local people as conservers of
biological resources and holders of knowledge and information relating to the use of biological
resources. Besides, it also has provisions for notifying heritage sites by State Government in
consultation with local body.
National Wildlife Conservation Projects

Last few decades have seen emergence of human encroachment to an extent that has never
been seen before. This is one of the greatest threats to India's wildlife. In order to overcome the
result of human encroachment many national parks as well as protected areas have been
established so far and the first came in 1935. Also in 1972, to protect the tiger and wildlife in
India, the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard were enacted. The following are
the major conservation projects ongoing in India:
PROJECT TIGER
Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation project initiated in India to protect the Bengal Tigers. It
was launched on April 1, 1973. The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted
tiger reserves representative of various bio-geographical regions throughout India. The project
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was based on a 'core-buffer' strategy. The core areas were freed from all sorts of human
activities and the buffer areas were subjected to 'conservation oriented land use'. Management
plans were drawn up for each tiger reserve based on the principles of elimination of all forms of
human exploitation and biotic disturbance from the core area and rationalization of activities in
the buffer zone; restricting the habitat management only to repair the damages done to the
eco-system by human and other interferences so as to facilitate recovery of the eco-system to
its natural state; and monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out
research about wildlife.
Starting from nine reserves in 1973-74 the number has grown up to forty one. As per 2010
census, India was home to 1,706 tigers which was half the world’s tiger population. A new
census started in the 2013-2014 which will use three tests for counting tiger including camera
trap and DNA testing of tiger scat to minimise duplicate counting. Every tiger caught on camera
will be given a unique identification number based on their stripe patterns using computer
software and a database maintained for the entire country.
PROJECT ELEPHANT
Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched in February 1992 to provide
financial and technical support to major elephant bearing states in the country for protection of
elephants, their habitats and corridors. It also seeks to address the issues of human-elephant
conflict and welfare of domesticated elephants.
Main activities of the Project are as follows: Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats
and migratory routes of elephants; Development of scientific and planned management for
conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in
India; Promotion of measures for mitigation of man elephant conflict in crucial habitats and
moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats;
Strengthening of measures for protection of Wild elephants form poachers and unnatural
causes of death; Eco-development and Veterinary care.
PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD
Project Snow Leopard is a step of the Government of India’s resolve to conserve biodiversity
with community participation. Snow Leopard is globally endangered species as well as the most
important flagship species of the mountain region. The project will be operational in five
Himalayan States viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh with active support from wildlife institute of India and the Mysore based Nature
Conservation Foundation. The project stresses on a landscape approach to conservation
wherein smaller core zones with relatively conservation values will be identified and conserved
with support and the larger landscape will be managed in such a way that it allows necessary
development benefits to the local communities. The project thus places greater importance to
careful and knowledge-based management planning of the landscapes. Species such as Snow
Leopard, Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Urial, Chiru, Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will
particularly benefit from this project.
INDIAN CROCODILE CONSERVATION PROJECT
The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project is one of the most successful conservation initiatives
in the world. It has pulled back the once threatened crocodilians from the brink of extinction
and placed them on a good path of recovery. The Project has not just produced a large number
of crocodiles, but has contributed towards conservation in a number of related fields as
well.The broad objectives of activities under crocodile project were to protect the remaining
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population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries; to rebuild natural

population quickly through `grow and release' or `rear and release' technique - more than
seven thousand crocodiles have been restocked - about 4000 gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), 1800
mugger (Crocodylus palustris) and 1500 salt- water crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus); to promote
captive breeding; to take-up research to improve management; and to involve the local people
in the project intimately.
ACTION PLAN FOR VULTURE CONSERVATION IN INDIA
India has nine species of vultures in the wild. These are the Oriental White-backed Vulture
(Gypsbengalensis), Slender billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris), Long billed Vulture (Gyps indicus),
Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Red Headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Indian
Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), Cinereous Vulture
(Aegypius monachus) and Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus). The
population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long billed
Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade. The decline of Gypsgenus in
India has been put at 97% by 2005. Because of the evidence of widespread and rapid
population decline, all three vulture species were listed by IUCN, the World Conservation
Union, in 2000 as ‘Critically Endangered’.
Experiments showed that captive vultures are highly susceptible to Diclofenac, and are killed by
kidney failure leading to gout within a short time of feeding on the carcass of an animal treated
with the normal veterinary dose. There have been major initiatives for complete ban on the use
of Diclofenac and finding a suitable substitute for the same. The Supreme Court has also given
instructions for phasing out of Diclofenac.
INDIAN RHINO VISION 2020
The greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Wild populations of the species, currently number
approximately 3,270 individuals, are found in northern India and Nepal. Close to 85% of the
total population occurs in India, with about 75% in the state of Assam. Indian Rhino Vision (IRV)
2020 is a partnership the Assam Forest Department, the Bodoland Territorial Council, the World
Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the International Rhino Foundation (IRF), and the US Fish and
Wildlife Service. The goal is to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned
rhinos in the Indian state of Assam - spread over seven protected areas - by the year 2020.
National Action Plan on Climate Change

The Government of India released in 2008 India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) outlining existing and future policies and programs addressing climate mitigation and
adaptation. The plan identifies eight core “national missions” running through 2017.
Emphasizing the overriding priority of maintaining high economic growth rates to raise living
standards, the plan “identifies measures that promote our development objectives while also
yielding co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively.”
National Missions
1. National Solar Mission: The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar
energy for power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar
competitive with fossil-based energy options. The plan includes:
• Specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas, industry,
and commercial establishments;
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• A goal of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and

• A goal of deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.
Other objectives include the establishment of a solar research centre, increased international
collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity,
and increased government funding and international support.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Initiatives based on increasing the energy
use efficiency were expected to yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012. Building on the Energy
Conservation Act 2001, the plan recommends:
• Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming
industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-savings certificates;
• Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances; and
• Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through
demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings and agricultural
sectors.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: To promote energy efficiency as a core component
of urban planning, the plan calls for:
• Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code;
• A greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including power
production from waste;
• Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards and using
pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles; and
• Incentives for the use of public transportation.
4. National Water Mission: With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate
change, the plan sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and
other measures.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: The plan aims to conserve
biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values in the Himalayan region, where glaciers
that are a major source of India’s water supply are projected to recede as a result of global
warming.
6. National Mission for a “Green India”: Goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of
degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23% to 33% of India’s territory.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The plan aims to support climate adaptation
in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather
insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: To gain a better
understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate
Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international collaboration.
It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies
through venture capital funds.

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BIODIVERSITY

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What needs to be done?

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Effects of air pollution on living organisms:

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Effects of air pollution on materials

Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere

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Air pollution in India

Air pollution control in India

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• Excess use of fertilizers.

Different types of treatment plant should be set up according to the needs.

Effects of noise pollution

Noise Control techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled:

1. Reduce noise at the source

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Effects of Acid Rain:

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INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION ANDEFFORTS

1) Green economy in the context of sustainable development & poverty eradication

Convention on Biological Diversity:

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Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.

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• Limited involvement of public and government agencies in the initial phases.

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ENVIRONMENT: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND RELATED NATIONAL

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International Conventions and Treaties

1971: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as

1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

to build and preserve trust among countries, were agreed:

Ecology Related Legislations in India

National Wildlife Conservation Projects

population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries; to rebuild natural

National Action Plan on Climate Change

• A goal of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and

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