Section06B - Design Examples

MAR 2007 LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN DESIGN EXAMPLE 6-1
6.8 Two-Span This design example is taken from the MNDOT design manual. The
Plate Girder barriers and some of the details used by NDDOT are different and the
Design Example NDDOT details should be used where there is a difference. This example
illustrates the design of a two-span welded plate girder bridge with a 20
degree skew and is on a constant grade of 1.5%. The 304’-0” long
bridge has two equal spans of 152’-0”. Specifically, this example
illustrates the detail design of a typical interior girder at the critical
sections in flexure (positive and negative) and shear for AASHTO HL-93
loading. Design of the stiffeners, end diaphragm, shear connectors, and
field splice is included. Fatigue is also checked at critical locations.
The superstructure consists of five girders spaced at 11’-4” centers.

Girders are designed to act compositely with a 9½ inch deck. A 1/2 inch
of wear is assumed and a deck thickness of 9 inches is used for
composite section properties. To simplify dead load computation the
wearing course is assumed to extend from outside of barrier to outside of
barrier.
The top flange thickness usually varies along the length of the girder. As
the top flange thickness varies along the girder line, the thickness of
concrete in the riser changes as well. For dead load purposes the
concrete portion of the riser is assumed to have a uniform thickness of
33/8 inches. This is arrived at by subtracting the thinnest top flange from
the thickest top flange and adding 1½ inches. For section property
computations, a concrete riser thickness of 1½ inches will be used. The
composite deck is assumed to have a unit weight of 0.150 kcf for dead
load computations and 0.145 kcf for elastic modulus computations.
The following material and geometric parameters are used in this

A.1 Materials
example:
Concrete (deck and overlay)

Dead load unit weight = wc = 0.150 kcf
Compressive strength = f’c = 4 ksi
Elastic modulus = Ec = 3644 ksi
Steel
Dead load unit weight = wst = 0.490 kcf
Yield strength = Fy = 50 ksi
Tensile strength = Fu = 70 ksi
Elastic modulus = Es = 29,000 ksi
[6.10.3.1.1b] Composite Section Properties

Short-term modular ratio = n = 8

Long-term modular ratio = 3·n = 24
The geometry for the example is presented in Figures 6.9.1 through

6.9.4. Overall geometry (Figures 6.9.1 and 6.9.2) is presented in this
section. Girder geometry (Figures 6.9.3 and 6.9.4) is presented in the
next section where section properties are assembled.
A typical section for the bridge is shown in Figure 6.9.1. The deck is
supported on five lines of girders. The girders are spaced on 11’-4”
centers and the roadway is 48’-0” wide (two 12’-0” traffic lanes and two
12'-0" shoulders.) A Type “F” railing is provided on each side of the
bridge.
The framing of the superstructure is presented in Figure 6.9.2. The

structure has a 20 degree skew. Due to the span arrangement (2-span,
152’-0”/152’-0”), only a half-framing plan is provided. Rolled beam end-
diaphragms are located at the abutments. Cross-frame diaphragms are
located at other locations.
F
i
g
u
r
e
Figure 6.9.1
Figure 6.9.2
A.2 Determine The minimum depth of the steel girder is prescribed in LRFD Table
Cross-Section 2.5.2.6.3-1 “Traditional Minimum Depth of Constant Depth
Properties Superstructures”. For continuous span, steel I-beam structures the
[2.5.2.6.3] depth of the I-beam or girder can be no less than 0.027 L. Mn/DOT uses
a preliminary depth of 0.033·L.
Substituting 152 feet for L in the minimum depth ratios results in a

minimum girder height of 49 inches (LRFD) to 61 inches (Mn/DOT).
A member deeper than the minimum is usually the most economical.

Adequate clearance is assumed available for the example and a slightly
deeper section will be tried. Try a design with a 66 inch deep web.
Preliminary web and flange plate sizes for the girder are shown in Figure
6.9.3. The girder is symmetric about the pier with a 7/8” x 18” top
flange and a 7/8” x 20” bottom flange in the positive moment region. In
the negative moment region, both flanges are 13/8” x 20” near the field
splice and 23/4” x 20” over the pier. For the web, a 5/8 inch plate
thickness is used throughout.
The non-composite section properties of the girder are provided in Table

6.9.1.
Table 6.9.1 Non-Composite Section Properties

*Negative **Negative
Parameter Positive Section
Section 1 Section 2
d (in) 67.75 68.75 71.50
A (in2) 74.50 96.25 151.25
I (in4) 52,106 77,399 145,024
yt (in) 34.66 34.38 35.75
yb (in) 33.09 34.38 35.75
St (in3) 1503 2252 4057
Sb (in3) 1575 2252 4057
* Negative Section 1 is from the field splice to the shop splice.
** Negative Section 2 is the section over the pier.
Figure 6.9.3
Positive Moment Section Properties

The width of deck assumed to act compositely with the girder and resist
[4.6.2.6] external loads is the smallest of three values: 1) ¼ of the effective span
length, 2) 12 times the deck thickness plus ½ of the top flange width, or
3) the average spacing of adjacent beams. For section property
computations the deck thickness is reduced by ½ inch to account for
wear.
152 12
1) 0.7 ⋅ ⋅ = 319 in
4 1
1
2) 12 ⋅ 9 + ⋅ 18 = 117 in
2
3) 11’-4” = 136 in
For this example, the controlling value is 117 inches. Using the modular
ratios provided earlier (n=8, 3·n=24) results in a transformed deck width
[6.10.3.1.1b]
of 14.63 inches for transient, short-term loads (n=8) and 4.88 inches for
[6.10.3.1.1c]
permanent, long-term loads (n=24). The concrete riser or haunch has
an assumed thickness of 1½ inches for section property computations.
Section B of Figure 6.9.4 contains a girder cross section with the primary
dimensions for section property computations identified.
Negative Moment Section Properties

For negative moment regions, the section assumed effective in resisting
external loads is the steel girder section plus the reinforcement within an
effective width of the slab.
[6.10.3.7] In negative moment regions, the longitudinal reinforcing steel in the deck
is approximately 1% of the area of the deck. Two thirds of this steel is to
be placed in the top mat of reinforcement. A top mat with 20-#6 bars
and a bottom mat with 14-#5 bars is found to be satisfactory.
The top mat is located 3.63 inches from the top of the deck (based on 3
inches clear, for NDDOT this should be 2 ½” clear) and the bottom mat is
located 1.94 inches from the bottom (based on 1 inch clear). See
Section C, Figure 6.9.4.
Figure 6.9.4
Table 6.9.2 contains composite girder section properties.
Table 6.9.2 Composite Section Properties

Positive
Section
for Negative Negative
Positive Section Negative Section Section 2
Parameter N 3N Moment* 1** ****
Ac (in2) 209.50 119.50 87.6 109.39 164.38
Ic (in4) 131,943 98,515 70,371 96,048 165,867
Ycg (in) 19.04 29.90 39.10 40.06 42.93
Ytbeam 28.60
8.54 19.40 29.56 32.43
(in)
Ybbeam 39.15
59.21 48.35 39.19 39.07
(in)
Stbeam 2460
15,443 5079 3250 5114
(in3)
Sbbeam 1798
2229 2037 2451 4246
(in3)
* Positive Section for Negative Moment is used for splice design.
** Negative Section 1 is from the field splice to the flange butt splice.
*** Negative Section 2 is the section over the pier.
B. Select Load The following load multipliers will be used for this example.
Modifiers η D = 1.00
[1.3.3-1.3.5] η R = 1.00
η I = 1.00
C. Select The load combinations which will be considered for the design
Applicable Load example are identified below:
Combinations and
Load Factors STRENGTH I - Standard HL-93 loading will be used. Primary applications
[3.4.1] include:
• maximum bottom flange stress in positive moment location
• maximum top and bottom flange stress in negative moment
locations
Mu = 1.25 DC + 1.75 LL
SERVICE II - Corresponds to the overload provisions in the AASHTO

Standard Specifications pertaining to yield control and to slip-critical
connections.
Mu = 1.0 (DC) + 1.3 LL
FATIGUE - .Checks to limit the potential for fatigue cracks to form in a

structure.
Mu = 0.75 LLrange
[3.4.2] CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATION

During erection, the girder will need to resist stresses associated with the
steel section alone. In addition, the need for diaphragms or cross-frames
will be determined at this stage.
Mu = 1.25 DCtemp + 1.5 LLtemp
Due to the continuous configuration, maximum and minimum ( γ p ) load

factor values will be used.
D. Calculate Live Assume that traffic can be positioned anywhere between the “F” rail
Load Force Effects barriers.
[3.6.1] [3.6.2] 48
Number of design lanes = = 4 lanes
[4.6.2.2] 12
Dynamic Load IM = 15% when evaluating fatigue and fracture

Allowance IM = 33% when evaluating all other limit states
Distribution a. Interior Beams with Concrete Decks

Factors for LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1-1 lists common deck superstructure types that have
Moments approximate live load distribution equations.
[4.6.2.2.2b]
A Type (a) superstructure describes the structural system used in this
example (cast-in-place concrete deck on steel beam supporting
components). Per LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1, the approximate distribution
equations can be used if a number of geometric parameters are within
[C4.6.2.2.1-1] the range of values used to arrive at the approximate equations. For a
Type (a) superstructure, the geometric constraints are:
Type (a) Cross Section Range of Applicability Limits for Flexure

Parameter Design Example Minimum Maximum
Beam Spacing
11.33’ 3.5’ 16.0’
(S)
Slab Thickness
9.0” 4.5” 12”
(ts)
Number of
5 4 -
Beams (Nb)
Span Length (L) 152’ 20’ 240’
[4.6.2.2.1] In addition to S, ts, and L, the distribution equations for live load moment
area also based on Kg. Kg is a longitudinal stiffness parameter defined in
LRFD Equation 4.6.2.2.1-1.
K g = n ⋅ (I + A ⋅ e g2 )
where n is the modular ratio, I is the noncomposite girder moment of
inertia, A is the noncomposite area of the girder and eg is the distance
between the centers of gravity of the noncomposite girder and the deck.
a.1 Positive Moment Region

For the positive moment region
I = 52,106 in4
A = 74.50 in2
ts = 9.0 in
yt = 34.66 in
ts 9.0
eg = concrete riser + + yt = 1.50 + + 34.66 = 40.66 in
2 2
K g = 8 ⋅ (52,106 + 74.50 ⋅ 40.66 2 ) = 1.402 x 106 in4

One design lane loaded:

Distribution factor for moment
0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛S⎞ Kg ⎞
[Table gM = 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝L ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ L ⋅ (t ) ⎟
3
4.6.2.2.2b-1] ⎝ s ⎠
0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1

⎛ 11.33 ⎞ ⎛ 11.33 ⎞ 6 ⎞
= 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1.402x10 ⎟
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ 152 ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ (9)3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 0.484 lanes/girder
Fatigue
[3.6.1.1.2] The design fatigue truck is a single lane vehicle, that does not include the
[3.6.1.4] multiple presence factor. The tabulated approximate distribution factor
equations for moment include the multiple presence factors.
Consequently, when a designer is considering fatigue, the distribution
factor determined with the approximate equation for a single lane should
be divided by 1.20.
Distribution factor for fatigue moments

0.484
gM f = = 0.403 lanes/girder
1.2
Two or more design lanes loaded

0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1
[Table ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛S⎞ Kg ⎞
gM = 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4.6.2.2.2b-1] ⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝L ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ L ⋅ (t )3 ⎟
⎝ s ⎠
0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1

6 ⎞
⎛ 11.33 ⎞ ⎛ 11.33 ⎞ ⎜ 1.402x10 ⎟
= 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝ 152 ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ (9)3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
a.2 Negative Moment Region

The noncomposite section properties vary along the girder. The differing
I, A, and yt values impact the Kg term.
For the negative moment section over the pier

I = 145,024 in4
A = 151.25 in2
ts = 9.0 in
yt = 35.75 in
ts 9.0
eg = concrete riser + + yt = 1.50 + + 35.75 = 41.75 in
2 2
K g = 8 ⋅ (145,024 + 151.25 ⋅ 41.752 ) = 3.269 x 106 in4
One design lane loaded

0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1
gM = 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4.6.2.2.2b-1] ⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝L ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ L ⋅ (t )3 ⎟
⎝ s ⎠
0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1

⎛ 11.33 ⎞ ⎛ 11.33 ⎞ 6 ⎞
= 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3.269x10 ⎟
⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ 152 ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ (9)3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Fatigue
Distribution factor for fatigue moment
0.521
gMf = = 0.434 lanes/girder
1.2

0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1
gM = 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4.6.2.2.2b-1] ⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝L ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ L ⋅ (t )3 ⎟
⎝ s ⎠
0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1

⎛ 11.33 ⎞ ⎛ 11.33 ⎞ 6 ⎞
= 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3.269x10 ⎟
⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝ 152 ⎠ ⎜ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ (9)3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
b. Exterior Beams
[4.6.2.2.2d] Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1 contains the approximate distribution factor equations
for exterior beams. Check the value of de to ensure that the
approximate distribution equations are valid.
de = distance from centerline of exterior girder to the gutterline
(see Figure 6.9.5)
de = 3.00 – 1.67 = 1.33 ft
which is greater than -1.0’ and less than 5.5’. The approximate equation
for two or more design lanes loaded can be used.
One design lane loaded

Use the lever rule and refer to Figure 6.9.5.
Exterior beam reaction or distribution factor is:

⎡ 0.5 ⋅ [(11.33 − 0.67) + (11.33 − 6.67)]⎤
gM = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ 1.2
⎣ 11.33 ⎦
Fatigue
Distribution factor for fatigue moment
0.811
gMf = = 0.676 lanes/girder
1.2
Figure 6.9.5
Two or more design lanes loaded:

The distribution factor is equal to the factor "e" multiplied by the interior
girder distribution factor for two or more lanes loaded.
[Table gM = e ⋅ gMint erior

4.6.2.2.2d-1]
where
de 1.33
e = 0.77 + = 0.77 + = 0.916
9.1 9.1
which leads to:

gM = 0.916 ⋅ 0.740 = 0.678 lanes/girder for positive moment
gM = 0.916 ⋅ 0.799 = 0.732 lanes/girder for negative moment
Skewed Bridges
[4.6.2.2.2e] The framing plan is skewed 20 degrees. There is no modification to the
moments for skew until the skew angle is 30 degrees or greater.
Distribution Factor a. Interior Beams

for Shear Similar to flexure, in order to use the simplified distribution equations for
shear, geometric values for the bridge need to be within specific limits.
[Table Type (a) Cross Section Range of Applicability Limits for Shear
4.6.2.2.3a-1] Parameter Design Example Minimum Maximum
Beam Spacing (S) 11.33’ 3.5’ 16.0’
Slab Thickness
9.0” 4.5” 12”
(ts)
Number of Beams
5 4 -
(Nb)
Span Length (L) 152’ 20’ 240’
Pos. Mom. Long.
1.402x106 10,000 7.0x106
Stiffness (Kg)
Neg. Mom. Long.
3.269x106 10,000 7.0x106
Stiffness (Kg)
[4.6.2.2.3a] All parameters for the design example are within permissible limits. The
simplified equations for shear distribution can be used (Table 4.6.2.2.3a-
1 is used).
[Table One Design Lane Loaded

4.6.2.2.3a-1] S 11.33
gV = 0.36 + = 0.36 + = 0.813 lanes/girder
25 25
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded

2
S ⎛ S ⎞ 11.33 ⎛ 11.33 ⎞
gV = 0.2 + −⎜ ⎟ = 0.2 + -⎜ ⎟ = 1.039 lanes/girder
12 ⎝ 35 ⎠ 12 ⎝ 35 ⎠
[4.6.2.2.3b] b. Exterior Beams

One Design Lane Loaded
Use the lever rule, which results in the same factor that was computed
for flexure.
gV = 0.811 lanes/girder

d 1.33
e = 0.6 + e = 0.6 + = 0.733
10 10
The exterior shear distribution factor for multiple lanes loaded is the
product of “e” and the interior girder factor.
gV = e ⋅ gVint erior = 0.733 ⋅ 1.039 = 0.762 lanes/girder
[4.6.2.2.3c] c. Skewed Bridges

[Table There is a modification to the shear at the obtuse corners for bridges with
4.6.2.2.3c-1] skewed lines of support. This example has a skew angle of 20 degrees.
Type (a) Cross Sections

Range of Applicability Limits for Skew Correction (Shear)
Parameter Design Example Minimum Maximum
Skew Angle (θ) 20 degrees 0 degrees 60 degrees
Beam Spacing
11.33’ 3.5’ 16.0’
(S)
Number of
5 4 -
Beams (Nb)
Span Length (L) 152’ 20’ 240’
0.3
⎛ 12 ⋅ L ⋅ ts3 ⎞
CF = 1.0 + 0.2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ tan(θ)
⎜ Kg ⎟
⎝ ⎠
0.3
⎛ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ 93 ⎞
CF = 1.0 + 0.2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ tan (20)
⎜ 1.402x106 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 1.07 lanes/girder at the abutment

0.3
⎛ 12 ⋅ 152 ⋅ 93 ⎞
CF = 1.0 + 0.2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ tan (20)
⎜ 3.269x10 6 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 1.06 lanes/girder at the pier
For simplicity, only the larger correction factor will be used to modify the
live load distribution factors for shear. The adjusted shear distribution
factors are:
Interior Girders
One design lane loaded = 0.813 x 1.07 = 0.870 lanes/girder
Two or more design lanes loaded =

1.039 x 1.07 = 1.112 lanes/girder
Exterior Girders
One design lane loaded = 0.811 x 1.07 = 0.868 lanes/girder
Two design lanes loaded

0.762 x 1.07 = 0.815 lanes/girder
Fatigue Shear
0.870
Interior Girder = gVf = = 0.725 lanes/girder
1.2
0.868
Exterior Girder = gVf = = 0.723 lanes/girder
1.2
Summary of
Table 6.9.3 – Distribution Factor Summary (lanes/girder)
Governing
Multiple
Distribution Girder/Force Component One Lane Control
Lane
Factors
+ Moment 0.484 0.740 0.740
- Moment 0.521 0.799 0.799
Shear 0.870 1.112 1.112
Interior + Fatigue
0.403 - 0.403
Girder Moment
-Fatigue
0.434 - 0.434
Moment
Fatigue Shear 0.725 - 0.725
+ Moment 0.811 0.678 0.811
- Moment 0.811 0.732 0.811
Shear 0.868 0.815 0.868
Exterior + Fatigue
0.676 - 0.676
Girder Moment
-Fatigue
0.676 - 0.676
Moment
Fatigue Shear 0.723 - 0.723
E. Calculate Force Axial loads generated as a result of creep, shrinkage, and thermal
Effects movements will not be considered for the design of the girders. These
loads are considered in the bearing and substructure design examples.
From this point forward only the design of an interior girder subject to
dead load and HL-93 live loads will be presented.
The unfactored bending moments and shear forces at different locations

along the girder are presented in Tables 6.9.5 through 6.9.12. Moments
and shears due to noncomposite loads (DC1 loads) are applied to a
continuous beam model with varying noncomposite section properties
(see Table 6.9.1). Moments and shears for DC2 loads are based on a
composite continuous beam model consisting of the steel girder plus the
concrete deck where a modular ratio of 3·n is used for the section
properties. Moments and shears for live loads are based on a composite
continuous beam model consisting of the steel girder plus the concrete
deck with a modular ratio of n. Table 6.9.4 presents the areas and
moments of inertias for the negative moment regions. The n and 3n
composite section properties for the positive moment regions are
provided in Table 6.9.2.
Table 6.9.4 – Properties for DC2 and LL Moment Determination

DC2 Negative Section
LL Negative Section (n)
(3n)
Parameter Field Splice
Field Splice
Pier
Pier
Ac (in2) 141.38 196.38 232.75 286.62
Ic (in4) 127,450 205,514 169,431 259,858
DC1 consists of the following loads: girder selfweight, concrete deck and
form loads. A 15% detail factor (based on the self weight of the girder)
is used to account for the dead load of connection and cross frame
elements. A 0.10 ksf load is considered during construction to account
for the weight of deck formwork.
⎛ 0.292 k/ft - positive section ⎞
A beam ⎜ ⎟
w beam = ⋅ 0.490 ⋅ (1.15) = ⎜ 0.377 k/ft - negative section ⎟
144 ⎜ 0.592 k/ft - over pier ⎟
⎝ ⎠
w deck = [Area Deck + Area Riser ]⋅ 0.150

⎡ (9.5) 3.375 18 ⎤
= ⎢11.33 + ⋅ 0.15 = 1.41 k/ft
⎣ 12 12 12 ⎥⎦
w forms = 0.010 ⋅ 11.33 = 0.113 k/ft
A 0.20 ksf temporary construction live loading is also considered. It is

assumed to be acting full length on a single span concurrent with wet
concrete placement. In Table 6.9.6, DCtemp consists of girder
selfweight, form load and one span of concrete
DC2 consists of long-term dead loads, barrier and future wearing surface
(FWS). The load factor for FWS would be 1.5 (DW in Table 3.4.1-1) and
for the barriers would be 1.25 (DC). Mn/DOT uses a FWS of 0.020 ksf
with a 1.25 load factor.
2 barriers
w barrier = 0.438 k/ft ⋅ = 0.175 k/ft
5 girders
w fws = 0.020 ksf ⋅ 11.33 = 0.227 k/ft
The splice plate is located 108 feet from the abutment bearing,
approximately 0.71 of the span. This location was chosen as the nearest
even foot along the span to the dead load inflection point during the
initial sizing. During the design iteration, this dead load inflection point
moved to approximately 0.68 of the span. The splice location for the
example will remain at the assumed location of 0.71 of the span.
All of the DC1 loads presented in the example include the 0.010 ksf load
associated with the formwork. This increases the strength design loads
by 2% but greatly simplifies the calculations. The load is applied to the
noncomposite section but is removed from the composite section. The
actual stresses are also dependent on the pour sequence for the deck.
In the following tables, Girder Point 0.0 is the centerline of bearing at the
abutment. Girder Point 1.0 is centerline of bearing at the pier. Due to
the symmetry of the span arrangement, for most loads only data for
Girder Points 0.0 to 1.0 is provided. However, due to the unsymmetric
loading considered during construction, values are provided for both
spans in Table 6.9.6.
Table 6.9.5 – Dead Load Bending Moments (unfactored)

DC1 Moment (K-FT) DC2 Moment (K-FT)
Girder Slab
Point Girder and Forms TOTAL Barrier FWS TOTAL
Stool
0.1 198 954 77 1229 122 158 280
0.2 329 1582 127 2038 204 264 468
0.3 393 1884 151 2428 245 317 562
0.4 390 1860 150 2400 246 318 564
0.5 320 1511 121 1952 206 267 473
0.6 182 836 67 1085 125 163 288
0.7 -23 -165 -13 -201 5 6 11
0.71 * -47 -283 -23 -353 -10 -12 -22
0.8 -303 -1492 -120 -1915 -157 -203 -360
0.882
-598 -2823 -227 -3648 -319 -413 -732
**
0.895**
-650 -3054 -245 -3949 -347 -450 -797
*
0.9 -671 -3144 -253 -4068 -358 -464 -822
1.0 -1159 -5122 -412 -6693 -600 -778 -1378
* Field Splice
** Flange Butt Splice
*** First cross-frame off pier
For this design example, the constructability checks in LRFD Article

6.10.3.2 use the loads provided in the following table (Table 6.9.6).
Table 6.9.6 – Construction Load Bending Moments (unfactored)

DCtemp Moment (K-FT) LLtemp
Girder Slab and Moment
Point Girder Stool Forms Total (K-FT)
0.1 198 1210 77 1485 194
0.2 329 2094 127 2550 337
0.3 393 2652 151 3196 426
0.4 390 2885 150 3425 464
0.5 320 2792 121 3233 449
0.6 182 2373 67 2622 381
0.7 -23 1628 -13 1592 262
0.8 -303 557 -120 134 90
0.9 -671 -839 -253 -1763 -135
1.0 -1159 -2561 -412 -4132 -412
1.1 -671 -2305 -253 -3229 -371
1.2 -303 -2049 -120 -2472 -329
1.3 -23 -1793 -13 -1829 -288
1.4 182 -1537 67 -1288 -247
1.5 320 -1281 121 -840 -206
1.6 390 -1024 150 -484 -165
1.7 393 -768 151 -224 -124
1.8 329 -512 127 -56 -82
1.9 198 -256 77 19 -41
The truck train generated the controlling negative bending moment over
the pier. The distance between trucks in the train is variable but can be
no less than 50 feet. The largest moment was obtained when the
distance between the last axle of the first truck and the first axle of the
second truck was 119 feet.
Table 6.9.7 contains positive and negative live load moments due to
truck, lane, and truck train loading.
Table 6.9.8 lists the extreme positive and negative bending moments at
various girder points when the fixed axle fatigue truck is run across the
structural model.
Table 6.9.7 – Live Load Design Moments Per Lane (unfactored)

Truck Lane Truck Lane
Truck
Pos Pos Neg Neg Positive* Negative**
Girder Train
Mom Mom Mom Mom Mom Mom
Point (K-
(K- (K- (K- (K- (K-FT) (K-FT)
FT)
FT) FT) FT) FT)
0.1 867 558 -124 -109 1711 -274
0.2 1457 967 -246 -218 2905 -545
0.3 1796 1228 -369 -326 3617 -817
0.4 1923 1340 -492 -435 3898 -1089
0.5 1863 1305 -615 -543 3783 -1361
0.6 1642 1123 -738 -652 3307 -1634
0.7 1278 792 -860 -761 -1199 2492 -2120
0.71 1234 749 -873 -772 -1217 2390 -2152
0.8 816 342 -983 -898 -1370 1427 -2448
-
0.882 396 111 -1083 -1534 638 -2966
1255
-
0.895 348 87 -1100 -1626 550 -3148
1335
-
0.9 329 78 -1106 -1664 516 -3224
1369
-
1.0 0 0 -1230 -2459 0 -4900
2174
*Positive Moment = [1.33 x Truck] + Lane
**Negative Moment = maximum of [1.33 x Truck]+Lane
or 0.9 x ([1.33 x Truck Train]+Lane)
Table 6.9.8 – Live Load Fatigue Moments Per Lane (unfactored)

Truck Positive Truck Negative Fatigue Moment
Girder Point Moment Moment Range
(K-FT) (K-FT) (K-FT)
0.1 788 -119 1043
0.2 1307 -236 1774
0.3 1625 -354 2276
0.4 1715 -472 2515
0.5 1654 -590 2581
0.6 1469 -708 2504
0.7 1126 -826 2245
0.71 1084 -838 2210
0.8 667 -943 1852
0.882 306 -1039 1547
0.895 268 -1055 1521
0.9 253 -1061 1511
1.0 0 -1180 1357
*Moment Range = 1.15 x [Positive Moment – Negative Moment]
Table 6.9.9 presents the unfactored dead load shear forces at different
girder locations for different load components.
Table 6.9.9 – Dead Load Shear (unfactored)

DC1 Shear (K) DC2 Shear (K)
Girder Deck
Point Girder and Forms TOTAL Barrier FWS TOTAL
Stool
0.0 -15 -73 -6 -94 -9 -12 -21
0.1 -11 -52 -4 -67 -7 -9 -16
0.2 -6 -31 -2 -39 -4 -5 -9
0.3 -2 -9 -1 -12 -1 -2 -3
0.4 2 12 1 15 1 2 3
0.5 7 34 3 44 4 5 9
0.6 11 55 4 70 7 9 16
0.7 16 77 6 99 9 12 21
0.71 * 16 79 6 101 10 12 22
0.8 21 98 8 127 12 15 27
0.842*
25 110 9 144 14 17 31
*
0.895*
27 118 10 155 14 19 33
**
0.9 28 119 10 157 15 19 34
1.0 37 141 11 189 17 22 39
* Field Splice
** First transverse stiffener
*** First cross-frame
Table 6.9.10 contains the dead load reactions at Girder Points 0.0 and
1.0. The reactions at Girder Point 1.0 are larger than the shear at Girder
point 1.0 because the reaction includes the load from both spans.
Table 6.9.10 – Dead Load Reactions (unfactored)

Girder Point DC1 Reaction (KIPS) DC2 Reaction (KIPS)
0.0 95 22
1.0 378 79
Table 6.9.11 contains the live load shear extremes for various live load
components: truck and lane. Per LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1, truck train
loading is not to be used for shear.
Table 6.9.11 – Live Load Shear Per Lane (unfactored)

Truck Lane Truck Lane
Positive*
Girder Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative*
Shear
Point Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear (K)
(K)
(K) (K) (K) (K)
0.0 66 42 -8 -7 130 -18
0.1 57 32 -8 -8 108 -19
0.2 48 25 -13 -10 89 -27
0.3 39 18 -22 -13 70 -42
0.4 31 13 -31 -17 54 -58
0.5 24 8 -39 -23 40 -75
0.6 17 5 -47 -29 28 -92
0.7 11 3 -54 -36 18 -108
0.71 10 2 -55 -37 15 -110
0.8 6 1 -60 -45 9 -125
0.842 4 1 -63 -50 6 -134
0.895 2 0 -65 -53 3 -139
0.9 2 0 -65 -54 3 -140
1.0 0 0 -70 -63 0 -156
* = [1.33 x Truck] + Lane
Table 6.9.12 presents the live load reactions at the abutment (Girder
Point 0.0) and the pier (Girder Point 1.0). Similar to the dead load
reactions presented in Table 6.9.10, at the pier one can not simply take
the shear values to arrive at the reactions. The adjacent span influences
the magnitude of the reaction. Per LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1 the truck train
loading needs to be considered for reactions at interior supports.
Table 6.9.12 – Live Load Reactions (unfactored)

HL-93 Truck + Lane HL-93 Truck Train + Lane
Girder Point Reaction Reaction
(KIPS) (KIPS)
0.0 130 -
1.0 221 273
The checks in this example begin with the strength checks on the
preliminary layout. Designers should be aware that deflections may
control the design. The deflection checks for this example are presented
in Section M.
F. I-Sections in At the strength limit state the girder is designed to carry factored dead
Flexure – and live loads. The resisting section in the positive moment regions is the
Investigate The composite section. In the negative moment regions, resistance is
Strength Limit provided by the girder plus deck reinforcement composite section.
State
G.1 Determine a. Maximum Positive Design Moment

Maximum Design At 0.4 (60.8’) from each end, the maximum design positive flexure is:
Moments Mu = 1.25·(2400+564) + 1.75·(3898)· 0.740
= 3705 + 5048 = 8753 kip-ft
b. Maximum Negative Design Moment

At the pier, the maximum design negative flexure is:
Mu = 1.25·(-6693-1378) + 1.75·(-4900)·0.799
= -10,089 – 6851 = -16,940 kip-ft
G.2 Code Checks a. General Proportions

To ensure that the section functions as an “I” section, the LRFD
specifications contain requirements on the proportions of the web,
flanges, and overall cross section.
The general proportions check is the following:

Iyc
0.1 ≤ ≤ 0.9
Iy
where Iyc is the moment of inertia of the compression flange about a
vertical axis, and Iy is the moment of inertia of the girder about a vertical
axis.
[6.10.2.1] For the typical positive moment section this becomes:

1
I yc = ⋅ 0.875 ⋅ 183 = 425.3 in4
12
1 1 1
Iy = ⋅ 0.875 ⋅ 183 + ⋅ 66 ⋅ 0.6253 + ⋅ 0.875 ⋅ 20 = 1009.9 in4
12 12 12
I yc 425.3
= = 0.42 OK
Iy 1009.9
For the negative moment section over the pier this becomes:
1
I yc = ⋅ 2.75 ⋅ 203 = 1833.3 in4
12
1 1 1
Iy = ⋅ 2.75 ⋅ 203 + ⋅ 66 ⋅ 0.6253 + ⋅ 2.75 ⋅ 203 = 3668 in4
12 12 12
I yc 1833.3
= = 0.50 OK
Iy 3668
b. Web Slenderness
To ensure that lateral web deflections are not excessive, the following
check needs to be satisfied for webs without longitudinal stiffeners.
2 ⋅ Dc E
[6.10.2.2] ≤ 6.77 ⋅ ≤ 200
tw fc
where, Dc is the depth of the web in compression in the elastic range, tw

is the thickness of the web, E is the modulus of the web steel and fc is
the stress in the compression flange due to the factored loading under
investigation.
[C6.10.3.1.4a] ⎡ fc ⎤
Dc = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ d − tf
⎢⎣ fc + ft ⎥⎦
Section properties are from Tables 6.9.1 and 6.9.2, the moments are
from Tables 6.9.5 and 6.9.7 for the 0.4 Girder Point and the LL
Distribution factor is from Table 6.9.3. Start with the sum of the
compression stresses:
1.25 ⋅ 2400 ⋅ 12
fDC1 = = 23.95 ksi
1503
1.25 ⋅ 564 ⋅ 12
fDC2 = = 1.67 ksi
5079
1.75 ⋅ 3898 ⋅ 0.74 ⋅ 12

fLL + IM = = 3.92 ksi
15,443
Combining these terms produces:

fc = fDC1 + fDC2 + fLL + IM = 23.95 + 1.67 + 3.92 = 29.54 ksi
Next compute the sum of the tension flange stresses:

1.25 ⋅ 2400 ⋅ 12
fDC1 = = 22.86 ksi
1575
1.25 ⋅ 564 ⋅ 12
fDC2 = = 4.15 ksi
2037
1.75 ⋅ 3898 ⋅ 0.74 ⋅ 12

fLL + IM = = 27.18 ksi
2229
Combining these terms produces:

ft = fDC1 + fDC2 + fLL + IM = 22.86 + 4.15 + 27.18 = 54.19 ksi
d = 0.875 + 66 + 0.875 = 67.75 in

tf = 0.875 in
Substituting back into the equation produces:

⎡ fc ⎤ ⎡ 29.54 ⎤
Dc = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ d − tf = ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ 67.75 − 0.875 = 23.02 in
⎢⎣ fc + ft ⎥⎦ ⎣ 29.54 + 54.19 ⎦
The upper limit for the check is:

E 29,000
6.77 ⋅ = 6.77 ⋅ = 212.1 > 200, Use 200
fc 29.54
The web slenderness check with values inserted becomes:

2 ⋅ Dc 2 ⋅ 23.02
= = 73.7 ≤ 200; OK
tw 0.625
Table 6.9.13A – Web Slenderness Check Along the Girder – Unfactored

Moments
Moments
Girder Point
DC1 (K-FT) DC2 (K-FT) LL+IM (K-FT)
0.1 1229 280 1711
0.2 2038 468 2905
0.3 2428 562 3617
0.4 2400 564 3898
0.5 1952 473 3783
0.6 1085 288 3307
0.7 -201 11 2492
0.8 -1915 -360 -2448
0.9 -4068 -822 -3224
1.0 -6693 -1378 -4900
Table 6.9.13B – Web Slenderness Check Along the Girder – Section

Properties
Girder Sc Sc3n Scn St St3n Stn
tf (in)
Point (in3) (in3) (in3) (in3) (in3) (in3)
0.1 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.2 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.3 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.4 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.5 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.6 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.7 1503 5079 15,443 1575 2037 2229 0.875
0.8 2252 2451 2451 2252 3250 3250 1.38
0.9 4057 4246 4246 4057 5114 5114 2.75
1.0 4057 4246 4246 4057 5114 5114 2.75
Table 6.9.13C – Web Slenderness Check Along the Girder – Results

Girder Dc E
2Dc/tw 6 .77 Limit Check is
Point (IN) fc
0.1 23.89 76.46 299.4 200.0 OK

0.2 23.76 76.03 232.2 200.0 OK
0.3 23.51 75.24 212.2 200.0 OK
0.4 23.02 73.67 212.1 200.0 OK
0.5 21.98 70.35 232.1 200.0 OK
0.6 19.24 61.58 297.6 200.0 OK
0.7 1.37 4.40 1577.5 200.0 OK
0.8 34.48 110.3 208.8 200.0 OK
0.9 34.62 110.8 208.1 200.0 OK
1.0 34.57 110.6 164.7 164.7 OK
[6.10.2.3] c. Flange Proportions

For the compression flange, a check is made to ensure that the web is
adequately restrained by the flange to control web bend buckling. The
width of the compression flange must be equal to at least 30 percent of
the depth of the web in compression.
[6.10.2.3-1] b f ≥ 0.3 ⋅ D c
where Dc is the same value computed in Table 6.9.13
Table 6.9.14 – Compression Flange Proportion Check

0.3 x Dc Check
Girder Point Dc (IN) bf (IN)
(IN)
0.1* 23.89 7.17 18 OK
0.2 23.76 7.13 18 OK
0.3 23.51 7.05 18 OK
0.4 23.02 6.91 18 OK
0.5 21.98 6.60 18 OK
0.6 19.24 5.77 18 OK
0.7 1.37 0.41 18 OK
0.8 34.48 10.34 20 OK
0.9 34.62 10.39 20 OK
1.0** 34.57 10.37 20 OK
* - controlling case for 18” flange
** - controlling case for 20” flange
For the tension flange, a simple check with flange width and flange
thickness is made to ensure that the flange will not distort excessively
during fabrication. The check also provides a measure of safety that the
flange has good proportions in the event of a stress reversal.
bf
[6.10.2.3-2] ≤ 12.0
2 ⋅ tf
where bf and tf of the tension flange are provided in Figure 6.9.3. Table
6.9.15 contains the results of the check for all of the Girder Points.
Table 6.9.15 – Tension Flange Proportion Check

Check
Girder Point bf (IN) tf (IN) bf/2·tf bf
≤ 12
2 ⋅ tf
0.1 20 0.875 11.43 OK

0.2 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.3 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.4 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.5 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.6 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.7 20 0.875 11.43 OK
0.8 20 1.375 7.27 OK
0.9 20 2.75 3.64 OK
1.0 20 2.75 3.64 OK
G.3 Strength Limit a. Categorization of Flexural Resistance

State – Flexural The procedure for evaluating the flexural strength of a girder in
Resistance accordance with the LRFD Specifications is quite involved. To clarify the
[6.10.4] steps involved, a flow chart is included in the commentary to LRFD Article
6.10.4. Figure 6.9.6 contains a copy of the flow chart.
The girder cross section has a constant web height. It is considered a

constant depth section. It also utilizes Grade 50 steel, has no holes in
the tension flange, and the web does not contain longitudinal stiffeners.
Consequently we can enter the flow chart at the upper left box.
With the two-span continuous girder, the nominal flexural resistance for
the positive moment section is potentially impacted by the negative
moment section. Thus, determine first the compactness of the negative
section, then check what portion of 6.10.4.2.2 (if any) can be followed.
Figure 6.9.6
[6.10.4.1.2] b. Negative Moment Section Compact-Section Check

First check the following equation to determine if the web is compact:
2 ⋅ Dcp E
≤ 3.76 ⋅
tw Fy
Figure 6.9.7
Dcp is the depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment. The
location of the plastic neutral axis (PNA) can be determined with the
equations and figures contained in the Appendix to LRFD Section 6. The
figure in the appendix for Negative Bending Sections is provided in this
example as Figure 6.9.7.
Pt = Force in the top flange = 50·20·2.75 = 2750 kips
Pw = Force in the web = 50·66·0.625 = 2063 kips
Pc = Force in the bottom flange = 50·20·2.75 = 2750 kips
From Figure 6.9.4, Art = 8.84 in2 and Arb = 4.30 in2
Prt = Force in the top mat of rebar = 60·8.84 = 530.2 kips
Prb = Force in the bottom mat of rebar = 60·4.30 = 257.7 kips
With the force components known, the location of the plastic neutral axis
can be checked to see if it is located in the web or top flange of the
section. If the combined force in the web and bottom flange is greater
than the sum of the remaining force components the plastic neutral axis
is located in the web.
Pw + Pc = 2063 + 2750 = 4813 kips

Pt + Prb + Prt = 2750 + 257.7 + 530.2 = 3538 kips
The plastic neutral axis is in the web.
[Table A6.1-2] The location of the plastic neutral axis can be found with the equation in
the appendix for Case I.
D ⎡ P − Pt − Prb − Prt ⎤
y = ⋅⎢ c + 1⎥
2 ⎣ Pw ⎦
66 ⎡ 2750 − 2750 − 257.7 − 530.2 ⎤

= ⋅ + 1⎥ = 20.40 in
2 ⎢⎣ 2063 ⎦
The depth of web in compression is the difference between D and y .

Dcp = D - y = 66.0 – 20.4 = 45.6 in
Returning to the web slenderness check in Article 6.10.4.1.2.

2 ⋅ Dcp 2 ⋅ (45.6)
= = 145.9
tw 0.625
The maximum value for a compact web with 50 ksi steel is:
E 29,000
3.76 ⋅ = 3.76 ⋅ = 90.6 < 145.9
Fy 50
Therefore, the web is not compact. Consequently, the section is

noncompact. Proceed down in the flow chart to the box with the heading
Article 6.10.4.1.4 and check the slenderness of the compression flange.
bf
[Equation ≤ 12
6.10.4.1.4-1] 2 ⋅ tf
20
= 3.64 ≤ 12
2 ⋅ 2.75
The compression flange slenderness check is satisfied. Proceed to the

right in the flow chart to the box with the heading Article 6.10.4.1.9 and
determine the required bracing spacing for the bottom flange near the
pier.
E
[Equation L b ≤ L p = 1.76 ⋅ rt ⋅
Fy
6.10.4.1.9-1]
Lb is the length between compression flange brace points. If the flange

is not adequately braced, it may not be able to reach yield stress. rt is
the radius of gyration of the compression flange plus one third of the web
in compression.
2.75 ⋅ 203 34.42 ⎛⎜ 0.6253 ⎞

⎟ = 1834 in4
Irt = + ⋅
12 3 ⎜ 12 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
34.42
A rt = 20 ⋅ 2.75 + ⋅ 0.625 = 62 in2
3
1834
rt = = 5.43 in
62
Substitute rt into the equation to arrive at the lateral bracing limit for
plastic bending.
29,000
Lp = 1.76 ⋅ 5.43 = 230 in
50
From the framing plan, cross frames are located 16 feet away from the
centerline of the pier.
L b = 16 ft = 192 in
This is less than Lp (230 inches), so adequate bracing is provided to

compute the flexural resistance of the section with the non-lateral
torsional buckling flexural resistance equations. Proceed to the right in
the flow chart to the box with the heading Article 6.10.4.2.4.
c. Negative Region Flexural Strength

Begin by checking the capacity of the compression flange.
[6.10.4.2.4] Fn = R b ⋅ R h ⋅ Fcr
where Rb is the load shedding factor, Rh is the hybrid factor, and the
equation for Fcr is provided in LRFD Article 6.10.4.2.4.
[6.10.4.3.2] 2 ⋅ Dc E
If ≤ λb ⋅ then Rb is 1.0.
tw fc
If the inequality is not satisfied a more refined equation must be used to

evaluate Rb. Within the inequality, Dc is the depth of the web in
compression in the elastic range and fc is the stress in the compression
flange due to factored loading.
Dc = 34.57 in (from Table 6.9.13C)
D 66
= = 33 in
2 2
D
Dc > therefore λ b = 4.64
2
Now plug values into the inequality. First the left side:
2 ⋅ Dc 2 ⋅ 34.57
= = 110.6
tw 0.625
Now compute fc
fc = 48.98 (Table 6.9.13C)
The right side of the inequality becomes

E 29,000
λb ⋅ = 4.64 ⋅ = 112.9 > 110.6
fc 48.98
Therefore, Rb = 1.0.
[6.10.4.3.1a] The cross section uses 50 ksi steel throughout, therefore Rh = 1.0
Now compute the maximum stress in the compression flange prior to

incorporating the Rb and Rh multipliers.
1.904 ⋅ E
[6.10.4.2.4a] Fcr = ≤ Fyc
2
⎛ b f ⎞ 2 ⋅ Dc
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⋅ tf ⎠ tw
1.904 ⋅ (29,000)
= = 398.0 ksi which is > 50 ksi, Fcr = 50 ksi
2
⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 110.1
⎝ 2 ⋅ (2.75) ⎠
The maximum stress permitted in the compression flange can now be

computed.
Fn= (1)·(1)·(50) = 50.0 ksi
The compressive stress in the flange under factored loads has been
computed earlier as fc.
Fu = fc = 48.98 < 50.0 ksi
Therefore, the compression flange is okay.
[6.10.4.2.4b] Now check the tension flange.
[6.10.4.3.2.b] The load shedding factor for the tension flange is:
Rb = 1.0
[6.10.4.3.1a] The cross section uses 50 ksi steel throughout, therefore

Rh = 1.0
[6.10.4.2.4b] The yield strength of the tension flange is 50 ksi (Fyt)
The maximum stress permitted in the tension flange is

Fn = (1)·(1)·(50) = 50 ksi
The tension stress in the top flange under factored loads is

⎡1.25 ⋅ (6693) 1.25 ⋅ (1378) 1.75 ⋅ (4900) ⋅ (0.799) ⎤
ft = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12
⎣ 3892 5114 5114 ⎦
= 45.9 ksi
Fu = ft = 45.9 < 50.0 ksi
Therefore, the tension flange is okay.
The negative moment section has adequate flexural capacity.
[6.10.4.1.23] d. Positive Moment Compact-Section Check

Now check the capacity of the positive moment section at the 0.4 Girder
Point. Return to the flow chart and enter it in the upper right hand
corner in the box with the heading Article 6.10.4.1.2. Check if the web is
compact. For the web to be compact the following inequality must be
satisfied:
2 ⋅ Dcp E
≤ 3.76 ⋅
tw Fy
To determine Dcp use Appendix A from Section 6. The figure for load
components for positive bending sections is presented in Figure 6.9.8.
Figure 6.9.8
To simplify computations neglect the Prt and Prb terms.

Pc = Force in the top flange = 50·0.875·18 = 787.5 kips
Pw = Force in the web = 50·0.625·66 = 2063 kips
Pt = Force in the bottom flange = 50·0.875·20 = 875 kips
Ps = Force in the slab = 0.85·4·(9·117+1.5·18) = 3672 kips
Begin by checking Case I (PNA in the web of the girder).
Pt + Pw = 875 + 2063 = 2938 kips
Pc + Ps = 787.5 + 3672 = 4459.5 > 2938
Therefore the PNA is not in the web.
Try Case II (PNA in the top flange)

Pt + Pw + Pc = 875 + 2063 + 787.5 = 3725.5 kips
Ps = 3672 < 3725.5 kips
Therefore the PNA is in the top flange. Use the equation in the appendix
to locate the position of the PNA in the top flange.
⎡ t ⎤ ⎡ P + Pt − Ps ⎤ ⎡ 0.875 ⎤ ⎡ 2063 + 875 − 3672 ⎤
y = ⎢ c⎥⋅⎢ w + 1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⋅⎢ + 1⎥ =0.03 in
2
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ P c ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 787 .5 ⎦
With the PNA located in the top flange the entire web is in tension. This
in turn implies that Dcp is zero and the inequality in Article 6.10.4.1.2 is
satisfied. For the positive moment section the web is compact.
The note on the flow chart for the asterisk states that for composite
sections in positive flexure, certain Articles are considered automatically
satisfied. Proceeding to the right from the box in the upper left-hand
corner we arrive at three boxes with asterisks. These boxes are
automatically satisfied. We proceed to the right and arrive at the box in
the upper right hand corner with the heading Article 6.10.4.2.1 or
6.10.4.2.2.
[6.10.4.2.2] The span under consideration is continuous, with a negative flexural

region over the interior support that is noncompact. The LRFD
Specifications recognize the reduced capacity for load redistribution in
spans with noncompact sections. The positive flexural section is typically
not permitted to reach the plastic moment capacity (Mp) in such cases.
[Equation Compute the capacity with the Approximate Method. This method
6.10.4.2.2a-3] requires the computation of My. The procedure for determining My is
presented in Appendix A6.2 of the LRFD Specifications.
M M M
Fy = DC1 + DC2 + AD
Snc S3n Sn
Rearrange and solve for MAD, the additional moment required to reach
yield in a flange.
⎡ M M ⎤
M AD = Sn ⋅ ⎢Fy − DC1 − DC2 ⎥
⎣ Snc S3n ⎦
The additional moment for the bottom flange is

⎡ 1.25 ⋅ 2400 ⋅ 12 1.25 ⋅ 564 ⋅ 12 ⎤
MAD = 2229 ⋅ ⎢50 − − ⎥
⎣ 1575 2037 ⎦
= 51,244 k-in = 4270 k-ft
And the additional moment for top flange is

⎡ 1.25 ⋅ 2400 ⋅ 12 1.25 ⋅ 564 ⋅ 12 ⎤
MAD = 15,443 ⋅ ⎢50 − − ⎥
⎣ 1503 5079 ⎦
= 376,534 k-in = 31,378 k-ft
A smaller additional moment is required to yield the bottom flange,

therefore MAD = 4270 k-ft
My = MDC1 + MDC2 + M AD = 1.25 ⋅ 2400 + 1.25 ⋅ 564 + 4270 = 7975 k-ft
The nominal flexural resistance based on LRFD Equation 6.10.4.2.2a-3

can now be computed.
Mn = 1.3 ⋅ R h ⋅ My = 1.3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 7975 = 10,367 k-ft
The flexural resistance determined with Equation 3 can be no more than

the value computed for the case where the negative flexural section is
compact. The limiting value for this case is that computed with Equation
1 or 2. To determine which equation should be used, compute Dp and
D’.
Dp = t s + t h + y = 9 + 1.5 + 0.03 = 10.53 in
d + t s + th 67.75 + 9 + 1.5
[Equation D' = β ⋅ = 0.7 ⋅ = 7.3 in
7.5 7.5
6.10.4.2.2b-2]
Dp is greater than D’ and less than 5·D’, therefore Equation 2 is to be
used. Compute Mp using the Case II Equation in Appendix A6.1 Table
A6.1-1.
Mp =
Pc
2 ⋅ tc
[ ]
⋅ y 2 + (t c − y )2 + [Ps ⋅ ds + Pw ⋅ dw + Pt ⋅ dt ]
ts 9
ds = y + t h + = 0.03 + 1.5 + = 6.03 in
2 2
D 66
dw = t c − y + = 0.875 − 0.03 + = 33.85 in
2 2
t 0.875
dt = t + D + (tc − y) = + 66 + (0.875 − 0.03) = 67.28 in
2 2
Substituting P, d, t, and y terms into the equation for Mp results in

Mp =
787.5
2 ⋅ 0.875
[
⋅ (0.03)2 + (0.875 − 0.03)2]
+ [3672 ⋅ 6.03 + 2063 ⋅ 33.85 + 875 ⋅ 67.28]
= 151,166 k-in = 12,597 k-ft
Use LRFD Equation 6.10.4.2.2a-2 to compute the limiting flexural

resistance for the positive moment region.
5 ⋅ Mp − 0.85 ⋅ My 0.85 ⋅ My − Mp ⎡ Dp ⎤
Mn = + ⋅⎢ ⎥
4 4 ⎣⎢ D' ⎦⎥
5 ⋅ 12,597 − 0.85 ⋅ 7975 0.85 ⋅ 7975 − 12,597 ⎡10.53 ⎤
Mn = + ⋅⎢ ⎥
4 4 ⎣ 7.30 ⎦
= 11,954 k-ft
The 11,954 k-ft value from equation 2 is more than the 10,367 k-ft value
obtained with Equation 3. Therefore the flexural resistance of the
positive moment section is 10,367 k-ft.
Mu = 1.25 ⋅ (2400) + 1.25 ⋅ (564) + 1.75 ⋅ 3898 ⋅ 0.74
= 8753 < 10,367 k-ft
Therefore, the positive moment section has adequate flexural strength.
[6.10.3.2] e. Constructibility
The capacity of the girders should be evaluated during construction, prior
to composite action carrying the loads. For this example, the check
consists of placing selfweight and formwork on both spans, while deck
dead loads and a 20 psf construction live load is placed on one span.
Load factors for this check are based on the values provided in LRFD
Article 3.4.2, where 1.25 is used on dead loads and 1.5 is used on live
loads. The factored construction moment for the positive moment
section is:
Mu temp = 1.25 ⋅ DC temp + 1.5 ⋅ LL temp
Mu temp = 1.25 ⋅ (3425) + 1.50 ⋅ (464) = 4977 k-ft
We return to the flow chart to evaluate the constructability of the girder.

Enter the flow chart at the box in the lower left-hand column with the
heading Article 6.10.3.2.2.
The first check for constructability is to ensure that the bending stress
fcw in the web is not too large.
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.9 ⋅ E ⋅ α ⋅ k ⎥
[6.10.3.2.2-1] fcw ≤ ⎢ ⎥ ≤ Fyw = 50 ksi
2
⎢ ⎡D⎤ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎣tw ⎦ ⎥⎦
Mu temp 4977 ⋅ 12
fcw = = = 38.72 ksi
I 52,106
yt - tf 34.66 − 0.875
Without longitudinal stiffeners in the web, α = 1.25

2 2
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ 66 ⎞
k = 9.0 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ = 9⋅⎜ ⎟ = 34.35
⎝ Dc ⎠ ⎝ 34.66 - 0.875 ⎠
Substituting values into Equation 6.10.3.2.2-1 results in

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.9 ⋅ 29,000 ⋅ 1.25 ⋅ 34.35 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ = 100.5 ksi ≥ 50 ksi , set the limit at 50 ksi
⎢ ⎡ 66 ⎤ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ 0.625 ⎥ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦
fcw = 38.72 ≤ Fyw = 50 ksi , so the bending in the web is satisfactory.
Proceed up in the flow chart to the box with the heading of Article
6.10.4.1.4.
The top flange satisfies the aspect ratio inequality in Article 6.10.4.1.4.
bf 18
= = 10.29 ≤ 12
2 ⋅ tf 2 ⋅ 0.875
Proceed to the right in the flow chart to the box with the heading of
Article 6.10.4.1.9. Check if the bracing spacing is less than Lp. If so, the
non-lateral-torsional buckling equations are to be used to compute the
capacity of the section.
E
L p = 1.76 ⋅ rt ⋅
Fyc
0.875 ⋅ 183 34.66 - 0.875 ⎛ 0.6253 ⎞

Irt = + ⋅⎜ ⎟ = 425.5 in4
12 3 ⎜ 12 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
34.66 - 0.875
A rt = 18 ⋅ 0.875 + ⋅ 0.625 = 22.79 in2
3
425.5
rt = = 4.32 in
22.79
Substituting values into the equation for Lp produces:

29,000
L p = 1.76 ⋅ 4.32 ⋅ = 183 in
50
From the framing plan, cross frames are spaced at 30 feet in the positive
moment region (Lb = 360 inches). Lb is greater than Lp. Therefore the
flexural resistance of the section is less than My and the lateral-torsional
buckling equations are used. Proceed down and to the right in the flow
chart to the box with the heading Article 6.10.4.2.5 or 6.10.4.2.6. Begin
by checking the following inequality to see if Equation 1 can be used:
2 ⋅ Dc E
≤ λb ⋅
tw Fy
The left side of the inequality is

[6.10.4.2.6] 2 ⋅ Dc 2 ⋅ (34.66 − 0.875)
= = 108.1
tw 0.625
Over half the web is in compression (top flange smaller than bottom
flange), therefore λb = 4.64. The right side of the inequality becomes:
E 29,000
λb ⋅ = 4.64 ⋅ = 111.7 > 108.1
Fy 50
Therefore, the inequality is satisfied and equation can be used:

2
⎡ I yc ⎤ ⎛ J ⎞
Mn = 3.14 ⋅ E ⋅ Cb ⋅ R h ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ 0.772 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟ + 9.87 ⋅ ⎛⎜ d ⎞
⎟ ≤ R h ⋅ My
⎟ ⎜L ⎟
⎣⎢ L b ⎦⎥ ⎝ I yc ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
J is the Saint Venant torsional constant and can be found with:

D ⋅ t w3 + b f ⋅ t f 3 + b t ⋅ t t 3
J=
3
66 ⋅ 0.6253 + 20 ⋅ 0.8753 + 18 ⋅ 0.8753
= = 13.86 in4
3
The weak axis moment of inertia of the top flange is:

183 ⋅ 0.875
I yc = = 425 in 4
12
Rh = 1.0 and d = 67.75 in

Due to the uncertainties associated with the construction loads, use a

moment gradient correction factor (Cb) of 1.00.
Substituting values into the moment equation produces:

2
[Equation ⎡ 425 ⎤ ⎛ 13.86 ⎞ ⎛ 67.75 ⎞
Mn = 3.14 ⋅ 29,000 ⋅ 1.0 ⋅ 1.0 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ 0.772 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ + 9.87 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
6.10.4.2.6a-1] ⎣ 360 ⎦ ⎝ 425 ⎠ ⎝ 360 ⎠
= 65,810 kip-in = 5484 kip-ft
Compute the yield moment (My) and substitute in values to arrive at the
maximum flexural resistance.
R h ⋅ My = R h ⋅ Fy ⋅ S xc = 1.0 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 1503 = 75,150 kip-in = 6262 k-ft
Use Mn = 5484 kip-ft
The flexural resistance of 5484 k-ft is greater than the factored moment
of 4977 k-ft. Use a cross frame spacing of 30 feet (NDDOT max 25’).
H. Investigate the Overload provisions in past AASHTO design specifications controlled the
Service Limit State amount of permanent deflection and the performance of slip-critical
connections. The Service II load combination is used in a similar fashion
for LRFD designs.
Service II = 1.00·(DC+DW)+1.3·LL
[6.10.5.1] The narrative in LRFD Article 6.10.5.1 states that the web bending stress,
fcw, shall satisfy the LRFD Equation 6.10.3.2.2-1.
0.9 ⋅ E ⋅ α ⋅ k
[6.10.3.2.2-1] fcw ≤ ≤ Fyw = 50 ksi
2
⎡D⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎣ tw ⎦
(2400) (564) 1.3 ⋅ (3898) ⋅ gM

fcw = + +
Sweb (nc) Sweb (3n) Sweb (n)
⎡ ⎤
⎢ (2400) (564) 1.30 ⋅ (3898) ⋅ 0.74 ⎥
= ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12
⎢ 52,106 98,515 131,943 ⎥
⎢⎣ (34.66 - 0.875) (19.40 - 0.875) (8.54 - 0.875) ⎥⎦
= 22.6 ksi
There are no longitudinal stiffeners in the web, α = 1.25 . To arrive at a

conservative k value use the Dc value of the noncomposite section
2 2
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ 66 ⎞
k = 9.0 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ = 9⋅⎜ ⎟ = 34.35
⎝ Dc ⎠ ⎝ 34.66 - 0.875 ⎠
Plug in the values to arrive at the limiting stress

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.9 ⋅ 29,000 ⋅ 1.25 ⋅ 34.35 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ = 100.5 ksi
⎢ ⎡ 66 ⎤ ⎥
⎢ ⎢ 0.625 ⎥ ⎥
⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦
The upper limit is capped by the material strength of 50 ksi

fcw = 22.6 ksi ≤ 50 ksi, so the web bending stress is satisfactory.
H.1 Flange Stress For composite sections the stress in the flanges, ff, when subjected to
Limitations Service II load combinations must be less than 95 percent of the yield
strength of the flange. The noncompact web section over the pier limits
the stress in the flanges to Fy when evaluating strength load
combinations. The sections should readily pass this check due to the
smaller load factors associated with the Service II load combination.
ff ≤ 0.95 ⋅ Fy = 47.5 ksi
[6.10.5.2] a. Positive Flexural Region

Top Flange
⎡ 2400 564 1.3 ⋅ (3898) ⋅ 0.74 ⎤
ff = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12 = 23.4 ksi ≤ 47.5 ksi
⎣ 1503 5079 15,443 ⎦
Bottom Flange
⎡ 2400 564 1.3 ⋅ (3898) ⋅ 0.74 ⎤
ff = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12 = 41.8 ksi ≤ 47.5 ksi
⎣ 1575 2037 2229 ⎦
b. Negative Flexural Region

Top Flange
⎡ 6693 1378 1.3 ⋅ (4900) ⋅ 0.799 ⎤
ff = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12 = 35.0 ksi ≤ 47.5 ksi
⎣ 4057 5114 5114 ⎦
Bottom Flange
⎡ 6693 1378 1.3 ⋅ (4900) ⋅ 0.799 ⎤
ff = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12 = 38.1 ksi ≤ 47.5 ksi
⎣ 4057 4246 4246 ⎦
I. Investigate the Only details with fatigue resistance Category C or lower resistance need
Fatigue Limit State to be evaluated during design. Details that are classified as Category B’
[6.6.1.2.3] and above no longer need to be checked.
To improve the fatigue resistance of steel superstructures, Mn/DOT

attaches cross frame connection plates and transverse stiffeners to the
tension flange with a bolted connection (NDDOT attaches connection
plates to flanges).
I.1 Fatigue The HL-93 truck is used to generate the fatigue loads that are used to
Loading evaluate different components of a design. For fatigue, the HL-93 truck
[3.6.1.4] has a fixed rear axle spacing of 30 feet. In addition, a load factor of 0.75
is applied to calibrate the stresses to those observed in field studies. The
dynamic load allowance for fatigue loading is 15 percent. Distribution for
fatigue is equal to the one design lane loaded distribution, with the
multiple presence factor removed (if approximate equations are used for
one lane loaded).
[6.6.1.2.2] γ ⋅ (Δf) ≤ (ΔF)n
γ = load factor for fatigue = 0.75
(Δf) = Live Load stress range
(ΔF)n = nominal fatigue resistance
I.2 Check Largest The unfactored fatigue moments in Table 6.9.8 are multiplied by the
Stress Range fatigue load factor (0.75) and the appropriate distribution factor to arrive
Location at the design moment ranges for fatigue. In Table 6.9.16 the stresses at
the top of the top flange are computed by dividing the design moment
range by the composite (n) section modulus.
For this example, the details with fatigue resistances less than B’ that
should be investigated for fatigue are: the shear studs attached to the
top flange and the web to connection plate/stiffener welds. Details
subject to stress ranges less than ½ the infinite life fatigue threshold are
assumed to have infinite life. The ½ factor accounts for the probability
that some vehicles larger than the HL-93 fatigue truck will cross the
bridge.
Designers should note that the fatigue distribution factor for the exterior
girder is significantly larger (0.676 versus 0.434) than that of the interior
girders.
Table 6.9.16 – Fatigue Range (Truck Moments and Moment Range from
Table 6.9.8)
Fatigue
Loads Per Lane
Design**
Top Bottom
Truck Truck Moment
Moment* Stress Stress
Positive Negative Range
Range (KSI) (KSI)
Girder Moment Moment (K-FT)
(K-FT)
Point (K-FT) (K-FT)
0.1 788 -119 1043 315 0.24 1.70
0.2 1307 -236 1774 536 0.42 2.89
0.3 1625 -354 2276 688 0.53 3.70
0.4 1715 -472 2515 760 0.59 4.09
0.5 1654 -590 2581 780 0.61 4.20
0.6 1469 -708 2504 757 0.59 4.08
0.7 1126 -826 2245 679 0.53 3.66
0.71 1084 -838 2210 668 0.52 3.60
0.8 667 -943 1852 603 2.23 2.95
0.842 306 -1039 1547 504 1.86 2.47
0.895 268 -1055 1521 495 1.16 1.40
0.9 253 -1061 1511 492 1.15 1.39
1.0 0 -1180 1357 442 1.04 1.25
* Includes 15% Dynamic Load Allowance
**Girder Point 0.1 – 0.7: (Moment Range) x 0.75 x 0.403
Girder Point 0.71 – 1.0: (Moment Range) x 0.75 x 0.434
I.3 Top Flange The top flange has welded shear studs that are a Category C detail.
With Shear Studs Category C details have a constant amplitude fatigue threshold of 10.0
ksi. The shear connectors are attached to the top flange of the section.
[Table 6.6.1.2.3-1] From Table 6.9.16 the largest top flange stress range occurs at Girder
[Table 6.6.1.2.5-3] Point 0.71 (2.23 ksi). This value is below ½ of the constant amplitude
fatigue threshold (5.0 ksi). Therefore, the shear studs are assumed to
have an infinite fatigue life.
I.4 Stiffener To Mn/DOT Detail B411 provides the cope detail for stiffeners and
Web Weld connection plates. The connection to the tension flange is with a bolted
tab plate which is a Category B detail which need not be evaluated. The
stiffeners and connection plates are welded to the web of the girder. Per
Detail B411 this weld terminates approximately 3 inches above or below
[Table 6.6.1.2.3-1]
the tension flange. The weld between the stiffener and web is classified
[Table 6.6.1.2.5-3]
as a C’ fatigue detail that requires investigation.
The constant amplitude fatigue threshold for C’ details is 12.0 ksi and the
assumed infinite life fatigue threshold is 6.0 ksi. Reviewing Table 6.9.16
indicates that neither flange has a stress range over 4.20 ksi. The web
to stiffener welds are subject to a smaller stress range than the flanges.
By inspection, fatigue resistance is adequate.
Adequate resistance to load induced flexural fatigue is provided.
I.5 Fatigue To control out-of-plane flexing of the web under repeated live loading the
Requirements for following constraints are placed on webs.
Web
Flexure Check
[6.10.6.3] The following check compares the flange stress to a maximum value.
This assumes that the stress in the web due to flexure is approximately
the same as that found in the flange.
D k ⋅E
[6.10.6.3-1] If ≤ 0.95 ⋅
tw Fyw
the maximum compression flange stress (fcf) is Fyw (50 ksi). Otherwise
a more involved equation needs to be used. The value for “k” has been
previously computed as 34.35.
D 66
= = 105.6
tw 0.625
k ⋅E 34.35 ⋅ 29,000
0.95 ⋅ = 0.95 ⋅ = 134.1 > 105.6
Fyw 50
Therefore, fcf ≤ Fyw
[6.10.6.2] The live load used for this check is twice that presented in Table 6.9.16.
In the positive moment region at the 0.4 Girder Point

⎡ 2400 564 2 ⋅ 760 ⎤
fcf = ⎢ + + ⎥ ⋅ 12 = 21.7 ksi ≤ 50.0 ksi
⎣ 1503 5079 15,443 ⎦
In the negative moment region at the 1.0 Girder Point

⎡ 6693 1378 2 ⋅ 442 ⎤
f cf = ⎢ + + ⋅ 12 = 28.7 ksi ≤ 50 ksi
⎣ 4057 4246 4246 ⎥⎦
[6.10.6.4] Shear Check

The computations for the resistance of the web in shear is based on the
following equation:
[Equation v cf ≤ 0.58 ⋅ (C) ⋅ Fyw
6.10.6.4-1]
Where vcf is the maximum elastic shear stress in the web due to
unfactored permanent load and fatigue loading. C is defined in LRFD
Article 6.10.7.3.3a. It is the ratio of shear buckling stress to shear yield
strength.
Assume an unstiffened web.

D 66
= = 105.6
tw 0.625
5 5
k =5+ =5+ =5
2 2
⎡ do ⎤ ⎡∞⎤
⎢D⎥ ⎢ 66 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
E⋅k 29,000 ⋅ 5.0

1.38 ⋅ = 1.38 ⋅ = 74.32
Fyw 50
1.52 ⎡E ⋅ k ⎤ 1.52 ⎡ 29,000 ⋅ 5.0 ⎤

C= ⋅⎢ ⎥= ⋅ ⎥ = 0.395
2 F 2 ⎢⎣ 50 ⎦
⎡D⎤ ⎢⎣ yw ⎥⎦ ⎡ 66 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0.625 ⎥
⎣ tw ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
v cf ≤ 0.58 ⋅ (C) ⋅ Fyw = 0.58 ⋅ 0.395 ⋅ 50 v cf ≤ 11.5 ksi
Table 6.9.17 – Shear Fatigue

Fatigue
DC1 DC2
Girder (per lane, no impact) Vcf* vcf**
Shear Shear
Point Minimum Maximum (K) (KSI)
(K) (K)
Shear (K) Shear (K)
0.0 94 21 -8 61 181 4.4
0.1 67 16 -8 52 140 3.4
0.2 39 9 -9 43 95 2.3
0.3 12 3 -17 35 53 1.3
0.4 -15 -3 -27 26 -47 -1.2
0.5 -44 -9 -34 20 -90 -2.2
0.6 -70 -16 -42 14 -132 -3.2
0.7 -99 -21 -50 8 -174 -4.2
0.711 -101 -22 -50 8 -177 -4.3
0.8 -127 -27 -56 4 -215 -5.2
0.842 -144 -31 -61 2 -241 -5.9
0.895 -155 -33 -62 2 -255 -6.2
0.9 -157 -34 -62 2 -258 -6.3
1.0 -189 -39 -67 0 -301 -7.3
* DC1+DC2+(Maximum Shear or Minimum Shear) x 0.725 x 0.75 x 2.0
** Vcf / (66 x 0.625)
Based on an unstiffened web, the shear stresses at all girder points are
well below the 11.5 ksi permitted. The web satisfies the shear fatigue
checks. If stiffeners are added later, the resistance of the web will
increase and the check will still be satisfied.
J. Strength Limit Within the commentary to LRFD Article 6.10.7.1 a flow chart identifies
State Shear the steps for the shear design of I-sections. A copy of the flow chart is
Resistance provided below in Figure 6.9.9
[6.10.7]
Figure 6.9.9
The cross section is homogeneous or non-hybrid. Move down the flow

chart on the right hand side. Determine the maximum shear capacity of
the section with an unstiffened web and compare that to the required
shear resistance.
[6.10.7.2-1] Vn = C ⋅ Vp
Vp = 0.58 ⋅ Fyw ⋅ D ⋅ t w = 0.58 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 66 ⋅ 0.625 = 1196 kips
C is dependent on the web depth to thickness ratio.

D 66
= = 105.6
tw 0.625
[6.10.7.3.3a-7] The appropriate equation for C is selected based on how slender the web
is:
E⋅k 29,000 ⋅ 5
1.38 ⋅ = 1.38 ⋅ = 74.3 < 105.6
Fyw 50
Therefore,
1.52 ⎡E ⋅ k ⎤ 1.52 ⎡ 29,000 ⋅ 5 ⎤
C= ⋅⎢ ⎥= ⋅⎢ ⎥ = 0.395
⎡D⎤
2
⎢⎣ Fyw ⎥⎦ [105.6]2 ⎣ 50 ⎦
⎢ ⎥
⎣ tw ⎦
The capacity of the unstiffened web is:

Vn = 0.395 ⋅ 1196 = 473 kips
Vr = φ ⋅ Vn = 473 kips
J.1 Pier Section Assume the critical section for shear is at Girder Point 1.0. Based on
Tables 6.9.3, 6.9.9, and 6.9.11, the factored shear force over the pier is:
Vu = 1.25 ⋅ (189 + 39) + 1.75 ⋅ 156 ⋅ 1.112 = 285 + 304 = 589 kips > φ ⋅ Vn
The resistance of an unstiffened web is less than the demand of 589 kips;
therefore transverse stiffeners are required near the pier.
[6.10.7.3.2] Check the handling requirements. The maximum D/tw ratio permitted is
150. The web for the design example has a D/tw ratio of 105.6;
Equation 1 is satisfied. Investigate Equation 2. The maximum
transverse stiffener spacing that satisfies the handling check is:
2 2
⎡ 260 ⎤ ⎡ 260 ⎤
D⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = 66 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = 400 in
⎣ D/t w ⎦ ⎣105.6 ⎦
To satisfy LRFD Article 6.10.7.1, the maximum spacing of transverse

stiffeners is three times the depth of the web:
3 ⋅ D = 3 ⋅ (66) = 198 in
Where required, transverse stiffeners can be spaced no further apart

than 198 inches.
Go to Article 6.10.7.3.3b to determine the required shear stiffener

spacing for a noncompact section.
Try a 8 foot spacing for transverse stiffeners (a cross frame is located at

16 foot and 32 foot distances from Girder Point 1.0).
Compute k for a stiffener spacing of 96 inches.

5 5
k =5+ =5+ = 7.36
2 2
⎡ do ⎤ ⎡ 96 ⎤
⎢D⎥ ⎢ 66 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
E⋅k 29,000 ⋅ 7.36

1.38 ⋅ = 1.38 ⋅ = 90.16 < 105.6
Fyw 50
1.52 ⎡E ⋅ k ⎤ 1.52 ⎡ 29,000 ⋅ 7.36 ⎤

C= ⋅⎢ ⎥= ⋅⎢ ⎥ = 0.582
2
⎡D⎤ ⎢⎣ Fyw ⎥⎦ ⎡ 66 ⎤ 2 ⎣ 50 ⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0.625 ⎥
⎣ tw ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
For Girder Point 1.0, under factored loads, the compression flange has a
stress of 49.0 ksi, and a resistance of 50.0 ksi. Therefore, fu is greater
[6.10.7.3.3b-3]
than 75 percent of Fy and LRFD Equation 6.10.7.3.3b-2 is used to arrive
at the resistance of the stiffened web. Begin by computing the “R” and
“Vp” parameters:
⎡ ⎡ Fr − fu ⎤⎤ ⎡ ⎡ 50 − 49 ⎤ ⎤
R = ⎢0.6 + 0.4 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ = ⎢0.6 + 0.4 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ = 0.632
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣ Fr − 0.75 ⋅ ϕ f ⋅ Fy ⎥⎦ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎣ 50 − 37.5 ⎦ ⎦
Vp = 0.58 ⋅ Fyw ⋅ D ⋅ t w = 0.58 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 66 ⋅ 0.625 = 1196 kips
Substituting into Equation 2, one arrives at:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
[6.10.7.3.3b-2] ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.87 ⋅ (1 − C) ⎥ ⎢ 0.87 ⋅ (1 − 0.582) ⎥
Vn = R ⋅ Vp ⋅ ⎢C + ⎥ = 0.632 ⋅ 1196 ⋅ ⎢0.582 + ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎡ d ⎤ ⎡ 96 ⎤
1+ ⎢ o⎥ ⎥ ⎢ 1+ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ ⎣ D ⎦ ⎥ ⎢
⎣ ⎣ 66 ⎦ ⎦⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 595 kips
However, Vn should also be larger than C·Vp = 0.582·1196 = 696 kips
The resistance of 696 kips is more than the demand of 589 kips. An 8
foot stiffener spacing works over the pier. Next, determine where
transverse stiffeners can be dropped.
At 24 feet away from the pier, the shear demand is:

Vu = 1.25·(144+31) + 1.75·(134)·1.112 = 480 kips
Which is slightly greater than the 473 kip resistance of the unstiffened
web.
The second cross-frame from the pier is the 0.789 point in the span. At
the 0.8 location the shear demand is:
V0.8 = 1.25 ⋅ (127 + 27) + 1.75 ⋅ (125) ⋅ 1.112 = 436 kips
Therefore, provide stiffeners or cross frame connection plates to at least

32 feet away from the pier.
J.2 Abutment Begin by checking if the unstiffened web has adequate capacity.
Section
For an unstiffened web the shear buckling coefficient (k) is equal to 5.
This leads to a “C” coefficient of 0.395 when using LRFD Equation
6.10.7.3.3a-7. Knowing Vp and C, the shear resistance for the end panel
can be computed.
[6.10.7.3.3c] Vn = C·Vp = 0.395·1196 = 473 kips
At Girder Point 0.0 the shear demand is:

Vu = 1.25 ⋅ (94 + 21) + 1.75 ⋅ (130) ⋅ (1.112) = 144 + 253 = 397 < 473 kips
The web has adequate capacity at the abutment without stiffeners.
J.3 Transverse It will be shown that 3/8” x 5” stiffeners satisfy the code requirements for
Stiffener Design transverse stiffeners, however, they are very thin. Ideally the size of the
[6.10.8.1] stiffener should be coordinated with the cross frame connection plates.
[6.7.3] Fabrication of the girder will be simplified if only one plate size and
thickness is welded to the web at non bearing locations. In addition,
transverse stiffeners and diaphragm connection plates should be detailed
with widths that are in quarter inch increments. This provides the
fabricator additional flexibility. They can either cut the stiffeners and
connection plates out of large mill plate or utilize standard flat bar stock.
Transverse stiffeners are required near the pier. Mn/DOT’s Bridge Detail
B411 (Stiffener Details) address the constraints placed on stiffeners in
LRFD Article 6.10.8.1.1.
The dimensions of transverse stiffeners are required to fall within

geometric constraints based on section depth, flange width, and
projecting element thickness.
Begin with the projecting width constraint:

d 71.5
[6.10.8.1.2-1] b t ≥ 2.0 + = 2.0 + = 4.38 inches
30 30
The constraint based on flange width is:

[6.10.8.1.2-2] 16.0 ⋅ t p ≥ b t ≥ 0.25 ⋅ b f = 0.25 ⋅ 20 = 5.0 inches
Try a pair of 5-inch stiffeners. Each must be at least 3/8-inch thick, per
Mn/DOT Detail B402 or B407 (NDDOT uses single stiffeners).
In addition to good aspect ratios, the stiffeners must also have adequate
area and moment of inertia. Check the minimum required moment of
inertia to comply with LRFD Article 6.10.8.1.3.
2 2
⎡D⎤ ⎡ 66 ⎤
J = 2.5 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ − 2.0 = 2.5 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ − 2.0 = −0.818 ≥ 0.5
d
⎣ o⎦ ⎣ 96 ⎦
Therefore, J = 0.5.
The required stiffness of the stiffeners is:

Required I t ≥ do ⋅ t w3 ⋅ J = 96 ⋅ 0.6253 ⋅ 0.5 = 11.72 in4
The stiffeners inertia taken about the center of the web is:
1
Actual It = ⋅ 0.375 ⋅ 10.6253 = 37.5 > 11.72 in4
12
Adequate stiffness is provided. Check to see if the area satisfies Article

6.10.8.1.4. Begin by determining Fcr.
0.311 ⋅ E 0.311 ⋅ 29,000
Fcr = = = 50.73 ≤ 50 ; Fcr = 50 ksi
2 2
⎡b t ⎤ ⎡ 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0.375 ⎥
⎢⎣ t p ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ D ⎡V ⎤ ⎤ Fyw
A s ≥ ⎢0.15 ⋅ B ⋅ ⋅ (1 − C) ⋅ ⎢ u ⎥ − 18⎥ ⋅ ⋅ t w2
⎣⎢ t w V
⎣ r⎦ F
⎦⎥ cr
With B = 1.0 for stiffener pairs:

⎡ 66 ⎡ 589 ⎤ ⎤ 50
A s ≥ ⎢0.15 ⋅ 1.0 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − 0.582) ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ − 18⎥ ⋅ ⋅ 0.6252 = −4.8
⎣ 0.625 ⎣ 696 ⎦ ⎦ 50
The web provides adequate resistance, consequently, the required area

of the stiffeners is negative.
J.4 Bearing For welded plate girders, bearing stiffeners are needed at both the
Stiffener Design abutments and piers (for integral abutments a stiffener is not required at
[6.10.8.2.1] the abutment).
Abutment Bearing
The reaction to be carried by the bearing stiffeners is:
Bu = 1.25 ⋅ (94 + 21) + 1.75 ⋅ (130) ⋅ 1.112 = 397 kips
Similar to transverse stiffeners, there are constraints on the geometry of

bearing stiffeners.
For a first try, assume the resistance bearing stress is approximately 35

ksi for 50 ksi stiffeners. Approximately 11.3 square inches of bearing
stiffener is required. Assume half is placed on each side (5.65 square
inches). Further, assume that the bearing stiffeners extend almost to the
outside edges of the narrower flange, which is the top flange and 18
inches in width near the abutment. Try a ¾” x 8” (Area = 6 in2) bearing
stiffener on each side of the web.
Begin by checking the projecting width.

[Equation E 29,000
b t = 8.0 ≤ 0.48 ⋅ t p ⋅ = 0.48 ⋅ 0.75 ⋅ = 8.67 OK
6.10.8.2.2-1] Fys 50
The bearing resistance check is based on the net area of steel in contact
with the flange. Assuming a 1½ inch cope at the bottom of the stiffener
in accordance with the B411 detail.
[Equation Br = ϕb ⋅ A pn ⋅ Fys = 1.0 ⋅ (0.75 ⋅ (8.0 − 1.5) ⋅ 2) ⋅ 50 = 488 > 397 kips OK
6.10.8.2.3-1]
The axial resistance of the bearing stiffener is found using the methods of
Article 6.9.2.1. Where restraint against buckling is provided in the plane
of the web and the effective length of the column is 75 percent of the
height of the web.
The stiffener will act like a column while supporting the bearing reaction.
[6.10.8.2.4b] The effective section consists of the stiffeners, plus 18·(thickness of the
girder web) (see Figure 6.9.10).
The area for this column is:

A = 0.75 · 8.0 · 2 + 11.25 · 0.625 = 19.03 in2
The moment of inertia about the girder web is:

1 1
I= ⋅ 10.5 ⋅ 0.6253 + ⋅ 0.75 ⋅ 16.6253 = 287.4
12 12
The radius of gyration is:

I 287.4
r= = = 3.886
A 19.03
Check the width/thickness limits of Article 6.9.4.2

b 8.0 E 29,000
= = 10.67 ≤ k ⋅ = 0.45 ⋅ = 10.84 OK
t 0.75 Fy 50
Figure 6.9.10
“Column” for Bearing Stiffener at Abutment
[6.9.4.1-3] The effective length (KL) of the column is 0.75·D=0.75·66 = 49.5 inches.
Substitute values into the equation for λ.
2 2
⎡ Kl ⎤ Fy ⎡ 49.5 ⎤ 50
λ=⎢
r ⋅ π ⎥ ⋅
E
= ⎢ 3.886 ⋅ π ⎥ ⋅ 29,000 = 0.0283
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Use LRFD Equation 6.9.4.1-1 to arrive at the nominal compression

resistance.
Pn = 0.66 λ ⋅ Fy ⋅ A s = 0.66 0.0283 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 19.03 = 940 kips
Multiply the nominal resistance by the resistance factor to arrive at the

factored compression resistance.
Pr = ϕ c ⋅ Pn = 0.90 ⋅ 940 = 846 kips
which is greater than the 397 kips required

Therefore, use a pair of ¾” x 8” bearing stiffeners at the abutments.

Using the same design procedure, a pair of 1½” x 9” bearing stiffeners
are adequate to carry the factored pier reaction of 1103 kips.
K. Investigate the LRFD Article 6.10.7.4.1 discusses the design of shear connectors.
Shear Connector Connectors are to be placed along the full length of the girder, including
Design negative moment regions, because the girder is designed as composite
for negative moment.
Shear connectors are designed to satisfy fatigue constraints after which a

strength check is performed. Assume that 7/8 inch diameter shear
connectors will be used.
The minimum transverse spacing for connectors is 4.0 stud diameters.

For 7/8 inch diameter studs, this translates into a minimum spacing of
31/2 inches. The minimum clear distance from a stud to the edge of a
flange is 1.0 inch. With a 18 inch top flange width, the maximum
number of stud spaces placed in a line across the flange is:
18 − 2 ⋅ (1) − 0.875
= 4.3 spaces
3.5
Five studs across the flange is permissible, but use 4 shear studs at each
location.
The pitch or longitudinal spacing of sets of 4 shear studs is dictated by

LRFD Equation 6.10.7.4.1b-1.
n ⋅ Zr ⋅ I
Max p ≤
Vsr ⋅ Q
where p is the pitch of the studs, n is the number of studs provided at a

location, Zr is the fatigue resistance of an individual connector, I is the
short-term moment of inertia, and Q is the first moment of the deck area
or the rebar area about the neutral axis of the short-term composite
section.
[6.10.10.2-1] The shear fatigue resistance of an individual connector is based on the

number of fatigue cycles anticipated. The resistance of a connector is
also no less than 2.75·d2. This lower value corresponds to the resistance
for a stud subjected to approximately 26,200,000 cycles. Assume that
the connectors on the center girder are being designed. Also assume
that both traffic lanes generate fatigue loadings in the center girder.
Using 1.5 cycles per truck passage and a 75-year design life, 26.2 million
cycles is achieved with only 320 trucks per day in each direction.
N = 1.5 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 365 ⋅ 320 ⋅ 75 = 26.28x106 cycles
α = 34.5 − 4.28 ⋅ log N = 2.744
Zr = α ⋅ d2 = 2.744 ⋅ (0.875)2 = 2.10 kips
The inertia values are taken from Table 6.9.2. For the positive moment
region I = 131,943 in4 and for the negative moment region use an I of
96,048 in4 (value for the smaller negative moment section). Now
compute the “Q” values. For the positive moment region:
1 ⎡ t ⎤ 1 ⎡ 9⎤
⋅ b ⋅ t s ⋅ ⎢y t + stool + s ⎥ = ⋅ 117 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8.54 + 1.5 +
3
Q= = 1914 in
⎢
⎣ ⎥
2⎦
n ⎣ 2⎦ 8
And for the negative moment region.
⎡ 8.84 ⋅ 5.37 + 4.30 ⋅ 1.94 ⎤
dr _ avg = ⎢
8.84 + 4.30 ⎥ = 4.248 in from bottom of deck
⎣ ⎦
[
Q = Art + A
rb
][ ]
⋅ y t + stool + dr_avg = [8.84 + 4.30] ⋅ [29.56 + 1.5 + 4.25]
3
= 464 in
Knowing n, Zr, I, and Q leaves the pitch to be a function of the fatigue

shear force range. For the positive moment region
n ⋅ Zr ⋅ I 4 ⋅ 2.10 ⋅ 131,943 579.1
Max p ≤ = =
Vsr ⋅ Q Vsr ⋅ 1914 Vsr
For the negative moment region the required pitch is

n ⋅ Zr ⋅ I 4 ⋅ 2.10 ⋅ 96,048 1739
Max p ≤ = =
Vsr ⋅ Q Vsr ⋅ 464 Vsr
Table 6.9.18 – Shear Connector Spacing Computations

Max
LL
Negative Positive Fatigue* P
Girder Shear** Max P Max P
Shear Shear Shear limit
Point Range (positive) (negative)
(K) (K) gVf. (in)
(K)
l***
0.0 -8 61 0.725 43 13.4 - 24
0.1 -8 52 0.725 38 15.4 - 24
0.2 -9 43 0.725 33 17.8 - 24
0.3 -17 35 0.725 33 17.8 - 24
0.4 -27 26 0.725 33 17.5 - 24
0.5 -34 20 0.725 34 17.0 - 24
0.6 -42 14 0.725 35 16.5 - 24
0.7 -50 8 0.725 36 16.0 - 24
0.8 -56 4 0.725 38 - 46.4 24
0.9 -62 2 0.725 40 - 43.5 24
1.0 -67 0 0.725 42 - 41.5 24
* Interior Girder Distribution Factor
** [maximum-minimum]·1.15 · 0.75 · gVf
*** The maximum limit for spacing of shear connectors is 24 inches per
LRFD Article 6.10.7.4.1b
By inspection, the negative moment criteria is satisfied if sets of two

studs are placed on a 20 inch spacing.
K.1 Determine To positively anchor the longitudinal reinforcment considered part of the
Anchor Studs at section in the negative moment region, additional studs need to be
Contraflexure placed in the vicinity of the dead load contraflexure points. The number
Points [6.10.10.3] of additional studs, nac, required are:
A ⋅f
nac ≥ r sr
Zr
where Zr is the shear resistance of a single stud (2.10 kips), Ar is the

total area of longitudinal reinforcement within the effective flange width
in the negative moment area (13.14 in2) and fsr is the stress range in
the reinforcement. Using the composite section property information for
the smaller negative moment section contained in Table 6.9.2, the
section modulus for the rebar can be computed. The average height of
the rebar above the concrete riser is 4.25 inches.
96,048
Sr = = 2720 in3
[29.56 + 1.5 + 4.25]
The fatigue moment range at Girder Point 0.71 can be found in Table
6.9.8. It is 2210 k-ft. Multiplying by the load factor (0.75) and the
interior girder distribution factor of 0.725 results in a moment of
M = 2210 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 0.75 ⋅ 0.725 = 14,420 k - in
The stress in the rebar is

M 14,420
fsr = = = 5.30 ksi
Sr 2720
Plugging values into the equation, results in

A ⋅f 13.14 ⋅ 5.30
nac = r sr = = 33.2 studs Use 9 sets of 4 studs
Zr 2.10
They need to be placed within a length equal to 1/3 of the effective width
of the deck on each side of the contraflexure point. The effective deck
width is 117 inches, two-thirds of which is 78 inches. Dividing this
dimension by 8 (for 9 sets of studs) results in a spacing of 93/4 inches.
Place 9 sets of 4 studs at 9 inch centers near the contraflexure point.
K.2 Strength Limit In addition to anchorage studs and fatigue studs, adequate studs need to
State [6.10.10.4] be provided to ensure that the cross sections can generate the flexural
resistance computed earlier.
For positive moment areas, the lesser of the capacity of the deck or the
capacity of the steel section need to be provided on each side of the point
of maximum positive moment. The capacity of the deck is
Vh = 0.85 ⋅ f'c ⋅b ⋅ t s = 0.85 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 117 ⋅ 9 = 3580 kips
The capacity of the steel section is

Vh = Fyw ⋅ D ⋅ t w + Fyt ⋅ b t ⋅ t t + Fyc ⋅ b f ⋅ t f
= 50 ⋅ [66 ⋅ 0.625 + 20 ⋅ 0.875 + 18 ⋅ 0.875] = 3725 kips
Provide resistance for 3580 kips on each side of the positive moment
peak location. The nominal resistance of a shear connector is
[6.10.10.4.3-1] Qn = 0.5 ⋅ A sc ⋅ f'c ⋅Ec ≤ A sc ⋅ Fu
= 0.5 ⋅ 0.60 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3605 = 36.0 kips & Asc ⋅ Fu = 0.60 ⋅ 60 = 36 kips
Use a resistance of 36 kips for each shear stud at the strength limit state.
Each side of the positive moment peak requires
3580 kips
= 99.4 shear studs, say 100 studs
36 kips/stud
For the negative moment region, each side of the pier must have
sufficient shear studs to develop the capacity of the longitudinal
reinforcement in the deck.
Vh = A r ⋅ Fyr = 13.14 ⋅ 60 = 788 kips
788 kips
= 22 shear studs
36 kips/stud
The final details for the shear studs need to satisfy all three constraints:
fatigue design, anchorage of negative reinforcement, and strength
design. After reviewing the constraints, the layout provided in Figure
6.9.13 satisfies all three constraints.
L. Investigate Several items need to be considered when locating and designing field
the Field Splice splices for steel girders. Typically, splices are located near inflection
Design points to minimize the flexural resistance required of the connection. In
addition, designers need to ensure that adequate clearance is provided to
transverse stiffeners, cross-frame connection plates, etc.
As a general rule, designers should limit the number of plate thicknesses

used in a splice. The splice used for this example has only three plate
thicknesses (3/8”, 1/2”, and 5/8”) used for the web splice plates, the flange
splice plates, and the fill plates.
The number of limit states and loading conditions to consider in the

design of a splice is significant. Construction, Service II (permanent
deflection), Fatigue, and Strength limit states should all be evaluated. In
most cases, the Strength Limit state will dictate the plate sizes and the
number of bolts. Fatigue will not be investigated. The bolted
connections used in the splice are Category B details. Per LRFD Article
6.6.1.2.3, only details with resistances below Category B require
investigation. For this example, the Strength I limit state governs the
design and only calculations related to this limit state are shown.
Typically, three splice plates are used for each flange and two splice
plates are used for the web. This permits all of the bolts to function in
double shear and minimizes the number of bolts required.
As the size of splice plates are considered, it is prudent to look at the

change in plate sizes on both sides of the splice. The thickness of fill
plates can be determined prior to any design of the connection. For this
example, the top flange on the left is 7/8” x 18” and on the right is 13/8” x
20”. The fill plate for the top flange splice will have a thickness of 1/2”.
The web on both sides of the splice is 5/8”. No fill plate will be necessary
for the web. The bottom flange on the left is 7/8” x 20”. The bottom
flange on the right is 13/8” x 20”. A 1/2” fill plate will be required for the
bottom flange splice. Using splice plates of a 1/2” thickness, the number
of plate thicknesses required for the splice will be minimized.
The loads at the location of the splice are as follows:

Table 6.9.19 - Loads at Girder Point 0.71 (without load factors)
Component Moment (k-ft) Shear (k)
Girder -47 16
Deck and Stool -306 79
Barrier and FWS -22 22
Positive LL+I 0.744 · 2390 = 1769 1.112 ·15 = 16.7
0.799 · (-2152) = -
Negative LL+I 1.112 · (-110) = -123
1719
0.403 · 1.15 · 1084 =
Positive Fatigue 0.725 · 1.15 · 8 = 6.7
502
0.433 · 1.15 · (-838) = 0.725 · 1.15 · (-50) = -
Negative Fatigue
-417 41.7
The loads are applied to the noncomposite, short-term composite (n),

and long-term composite (3·n) cross sections. To arrive at design
stresses for the splice plates, the loads are applied to the appropriate
section. The stresses from the load components are then factored to
arrive at design stresses. Flange splices are based on mid-flange
stresses. Web splices can conservatively be based on mid-flange
stresses or can use the stresses at the top and bottom of the web. The
strength of the splice is based on the capacity of the smaller girder
framing into the connection. For this example, the positive moment
section is the smaller capacity member.
Table 6.9.20 - Section Properties for Splice Design

Section
Short-term
Long-term Composite (n)
Parameter
Noncomposite Composite Neg Pos
(3·n) Moment
Moment
Moment of Inertia
52,106 70,371 70,371 131,943
(in4)
yt (in) 34.66 28.6 28.6 8.54
yb (in) 33.09 39.15 39.15 59.21
Top Flange Thickness
0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875
(in)
Bottom Flange
0.875 0.875 0.875 0.875
Thickness (in)
Smid top flange (in3) 1523 2499 2499 16,284
Stop web (in3) 1542 2538 2538 17,214
Sbottom web (in3) 1617 1839 1839 2262
Smid bottom flange
1596 1818 1818 2245
(in3)
The design will be based on the resistance of bolts when the threads are
not excluded from the shear planes. Consequently, the assumed
capacity of the bolt to resist shear and slip are comparable. For 7/8”
diameter A325 bolts the resistance to shear is 43.9 kips per bolt with two
shear planes (before fill plate reductions). The slip resistance required
for the Service II load combination, is 39.0 kips per bolt with two shear
planes.
Table 6.9.21 Flexural Stress Components (Negative LL+IM)

DC1 DC2 LL Strength I
Top Flange
2.78 0.11 8.26 18.06
(ksi)
Top of Web
2.75 0.10 8.13 17.79
(ksi)
Bottom of
-2.62 -0.14 -11.22 -23.09
Web (ksi)
Bottom
-2.65 -0.15 -11.35 -23.36
Flange (ksi)
Splices should be capable of resisting both positive and negative moment

live load conditions. Only the computations for the negative moment
case will be presented in this example. Reasons for this include: the
dead loads produce negative moments at the splice location, the positive
live load moments are smaller than the negative moments, and a smaller
composite structural section resists negative loads compared to positive
loads.
Top Flange Splice

Flange splices shall be designed to provide a minimum resistance design
stress of either:
⎡ fcf ⎤
⎢ + α ⋅ φf ⋅ Fyf ⎥
⎢ Rh ⎦⎥
Fcf = ⎣
2
or
0.75 ⋅ α ⋅ φf ⋅ Fyf
whichever is greater.
For Strength I loading, the top flange has a factored flange stress of
18.06 ksi.
⎡ 18.06 ⎤
⎢ + 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 50⎥
1
Fcf = ⎣ ⎦ = 34.03 ksi
2
or
0.75 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 50 = 37.50 ksi Controls
37.5 ⋅ b ⋅ t = 37.5 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 0.875 = 591 kips
In order to assume that the flange force is evenly distributed between

the outer and inner splice plates, the cross sectional areas of the plates
need to be approximately the same. In addition, the area of the outer
plate and the sum area of the inner plates each need to have a cross
sectional area which is approximately half that of the flange. Try an
outer splice plate that is 1/2” x 18” (area = 9 in2). Try inner splice plates
that are 5/8 ” x 71/2” (area = 4.69 in2).
Now compute the resistance of a 7/8” diameter A325 bolt. The fill plate
for the top flange is thicker than 1/4 inch. Consequently, the fillers need
to be extended or the capacity of the bolts reduced. For this example,
the capacity of the bolts will be reduced (using LRFD Equation
6.13.6.1.5-1). Assume the filler plate is as wide as the flange. Ap is the
smaller of:
18 ⋅ [0.875] = 15.75 in2
1 ⎡5 ⎤
⋅ [18] + 2 ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ [7.5] = 18.38 in2
2 ⎣8 ⎦
Af 18 ⋅ 0.5
[6.13.6.1.5-1] γ = = = 0.57
Ap 15.75
⎡ (1 + γ) ⎤ ⎡ (1 + 0.57) ⎤
R =⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ = 0.73
⎣ (1 + 2 ⋅ γ) ⎦ ⎣ (1 + 2 ⋅ 0.57) ⎦
The capacity of a 7/8” diameter A325 bolt with threads in the shear plane
is:
R n = 0.38 ⋅ A b ⋅ Fub ⋅ Ns ⋅ R = 0.38 ⋅ 0.601 ⋅ 120 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0.73 = 40.2 kips
The number of bolts required on the fill plate side of the connection is:
591 591
= = 18.4 bolts
ϕs ⋅ 40.2 0.80 ⋅ 40.2
Use five rows of four bolts on each side of the splice.
The top flange is a tension flange under negative moment live load.
Check yielding on the gross sections and fracture on the net sections.
The outer plate and the inner plates must each carry 295.5 kips (591/2).
Outer Splice Plate

Yielding on the gross section
[6.8.2.1-1] ϕ y ⋅ Fy ⋅ b ⋅ t = 0.95 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 0.5 = 427.5 ≥ 295.5 kips
Fracture on the net section

[6.8.2.1-2] ϕu ⋅ Fu ⋅ t ⋅ (b − 4 ⋅ 1) ⋅ U = 0.80 ⋅ 65 ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ (18 − 4 ⋅ 1) ⋅ 1
[6.8.2.2] = 364 ≥ 295.5 kips
Inner Splice Plates

ϕ y ⋅ Fy ⋅ 2 ⋅ b ⋅ t = 0.95 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7.5 ⋅ 0.625 = 445.3 ≥ 295.5 kips
Fracture on the net section

ϕu ⋅ Fu ⋅ t ⋅ 2 ⋅ (b − 2 ⋅ 1) = 0.80 ⋅ 65 ⋅ 0.625 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (7.5 − 2 ⋅ 1)
= 357.8 ≥ 295.5 kips
Bolt Bearing
Check the bearing on the smaller flange plate (element carrying the
double shear load)
[Equation Rn = 2.4 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ Fu = 2.4 ⋅ 0.875 ⋅ 0.875 ⋅ 65 = 119.4 > 40.2 kips OK
6.13.2.9-1]
Block Shear Check

Check block shear on a transverse section through the smaller flange
plate with the design force for the flange.
A tn = [18 − 4 ⋅ 0.9375] ⋅ 0.875 = 12.47 in2
[Equation Rr = φbs ⋅ Fu ⋅ A tn = 0.80 ⋅ 65 ⋅ 12.47 = 648.4 > 591 kips OK

6.13.4-1]
Bottom Flange Splice
The procedure for designing the splice of the bottom flange is the same
as the design of the top flange with one exception, it’s a compression
flange instead of tension flange. As a result, the sole check on the plates
is against yield of the gross area and φc value of 0.90 is used as part of
the check.
Like the top flange, the splice plates for the bottom flange should be
balanced for the load to be shared equally between inner and outer
plates. Try an outer splice plate that is 1/2” x 20” (area = 10 in2). Try
inner splice plates that are 5/8” x 81/2” (area = 5.31 in2).
Under Strength I loading the bottom flange has a factored flange stress
of 23.36 ksi.
37.5 ⋅ b ⋅ t = 37.5 ⋅ 20 ⋅ 0.875 = 656 kips
The resistance of a 7/8” diameter A325 bolt in the bottom flange with a
1
/2” fill plate can now be determined. Again, assume the filler plate is as
wide as the flange.
A 20 ⋅ 0.5
γ= f = = 0.57
Ap 20 ⋅ 0.875
⎡ (1 + γ) ⎤ ⎡ (1 + 0.57) ⎤
R =⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ = 0.73
⎣ (1 + 2 ⋅ γ) ⎦ ⎣ (1 + 2 ⋅ 0.57) ⎦
The capacity of a 7/8” diameter A325 bolt with threads in the shear plane
is:
R n = 0.38 ⋅ A b ⋅ Fub ⋅ Ns ⋅ R = 0.38 ⋅ 0.601 ⋅ 120 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0.73 = 40.2 kips
The number of bolts required on the fill plate side of the connection is:
656 656
= = 20.4 bolts
ϕ s ⋅ 40.2 0.80 ⋅ 40.2
Use 5 sets of four bolts on each side of the splice.
Check compression yielding on the gross sections. The outer plate and
the inner plates must each carry 328 kips (656/2).
Outer Splice Plate

ϕ c ⋅ Fy ⋅ b ⋅ t = 0.90 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 20 ⋅ 0.5 = 450 ≥ 328 kips
Inner Splice Plates

ϕ c ⋅ Fy ⋅ 2 ⋅ b ⋅ t = 0.90 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 8.5 ⋅ 0.625 = 478 ≥ 328 kips
Bolt Bearing
Check the bearing on the smaller flange plate (element carrying the
double shear load)
6.13.2.9-1]
Block Shear Check

Check block shear on a transverse section through the smaller flange
plate with the design force for the flange.
A tn = [20 − 4 ⋅ 0.9375] ⋅ 0.875 = 14.22 in2
[Equation Rr = φbs ⋅ Fu ⋅ A tn = 0.80 ⋅ 65 ⋅ 14.22 = 739.4 > 656 kips OK

6.13.4-1]
Web Splice
The web is designed to carry the entire factored vertical shear force. In
addition it must carry the moment due to the eccentricity of the shear
force and the flexural moment which the web was assumed to carry. The
flexural stresses in the web are resolved into flexural and axial
(horizontal) components about mid-depth of the web. This allows the
bolt group on each side of the splice to be designed for the vertical shear,
the moment associated with the eccentricity of the vertical shear, the
web flexural moment, and the resultant horizontal force in the web.
The vertical shear force to be carried is:

Vu = 1.25 ⋅ (117) + 1.75 ⋅ (123) = 362 kips
The nominal shear resistance of the unstiffened web is 473 kips. The
design shear force is the average of the resistance and Vu.
(Vu + Vr ) (362 + 473)

Vuw = = = 417 kips
2 2
Assume a horizontal bolt pitch of 3 inches and two vertical rows of bolts
on each side of the splice. The eccentricity of the shear is the distance
from the center of the bolt pattern to the center of the splice:
3 3.5
+ = 3.25
2 2
The moment associated with the vertical shear is:

Mv = 3.25 ⋅ 421 = 1370 k - in
For factored loads the flexural stress at the top of the web is 17.8 ksi and
the stress at the bottom of the web is 23.1 ksi. Similar to the flanges,
the web is to be designed for a stress of 75 percent of yield or 37.5 ksi.
Assume that the Strength I loads are scaled up such that the bottom
stress becomes 37.5 ksi (scale factor of 1.624). Using the same scale
factor, the stress at the top of the web is 28.9 ksi.
28.9 ksi 33.2 ksi -4.3 ksi
= +
-37.5 ksi -33.2 ksi -4.3 ksi
The section modulus of the web is:

I 1/12 ⋅ (0.625) ⋅ 663
S= = = 454 in3
c 66/2
The flexural moment carried by the web with a stress of 33.2 ksi is:
M = S ⋅ σb = 454 ⋅ 33.2 = 15,080 k - in
The horizontal force generated in the web with an axial stress of 4.3 ksi
is:
H = σH ⋅ D ⋅ t w = 4.3 ⋅ 66 ⋅ 0.625 = 178 kips
The design forces for the web splice are:

Vuw = 417 kips
Huw = 178 kips
Muw = 15,080 + 1370 = 16,450 k-in
The values for Muw and Huw can also be calculated using equations
C6.13.6.1.4b-1 & 2.
The vertical shear and the horizontal force are assumed to be resisted
equally by all bolts in the fastener group. The force carried by each of
the bolts to resist flexure is assumed to be proportional to its distance
from the center of the fastener group.
The force in each of the bolts can be found with the following equations
from Johnston, Lin, and Galambos’ Basic Steel Design text:
P M ⋅ yA
R xA = R xp + R xm = x −
n r2 ∑ i
Py M ⋅ XA
R yA = R yp + R ym = −
n 2
∑ ri
R A = R xA 2 + R yA 2
Assuming two vertical rows of bolts on each side of the splice and 21
bolts in each row. Try a horizontal pitch of 3 inches and a vertical pitch
of 3 inches. The bolts at the corners of the fastener group will be subject
to the largest forces. The coordinates at the corners are x= ±11/2 inches
and y= ±30 inches. Summing the square of lever arms to all of the bolts
results in a Σri2 value of 13,955.
Substituting values in the above equations produces

H M ⋅ yA 178 16,450 ⋅ (−30)
R xA = uw − = − = 39.60 kips
n 2 42 13,955
r ∑ i
Py M ⋅ xA 421 16,450 ⋅ (−1.5)

R yA = − = − = 11.86 kips
n ∑ ri2 42 13,955
R A = R xA 2 + R yA 2 = 39.602 + 11.86 2 = 41.3 ≤ 43.9 kips
No fill plates are used in the web splice, consequently the entire 43.9 kips
of capacity per bolt can be used.
The plates used in the web splice must have adequate resistance to carry
the vertical shear. Two 3/8” thick plates are being used for the splice.
Assume the plates are 63 inches tall (20 · 3 + 2 · 11/2)
Gross area of the plates:
A g = 63 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0.375 = 47.25 in2
Assumed vertical shear resistance:

Vn = 0.58 ⋅ Fy ⋅ A g = 0.58 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 47.25 = 1370 ≥ 421
Bolt Bearing
Check the bearing on the web plate
6.13.2.9-1]
The stress in the web splice plates should be below yield when subjected
to Muw and Huw.
Section modulus of the web splice plates is:

t w ⋅ D sp3 1 t w ⋅ D sp 2 0.375 ⋅ 632
S = 2⋅ ⋅ = = = 496.1
12 D sp / 2 3 3
Knowing the section modulus and the area of the plates, the stress can
be computed:
H M 178 16,450
σ = uw + uw = + = 37.0 ≤ 50 ksi
Ag S 47.25 496.1
The assumed web splice details have adequate capacity. The field splice
is detailed in Figure 6.9.11.
Figure 6.9.11
M. Investigate Consider with the Service I load combination. No sidewalk or bicycle

Deflection path is provided on the bridge, in accordance with Mn/DOT policy, the
live load deflection limit is L/800. The maximum deflection permitted for
this example is:
L/800 = 152·(12)/800 = 1.82 in
Two live loads are applied to the bridge and evaluated for the deflection
check. Take the larger of:
[3.6.1.3.2] • Design Truck alone
• 25% of Design Truck + Lane Loading
When computing deflections a separate distribution factor is used. It is

simply the number of design lanes divided by the number of girders.
Mn/DOT practice is to use a multiple presence factor for deflections of no
less than 0.75 (See Section 3.4.2). For this example, the distribution
factor is:
[2.5.2.6.2] Number of Design Lanes 4
gΔ = ⋅ Δ MPF = ⋅ 0.75 = 0.60
Number of Girders 5
The maximum deflections (like the moments) are based on the composite
section, including the deck in the negative regions. Not including
dynamic load allowance, the maximum deflections for a full lane or truck
are:
Δtruck = 1.56 inches and occurs at 0.46 of span
Δlane = 1.30 inches and occurs at 0.46 of span
Including the distribution factor and adding the dynamic load allowance
results in the following live load deflections:
Maximum truck deflection

= [1 + IM] ⋅ gΔ ⋅ Δ truck = 1.33 ⋅ 0.6 ⋅ 1.56 = 1.25 < 1.82 in, OK
Maximum lane and truck deflection

= 0.25 ⋅ 1.25 + gΔ ⋅ Δ lane = 0.25 ⋅ 1.25 + 0.60 ⋅ 1.30 = 1.09 < 1.82, OK
Figure 6.9.13 contains a half elevation of the girder that summarizes the
design.
Figure 6.9.13

Section06B - Design Examples

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Section06B - Design Examples

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MAR 2007 LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN DESIGN EXAMPLE 6-1

The superstructure consists of five girders spaced at 11’-4” centers.

The following material and geometric parameters are used in this

Concrete (deck and overlay)

[6.10.3.1.1b] Composite Section Properties

Short-term modular ratio = n = 8

The geometry for the example is presented in Figures 6.9.1 through

The framing of the superstructure is presented in Figure 6.9.2. The

Substituting 152 feet for L in the minimum depth ratios results in a

A member deeper than the minimum is usually the most economical.

The non-composite section properties of the girder are provided in Table

Table 6.9.1 Non-Composite Section Properties

Positive Moment Section Properties

Negative Moment Section Properties

Table 6.9.2 contains composite girder section properties.

Table 6.9.2 Composite Section Properties

SERVICE II - Corresponds to the overload provisions in the AASHTO

FATIGUE - .Checks to limit the potential for fatigue cracks to form in a

[3.4.2] CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATION

Mu = 1.25 DCtemp + 1.5 LLtemp

Due to the continuous configuration, maximum and minimum ( γ p ) load

Dynamic Load IM = 15% when evaluating fatigue and fracture

Distribution a. Interior Beams with Concrete Decks

Type (a) Cross Section Range of Applicability Limits for Flexure

a.1 Positive Moment Region

K g = 8 ⋅ (52,106 + 74.50 ⋅ 40.66 2 ) = 1.402 x 106 in4

One design lane loaded:

0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1

Distribution factor for fatigue moments

Two or more design lanes loaded

0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1

a.2 Negative Moment Region

For the negative moment section over the pier

K g = 8 ⋅ (145,024 + 151.25 ⋅ 41.752 ) = 3.269 x 106 in4

One design lane loaded

0.4 0.3 ⎛ 0.1

Two or more design lanes loaded

0.6 0.2 ⎛ 0.1

de = 3.00 – 1.67 = 1.33 ft

One design lane loaded

Exterior beam reaction or distribution factor is:

Two or more design lanes loaded:

[Table gM = e ⋅ gMint erior

which leads to:

gM = 0.916 ⋅ 0.799 = 0.732 lanes/girder for negative moment

Distribution Factor a. Interior Beams

[Table One Design Lane Loaded

Two or More Design Lanes Loaded

[4.6.2.2.3b] b. Exterior Beams

Two or more design lanes loaded

gV = e ⋅ gVint erior = 0.733 ⋅ 1.039 = 0.762 lanes/girder

[4.6.2.2.3c] c. Skewed Bridges

Type (a) Cross Sections

= 1.07 lanes/girder at the abutment

= 1.06 lanes/girder at the pier

Two or more design lanes loaded =

Two design lanes loaded

The unfactored bending moments and shear forces at different locations

Table 6.9.4 – Properties for DC2 and LL Moment Determination

w deck = [Area Deck + Area Riser ]⋅ 0.150

w forms = 0.010 ⋅ 11.33 = 0.113 k/ft

A 0.20 ksf temporary construction live loading is also considered. It is

Table 6.9.5 – Dead Load Bending Moments (unfactored)