Unit 4: The Natural Environment and Species

Survival
Topic 5: On the Wild Side
The Biosphere

- Habitat: the place where an organism lives, such as a stream, tropical rainforest or a sand dune.
- Population: a group of organisms of the same species, living and breeding together in a habitat.
- Community: all the populations of the different species of organisms living together in a habitat
at any one time.
- Niche: role of an organism within its environment and community, its way of life. Populations that
share a niche will compete.
- Biosphere: part of the Earth and its atmosphere that is inhabited by living organisms; made up of
many ecosystems.

Major ecosystems devised from the biosphere, distinguished by their similar climates and plant
communities.
- Tropical Rainforest – high humidity, warm and - Desert – very little rainfall, often extreme of
plenty of sunlight, rain all year. temp. between day and night
- Savannah – dry tropical grassland - Taiga – evergreen forests in cold subarctic &
- Tropical Woodland – wetter than savannah, subalpine regions
grassland with thornwoods, bushes and trees - Tundra – cold, arctic, high mountain regions

- Ecosystem: a life supporting environment which includes all living organisms which interact
together, the nutrients that cycle through the system, and the physical & chemical environment in
which the organisms are living. Ecosystems consist of abiotic (abiotic environment) and the
biotic factors (biota). These factors affect the carrying capacity.
1. Abiotic factors: non-living physical and chemical components of an ecosystem: STOPEC
- Solar energy: affected by latitude, season, cloud cover and changes in Earth’s orbit.
- Topography: altitude, slope, aspect (direction that land faces) and drainage.
- Oxygen availability: important in aquatic systems; streams more oxygenated than pools.
- Pollution: Air, water or land.
- Edaphic factors: Soil structure and mineral content: pH, types of minerals, salt, soil texture
and consistency.
- Catastrophes: Events that drastically change an environment such as tsunami, flood or
volcanic eruption.
- Climate: rainfall, wind exposure and temperature.
- Water availability: affected by rate of evaporation, rate of drainage.
2. Biotic factors: living components in an ecosystem which affect the ability of organisms to
survive (food, light, territory, reproductive partners). Are density dependent based on the
number of organisms compared with the resources available. PPCGM
- Predation: can affect the abundance of their prey species.
- Parasitism and Disease: can have a devastating effect on individuals.
- Competition: plants compete for space, light and minerals while animals compete for food,
shelter and a mate. Considered the most important biotic factor controlling pop. density.
o Interspecific competition: between different species (e.g red and grey squirrel).
o Intraspecific competition: within a species; when food levels are high, there are more
rabbits, but when food levels are low, there are less rabbits.
- Grazing
- Mutualistic

Anthropogenic factors: those arising from human activity – either abiotic or biotic.

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 EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

ABIOTIC EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF IN EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF TOO

FACTOR MODERATION
Plants depend on light for photosynthesis and
Light must be able to cope in areas with low levels
of light.
There is a range of temperatures which allow
growth and reproduction for particular
Temperature organisms. The temperature in an area also
affects the rate of enzyme controlled reactions
in plants
Wind increases water and heat loss from the
Wind body ad adds to the environmental stress an
organism has to cope with.
Water Water is vital for living organisms
Oxygen can be in short supply in both water
Oxygen and soil. When water is cold sufficient oxygen
Concentration dissolves in it to support life and vice versa.
Soil is usually well aerated.
Edaphic Plant populations that are linked by massive
Factors (soil root and rhizome networks, such as marram
grass can survive in loose, shifting structures
structure & such as sand. They bind the sand together
mineral
which makes it more suited for colonisation by
content)
other species.
MUCH/LITTLE
Some plants are able to reproduce and
thrive in low light levels, having extra
chlorophyll or other chlorophyll pigments
which are sensitive to lower light levels.
Animals’ behaviour may be affected by
seasonal light changes, as well as
reproductive patterns.
Above or below that range, reproduction
does not occur, even if the organism
survives. It is the extreme of temperature
which determines where an organism can
live, not the average.
Few species can survive in areas with
strong prevailing winds while occasional
gales and hurricanes can devastate
populations.
So where the supply is limited it will cause
severe problems. Organisms may die if the
stress becomes too severe if like camels
and cacti, the have adaptations to enable
them to survive.
The spaces between soil particles contain
air so there is plenty of oxygen for the
respiration of plant roots. In waterlogged
soil, the air spaces are filled with water so
plant roots may be deprived of oxygen and
may die.
Soil that contains high proportion of sand
are light, easily worked and warmed.
However, also easily drained so water
passes through them rapidly, carry with it
minerals needed for plants. The opposite
occurs for soils made of predominantly tiny
clay particles.

EFFECTS OF BIOTIC FACTORS

TERM & MEANING
Finding a mate – finding a
member of the opposite sex to
reproduce with
Territory – an area occupied &
defended by an/a group of
organism(s) of the same/different
species
Parasitism & Disease – biotic
factors which cause weakened
animal relationships.1 organism
benefits at the others expense
HOW IT AFFECTS AN
EXAMPLE
ECOSYSTEM
Affects the biodiversity – allows
A equine species becoming extinct
niches to carry on. Larger
due to reproduction isolation
allele/genetic diversity
Resources are defended making
sure others can get them and Lions ‘dens’
continue reproducing
Diseases can wipe out whole Mixing populations & bringing
populations within a biome diseases – Wild pigs

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Symbiosis: interactions between populations
living together: These relationships include:
1. Mutualistic
2. Parasitic: a negative form of symbiosis,
living off the other organism and causing it
harm.
- Endoparasitic: living inside the host.
- Ectoparasitic: living on the hosts.
3. In-between
Succession
Ecosystems are not stagnant; they
continuously evolve over time through
succession.
Succession: the orderly, natural changes that take place in an ecosystem over time by
communities of animals and plants colonizing an area and replacing one another.
Primary Succession
The colonisation of new sites by communities of
organisms to form a new habitat where there was
none.
Example of primary succession forming an oak
woodland:
1. Bare rock is colonised by mosses and lichen.
2. Small plants, ferns and grasses take over.
3. Larger plants with deeper roots appear.
4. Bushes and shrubs replace non-woody plants.
5. Fast growing trees form a dense, low wood.
6. Larger, slow growing oak trees create the oak
woodland.
- Rock is uninhabited, due to poor conditions for
growth such as no soil or moisture.
- Pioneer species (algae, lichens, mosses) penetrate
the bare rock.
- The pioneer species break up the bare rock which
mixes with the remains faeces and dead organic
material (humus), creating the foundations of soil.
- Seeds and spores are blown by the wing and begin
to grow into plants which require soil (grass, ferns).
They colonise the area.
- Roots hold the soil together and retain more water.
- Secondary colonisers more adapted to the new
environment will then colonise the land.
- Larger trees block the growth of smaller plants, due
to competition for sunlight; species diversity drops.
- Climax community is self-sustaining, reached where
biodiversity is constant. Few further changes occur.
Secondary Succession
The sequence of community changes that occur
when a community is disrupted by natural disasters or
human actions e.g. deforestation.
The evolution of an ecosystem from existing soil that
is clear of vegetation. Can occur through things such
as forest fires and shift in river paths.
Example of secondary succession forming an oak
woodland:
1. Bare soil is colonised by grasses and pioneer
plants.
2. Grasses begin to predominate with time.
3. Shrubs replace the grasses.
4. Fast growing trees appear.
5. Slow growing oaks create the climax community
- This occurs when an established existing
community is destroyed.
- Happens in the same way as primary succession,
but there is already a soil layer so succession
happens at a higher level, so the pioneer plant will
be a bigger plant.
- At each stage different plants and animals are better
adapted as better abiotic conditions are available.
They move in and out compete with the plants and
animals.
- As they go on the ecosystem becomes more
complex. New species move alongside existing
species which means the species diversity and
abundance of the species increases.
- The final stage is the climax community, where the
largest and most complex community of plants and
animals live.
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Pioneer species: the first species to occupy a new habitat, starting new communities. They have
rapid reproductive strategies, enabling them to quickly occupy an uninhabited area. Many have an
asexual stage to their reproduction.
Climax community: the final stable community where a point of stability is reached that can last for
hundreds of years.
Tolerance: the ability to withstand fluctuations in biotic and abiotic environmental factors.
Biodiversity gives the ecosystem tolerance.
Deflected succession: a community that remains stable only because human activity prevents
succession from running its course e.g. grazing prevents grass from growing into woodland. A
community is stabilised due to human interaction. Like a farm or a lawn, or even a maintained
woodland.

Energy transfer in an ecosystem:

When the fastest competitor wins it eliminates ∴ dominates the other species in competitive
exclusion. This can result in the extinction of one of the species.
Predators: are species which eat other species, normally killing before they eat.
Herbivores: feed on plant matter, ∴ graze.

The energy transfer in an ecosystem can be represented in a food chain. The position that a
consumer occupies is called its trophic level. Energy is transferred from one trophic level to next.
This however can be more complex as a food web. Energy enters the food chain via
photosynthesis (plants convert sunlight to glucose).
 Photoautotroph: use light and energy to create its own food.

 Autotrophs/Producers: produce food by themselves.

Energy is fixed in organic molecules and is transferred to
other organisms in the ecosystem.

 Heterotrophs: get their energy from external sources

(e.g.: all animals, all fungi and most bacteria). All
heterotrophs are consumers and ∴ depend on
autotrophs (producers) for food.
1. Primary consumers: herbivores that eat plant
material.
2. Secondary Consumers: carnivores that feed on
primary consumers.
3. Tertiary Consumers: carnivores that eat other
consumers. Carnivores at the top of the food chain are
called the top carnivores or apex predators.
4. Omnivores: animals that eat plants and plant matter,
and other consumers.
5. Detrivores: primary consumers that forage on dead
organic matter called detritus (waste or debris).
6. Decomposers: fungi and bacteria that feed on dead
organic matter and excrement; they secrete enzymes to
break down food before absorbing nutrients. These
organisms form the end point of every food chain.
Each description of a trophic level will describe an organism’s role in the ecosystem. Organisms
may occupy more than one trophic level, (e.g. when acting as omnivores).

Not all energy is transferred. About 90% of all available energy available is lost through various
ways. 60% of available energy is never taken in by organisms in the first place. This is due to plants
can’t use all the light energy, such as some is wrong wavelength, some is reflected and some
passes straight through. While some hits places on the plant which doesn’t process it, such as the
trunk. 40% of available energy is taken in, this is called gross productivity. 75% of the gross
productivity is lost to the environment, so a total of 10% passes on to the next organism. This 10% is
called the net production: the amount of energy that is available to the next trophic level.
Net productivity = gross production – respiratory loss
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Disappearance of energy:
Productivity is dependent on how much energy is captured by producers and given to other trophic
levels. Ecosystem productivity depends on the amount of energy captured by producers and
transferred to the higher trophic levels.
Plants are not 100% efficient at absorbing light; only a small fraction is used in photosynthesis.
All consumers (primary, secondary or tertiary) store a
part of the energy received from the immediate previous
trophic level in the food chain. The reason for loss of
most of the chemical energy stored in the consumer’s
food is due to:
- Not all food available is eaten (incomplete
digestion): limitations of feeding methods, some parts
of plants not eaten.
- Some energy is lost in faeces and urine: not all
food matter is broken down (cellulose particularly hard
to break down), energy is used and wasted by this.
- Energy lost to the environment: energy is used in
respiration and chemical reactions ∴ lost in heat,
forming of urine, etc.
- Limiting factors (e.g. CO2 levels may limit the rate of
photosynthesis).

Energy loss in producer:

1. Light energy gained from sun
2. Energy used to drive life processes
3. Energy stored - biomass
4. Energy lost as heat: in respiration, metabolic and
chemical reactions.
5. Energy transferred to primary consumers
6. Final energy lost as death and decay.
Energy flow through a consumer:
1. Energy input as chemical energy, organic biomass of prey.
2. Life processes.
3. Storage and creation of biomass.
4. As heat and waste, respiration, faeces, undigested food etc.
5. Energy transferred to higher trophic levels.
6. To Detrivores etc. by death and decay.

The overall energy transfer in the trophic levels can be represented by:

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 The rate at which energy is incorporated into organic molecules by an
Gross Primary
ecosystem. Expressed as units of energy per unit of area per year
Productivity (GPP)
(𝒌𝑱𝒎−𝟐 𝒚−𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝑱𝒉𝒂−𝟏 𝒚−𝟏 ).
Respiratory Loss
Respiration of plants
(R)
The energy remaining after respiratory loss; energy available to plants for their
biological functions (growth, reproduction). Also available to primary consumers
Net Primary
(herbivores, fungi, bacteria).
Productivity (NPP)
The rate at which energy is transferred into the organic molecules that make up
the plants biomass. NPP = GPP – R (where R is plant respiration)
How much biomass is produced over a given time. Typically measured as
Productivity
biomass per unit area, per unit time (kJ ha–1 year–1).
Gross Production The total quantity of energy that the plants in a community convert to organic
(GP) matter.
Net Production Plants use 20% to 50% of this energy as respiration, leaving little to be stored.
(NP) The rate at which they store energy is the net production.

𝑵𝑷𝑷
Efficiency (E): 𝑬 = ( 𝑮𝑷𝑷 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Net productivity of a level

% Efficiency of energy transfer
between trophic level = X 100
Net productivity of previous level

Photosynthesis
Plants need energy for things like photosynthesis, active transport, DNA replication, cell division and
protein synthesis. Animals need energy for things like muscle contraction, the maintenance of body
temperature, active transport, DNA replication, cell division and protein synthesis.

Photosynthesis is the process where energy from light is used to break up the strong bonds in H20;
where the H molecule is combined with CO2 to form glucose, and O2 is released into the
atmosphere. Energy is stored in the glucose until it is released via respiration. Animals obtain their
glucose by eating plants, and respire glucose as energy. The overall equation for photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 602

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 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate - 3
phosphate groups), is the universal
immediate source of energy in cells;
stored in the phosphate bond. It
powers cellular processes by building
and breaking bonds. ATP is made
from a nucleotide base (adenine),
which is combined with a ribose sugar
and three phosphate groups. ATP is
synthesised by ADP + charged Pi and
catalysed by ATPase. ATP diffuses to other parts of cell where
needed, resulting in the release and recycle of ADP and Pi.
ATP  ADP + Pi + energy

Enzymes catalyse the splitting of water into H+ and O, the

formation of ATP, and the conversion of oxidised H carrier
NADP to NADPH. There are also electron carrier molecules
(cytochromes).
Coenzymes, used in photosynthesis, aid the function of an
enzyme and work by transferring a chemical group from one
molecule to another.

Photosynthesis takes places in the chloroplasts of plant

cells. Chloroplasts are small, flattened organelles that
have double membranes called a chloroplast envelope.
The chloroplast envelope keeps the reactants for
photosynthesis close to their reaction site. Thylakoid’s
inside the cell are stacked up into structures called grana
and are linked together by the thylakoid membrane called
the lamellae. Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic
pigments (chlorophyll) which are the coloured molecules that are organised into photosystems
(classed according to absorption wavelengths: PS I = 700 nm and PS II = 680 nm) and absorb the
light energy needed for photosynthesis. Contained in the inner membrane of the chloroplast
surrounding the thylakoid is a gel-like substance called stroma which contains enzymes, sugars,
inorganic ions and oil droplets.

Phosphorylation Adding a phosphate to a molecule (ADP is phosphorylated to ATP)

Photophosphorylation Adding phosphate to molecule using light
Photolysis The splitting of a molecule using light energy
Hydrolysis The splitting of a molecule using water
Redox reaction Reactions that involve oxidation and reduction

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 There are two stages to photosynthesis:
1. Light Dependent Reactions
- Uses light energy and H (from photolysis of H2O) to
produce chemical energy (ATP), NADP (coenzyme),
and O2 (waste).
- Takes place in the intermembrane space of the
thylakoids of chloroplasts. Thylakoids have a large
SA allowing maximum light energy to be absorbed.
- Two main functions:
o To produce ATP from ADP and phosphate,
supplying energy for synthesis of carbohydrates.
o Photolysis of H2O in a photochemical reaction
providing H ions to reduce CO2 and produce
carbohydrates.
- These reactions involve three steps:
1. Excitation of photosystems by light energy
2. Production of ATP via an electron transport chain
3. Reduction of NADP+ and the photolysis of water
2. Light Independent Reactions
- Also called the Calvin Cycle; doesn’t need light
energy, but it relies on the chemical energy and
products from the light dependant reaction.
- Take place in the stroma (matrix surrounding the
grana) of chloroplasts. Stroma contains all enzymes,
sugars, organic acids for reaction to take place.
- Involves the reduction of CO2 (source of C) as it
combines with H during a series of reactions. This
makes a molecule called triose phosphate
(glyceraldehyde/glycerate 3-phosphate: GALP) which
is used to make glucose and other organic
substances.
- Here ATP and reduced NADP from the light
dependant reaction supply energy and H to make
glucose (sugar/carbohydrate) from CO2 which is
constantly diffused into the chloroplast.
- These reactions involve three steps:
1. Carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
2. Reduction of glycerate-3-phosphate (TP)
3. Regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
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 1. Light Dependent Reactions
Products: ATP (energy), O2, Reduced NADP (NADPH)

1. Light energy (photons of light) is absorbed by chlorophyll (in PSI and PSII) in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts, raising two delocalized, ground
state electrons in each chlorophyll molecule to a higher
energy state (photoexcitation). The chlorophyll molecules
are now ‘excited.’
2. The electrons are raised to a sufficiently high energy level
and leave the excited chlorophyll molecule completely and
pass along a series of electron carrier molecules (in
thylakoid membrane) along the electron transport chain.
3. The electrons pass from one carrier to the next in a series of
REDOX reactions, losing energy in the process. Light energy
is used in the production of ATP, in the process of
photophosphorylation (ATPase synthesises ADP + Pi
into ATP). ATP is synthesised by movement of electrons via
chemiosmosis. The H ions accumulate in the ‘inter-
thylakoid space’ and diffuse via ATPase enzymes, down
electrochemical gradient.
4. The electrons lost from the chlorophyll must be replaced if
the flow of electrons along the transport chain is to continue.
5. Within the thylakoid space, an enzyme catalyses the splitting
of H2O (photolysis) to give O2 gas (waste product), H ions
and electrons. These electrons replace those that were
emitted from the chlorophyll molecule so it is no longer
positively charged. The H ion concentration within the
thylakoid space is raised due to photolysis.
6. Electrons that have passed along the electron transport
chain combine with the co-enzyme NADP and H ions from
H2O to form reduced NADP (NADPH). The ATP and
reduced NADP (NADPH) created in the light dependent
reaction are used in the light independent reaction (Calvin
Cycle).

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 The synthesis of ATP occurs in Cyclic or Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Involves only PSI and drives the production of ATP.
Excited electrons pass to electron carriers (acceptors)
and back to the chlorophyll molecule from which they
were lost so no photolysis and no generation of
reduced NADP (NADPH) occurs. A steady supply of
small amounts of ATP are made in the presence of
sunlight.
Called cyclic because the electrons aren’t passed onto
the NADP, they are passed back to the PSI via an
electron transport chain. No O2, or reduced NADP is
formed.
 As the electron returns to the photosystem,
NADP+ is not reduced and water is not needed to
replenish the electron supply.
 electron (unstable), an electron (from photolysis of
Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Involves both PSI and PSII.
H2O split (hydrolised) to provide reducing power to
make carbohydrates. More ATP is produced in this step.
An excited electron from PSI picked up by electron
acceptor (NADP). NADP takes up an H ion from
dissociated H2O to form reduced NADP (NADPH).
NADPH used as source of reducing power to make
glucose.
An excited electron from PSII is simultaneously picked
up by another electron acceptor and passes along
electron transport chain until it reaches PSI. PSI then
receives an electron to replace the one that was lost.
Because chlorophyll molecule in PSII is short of an
H2O) is needed to restore chlorophyll to its original state.
Only non-cyclic photophosphorylation allows for the
synthesis of organic molecules and long term energy
storage.
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2. Light Independent Reactions (The Calvin Cycle)
Products: NADP, ADP, Inorganic Phosphate

1. CO2 enters the leaf through stomata and diffuses

into the stroma (packed full of RuBISCO which
makes up the bulk of protein in plant) of
chloroplast.
2. The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase
(RuBISCO) catalyses the fixation/attachment of a
CO2 molecule and the 5-C ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP) (carboxylation of acceptor molecule
RuBP) leaving an unstable 6-C molecule which
quickly breaks down into two 3-C molecules called
glycerate 3-phosphate (GP).
3. ATP and H+ ions (from NADPH) from the light
dependent reaction provide energy to reduce the
3-C GP to different 3-C molecules called triose
phosphate (TP/GALP). TP converts into many
useful organic compounds.
- Reduction by NADPH transfers H atoms to
compound, while hydrolysis of ATP provides
energy.
- Each GP requires one NADPH and one ATP to
form a triose phosphate – so a single cycle
requires six of each molecule.
4. Five out of every six molecules of TP produced are
recycled by phosphorylation to regenerate three
RuBP molecules. Regenerating RuBP uses
remaining ATP produced in light dependent
reaction.
5. One TP/GALP molecule is used to form half a 6-C
hexose sugar molecule, so 6 cycles are required to
produce a single glucose monomer, and more to
produce disaccharides and polysaccharides.
6. The regeneration of RuBP requires energy derived
from the hydrolysis of ATP.

A single cycle involves three molecules of RuBP combining with three molecules of CO2 to make six
molecules of GP.
In three turns of the cycle only one TP is produced to make the glucose. Glucose is a 6-C molecule
so the cycle must turn six times to make glucose. 18 ATP and 12 NADPH make 1 glucose molecule.

How the products of the Calvin cycle are used:

- GP used to make amino acids and fatty acids
- Pairs of TP combine to form hexose
sugars, e.g. glucose
- Some glucose isomerised to form fructose
- Glucose and fructose combine to form
sucrose (a disaccharide)
- Hexose sugars can be polymerised into
carbohydrates (polysaccharides like
cellulose and starch)
- TP converted to glycerol which combines
with fatty acids from GP to make lipids

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12
Limiting Factors
Limiting factor: for a metabolic process is the factor which is present in the lowest or least
favourable value.

Photosynthesis is a complex process and the factors that affect its rate are all operating
simultaneously. Light and supplies of carbon dioxide and water are present in the environment and
may influence the rate at which photosynthesis proceeds. The factor present in the least favourable
amount limits the process - limiting factor.
Between 0 and 25 °C, the rate of photosynthesis approximately doubles
for each 10° rise. Above 25°, rate of photosynthesis levels off and then
falls as the enzymes work less efficiently, and oxygen competes more
The effect of
successfully for the active site of RuBISCO to prevent it from accepting
temperature on the
CO2.
rate of
The photochemical reactions of the light-dependent stage are not reliant
photosynthesis:
on temperature, but enzyme-catalysed reactions of the Calvin Cycle are.
High temperatures cause water loss from stomata leading to stress
response where stomata close.
Rate is directly proportional to light intensity.
The effect of light-
Light causes stomata to open and is trapped in chlorophyll, and splits
intensity on the rate
water molecules to produce protons.
of photosynthesis:
Rate of photosynthesis varies throughout the day.
CO2 constitutes around 0.03-0.06% of the atmosphere.
Burning of fossil fuels releases the CO2 which was fixed in the
carboniferous period.
The effect of CO2
Oceans act as carbon sinks absorbing around one third of the CO2.
concentration on the
Growing forests can absorb CO2, but mature forests produce more CO2
rate of
by respiration than they take in.
photosynthesis:
In greenhouses, growers can introduce methane-fuelled heaters which
release CO2 to increase the rate of photosynthesis, providing no other
factor is limiting.

Limiting Factors and the Calvin Cycle

Light intensity - increase alters rate of light dependent reaction, more light excites electrons which take part
in photophosphorylation so more ATP and reduced NADP produced which are both used in light-independent
stage as sources of hydrogen and energy to reduce GP to TP, ATP used to phosphorylate 5/6 molecules of
TP to regenerate RuBP.
Decrease in light intensity means GP cannot be changed to TP so GP accumulates and TP levels fall, which
lowers amount of RuBP reducing fixation of carbon dioxide and formation of more GP.

Carbon dioxide concentration - increase in carbon dioxide fixation, more GP and TP and more regeneration
of RuBP, stomata open which leads to gaseous exchange and plant may wilt if too much water loss which can
lead to stress response so stomata close.
Reduced carbon dioxide uptake and reduced rate, if carbon dioxide reduced below 0.01% RuBP accumulates
so levels of GP and TP will fall.

Temperature - little effect on light-dependent reaction, increasing at first increases rate of photosynthesis as
Calvin Cycle controlled by enzymes, rise above 25ºC and oxygenase activity of rubisco increases more than
carboxylase activity, so photorespiration exceeds photosynthesis, high temperatures damage proteins,
increase in water loss form leaves by transpiration.

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Climate Change
Evidence for climate change:
Personal memory or ‘anecdotal’ memory cannot be trusted to tell us if climate is changing, instead
we can use the following to tell if climate change is occurring:
1. Temperature records
2. Pollen in beat bogs
3. Dendrochronology

- Records of temperature in the air collected and stored over time.

Temperature
- These provide a general insight into how the overall temperature is changing, even
Records though they may be old and inaccurate.
- Pollen grains well preserved in the peat bogs; they are quite resistant to decay.
- Layers accumulate over time, so pollen age increases in depth.
- Cores can be taken from peat bogs and pollen grains extracted to identify exact
Studying Peat
plant species.
Bogs - Each species of plant has a particular ecological condition that it grows in; pollen
found from a species favouring warmer climates concludes that the peat was laid
down when the climate was warmer.
- Determining tree age by analysis of rings; most trees produce one ring per year.
- The thickness of the dead xylem vessel (ring) varies according to the climate and
the season (wide in spring and narrow in summer).
- A core sample can be used to determine the date by counting each ring, back from
Dendrochronology where the core was taken. Tree rings can give precise dates and strong clues
about past climates.
- The outermost ring will correspond to the growth of the year sample was taken ∴
we can compare these to see how the conditions were at the time, really old trees
will show this better.
- Amounts of CO2 trapped in ice can be determined which gives an indication of past
Ice Cores atmospheric CO2 levels.

Global Warming:
Global warming is a term used to describe a gradual increase in global temperature over the last
century. It’s a type of climate change – a significant change in the weather of a region over several
decades. Global warming causes other forms of climate change, such as change in rainfall patterns,
and seasonal cycles.

Causes of Global Warming:

The scientific consensus is that global warming is
due to natural and human activity. Natural and
human activity has resulted in the greenhouse
effect, by increasing the amount of greenhouse
gases released into the atmosphere. These gases
absorb outgoing energy and are essential for
keeping the planet warm, but too much means the
planet will warm up dramatically.
 Combustion of Fossil fuels: fossil fuels form
from the remains of old wood and forest and
animals. The wood did not decay releasing
carbon dioxide so the carbon remains locked in,
this is called the Carbon Sink. When we burn
the fossil fuels, we release into the air what has
been out of it for millions of years.
 Deforestation: mature forests are very stable
ecosystems and they act as regulators of our climate. All CO2 is kept in balance with the number
of photosynthesising species. If we cut down large amounts of trees, this will throw it out of
balance.
 Volcanoes

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The main greenhouse gases are:
1. Carbon Dioxide
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased rapidly since the industrial revolution (280ppm
to 380ppm). It has increased due to increased combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas,
petrol), and vast natural sink destruction. There is a high correlation between temperature and
CO2 levels.
2. Methane
Increased rapidly since the mid-19th century (700ppm to 1700ppm). Methane doesn’t stay in the
air long; it eventually joins with O2 to form CO2 and H2O. It is produced by:
- anaerobic decay of organic matter in water logged conditions (bogs and rice fields)
- decay of domestic waste in landfill
- digestive systems of cattle release huge amounts of methane (belching and flatulence)
- incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
3. Water Vapour

Some disagree with the idea of global warming, but agree with an overall increase in temperature
over the past century, and also with the fact that CO2 is on the increase. Some scientists think that
increasing CO2 isn’t the main cause of the global increase in temperature.
It is agreed that human activity is increasing the atmospheric CO2 concentration.

Evidence for global warming: Evidence against global warming:

Polar ice melts: the arctic is a sensitive region.
Scientific theory: Science can’t prove theories,
The permafrost helps maintain our climate and
only disprove. The incomplete knowledge of the
our weather systems. There has been a decline
climate systems and its chaotic changes is
in the amount of ice, more than 8% per decade.
making it hard to make concrete decisions on
In the other end of the world, Antarctica, there
whether it’s happening or not.
have been huge amounts of ice being broken off.
Glacier retreats: retreating glaciers show great
amounts of glacial ice melting and slowing going
away.
Rising sea levels: the melting of the permafrost
and ice around the world is causing the water in
the sea levels to rise and even the temperature
in the water to drop.
Weather changes: At poles, cold, salty water
sinks. Warm surface water replaces this. Melting
ice means less salinity. Slowing down of ocean
currents are then a result of this. There are also
alterations in the patterns of heat and rainfall.
Coral Bleaching:
Microscopic algae live symbiotically with coral.
When there is environmental stress, the coral
starts to die and mass bleaching of the coral
occurs.

Effects of Global Warming:

1. Rising temperature: an increase in temperature will affect the metabolism of all organisms.
Normally an increase in the temperature will cause the enzyme reaction to increase, speeding up
reactions and rate of growth - enzymes have very specific optimum temperatures.
When temp. increases above this optimum, metabolic rates and reactions will decrease, so rate
of growth will decrease.
2. Change in rainfall patterns: some areas will get more rain, others will get less. Changing rainfall
patterns affect organisms’ life cycles. This can also affect the distribution of some organisms.
3. Seasonal Cycles: global warming is thought to change seasons. Organisms are adapting to this
change; e.g. the red squirrel in Canada is starting to give birth nearly three weeks earlier
compared to recent years.

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 Reducing Global Warming:
 Biofuels (biogas): any source of energy produced directly by plants. Biofuels are produced with
biomass and this provides a renewable energy source. Biofuels are burnt to release energy which
produces CO2. There is no net increase in CO2 so biofuels are a reasonable alternative to fossil
fuels.
 Reforestation: newly planted trees can soak up CO2 and release more O2 into the air. It creates
a reduction in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere as trees remove it. Plants also act as a
carbon store, they re-synthesis CO2 using photosynthesis.
 Wind turbines are an alternative to fossil fuel energy.
 Hydroelectric power.

Greenhouse effect:
The sun releases energy mostly as light, and most ultraviolet (UV) is absorbed by Stratosphere.
The Earth absorbs some of this, and warms up and radiates some of this energy back into space as
infrared. Some of this is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere - Greenhouse Gases.
The Troposphere is warmed and this in turn keeps the Earth warm as the heat is retained.

Predicting future climates:

Extrapolation: the prediction of a correlation or event by extending a line; assuming that there is
sufficient accurate data, and that present trends continue.

Models: computer models can be used to predict future climates. We have to however take many
factors into consideration at once. Factors include other greenhouse gases (CFC’s, N2O), aerosols,
the degree of reflection of the Earth, fraction of ice and snow cover on the Earth, cloud cover,
changes in sun’s radiation, etc.
Models however aren’t perfect due to incorrect predictions made due to: limited data, limited
knowledge of ever-changing climate system, limitations in technology, failure to include all factors,
rapidly changing trends.

Coping with climate change:

The changes already being attributed to climate change can be divided into two categories:
Changing distribution of species:
- In any community some species will cope with change
much better than others.
- Changes in the climate may cause a cascade of follow
up events.
- Some species may be better survivors to those
conditions and thus may become more dominant.
- If not and they are mobile or have good dispersal they
can move to more favourable conditions.
Altered development and life cycles:
- Animals/organisms are very susceptible to temperature
changes.
- Changing temperatures can cause migration patterns to
change.
- Some salmon may have disruption in their life cycles
and breeding times.
- Egg incubations of reptiles may change or be massively
affected; higher temperatures results in more females.

Phenology: the study of seasonal events in organisms. e.g. flowering, fruiting, mating, laying eggs,
hatching etc. Long term records allow us to monitor any major changes; however information of
singular organisms is merely not enough to make claims for global warming.

Evolution (the gradual development of life in geological time)

Darwin’s observations and conclusions:

1. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive and reproduce; numbers naturally
stay pretty much the same over time.
There is a struggle for existence - competition for survival between members of the same species.
As a population increases in size, environmental factors halt this increase. Many individuals die
due to predation, competition for food and other resources, or the spread of disease.
2. There is a huge amount of variation between species.
The individuals best adapted to their environment survive and breed. They have a selective
advantage: survival of the fittest. Individuals with these adaptive features will be more common
in the next generation. Those that are not well adapted will die off and over time individuals with
the best traits will survive; the resulting generation will have more of the adapted, desirable traits.

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Evidence for evolution:
Molecular Evidence and modern techniques have allowed for and provided a vast array of
information detailing in the processes of evolution. Ways of revealing genetic changes:
 Genomics: the study of DNA
 Proteomics: the study of proteins

DNA Hybridisation DNA Profiling

DNA is heated, separating it into its component
strands as hydrogen bonds break.
Human and chimpanzee DNA can undergo this
procedure and the separated strands mixed up.
Since DNA has some different base sequences,
not all will pair.
The better they stick together, the closer they are
related.
Therefore the more heat they use to denature
the closer they are related.
DNA Protein Sequencing
Compare sequence of bases in DNA or Amino
Acids.
If there are few differences in the base
sequences then both organisms come from a
recent ancestor; more differences mean less
related.
Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific
sequences producing a series of different sized
DNA fragments.
This can be visualised as a series of bands or
peaks on a DNA profiler.
If mutations have occurred then the enzymes will
not cut DNA; bands and peaks will change.
The differences between the fragments’ lengths
produced provide information about genetic
differences.
DNA molecular clocks
The polymerase chain reaction can produce
millions of copies of DNA.
The copying of these while using DNA-
sequencing machines allows rapid determination
of base sequences.
As species evolve they gain more mutations.
By comparing differences, we can find the
relation between similar ancestors.

Populations that have been isolated for millions of years can remain effectively the same species.
However, populations living next to each other can begin to form new species. Reproductive
isolation is crucial to speciation and this occurs when fertilization is prevented or when the zygote
fails or is unable to breed.
Speciation is the formation of new species from existing ones. Most offspring do not survive to
breed; only the best adapt to survive and pass on characteristics. Over time, with the correct
circumstances, a number of changes may give rise to new species.

Mechanisms of Speciation:
1. Offspring tend to resemble their parents.
2. All individuals display variations
3. All organisms have potential to produce a large number of offspring
4. Populations still remain steady.

Allopatric (geographic) speciation:

Physical barriers such as mountains or islands cause this reproductive isolation.
Species are the same, but are isolated. Different pressures like temperature or prey availability
cause them to start to change and develop into separate species. e.g.: Galapagos island finches.

Methods of isolation:
Ecological isolation Species occupy different parts of the habitat.
Temporal isolation Species exist in the same area but reproduce at different times.
Species exist in the same area but do not respond to each other’s
Behavioural isolation
courtship behaviour.
Physical incompatibility Species co-exist, physical reasons may prevent copulation.
In some species hybrids are produced, but do not survive long
Hybrid inviability
enough to breed.
Hybrid sterility Hybrids survive to reproductive age but they cannot reproduce.

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