Grove Music Online

Music therapy
George L. Duerksen

https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2257019
Published in print: 26 November 2013
Published online: 31 January 2014

The purposeful use of musical stimuli, musical activity, and client-

therapist interaction in music contexts to pursue therapeutic goals.
According to the American music therapy association (AMTA):
“Music Therapy is an established healthcare profession that uses
music to address physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs of
individuals of all ages. Music therapy improves the quality of life for
persons who are well and meets the needs of children and adults
with disabilities or illnesses. Music therapy interventions can be
designed to: promote wellness, manage stress, alleviate pain,
express feelings, enhance memory, improve communication, [and]
promote physical rehabilitation.”

Music therapy professionals serve a broad array of clients and

patients in a variety of settings. Some music therapists work in
mental health areas, some provide services for the developmentally
disabled, while others practice in general hospitals, rehabilitation
programs, geriatric settings, hospices, clinics for persons with visual
and auditory disabilities, and schools and other educational settings.
Some music therapists work as private practitioners. Often private
practitioners work closely with psychologists, psychiatrists, and
physicians who refer clients to them. In some cases music therapists
have joined other professionals such as occupational therapists,
special educators, and recreational specialists to form group
practices. These practices often operate clinics and provide services
to nursing homes, sheltered workshops, and other healthcare
agencies. Some music therapists work in business and community
health centers where their work is preventative as well as remedial,
and from which they become involved in a broad spectrum of
community musical activities.

Preparation for entry into the profession in the United States

typically involves successful completion of a four-year college major
in music therapy or its equivalent, and an internship in a clinical
program approved by the AMTA. Individuals who complete this
training successfully are eligible to take the national examination
administered by the Certification Board for Music Therapists
(CBMT). Those who pass the examination earn the credential Music
Therapist-Board Certified (MT-BC). This national credential is
required for many music therapy positions. The AMTA Member
Sourcebook 2009 lists approved undergraduate music therapy
degree curricula in 71 US colleges and universities and graduate
degree programs in 31 of those institutions. Eight of the graduate

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 programs offer the doctorate. In addition, there is one approved
undergraduate degree program in a Canadian university. Graduate
degrees are required for teaching in college music therapy
programs, plus at least five years of clinical experience for those
who teach clinical courses.

1. Characteristics of music underlying

therapeutic uses.

Several characteristics of human musical behavior underlie

functional applications of music for pursuing therapeutic goals. The
professional music therapist uses these capabilities of music to
organize protocols that help evaluate, remedy, maintain, and
improve the physical and mental health of clients, and to contribute
to their quality of life.

Music, as an auditory art, apparently reflects a basic human need for

pattern, form, and organization. Music can provide an aesthetic way
to control and enhance the auditory environment. Human responses
to music include the physiological, affective, cognitive, and
associative. There are few individuals for whom music of some type
does not have an attraction; preferred music can provide a context
for therapeutic activity and can motivate and reinforce participation
and compliance. Music provides sensory stimulation and encourages
sensory elaboration. It can be used to structure individual behavior,
integrating cognitive, affective, and psychomotor functioning. It can
also provide structure and pattern for the interaction, coordination,
and integration of individuals in a group. The affective component of
music offers a socially acceptable way of evoking and expressing
feelings, including feelings that are difficult or impossible to
verbalize.

Music is a highly adaptable art. Its flexibility allows it to be adapted

to different individual purposes, abilities, attitudes, and needs, as
well as to different social contexts and physical environments. A
single musical stimulus can elicit individual responses that vary
according to psychological and physiological needs. Properly
selected musical stimuli and activities can help reduce feelings of
isolation, divert attention, and encourage and guide imagination.
During participation, music can distract from feelings of aloneness.
Participating together in musical activity, whether listening to or
making music, can help unify groups and encourage positive
interpersonal feelings and relationships. Through improvement of
group feeling, musical activity can reduce conflict and help unify a
group. Participation in group music making requires the individual
to take part in a larger pattern of structured interaction. Thus, music
can provide a favorable context in which both individually and
socially integrated behavior may be practiced. The sense of
accomplishment derived from making music can lead to the
development of self-esteem, and musical achievement can help win
the esteem of others.

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 Music can communicate both nonverbally and verbally. The
nonverbal communication can evoke and express feeling and affect
for which there are no words. Setting words to music can express
what individuals are hesitant to say, or cannot say, without the
presence of music. Music is often interpreted as reflecting positive
feelings such as goodwill, friendship, happiness, loyalty, and love.

2. Development of the profession.

Examples of functional uses of music exist in the myths, activities,

and documents of a variety of cultures throughout the world. In the
Western Hemisphere, Native Americans traditionally used music for
many purposes, including their processes for treating illnesses.
Occasional articles about music in hospitals and medical treatment
appeared in US journals and the popular press from the late 1700s,
but the development of music therapy as a profession did not occur
until the mid-1940s. The field’s early growth occurred during and
after World War II, partially through the work of individuals
providing recreational music for hospitalized veterans. Some
physicians and psychologists recognized positive psychological and
physical outcomes extending beyond the recreational goals of these
music programs. This recognition resulted in greater focus on the
potentials of music in the pursuit of therapeutic goals.

A number of colleges and universities offered classes focused on

applications of music, and before the end of the 1940s several
institutions were offering degree programs to prepare music
therapists: a bachelor’s program at Michigan State College (now
Michigan State University), organized by Roy Underwood, started in
1944, and e. thayer Gaston developed a master’s program at the
University of Kansas in 1946. The master’s program at Kansas,
designed for those with an undergraduate degree in music
education, included a strong emphasis on research. Other pioneers
who developed degree programs included Wilhemina K. Harbart at
the College of the Pacific (now University of the Pacific), Arthur
Flagler Fultz at the New England Conservatory of Music, and Sister
Xaveria, O.S.F. at Alverno College in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Teachers
in these early curricula included musicians, psychologists, and
educators, but schools sought professionally trained music
therapists as instructors as soon as they became available.
Particularly influential in this group were robert Unkefer (at
Michigan State University), donald e. Michel (Florida State
University), william Sears (universities of Ohio, Indiana, and
Kansas), Charles Braswell (Loyola University, New Orleans), and
sister josepha Schorsch , O.S.F. (Alverno College).

During World War II, the increasing functional use of music in

hospitals and industry encouraged several music organizations,
including the Music Teachers National Association (MTNA), National
Association of Schools of Music (NASM), Music Educators National
Conference (MENC), and National Music Council (NMC), to
establish committees that focused on such applications. By the late

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 1940s it was evident that a specialized organization was needed to
help establish standards for education and certification of music
therapists, to support continued development of the profession and
its practitioners, and to encourage scientific research to build a body
of knowledge that would underlie best professional practice. At the
annual meeting of the MTNA in late February 1950, ray Green (who
had played leadership roles in several of the national music
organizations mentioned above and was at the time acting chair of
the NMC Committee on the Use of Music in Hospitals) presided at a
session held specifically with the intent of developing a national
music therapy organization. Persons at this meeting elected Green
as chair of a Committee on Organization and authorized him to
appoint a committee and develop a draft constitution. Green’s broad
experience enabled him to develop an association that included a
variety of those associated with music activities in hospitals.

In June 1950 Green served as chair pro tem for a meeting to

consider and adopt a draft constitution and elect officers for a
National association for music therapy (NAMT). Participants
included practicing music therapists, college music therapy
professors, and national music organizations. The resulting
organization held its first meeting in conjunction with the MTNA in
December 1950.

The NAMT adopted the Hospital Music Newsletter, which at the

time was the official publication of the NMC. Within a year the
NAMT assumed responsibility for the newsletter and changed the
title to Bulletin of the National Association for Music Therapy. A
series of annual yearbooks recording the proceedings and sessions
of the annual NAMT conference was published from 1951 through
1963. The yearbook was discontinued when the quarterly Journal of
Music Therapy was founded. This journal is the profession’s primary
research periodical. In 1981 the NAMT developed a second journal,
Music Therapy Perspectives, which focused more on clinical
applications and techniques.

In 1954 the NAMT recommended a specific undergraduate

curriculum for the preparation of music therapists. After affiliating
with the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), it began
approving music therapy curricula in NASM member schools that
met the new standards. It later started a register of qualified music
therapists; by 1985 there were over 2000 registered music
therapists.

A second professional music therapy organization was established on

the East Coast. Educators and clinicians in this group differed from
the NAMT in their approaches to curriculum design, clinical training
and practice, and higher education accreditation. Founded in 1971
as the Urban Federation of Music Therapists (UFMT), the group
changed its name to the American Association for Music Therapy
(AAMT) in 1974. This group offered the professional qualification of
Certified Music Therapist (CMT). It also introduced a journal, Music
Therapy, beginning in 1971.

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 As the profession evolved later in the century, the two organizations
grew closer to each other. In 1998, after several years of negotiation,
the NAMT and AAMT merged to form a new association, the AMTA.
The AMTA continues to publish the Journal of Music Therapy and
Music Therapy Perspectives.

In the early 1980s a national Certification Board for Music

Therapists (CBMT) was formed to develop a National Board
Certification Examination (first administered in 1985). The
certification board was organized to be independent of professional
music therapy organizations. The CBMT, which is fully accredited by
the National Commission for Certifying Agencies, is currently the
only national organization that certifies music therapists in the
United States as MT-BC. Board Certification is required for many
music therapy positions. Over 4500 music therapists have been
board certified to date. To maintain their certification music
therapists must follow a program designed to enhance and measure
their professional competence.

3. Approaches to music therapy clinical

practice.

As the practice of music therapy has grown in the United States, a

broad variety of clinical techniques have been developed. These
techniques reflect the client populations served, the settings in
which music therapists work, and the therapists’ training,
experience, and theoretical orientation.

In the 1950s and 60s, many professional music therapists had music
education backgrounds and were employed in institutions such as
Veteran’s Administration hospitals, state mental hospitals, and
private mental health clinics. In such settings musical activities such
as instrumental and vocal ensembles, listening groups, and
individual sessions provided the locus for the pursuit of therapeutic
goals. The processes used often resembled the psychodynamic and
other psychological approaches typically used in these institutions.
Other music therapists at this time worked in institutions for
retarded children and adults. Music therapy approaches in these
settings frequently reflected then-current practices in special
education. Activities similar to those used in childhood music
education were adapted to pursue changes in client behavior that
would help the person adapt and function better in his/her
environment.

Trends such as de-institutionalization and medicinal mental health

treatment, and the movement toward inclusion in the least
restrictive environment for developmentally delayed individuals,
brought about changes and adaptations in music therapy treatment
settings and protocols. The growth of gerontology, increased focus

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 on the elderly, and concern for the quality of life have stimulated the
development of new techniques. Development and testing of clinical
protocols continues as the profession’s research base develops.

Current techniques reflect the expansion of the field from an early

focus on the mental and physical health of hospitalized veterans to
the wide variety of clients presently served. Treatment protocols
have been developed for applications ranging from use with
premature infants in hospital intensive care units to work with
individuals receiving hospice service. Music’s uses in these protocols
vary from the introduction of appropriately programmed musical
stimuli into an environment to active involvement in singing, playing,
improvising, creating/composing, listening, discussing, and moving
to music.

Some current treatment approaches resemble clinical techniques

developed in psychology and psychiatry, including psychodynamic,
behavioral, cognitive, and counseling processes. Some use musical
stimuli and activity to stimulate and encourage reflection, verbal
interaction, and physical coordination. Some use music to motivate
or reinforce. Other techniques use processes similar to those
developed in music education, special education, and a variety of
health-related professions.

Elements adapted from the music education techniques of carl Orff ,

zoltán Kodály , and emile Jaques-dalcroze have proved useful in
music therapy treatment processes. These music education
approaches focus on improving the learner’s musical skill and
knowledge through multisensory musical activities involving tactile,
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic experiences. Orff’s methodology
makes extensive use of drums, other rhythm instruments, and
pitched percussion instruments that do not require extensive skill to
play. Music therapists have adapted such instruments for a variety of
clinical applications.

4. Specialized clinical techniques.

A number of specialized music therapy treatment approaches have

been developed. Guided Imagery in Music developed from mental
health practice, Neurologic Music Therapy reflects a medical
research orientation, and Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy began in
work with special needs children. Special advanced training is
offered for music therapy professionals interested in using these
approaches.

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 (i) Guided imagery and music.
Guided Imagery and Music (GIM) is described on the Association for
Music and Imagery website as “a music-assisted integrative therapy
which facilitates explorations of consciousness that can lead to
transformation and wholeness.” This approach, developed through
the work of Helen Bonny and her associates, and sometimes called
the Bonny Method of GIM, uses programs of specifically sequenced
classical music to encourage and support ongoing inner experiences.
GIM techniques originated in work with mentally disturbed
individuals, but current applications extend beyond that population.
Typically, GIM is a “one-on-one” treatment process. The method
couples the musical stimuli with verbal interaction between the
client and therapist before, during, and after the listening portion of
the session. The GIM approach attempts to explore consciousness,
described as including thoughts, images, perceptions, and emotions
through music-activated images guided by the music therapist. The
intention is for the client to enter into an altered state of
consciousness for the listening session.

The GIM clinical session typically consists of several parts. In the

introductory segment, the client and therapist discuss the client’s
background, and current feelings or concerns, and then set goals.
The therapist then makes suggestions to help the client relax and
focus mentally with the intention of achieving a meditative or other
altered state of consciousness during listening. In the listening
segment specific Western classical music chosen by the therapist on
the basis of information gathered from preliminary discussions is
played to encourage imagery in the client, provide a framework for
verbal interactions with the therapist, arouse and support client
reactions and responses, and support altered states of
consciousness. The client listens to the music and verbalizes the
imagery it evokes. The therapist interacts verbally with the client
during the session to support the client’s imagery experiences. After
the music stimuli end, the client and therapist reflect and discuss the
imagery that was elicited and examine how those images relate to
the needs and concerns identified early in the session.

(ii) Neurologic music therapy.

Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT) was developed by Michael Thaut
and his associates. This approach focuses on cognitive, sensory, and
motor dysfunctions caused by neurologic disease. Its treatment
protocols, developed from and validated through scientific research,
provide separate structured techniques for sensorimotor training,
speech and language training, and cognitive training.

Sensorimotor training addresses gait disorders, improved posture,

and movement of the upper extremities. Rhythmic auditory
stimulation procedures use music tempo and rhythm as an external
cue to help organize motor responses. They are used particularly to

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 help with gait disorders. Patterned sensory enhancement protocols
employ a variety of music’s structural characteristics to pattern body
movements that are not necessarily rhythmic in nature. Speech and
language training applies a variety of protocols designed for
different problems. These processes include melodic intonation
therapy, musical speech stimulation, rhythmic speech cuing, vocal
intonation therapy, therapeutic singing, oral motor and respiratory
exercises, developmental speech and language training through
music, and symbolic communication training through music.
Cognitive training procedures focus on four areas: auditory attention
and perception, memory, executive function, and psychosocial
behavior.

(iii) Nordoff-Robbins music therapy.

Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy, sometimes called Creative Music
Therapy, was developed through the collaboration of paul Nordoff ,
an American composer and pianist, and Clive Robbins, a British
special education teacher. It developed originally in work with
special needs children, but clinical practice now applies it to a wide
variety of clients. This technique is based on the belief that every
human has an inborn musicality and that the engagement of that
musicality can be used to help develop that person’s potential. The
method engages clients actively in an improvisational approach to
creating music. The focus of treatment is primarily on the musical
activity. Therapists and clients participate together in music making.
The music itself is expected to be the primary agent of change in the
client. Rather than focusing on behavioral or social goals or the
achievement of “normality,” the long-term objective is to develop the
client’s individual potential. Often two therapists work
simultaneously with an individual or a small group of clients in a
series of sessions over an extended period of time.

The Nordoff-Robbins clinical session has no fixed format. Initially,

the therapist improvises music in response to the client’s apparent
mood and behavior, and attempts to engage the client in ongoing
musical interaction. The piano and voice are the therapist’s primary
musical tools, although guitar and other instruments are sometimes
used. Depending on the situation, a drum, cymbal, or other musical
instruments may be available for the client to use. As the session
continues, the therapist observes and assesses the client’s responses
and needs, and reflects those needs in the music being improvised.
The therapist may improvise music to match a client’s mood, imitate
a client’s sounds, accompany a client’s movements, or chant or sing
words that describe a client’s behavior, providing whatever musical
stimulus seems likely to elicit response and participation. Each
clinical session is recorded (audio or video), and the therapist or
therapists review the recording afterwards, observing and noting the
client’s musical and nonmusical responses and behavior. This
information is used to plan specific activities and improvisations for
the following session. Often the music is transcribed from the

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 recording. If a particular improvisation elicited a significant client
response, that music may be repeated and developed at a
subsequent session.

5. Music therapy research.

A growing body of clinical and laboratory research knowledge

supports the effectiveness of functional music applications in a wide
variety of healthcare and educational settings. When the field’s
professional development began in the 1940s, some applicable
research knowledge was available in fields such as psychology of
music, acoustics, music, anthropology, and sociology. Since then
much of the profession’s specific research has been done in the
universities that offer music therapy curricula, particularly those
that offer graduate study.

A psychology of music laboratory was established at the University

of Kansas in 1946, when the music therapy curriculum began. The
laboratory supported many studies of the dynamics of human
musical behavior, particularly of physiological and affective
responses to musical stimuli. In the mid-1960s E. Thayer Gaston
received funding from the US Office of Education for research into
clinical techniques in music therapy, the results of which were later
published in his Music in Therapy (1968). During the same decade
Gaston received funding from the National Institutes of Mental
Health to seek highly effective methods for training music therapy
professionals. In the late 1970s george l. Duerksen , also at Kansas,
mounted two projects (similarly funded) to prepare in-service
training materials and techniques to help music educators and music
therapists meet the intent of Public Law 94–142, the “Education of
all Handicapped Children Act.” In the time since, alicia ann Clair and
her associates at Kansas have continued a variety of types of music
therapy research. Under the leadership of Donald Michel, Florida
State University early became a center for research into uses of
music in speech therapy; the work of clifford k. Madsen , Jayne
Standley, and others there investigated behavioral uses of music for
a broad variety of therapeutic and educational processes. In 1980
the university established a Center for Music Research that supports
the continued work of Madsen, Alice-Ann Darrow, Dianne Gregory,
and their associates. Charles Braswell’s program at Loyola
University produced important studies of the roles, tasks, and
preparation of music therapists. More recently, Colorado State
University has established a Center for Biomedical Research in
Music, which supports the multidisciplinary music therapy research
of Michael Thaut, william Davis , and their associates.

The professional associations have contributed significantly to the

development of research literature on music therapy. From its early
development the NAMT exhibited strong interest and
encouragement of research that supports and validates clinical
practice and its outcomes. The annual Music Therapy Yearbooks
printed the research reports that had been presented at the NAMT
annual conferences. In the late 1970s the NAMT carried out an

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 extensive project on personnel preparation (sponsored by the US
Office of Education and directed by Wanda Lathom), which resulted
in numerous workshop materials including her book entitled Role of
Music Therapy in the Education of Handicapped Children and Youth
(1981). Since its founding the AMTA has published a variety of
research monographs and mediated resources, including a compact
disk comprising all articles published in the Journal of Music
Therapy, Music Therapy Perspectives, and Music Therapy.

Music therapy research in the 1950s and 60s frequently used case
study and relatively uncontrolled observation methodology. The
resulting data, though imprecise, stimulated strong interest in the
refinement of methodology and the development of theory to help
guide and focus research. Several trends in the following decades
significantly influenced research practice. The rapid development of
sophisticated audio/visual equipment and computer technology made
possible improved control in research processes and provided ways
to increase the precision of measurement. Advances in statistical
analysis used the computational power of computers to support
more complex multivariable research designs. Applied behavior
analysis research designs proved useful for a variety of music
therapy studies. Sophisticated qualitative research techniques
increased the precision of clinical studies. Professional education,
business, and industry focused on outcomes as well as the processes
underlying them. An outcomes focus is reflected in current music
therapy clinical research. The current healthcare trend toward
evidence-based practice seems likely to influence the direction of
research. Evidence-based practice suggests that healthcare
providers base their treatment decisions not only on their own
professional experiences and their client’s needs and values, but also
on current quality research outcomes. The need for validated
current outcomes will probably increase the demand for research.

Throughout the profession’s history in the United States, research in

related fields has contributed substantially to the knowledge base.
Research in the psychology of music, neuroscience, cognitive
psychology, special education, and other healthcare fields may have
great potential for influencing the development of new and improved
clinical techniques for use by music therapists.

Bibliography
E.T. Gaston: Music in Therapy (New York, 1968)

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 H.L. Bonny and L.M. Savary: Music and Your Mind:
Listening with a New Consciousness (New York, 1973,
2/1990)

P. Nordoff and C. Robbins: Creative Music Therapy: a

Guide to Fostering Clinical Musicianship (New York, 1977,
2/2007)

W. Lathom: Role of Music Therapy in the Education of

Handicapped Children and Youth (Lawrence, KS, 1981)

K.E. Bruscia: Improvisational Models of Music Therapy

(Springfield, MO, 1987)

C.E. Furman ed.: Effectiveness of Music Therapy

Procedures: Documentation of Research and Clinical
Practice (Washington, DC, 1988)

K.E. Bruscia: Defining Music Therapy (Spring City, PA,

1989)

R.F. Unkefer: Music Therapy in the Treatment of Adults

with Mental Disorders (New York, 1990)

C.D. Maranto, ed.: Applications of Music in Medicine

(Washington, DC, 1991)

W.B. Davis, K.E. Gfeller, and M.H. Thaut: An Introduction

to Music Therapy: Theory and Practice (Dubuque, IA,
1992, 3/2008)

B.L. Wheeler, ed.: Music Therapy Research: Quantitative

and Qualitative Perspectives (Phoenixville, PA, 1995)

J.M. Standley: “A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Music as

Reinforcement for Education/Therapy Objectives,” JRME,
44/2 (1996), 105–33

D.B. Taylor: Biomedical Foundations of Music as Therapy

(St. Louis, 1997)

M.H. Thaut: A Scientific Model of Music in Therapy and

Medicine (San Antonio, 2000)

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 K.E. Bruscia and D.E. Grocke, eds: Guided Imagery and
Music: the Bonny Method and Beyond (Gilsum, NH, 2002)

S. Robb, ed.: Music Therapy in Pediatric Healthcare:

Research and Evidence-Based Practice (Silver Spring,
MD, 2003)

T. Wigram: Improvisation: Methods and Techniques for

Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators, and Students (New
York, 2004)

A.A. Darrow, ed.: Introduction to Approaches in Music

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