The Apulo-Corinthian Helmet

A south-east Italic helmet type

and what it can say about
the social and cultural context
in which it was used
2013
Bachelor Thesis
By: Sander Kools
Studentnumber: 1016040
Tutor: Dr. Miguel John Versluys
University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology

Title page photo: Apulo-Corinthian helmet ex Blass-collection, now in the Metropolitan

Museum of Art in New York, number 2003.407.4 (the Metropolitan Museum of Art)

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 Table of contents

Chapter I Introduction 005

I.1: The structure of this thesis 005
I.2: Previous research 006
I.3: The Apulians 007
I.4: Helmets 009
Chapter II From Corinthian helmet into the Apulo-Corinthian helmet 011
II.1 Corinthian helmet development 011
II.2 Apulo-Corinthian helmet development 012
Chapter III Morphological typology 017
III.1 Groups of Type A 017
III.2 Groups of Type B 023
III.3 Groups of Type C 031
III.4 Groups of Type D 037
III.5 Groups of Type E 039
Chapter IV The distribution of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet 041
IV.1 Overall spreading 041
IV.2 Spreading of Type A 043
IV.3 Spreading of Type B 044
IV.4 Spreading of Type C 045
IV.5 Spreading of Type D 046
IV.6 Spreading of Type E 046
IV.7 Spreading of the Unkown Type 047
Chapter V The context of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet 048
V.1 Banzi Tomb A 048
V.2 Cairano Tomb XVI 052
V.3 Ginosa Tomb 13-01-1935 056
V.4 Gravina in Puglia Tomb 4/II 059
V.5 Guglionesi-Santa Margherita 059
V.6 Larino 060
V.7 Lavello Tomb 56 060
V.8 Melfi-Chiucchiari Tomb A 061
V.9 Melfi-Chiucchiari Tomb F 062
V.10 Melfi-Leonessa Tomb 7 064
V.11 Miglionico 064

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 V.12 Montescaglioso-Sterpinia 065
V.13 Ordona Tomb 25 066
V.14 Ripacandida Tomb 82 067
V.15 Rutigliano Tomb 03 068
V.16 Rutigliano Tomb 11 068
V.17 Rutigliano Tomb 19 069
V.18 Rutigliano Tomb 24 069
V.19 Rutigliano Tomb 77 070
V.20 Ruvo del Monte Tomb 43 070
V.21 Ruvo di Puglia Unknown Tomb 070
V.22 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 002 070
V.23 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 045 073
V.24 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 115 075
V.25 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 148 076
V.26 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 157 079
V.27 Salapia Tomb 140 079
V.28 Satriano Tomb 2 080
V.29 Serra di Vaglio Tomb 108 081
V.30 Unknown Tomb (A38) 085
V.31 Unknown Tomb (C23) 085
V.32 Unknown Tomb (C25) 086
V.33 Unknown Tomb (C29) 086
V.34 Unknown Tomb (D05) 087
V.35 Unknown Tomb (E08) 088
V.36 Unknown Tomb (U02) 088
Chapter VI The use of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet 090
VI.1 Usage in life 090
VI.2 Usage after life 095
VI.3 Time of usage 096
Chapter VII Conclusion 099
VII.1 Research question 1 099
VII.2 Research question 2 100
VII.3 The bigger picture 101
Resume 103
Samenvatting 104
Word of thanks 105
Used websites 106

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Bibliography 111
List of Figures 115

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 Chapter I
Introduction

I.1 The structure of this thesis

This thesis will describe and investigate a type of helmet, the Apulo-Corinthian
helmet, which has almost only been found in the Italian region of Puglia and parts of
surrounding provinces, most notably Basilicata.
First I will describe the type, the groups and the modern reconstructions of this type
of helmet. This is important, because in this way we get a good understanding of
how this helmet looks like and its variation. Also this will help to avoid future
incorrect depictions of this type of helmet.
Then I will look at the distribution of the helmets in order to find out what they can
say about their context and meaning. I will do this by investigating the spreading
(find places) and context (excavations) of these helmets.
Thirdly, I will try to understand the Apulo-Corinthian helmets in their social and
cultural context, as these helmets might provide insights into what the function of
these helmets was and by which kind of persons they were worn.
Lastly I will summarize the results and pay attention to the society of peoples living
in Apulia between the 6th and 4th century B.C. (hereafter called ‘Apulians’) and to
what extent they were influenced by their neighboring societies.
Therefore, this thesis has the following research questions:
- Where, when and in which contexts do these helmets occur?
- What is the meaning of this type helmet in these contexts and what does this
meaning of the helmets say about the cultural character of Apulia at the
time these helmets were used?

In this Chapter, Chapter I, I will give a summary of previous research as well as

giving a background of the history of Apulia and I will describe what helmets are. In
Chapter II I will explain how the Apulo-Corinthian helmet was developed and
which type’s there are. In Chapter III I will present something that has never been
done before: assigning some of the helmets to groups of the same craftsman. In
Chapter IV the spreading of the helmets will be investigated and in Chapter V the
tombs and their content. In Chapter VI I will try to understand what the use was of

5
this helmet type and by whom they were worn. In Chapter VII I will try to
understand what this helmet type and its context can say about the society and
culture of the Apulians and The research questions will be answered in Chapter IV
and V (research question 1) and in Chapter VI and VII (research question 2).

I.2 Previous research

The earliest source I have found which describes an Apulo-Corinthian helmet is dated to
1890, however, this is only a description of one specimen and does not name other
helmets of this kind and neither does it give a name to this type of helmet. In 1966
Adamesteanu proposed the name Apulo-Corinthian helmet for this kind of helmets
(Paddock 1993, 78) and in 1983 Bottini was the first to make a classification for the
Apulo-Corinthian helmets (www.sas.upenn.edu) which he expanded in 1988 and 1990.
The list of helmets Bottini made in 1990 was further expanded by Diffendale in 2007.
Another classification was made by Paddock in 1993 but he only used helmets with a
known provenance, so not all helmets fit within his typology and some of the helmets he
drawn look different in real-life which was the reason for me not to use his typology.
Instead I used the expanded Bottini 1990 list from Diffendale, which I have also
expanded.
Bottini’s 1990 list included 26 helmets of Type A (of which one probably belongs to
Type C), 27 of Type B, 21 of Type C, 6 of Type D, 6 of Type E and 1 helmet was
indeterminable. Diffendale expanded this with 10 type A’s, 5 Type B’s, 8 Type C’s, 1
Type D, 2 Type E’s and another indeterminable helmet. Diffendale originally had more
helmets on his list, but after my quest for photo’s of all known Apulo-Corinthian helmets
I found out that there was some overlap with Bottini’s list. My expansion to this list
consists of 12 Type A’s, 15 Type B’s, 5 Type C’s, 1 Type D helmet, 4 Type E’s and 2 of
which I am uncertain to which type they belong, possibly U03 is a Type B helmet and
U04 might belong to Type A. What these types actually mean I will explain in Chapter II.
Thus, there existed a name for this helmet category, a typology and a list of known
specimens. I am going to take a step further by ordering them according to their maker,
investigating the find context and comparing these contexts.

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I.3 The Apulians
The Apulians were an indigenous people of Italy, called Iapygi by the Greeks, and were
subdivided into three tribal groups: Daunii, Peucetii and Messapii (De Juliis 1996, 549).
The Messapians where located in what is now Salento, the ‘heel’ of Italy. North of them
were located the Peucetii, probably in the area between the line Taranto-Gnathia and the
Ofanto river. Its western boundary is a bit more difficult to indicate. It consisted of the
boundary of today’s Puglia, but with the province of Matera included. Lastly there where
the Dauni, who occupied the region between the Fortore river and the Ofanto river (see
fig 3). The source of the wealth for the people living in Apulia was agriculture and, to
lesser extent, animal husbandry. Also crafts were a minor source of income (De Juliis
1996, 550).

Fig. 1: Map of south-eastern Italy. Indicated are the approximate territory boundaries of the three
Iapygian (Apulian) tribes. Also indicated is the place where the Spartans founded Taras (Taranto).
Dotted lines indicate imprecise boundaries (after www.mapsof.net).

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The Iapygi had known foreign influences since the late Bronze age, when they had
contacts with the Mycenaeans. Later they had contact with mainland Greeks as can be
seen by the Corinthian, Euboian and Cycladic pottery that had been found in Iapygian
settlements (De Juliis 1996, 549).
However of major influence to the Iapygians was the foundation of Taras (nowadays
Taranto) in 706 B.C. by Spartans. These Spartans landed near what is now Taranto and
destroyed two villages there, one on the place of what became Taras and the other being
Satyrion, a nearby lying settlement. The Greeks have tried often to penetrate more into
the Heartland of the Iapyges, Which never really succeeded and in 473 B.C. Taras and its
ally Rhegion even suffered a harsh defeat by the combined armies of the Peucetii and
Messapii (De Juliis 1996, 550). However, the Greek culture did invade the Iapygian
culture, leading to a mixture between local and Greek material culture. This mixture can
also be seen in the Apulian military equipment, particularly in the Apulo-Corinthian
helmet, but also in other ways.
Before the Spartans settled in the Tarentine area, the houses of the Iapygians were round
or oval planned houses made of branches or reed supported by wooden posts and
waterproofed by layers of clay. In the south-central area of Apulia there was a low dry
stone wall around the base of the house (De Juliis 1996, 549). The Iapygians began
building rectangular houses after the Spartans had settled in the Tarentine area. These
houses consisted of a dry stone wall base with mudbrick walls with a clay tile roofing a
building style which they had taken over from the Greeks (De Juliis 1996, 550). The
Greeks also brought the potter’s wheel to Apulia (De Juliis 1996, 550), the urban
fortifications were made after Greek models and the deities of the Greeks and Apulians
were merged (De Juliis 1996, 552).

The archaeological research into this period of Apulian history (6th to 4th century B.C.)
today is scanty, there is a project at L’Amastuola (De Juliis 1996, 550) and the whole
Messapian area is being investigated by the University of Amsterdam (Attema et al.
2010). The Peucetian and Daunian territories are not being researched very intensively at
this moment, except for a few survey projects, most of the information is to be found in
past research and excavation, as is also the case for this thesis. For example; the most
recent excavation included in my investigation took place in 1994 at Serra di Vaglio.

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I.4 Helmets
Helmets are objects that are meant to be put on or over the head and should protect their
bearers from injury. Some of the earliest metal helmets are dated around 2600 B.C. but
probably they had leather predecessors. Unfortunately leather doesn’t preserve very well,
and there are no leather helmets found that date from before 2600 B.C. yet. These early
helmets were made of bronze and had a simple, semicircular form, like the helmet that
can be seen on the skull of a man that was buried near Ur in the Early Dynastic III period
(2600-2300 B.C.), which can now be seen at the British Museum in London as object
number 121414 (see fig. 1).
Since then helmets became very popular and apparently the need rose to have a more
protective helmet, since the semicircular type only protected the top of the head. One of
the helmet types that protects more parts of the face is the so called ‘Corinthian’ helmet,
named after a city in Greece where, according to Herodotus ( book IV, Chapter 180) a
certain type of helmet was originated from. Scholars thought that Herodotus’ helmet was
the helmet type that is now known as ‘Corinthian’ and so they named it the Corinthian
helmet (Pflug 1988, 65).

Fig. 2: Crushed skull and helmet of Soldier Fig. 3: A typical Corinthian helmet. Except
no.46 on the ramp of "The King's Grave". for the eye and mouth opening everything is
The grave of Pu-abi, Early Dynastic III from protected, even the ears haven’t got an
Ur. As can be seen, this bronze helmet is opening. From the sanctuary of Zeus at
fairly simple; it consists of only a Dodona (© Trustees of the British Museum).
semicircular globe (© Trustees of the
British Museum).

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This Corinthian type of helmet covers the whole head and a part of the neck, but at the
front there is an opening so that the mouth and eyes of the wearer can be seen. Between
the two eyes there is a nose guard which, along with the mouth-eyes opening leads to the
characterizing appearance of this helmet (see fig. 2).
Wearing a helmet that is so closed off is not really comfortable. For instance, underneath
the helmet it would get very warm and the helmet did not have any ear openings so the
wearer couldn’t hear much. Hearing and feeling comfortable is not very important while
in battle in the close ranks of the Greek phalanx system, where you would be right next to
each other and only have to take care of what comes in directly in front of you. But out of
battle it is better to hear what happens around you and see more than what happens just in
front of you. So most scholars assume that when not in battle the soldiers who wore these
helmets would have shoved their helmet over their head, so it would function like a cap,
and then, when battle arrives, they would pull their helmet over their face again and fight
(Burns 2003, 68). This usage of the helmet as a cap would be taken over by the Apulians.
They transformed the Corinthian helmet into a helmet which couldn’t be worn to protect
the face anymore, but only the top of the head, as will be described and explained later on
in this thesis.

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 Chapter II
From Corinthian into the Apulo-Corinthian helmet

II.1 Corinthian helmet development

When the Greeks invaded the Tarentine area they also brought with them their military
equipment, including the Corinthian helmet. The indigenous peoples of course saw these
helmets and other equipment and from archaeological evidence we can see they also
adopted this equipment, first only Greek import helmets but later also locally made
Corinthian helmets. These locally made ones gradually evolved into the Apulo-
Corinthian helmet but before the Corinthian helmet came to Italy it already had see some
change.

The helmet began as a very simple form, looking like a half globe with a cylinder under it
(see fig 4). This was its form in the beginning of the 7th century B.C. (Pflug 1988, 67). As
time passed the craftsmen changed its form. First they made an indentation on the
underside of the helmet’s edge, on the place where the cheek piece stops and the neck
guard begins (Pflug 1988, 75). After this they made the sides of the helmet curve inwards,
resulting in helmets similar to the helmet of figure 2 (Pflug 1988, 76).

Fig. 4: An early version of the Corinthian Fig. 5: A Corinthian helmet of the ‘sharp
helmet of unknown provenance. Note that edge’ type, found in Corinth, note the sharp
the nose guard is missing (© Trustees of the edge between the face and the top of the
British Museum). helmet(© Trustees of the British Museum).

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Then there came a split, around the last third of the 6th century B.C., there is one
Corinthian type which got a very pronounced edge on the forehead, resulting in a helmet
which looks like a Corinthian helmet with a cap on top of if, so sharp is this edge these
craftsmen made (see fig. 5).

The other type of Corinthian helmet in this phase also has a forehead modification, but
different than the one in figure 5. Here instead of making an edge above the eyes the
craftsmen made the forehead flat and near the top of the helmet there is a less heavy edge
after which the helmet has its semicircular form again (see fig. 6). This last form has only
been found in Italy so it is very good possible that this type was made in Italy. This Italic
version can be dated around the last quarter of the 6th Century B.C. (Pflug 1988, 96, 97,
101). Some examples of these Italian versions have holes above the indentation on the
sides, which are for the straps so that when it was worn on the head it would not fall off.

Fig. 6: A helmet of the ‘Italic’ Corinthian Fig. 7: An early version of a Type A Apulo-

type, note the difference in brow ridge with Corinthian helmet, provenance unknown, ex

the helmet of fig. 6. Found in Ruvo di Puglia private collection in Switzerland. Note the

(© Trustees of the British Museum). difference in the neck guard and eye
openings (Pflug 1988, 100).

II.2 Apulo-Corinthian helmet development

From this Italic version of the Corinthian helmet with the flat forehead there also came a
modification, the Apulo-Corinthian helmet. The first examples of the Apulo-Corinthian
helmets looked much like the Italic Corinthian helmet, they also had the flat forehead and
all of them have the strap holes. However, the neck guard was curving more and was also
longer and eventually there was no curve in the neck guard but a sharp angle. Also the
large eyeholes became smaller. (see fig 7). This form of Apulo-Corinthian helmets is

12
called Type A and starts appearing at the end of the 6th century B.C. (Pflug 1988, 99).
Most of these Type A helmets have or had a crest-fixture and some even had two fixtures
for feathers next to the crest. A few had holes in the neck guard of the helmet, and some
other Apulo-Corinthian helmets had a ring on the neck guard, but where these served for
is unknown. Possibly it might have had the same function as the later Roman helmet
handles which were on the same place.

Just as in the transition between the Corinthian helmet and Type A, Type B and Type A
also have some intermediate helmets, which are included both in Type A and in Type B
in the lists of Bottini and Diffendale. It might be better to make a special group for these
helmets, since they all are basically Type A helmets with a modification; a bridge
between the two cheeks. This was done by making a hole in each cheek and placing a
small plate of metal behind these holes and then they drilled two holes in this plate as
well. After that the plate was riveted to the two cheeks. This was probably done to make
the helmet a bit stronger, although this did not always work, as can be seen in helmet A38
(Fig. 8), where the cheeks did deform and destroyed the bridge between them. Some of
the helmets still have this plate and the rivets on their place, others only have the two
holes in the cheeks, whether they removed the bridge because it didn’t help, looked ugly
or that it has just rusted away remains unknown.

Fig. 8: A38, where the riveted bridge did not prevent the deformation of the helmet (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich).

13
In this thesis it has been decided not to create an intermediate type and because this type
was not recognized before, the helmets of this type are included both in Type A as in
Type B. For clarity’s sake I will hereby give a list of the helmets that have or had such a
riveted bridge: A03, A04, A12, A29, A34, A38, A39, A41, A47 and B25. As I will
explain in Chapter VI, there is a problem with the chronology and the Types, and the
helmets that are in this group indeed seem not to fit in chronologically, there are some
early helmets included here as well as some that are the same as Type B helmets with the
only difference being the riveted bridge.

The next Apulo-Corinthian helmet type is Type B, where not only the forehead is flat, but
also the rest of the front of the helmet. There are also one or more ‘bridges’ between the
two cheeks, probably because the helmet would be to fragile without them, as can be seen
in some Type A helmets where the cheeks are deformed. The eye holes were even smaller
in this type and placed more near the nose guard, even so close that you can’t look
through them (see fig. 9 & 10). Also it would be very difficult to fit one’s head inside the
helmet so that the face would be protected and from paintings on vases and sculptures we
only see the Apulo-Corinthian helmet being worn on top of the head, as a cap.

Fig. 9 & 10: A typical Type B helmet, note the sharp angle the neck guard makes and the ring on
top of it. Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-collection (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).

14
Type C is the next step in the ‘evolution’ of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet. In this type the
two cheeks have fully closed (see fig. 11). The shape of the helmet is more different in
this type, some resemble those of Type A, others look like Type B and some are more
rounded.

Fig. 11: A type C helmet, it’s form is Fig. 12: A Type D helmet, it’s very clear
resembling a Type B helmet, note the closed here that the nose is not raised anymore.
cheeks. Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann- Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-
collection (Hermann Historica auctions, collection (www.christies.com).
Munich).

The fourth type is Type D, where the nose guards no longer jut out, but are inscribed. The
eyes are still open but do not have their function as in the normal Corinthian helmet (see
fig. 12).
The last of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet types is Type E, which do not have eye openings
anymore. In some of the Type E helmets the eyes and nose guards are inscribed (see fig.
13), while in others the eyes and noses are sculpted (see fig. 14). All of the helmets since
type B have got at least a crest-holder, but most do also have the two feather-fixtures.

Unlike the Corinthian helmets these types are difficult to date, we see that first there are
Type A and B ( around the end of the 6th century B.C.), after which is found type C

15
(earliest found in the first half of the 5th century). we do not have any tombs that include
type D helmets and after the first few type C’s is dated already a helmet of type E (around
the middle of the 5th century B.C.). from that point off, every type was in use until the
first half of the 4th century B.C. (Bottini 1988, 112).

Fig. 13: Type E helmet with inscribed eyes Fig. 14: An abundantly decorated Type E
and nose. Note the holes in the skull roof helmet with sculpted nose and inlaid eyes.
where the crest fixtures were once. Tomb 45, Ruvo di Puglia according to
provenance unknown (Hermann Historica Montanaro 2007, 347 (Bottini 1988, 114).
auctions, Munich).

16
 Chapter III
Morphological typology

Beside the five Type’s (not counting the intermediates between A and B) we can also
distinguish different groups within them. These ‘groups’ consist of helmets that share
similarities with the other helmets inside each group. Some of these groups are large (up
to 10 helmets) and some are still very small (1 or 2 helmets). In the case of the latter it is
still unclear how big the variation inside the group is, because we have got only 1 or 2
helmets. Therefore, I will not describe these small helmet groups. Sometimes groups of 2
helmets will be described because they are very similar to each other and are probably
from the same craftsman. This whole idea of groups is based on the hypothesis that there
must have been craftsman who made these helmets and that they made each helmet in
their own style, while still making each helmet slightly different. Each helmet named here
is named after the list that Dan Diffendale made in 2007, based on Bottini’s list from
1990 (http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~dpd/italica/apcor/apcor.html). I expanded this list but
since I haven’t got photo’s of all the helmets on the list of Bottini and Diffendale, there
may be some overlap (Table 1).

III.1 Groups of Type A

Type A consists of the largest number of Apulo-Corinthian helmets, and also has the
biggest diversity of forms. Unfortunately this big diversity makes it difficult to establish
groups within this Type, because most of the helmets do not seem to have similarities
with other helmets inside Type A. If we count all the helmets that cannot be described on
their similarities (the groups of only one helmet) and those that can, I see a total of 34
groups which include a total of 42 helmets, which means that there are small and few
groups to be made inside this type.

Group 1
This group consists of A03, A34 and A39 but look very similar to helmets that are
intermediate between the Corinthian helmets and the Apulo-Corinthian helmets (Fig 15,
16 and 17). Therefore I think that the helmets in this group are one of the earliest Apulo-
Corinthian helmets. A09, A21, A28, A44 and A48 also seem to be very early, however
they are not similar enough in my opinion to be included inside this group nor do they

17
form a group themselves. Perhaps A28 and A44 might be a group, however we need
more similar helmets to really know for sure. This diversity does show however, that it
was not just one craftsman who began making Apulo-Corinthian helmets.

Fig. 15: Italian Corinthian Fig. 16: Intermediate Fig. 17: Intermediate
helmet from Ruvo del helmet from Braida di helmet from Braida di
Monte, Tomb 147 (Bottini Vaglio, Tomb 107 (Bottini Vaglio, Tomb 107 (Bottini
1993, 113). and Setari 2003, Tav. and Setari 2003, Tav.
XXI). XXIII).

Fig. 18: Intermediate or Fig. 19: Apulo-Corinthian Fig. 20: Apulo-Corinthian

Apulo-Corinthian helmet helmet (A03), from a tomb helmet (A34), from tomb
(A39), find spot unknown. at Miglionico (Pflug 1988, 108 (Bottini and Setari
Note the green rectangles 99) 2003, Tav. XXIV).
on top, which indicate that
this helmet had crest
holders like those of fig.
15 and 16. (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich).

18
As can be seen, the characteristics of this group are the semicircular eyeholes, the
spatulate nose guard, the short neck guard and the incised eyebrows. In later forms these
eyebrows are more a ridge, like the forehead edge in these examples. Note that the
intermediate helmets had their crest immediately on the top of the helmet (Fig. 16, 17 &
18) and that the Apulo-Corinthian helmets have a crest holder so that the crest doesn’t
touch the helmet.

Group 2
This group consists of only two helmets, A13 and A16 but they are so similar that it is
very plausible that they come from the same craftsman. Just like Group 1 they have
spatulate nose guards and very flat eyebrow ridges. The helmet shape is very round when
compared to other helmets, because the forehead ridge is also not very pronounced. The
neck guard is longer than those of Group 1. Perhaps these helmets are a further
development of helmets from Group 1, but we need more helmets that fit between the two
groups to reveal a slight change, so for now I will group these two helmets in a different
group.

Fig. 21 & 22: A13. The two feather supports are still intact, only the main crest holder is lost.
Provenance unknown (Adam, 1984, 118).

Fig. 23 & 24: A16. Both feather supports are broken, as is the crest holder, but the basis of all
three are still visible, provenance is unknown (Von Hase 1982, 99 & 100).

19
Group 3
The helmets of this group are so similar one might think they are both the same, But A41
is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art since 2002, and A46 was on sale at Christie’s in
2010. On closer inspection it is possible to see that the Christie’s example has a big dent
in the right forehead ridge, while A41is still intact. Also A46’s cheeks are pushed
together and it has green aptina on top of the helmet. A41 has got a dent on the right side
of the skull roof, while A46 does have a dent on the right side, but it’s more near the to
pof the skull roof. Both helmets have an incised decoration of two charging boars, one on
each each, facing each other and a herringbone decoration around the edges of the
cheecks, neckguard, eyeholes and on the nose guard.

No permission to use this photo

Fig. 25 & 26: A40. Crest holder is broken off, no sign of feather supports, provenance unknown
(The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Fig. 27: A45. Crest holder is broken off, also no sign of feather supports, provenance unknown
(www.artfact.com)

20
Group 4
This group consists of four helmets (A1, A11, A32 and A36), all characterised by their
fig shaped eyes, their browridges that have a semicircular form and their noseguards
which all have a lanceolate shape. All four helmets are decorated with two charging boars
and two have a zig-zag patrone along the edges of the cheecks and neckguard and
herringbone patrone decoration around the eyeholes and noseguard. The other two have a
herringbone patrone also at the edges of the cheecks and neckguard. They all have only a
crestholder (or at least its basis in the case of A1) and only the crest of A11 is
transversely placed on top of the helmet.
Also only A11 has heart shaped decorations incised near its eyecorners. When one
compares the way the boars are stylised, it becomes clear that these were made by the
same craftsman. Whether that was the same person as the one who made the helmet we
do not know.

Fig. 28: A11. Note the leaf shaped decoration at the eyecorners which is not seen in the other
helmets, just as the crest holder placed in a way that the crest itself would be transverse. Found in
Syracuse (Bottini et al. 1988, 420).

21
Fig. 29: A01. A deformed helmet, with a Fig. 30: A36. The style in which the boards
broken off crest holder. Found at Melfi in are made can be seen here very good.
the Chiucchiari necropolis in Tomb A Unknown provenance (www.christies.com).
(Bloesch 1976, 86).

Fig. 31: A32. Note the snapped crestholder which already was repaired while it was still in use,
and apparently snapped again. Unknown provenance (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).

22
III.2 Groups of Type B
As explained in the previous chapter, there is a problem with the chronology of the
intermediate helmets between Type A and B. They have been modified with a bridge,
probably to make them stronger. The idea of an intermediate is that it is between two
other categories, but since the intermediate’s between Type A and B also contain very
early helmets (intermediates between Corinthian and Type A) this causes a problem with
the types and their chronology. These early helmets with the modification could be
modified later than they were made. This was possibly when other Type A helmets got
these riveted bridges, which means that these early helmets were still in use at the time
that Type B became in use.
Another problem is that groups of Type B often have their roots in Type A (or just a
variation without bridge, since it is difficult to date the helmets because of most their
context is unknown), and some of the Groups are also represented in Type C. I choose
here to include the full group, even if some of their helmets do not belong to Type B. The
groups included here are those with most of their helmets inside Type B.

Group 1
This is the largest group and it consists of 15 helmets; A38, B02, B04, B05, B25, B33,
B34, B36, B37, B40, B41, B43, C12, C30 and C31. It has 2 helmets that fit inside the
TypeA/B intermediates (A38 & B25), 10 that are typically Type B and 3 helmets that fit
inside Type C. characteristic of this group are the brow and forehead ridges which are
very elongated and laterally compressed. Also the semicircular eyeholes and a pointy
nose guard which becomes thinner near the eyeholes resulting in a elongated diamond
shape are characteristic but are not present in all helmets of this group, some have a more
pencil shaped nose guard and others have oval eyeholes. All helmets have (or had) two
feather supports and one crest holder, except A38 and B25, which seem to have had only
a crest holder, and the crest holder of C12 is of a very curious type, not seen in any other
Apulo-Corinthian helmet, but something that looks like it is depicted on a vase by the
Darius painter (Fig. 32).
The helmets are not decorated in the same style, which points to the fact that the
craftsman who made these rather similar looking helmets did not decorate them (or at
least not all of them), and that the helmets were not decorated by one craftsman, because

23
of the differences. Also not all the crest holders are the same, a fact that also points to
another craftsman who was the one to put on the crests.

Fig. 32: Close-up of a vase-painting by the Darius painter (dated between 340 and 330 B.C.)
which was found in Canosa. Note the crest holders of the two helmets that are curled instead of
resembling a two pronged (www.sas.upenn.edu).

Fig. 33: A38, one of the two Type A helmets
in this group with a riveted bridge.
Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich).
Fig. 34: B25, the other Type A helmet with
the modification. Note that in both helmets
the riveted bridge is not intact anymore. The
provenance of this one is also unknown
(Münzen und Medaillen AG 1975, 59).

24
Fig. 35: B34, note that the brow ridges in
this helmet still come together and point
downwards until the nose guard as in A38
and B25. In other helmets the two brow
ridges will come together at the beginning of
the nose guard and forming a kind of V in
the middle, whereas in this helmet it is more
of an Y. Provenance unknown, (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich).
Fig. 37: B43, Decorated with at least one
boar. Unfortunately the nose guard has been
broken off. Provenance unknown (L’Arab
1996, 758).
Fig. 36: B05, This helmet has been
decorated with a prancing horse on each
cheek, and has both of its feather holders
and the crest holder. Note the V shaped
brow ridge near the nose guard. It was found
at Lavello in tomb 56 (www.joinitaly.com).
No permission to publish this photo
Fig. 38: B41, which is decorated with two
charging boars. Both feather supports and
the crest holder have broken off and the
helmet has a hole in its side. Provenance
Unknown (Detroit Institute of Arts
Museum).
25
 No permission to use this photo

Fig. 40: B02, has been decorated with two

Fig. 39: B33, the feather supports are broken
charging boars. The two grey areas on its
off, but the rest of the helmet is complete,
right cheek are modern restorations. Found
This helmet and B02 are almost identical,
at Melfi-Chiuchiari in tomb F (Bottini 1988,
except for the fact that this one has one
131).
bridge and B02 has two bridges. Provenance
unknown (Metropolitan Museum of Art).

Fig. 41: B36, is also decorated with two
charging boars, but has, unlike most other
helmets of this group, oval eyeholes instead
of semicircular ones. A38, B04 and C12 also
have oval eyes. Unknown provenance
(Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).
Fig. 42: B04, the crest holder and one of the
feather supports have been broken off. It is
also decorated with two charging boars.
Found at Melfi-Leonessa tomb 7 (Bottini
1988, 111).

26
Fig. 43: B37 is decorated with two charging
boars and has two feather supports and a
crest holder. It also has a hole in the middle
of its brow ridge, the function of this hole is
unknown. Provenance unknown (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich).
Fig. 44: B40. The top of the crest holder has
been broken off, just as the two feather
supports. Also this helmet is laterally
compressed. Provenance unknown
(Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).

Fig. 45: C12. Although this helmet is of Fig. 46: C30 is almost similar in appearance
Type C it still belongs to this group, the as C12 only the crest holder is of the normal
form of the nose guard and the brow and type and the decorations are not
forehead ridges are the same, only the determinable. The function of the two
eyeholes are smaller and the cheeks are protuberances on its cheeks is unknown
completely fused. Also the crest holder is Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica
different. It is decorated with a lion and a auctions, Munich).
dog on its left cheek and a warrior on a horse
on its right cheek. Said to be from Taranto
(May 1968, fig. 31).

27
Fig. 47: C31 looks more like the Type B helmets of the group, since the other Type C helmets of
this group have small eyes and this helmet has eyes that are somewhat bigger. Provenance
Unknown (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).

Group 2
This group shows some similarities with Group 1 of Type B, so it could well be just a
variation of Group 1. However, the facts that the brow and forehead ridges are much less
higher and that there are no helmets with ridges that are intermediate between Group 1
and 2, are enough reason to put these three helmets in a separate group.

Fig. 48 & 49: B39 probably never had feather supports, although it could be that they were
removed with their whole base, leaving behind no evidence of them ever being there. Provenance
unknown (Seattle Art Museum).

28
Fig. 50: B12. The top of the crest holder has Fig. 51: B23. Both feather supports and the
broken off. Also seems to be undecorated, crest holder are still intact. Note that the
just as the other two helmets in this group. crest holder has been bent. Undecorated.
Found in Friuli (Von Lipperheide 1896, 70). Provenance unknown (Comstock and
Vermeule 1971, 495).

Group 3
Group 3 is composed of 5 helmets, of which one is a Type C helmet (C33). Characteristic
to this group is the relatively high forehead ridge which do not resemble a ‘normal curve’
as in Group 1 but look more like a parabola. Another characteristic of this group is that all
helmets have at least one lion inscribed on them (except for B30, where there are no sharp
pictures of its decoration). B16 and B21 have one on each cheek, B22 seems to have one
on its right cheek and on the back of the helmet and C33 has a lion on its left cheek.
These lions all look the same, with only a difference in their manes. The lions on B16 and
B22 have manes that look like fish scales and the manes on B21 and C33 look more like a
draught board. This group could be called the ‘Lions-group’, since every helmet has a
lion on it is the same style, but we know from other groups that the decoration is not
always done by the craftsman who made the helmet, so I will refer to this group as Type
B Group 3.

29

Fig. 52: B16. The nose guard is broken off,
just as the two feather supports and the
crestholder, which could be taken off, is lost.
Provenance unknown (Pirovano 1985, 50).
Fig. 54: B22. The crest holder and a feather
support have been broken off, and it has
been found at Ruvo di Puglia in a tomb
known as ‘Tomba a sarcofago rinvenuta in
Piazza G. Matteotti, and Montanaro has
given it the number 2 (Montanaro 2007,
235).
No Permission to use this photo
Fig. 53: B21. The end of the nose guard has
been broken off, and the crest holder has
been made to mount the crest transverse.
Provenance unknown (Jubelparkmuseum
Brussel).
Fig. 55: B30. Not much is known about this
helmet, this is the only photo, on which
cannot be seen if there are any lion
decorations. What we can see is that the
crestholder has been twisted. Provenance
unknown (www.sas.upenn.edu).
30
Fig. 56 & 57: C33. This helmet does not seem to have had any feather supports. Provenance
unknown (Museum zu Allerheiligen).

III.3 Groups of Type C

Group 1
This is the biggest group of Type C, it consists of 7 helmets which all have certain
similarities with each other. One of those are the nose guards, which, if present, are all
pencil shaped. The forehead ridge is high and above it is a double row of circles. Also all
helmets have (or had) a detachable crest holder and two feather supports. The forehead
ridge and the ridge on the back of the head are one fluid line and do not make a turn near
the temples. And the forehead ridge itself is decorated with inscribed curly hair like
decoration. Below the nose guard all helmets have a small incision that serves as a
separation of the two cheeks, although this incision doe not run all the way down to the
underside of the cheeks but stops about halfway down. The form of the eyeholes range
from perfect circles to oval but all eyeholes have got eye corners.

31
Fig. 58 & 59: C32. One of two ‘early’ helmets, where especially the brow ridges are not as finely
made as in the other helmets of the group. Also the eyes are places higher than in later examples.
Its left cheek is decorated with a charging bull and its right cheek has a lion on it. The back of the
helmet is decorated with two dolphins. Provenance unknown (Phoenix Ancient Art).

Fig. 60: C07. The other ‘early’ helmet, the eyeholes are already lower but there are still other early
characteristics, the long nose guard and the round eyes for example, which, as we will see later,
will become less long and the eyeholes will become more oval. It has been decorated on its cheeks
with two charging bulls and on the back of the helmet are two dolphins and a shell. Found at
Rutigliano in tomb 11 (thierry.jamard.over-blog.com).

32
Fig. 61: C16. The eyeholes of this helmet are
still round, but the brow ridge is already
more finely made and the ends curve more
upwards, in contrast with the brow ridges of
C07 and C32. Good to see here is that the
forehead ridge and the ridge on the back of
the helmet are one fluid line with the double
row of dots above it. Provenance unknown
(Weizinger 1918, Tafel 7).
Fig. 63: C23. The eyeholes are almond
shaped and both cheeks are decorated with
two sphinxes. The back of the helmet is
decorated with two reclining men with
between them a kantharos. Provenance
unknown (theancientworld.tumblr.com).
Fig. 62: C03. The eyeholes of this helmet are
already not round anymore and the nose
guard is also shorter. Its left cheek is
decorated with a charging bull and its right
is decorated with a charging boar. The back
of the helmet has been decorated with two
sea serpents. Found at Canosa
(www.sas.upenn.edu).
Fig. 64: C13. The nose guard of this helmet
has broken off so that now it is possible to
see how the two cheek pieces are separated
underneath the nose guard, as can be seen,
under the nose guard the two cheeks are not
fused together. It has been decorated with
two boars. Found at Capua (Hoffmann 1961,
Taf. XXXVII).
33
Fig. 65: C04. The eyeholes are the smallest of the whole group but other than that the rest of the
characteristics are present. The left cheek is decorated with a bull, the right one is decorated with a
lion. Found at Canosa (L’Arab 1996, 688).

Group 2
The characteristics of this group are the semicircular eyeholes and the brow ridge, which
runs underneath the temples and does not join the ridge on the back of the helmet. This
extended brow ridge is the longest of any group, since the brow ridge and forehead ridge
normally join each other around the temples or even before them. What is very strange to
this group is that none have their nose guard preserved and that they have two holes at the
end of what is left of the nose guard, or one hole in each cheek. Perhaps this was for
fastening a nose guard. They are all decorated with two crouching boars, except A16,
where we don’t know of whether it is decorated or not.

Fig. 66: C21. Provenance unknown (Galerie Fig. 67: C22. Note the unusual crouching
Günther Puhze 1981, Taf. 33). position of the boars and the long brow
ridge. Found at Ginosa in Tomb 13-01-1935
(Dell'Aglio and Lippolis 1992, 162).

34
Fig. 68 & 69: C25. Note the similarities between this helmet and the previous two. The only
differences are that this one has flower decorations above the boars and on its forehead and that
this is the only helmet of the group that still has its crest holder. Provenance unknown (Born 1993,
Beispiel XIII) & (www.sas.upenn.edu).

Fig. 70 & 71: A14. This helmet belongs to Type A according to Bottini (Bottini 1988, 134), but he
only knew it from fig. 69. Since then it has been restored and when we look at the semi circular
eyeholes and the long brow ridge, I can say with some confidence that this is actually a Type C
helmet where the connection between the two cheeks had been destroyed. Provenance unknown
(Pirovano 1985, 52) & (www.lombardiabeniculturali.it).

35
Group 3
This group is characterized by their brow ridges which join each other above the nose
guard and then run straight down to the tip of the nose guard. Also at both helmets their
eyeholes are a bit squinty and they are both decorated with two opposing boars.

Fig. 72: C24. Provenance unknown (www.sas.upenn.edu).

Fig. 73 & 74: C29. Provenance unknown. Note the similarities between this helmet and C24.
Whereas C24 has both prongs of the crest holder, C29 has only one left (www.sas.upenn.edu).

36
III.4 Groups of Type D
The helmets of type D all belong to just two different groups, one group has long cheeks,
the other one short cheeks. And both groups only have or had a crest holder.

Group 1
This group consists of 4 helmets, all of which have ‘long cheeks’ when compared to
Group 2. Another characteristic is the very low forehead ridge. All 4 helmets are
decorated with opposing boars, which are all in a different style except D07 and D08
where the boars look very similar. This style of boars can also be found on the helmets
E02, E03 and E10 which are very different helmets, so it seems again, that the one that
made the helmets did not make the decorations.

Fig. 75: D01. Found in Serra di Vaglio,
seems to have had a crest holder (Bertarelli
1962, 65).
Fig. 76: D04. This helmet has two opposing
boars as decoration, but because of the bad
photographs available, we cannot see in
which style these boars are inscribed.
Provenance unknown (www.uq.edu.au).

37
Fig. 77: D07. This helmet has the boars Fig. 78: D08. Provenance unknown
inscribed in the same style as D08. (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich).
Provenance unknown (Sotheby's 2001, 60).

Group 2
The two helmets of this group both have shorter cheeks than Group 1 and their forehead
ridges are higher, they are not so close to the brow ridges as in Group 1.

Fig. 79: D02 is said to be found at Ponte Fig. 80: D05. Provenance unknown, note
Cucchiaio (Pesce 1936, 436) & (Paddock that the two prongs of the crest holder have
1993, 90), but where they have this been bent (http://www.christies.com).
information from is not known to me. The
helmet has no crest anymore and never had
feather supports (Bottini 1988, 120).

38
III.5 Groups of Type E
The groups of type E consist of at least two groups of ‘normal’ Apulo-Corinthian helmets
and at least one group of sculpted Apulo-Corinthian helmets.

Group 1
The characteristics of this group are the relatively vertical front side and the ridge that
runs from the middle of the forehead ridge to the crest holder and from there to the ridge
on the back of the helmet. The helmets of this group are both decorated in the same style
as D07 and D08. Both helmets do not seem to have had feather supports.

Fig. 81 & 82: E02. Found at Cairano in tomb XVI. The crest holder has been removed, since there
are only two holes left on top of the helmet (Modesti 1980, Tav. 92).

Fig. 83 & 84: E03. Found at Vulci. The crest holder has been broken off (© Trustees of the British
Museum) & (Bottini 1988, 121).

39
Group 2
This group is characterised by their brow ridge that becomes flatter when it runs down the
inscribed nose guard.

Fig. 85: E10. Provenance unknown, the Fig. 86: E12. Provenance unknown, has
boars are in the same style as those of Group been compressed laterally and has two holes
1, D07 and D08 (© Trustees of the British near the nose bridge. Where these holes
Museum). severed for is unknown (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich).
Group 3
This group is characterized by the fact that they do not have inscribed decorations but
they have their decoration in relief. Other than that, the hair curls look more like snail-
shells, because they consist of only the curls. Also the eyes and nose have the same
shape. The helmets of this group have had feather supports and crest holders, unlike other
Type E helmets, which only had the crest holder.

Fig. 87: E09. Perhaps from Ruvo di Puglia, Fig. 88: E11. Provenance unknown
since it is housed in a museum with only (http://www.christies.com).
finds from that city (www.techvision.it).

40
 Chapter IV
The distribution of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet

IV.1 Overall spreading

When we put the find spots of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets (Table 1) as a dot on the
map, we see that most of the dots are in what is now Puglia, the Italian name for Apulia
(Fig. 89). When we look back at Fig. 3, we see that also pieces of the region called
Basilicata (south of Puglia) once belonged to the Apulian tribes. There are 48 helmets
with a exact find spot (including 4 that are still unsure; A26, B24, D02 and E09), and of
those 48 there have been only 14 found outside the old area of the Apulian tribes, of
which only 9 are found at a considerable distance away from the main concentration
which is around Apulia. Since 81% of the helmets has been found in or very close to
Apulia, I think that the name ‘Apulo-Corinthian’ is the best option, since there are other
modifications made on the Corinthian helmet (Piceno-Corinthian for example). I think
that the name Pseudo-Corinthian is not as clear as Apulo-Corinthian, because these other
modifications also could be meant when speaking of ‘Pseudo-Corinthian’ and the term is
also used in architecture which might create confusion.
Within the Apulian area it is remarkable that no Apulo-Corinthian helmet has been found
in Messapii territory, and in the northern half of the territory of the Dauni neither. There
also seem to be four centers where more than the half of these helmets were found, The
area of Melfi (5 within Melfi and 3 in the neighborhood), Canosa (5, of which 2
uncertain), Ruvo di Puglia (8 of which 1 is uncertain) and Rutigliano (5). Melfi and
Canosa fall within the Daunian territory but are close to Peucetian territory and Ruvo di
Puglia and Rutigliano are near the East coast of Peucetian territory. All four centers are
near water, Melfi and Canosa near the Ofanto river and Ruvo di Puglia and Rutigliano
near the coast, perhaps this is a coincidence, but also most of the other find spots are close
to water. This is probably just strategically placement of the settlements, for drinking
water and trade by ships, but perhaps these helmets were also transported by water. But
this is just a possibility, we will never know if it’s true, except when a ship is found with
some of these helmets on board, and then there is still the possibility that they were also
moved over land. Also very remarkable is that no helmets have been found at the Murgia
(the high area around which all the find spots in Apulia are situated).

41
Fig. 89: Spreading of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets with an exact find spot (including the 4 that
are uncertain). The one with an arrow is B14 which was found in Athens (after www.mapsof.net).

42
IV.2 Spreading of Type A
The spreading of Type A helmets resembles the spreading of the Apulo-Corinthian
helmets as a whole. The four centers are present, but only at Melfi and Ruvo di Puglia
more than one helmet has been found.
The helmets from Braida di Vaglio and Miglionico are both from Group 1, which are of
the intermediate Type. Perhaps the development from the Corinthian helmet to the
Apulo-Corinthian helmets took place outside Apulian territory. We have a known find
spot for only two helmets from this group, any new discovery can show us that this is not
the case.

Fig. 90: Map showing the spreading of Type A helmets (after www.mapsof.net).

The helmets of Group 4 were found at Melfi and Syracuse, the origin of this group is to
be sought in Apulia most probably, since there have only two helmets been found on
Sicily. But again as in Group 1 there are not many find spots known from this group, so
their origin also remains unknown, just as with Group 2 and 3 where we have got no idea
where they were found.

43
IV.3 Spreading of Type B
The spreading of type B helmets is, unlike Type A concentrated more in the area around
Melfi. Again also at Ruvo di Puglia more than one helmet has been found, but far more
are found at Melfi and its surroundings. Apparently there has been found a helmet in
Molise, near the north of Daunian territory, while in the whole north half of the Daunian
territory there have never been found an Apulo-Corinthian helmet at all. Perhaps these
will be found during future excavations.

Fig. 91: Map showing the spreading of type B helmets. The helmet C12 from Group 1 has been
included in Fig. 92 since it is a Type C helmet (after www.mapsof.net).

44
Of Group 1 we know the find spot of 4 helmets, these were found at Melfi, Leonessa,
Lavello and Taranto. Given the fact that 3 of these helmets were found around Melfi, it is
plausible that this is also the place where they were made.
From Group 2 we only know that one of these helmets was found in the Region of Friuli,
which is definitely not the place where these helmets were made.
From Group 3 again only one helmet has got a provenance, it was found in Ruvo di
Puglia. However, this does not mean that this is the place where the helmets of this group
were made.

IV.4 Spreading of Type C

In contrast with Type B, there is a complete lack of Type C helmets in the area of Melfi.
Instead, the areas of Canosa (3 helmets) and Rutigliano (4 helmets) are where most of the
Type C helmets have been found.

Fig. 92: Map showing the spreading of Type C helmets. The one found at Taranto is C12 from
Type B’s Group 1 (after www.mapsof.net).

The helmets of Group 1 are found in Rutigliano, Canosa, Capua and Canosa. It is clear
that the one from Capua is not found at the place where it was made, but the other three
are spreaded in a way that it is not sure where the helmets of this group were made, but it
is probably Rutigliano or Canosa.

45
From Group 2 there is only one find spot known, which is Ginosa, so not much can be
said about this Group, and the same counts for Group 3, where both helmets are of
unknown provenance.

IV.5 Spreading of Type D

Type D is the type with the least number of helmets, and it also has the least known find
spots. One has been found in Serra di Vaglio (D01), and another one is said to be found in
Ponte Cucchiaio (D02). Therefore no conclusion can be drawn about the spreading of this
type.

Fig. 93: Map showing the spreading of Type D helmets (after www.mapsof.net).

IV.6 Spreading of Type E

Although there are more helmet find spots known from this type than Type D, it still is
not much. Searching for a probable production centre cannot be done, only from group 1
we have more than one find spot (Vulci and Cairano) and both are outside the Apulian
territory. Of course it is possible that this type of helmet was not made in Apulia, but
these two find spots are too few to really point out a production centre which could as
well have been in Apulia.

46
 Fig. 94: Map showing the spreading of Type E helmets (after www.mapsof.net).

IV.7 Spreading of the Unknown Type

This is the find spot of the only helmet of unknown Type, not much can be said about this
helmet since it is said to be in pieces and apparently it is in such a bad shape that
identification is not possible.

Fig. 95: Map showing the spreading of the unknown Type helmet (after www.mapsof.net).

47
 Chapter V
The context of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet

This Chapter is the most important chapter for understanding what this helmet can say
about the culture and society in which it was used. Not much can be said about the form
of the helmets, except that the design was inspired by the Corinthian helmet. The same
applies for its spreading, which only shows us the region where it was produced. This
Chapter will investigate the context of these helmets, from which we can conclude more
than from its form and spreading. We will see in which combinations of equipment this
helmet was used, what the diversity and richness is of the tombs and where possible
compare them to neighboring tombs of the same time.
From the 49 helmets with a known provenance (out of 153), 29 were found in a tomb,
whereas for the other 20 we don’t know anything except their find spot. Also included are
the remains of 7 tombs which are very incomplete and were offered at several different
auctions. Unfortunately none of them have a provenance and also the bronze vessels and
pottery are missing, so only (part) of the panoply is known, nevertheless they can tell us
more about the combinations of armor between the 6th and 4th century B. C., which is why
I decided to include them.
Note that I have not made a difference between long greaves, short greaves and ankle
guards, since short greaves and ankle guards sometimes turned out the same and my
sources are not always very clear about which type of greave was found, I decided to call
them greaves with no further distinction.
I will describe the tombs in an alphabetical order.

V.1 Banzi Tomb A (information from Pesce 1936, 428-439)

This tomb was found in 1934, along with three other tombs (B, C and D) in the village of
Banzi during excavations for the installation of sewer pipes. Tomb A B and C were made
of standing tufa slabs with a tufa lid on top. Tomb C was just a pit covered with two slabs
of tufa.
Tomb A was build using 10 slabs of tufa, two standing on each of the two long sides, and
at both short sides there was one slab. On top of these there lay two slabs which served as
the tomb cover (see Fig 96).

48
 Fig. 96: Several views of Tomb A (Pesce 1936, 429).

The tomb was orientated NW-SE, with the head pointing to the north-west. When this
tomb was found, they had struck the pickaxe trough one of the short side slabs, and upon
doing so, they crushed part of the skeleton inside, which sat against this very slab they
broke. So the upper part of the skeleton was found all over the rest of the body.
Apparently this skeleton had a helmet on its head and had a golden necklace around its
neck. Except for these two objects there were found another 121 objects, making this
grave the richest of the four graves discovered in 1934 in Banzi, and also the richest of all
graves with Apulo-Corinthian helmets found inside. On the inside of the walls in this
tomb pottery hung on iron nails which were hammered into the tufa (Fig. 97).

49
Fig. 97: Reconstruction of the inside of Tomb A. note the wealth of this tomb with pottery stacked
upon each other and almost no space left for the diseased (Pesce 1936, 430).

Tomb contents:
- Militairy equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B06 (Fig. 98) and
fragments of an iron sword.
- Bronze: a fragmentary brazier, the top side of a hydria, 2 fragmentary lebeti, 1
simpulum, 1 sieve, 2 olpa and 2 ollae.
- Attic vessels: 1 lekythos (Fig. 99).
- Other pottery: 1 Campanian krater (Fig. 100), 1 Apulo-Lucanian stamnos (Fig.
101), 1 stamnos of red clay, 1 black varnished stamnos, 1 brown varnished
oenochoe, 2 black varnished oenochoai (1 in Fig. 102), 15 black varnished
kylikes (1 in Fig. 103), 9 black varnished single-handled cups, 1 black varnished
patera, 5 rough black painted kylikes, 7 black varnished paterette’s, 2 kothon’s, 4
rough black cups with no-handle, 7 black varnished cups with no-handle (1 in
Fig. 104), 2 rough plates, 1 black varnished lekanis, 25 black varnished olpai, 1
rough olpe, 8 black varnished skyphoi (1 in Fig. 105), 1 black varnished
poculum, 1 black varnished krateriskos (Fig. 106), 1 black varnished Guttus (Fig.

50
 107), 1 black varnished two-handled cup, 1 red matt-varnished olpe and 1 small
black varnished lekythos (Fig. 108).
- Other finds are: 1 golden necklace, 1 golden bead, 1 fragmentary silver fibula, 1
amber ring and 2 pieces of elephant tusk.

Fig. 98, 99 & 100: From left to right: Apulo-Corinthian helmet, lekythos and a crater. The Apulo-
Corinthian helmet is probably incomplete because of the tufa slab which was broken when the
tomb was discovered (Pesce 1936, 436, 432 & 431).

Fig. 101, 102 & 103: From left to right: stamnos, oenochoe and a kylix (Pesce 1936, 433 & 434).

51
Fig. 104, 105 &106: From left to right: no-handled cup, skyphos and a krateriskos (Pesce 1936,
434 & 435).

Fig. 107 & 108: A guttus and a lekythos (Pesce 1936, 435).

When we compare Tomb A with the other three tombs, Tomb A clearly stands out. It’s
the only one with military equipment and also the only tomb with attic import inside, as
well as having far out the most other pottery. Tomb A had 123 object inside, while Tomb
B had 7 objects, Tomb C had none and Tomb D held 6 objects. Unfortunately we have no
other tomb with a military equipment inside in Banzi to compare and to see how
exceptionally this tomb really is, but this probably belonged to a important person, who
had a weapon and a helmet (which he was wearing still in his grave), also gold, amber
and ivory in his tomb while the other tombs had up to a maximum of 6 local made
vessels. This must have been an important person. The four tombs are dated to the fourth
century B. C. and according to Bottini from the first half of the fourth century B. C. (400
– 350 B. C.)(Bottini 1988, 112).

V.2 Cairano Tomb XVI (information from Modesti 1980, 95-103, 147-180, Tav. 60,
Tav. 65, Tav. 91 & Tav. 92)
Cairano was an archaeological excavation where more of the surrounding graves were
also excavated, as well as a part of ancient Cairano. The excavation took place from 1970
to 1972 and again in 1976. 19 tombs were found, of which 7 in an excavation more to the
south of Cairano. From this southern find spot, 1 dated to the 9th century B. C., 1 between

52
the 8th and 6th century B.C., 5 to the 6th century B.C. (most to the first half), which is all
too old to include Apulo-Corinthian helmets which they, indeed did not include. The
northern necropolis however did include an Apulo-Corinthian helmet.
This northern necropolis lies east of Cairano and consisted of 2 tombs that could be dated
to the second quarter of the 6th century B. C., 3 to the second half of the 6th century B. C.,
1 around the end of the 6th and beginning of the 5th century B.C., 1 from the begin of the
5th century, 2 from the first half of the 5th century and 3 from the 5th century B. C.

One of the tombs that date to the 5th century B. C. was Tomb XVI.
This tomb was also orientated NW-SE, with the head in the north-west. Unlike the tombs
in Banzi, those of Cairano were not made out of tufa, but were just a hole in the ground.
The skeleton was almost complete with only the feet and lower legs missing, probably
because of ploughing. Also the helmet was not found on the skeleton’s head, but near his
left upper leg and the pottery was found to the left and right of the skull (Fig. 109 & 110),
in total 13 objects were found in this tomb.

Fig. 109 & 110: Views of Tomb XVI. Note that the helmets is located near the left thigh, with its
‘face’ almost to the north (Modesti 1980, Tav. 60 & 65).

53
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet E02 (Fig. 111, 1) and
fragments of an iron knife (Fig. 112, 2).
- Other pottery: 1 black varnished kantharos (Fig. 111, 7), 2 brown kantharoi (Fig.
111, 8 & 9), 1 fragment of a brown oinochoe (Fig. 111, 10), 1 blackish brocca
(Fig. 111, 11), 1 yellowish brocchetta (Fig. 111, 12) and 1 black varnished askos
(Fig. 111, 13).
- Other finds: 10 fragmented iron rods, perhaps pieces of fibulae (Fig. 112, 3-6).

Fig. 111: Content of Tomb XVI (Modesti 1980, Tav. 92).

54
 Fig. 112: Content of Tomb XVI continued (Modesti 1980, Tav. 91).

Bottini dated this tomb to the middle of the 5th century B. C. (475-425 B. C.) (Bottini
1988, 112).
Other tombs that date to the 5th century are Tomb XIII, XIV, XV, XVII and XVIII.
Tomb XIII held 37 objects, and only a knife as a weapon and no Attic imports and dated
to the beginning of the 5th century.
Tomb XIV held 78 objects, one of those were fragments of an iron blade and again no
Attic imports and it also dated to the beginning of the 5th century B. C.
Tomb XV held 2 objects, no weapons and military equipment and no Attic import and
this tomb was dated to the first half of the 5th century B. C.
Tomb XVII held 76 objects, 1 bronze Negau helmet, 1 bronze belt, 1 bronze greave, 3
iron spearheads and a iron sword with scabbard, no Attic imports were found and this
tomb was dated to the 5th century B. C.
Tomb XVIII held 7 objects, with no weapons, other military equipment or Attic imports
found.

When we compare Tomb XVI with other tombs from its time, it appears that here it is not
a very rich tomb, after Tomb XV and XVIII it is the tomb with the least objects inside.
Also the only military equipment is the helmet and a knife. When we compare this to the
other tomb where military equipment was found, Tomb XVII, we see that Tomb CVI was
a relatively poor tomb, it had no greaves, spears and swords, and also the 13 objects are
very few when compared to Tomb XVII (76) and Banzi’s Tomb A (123). Why this
person was buried with this few objects stays unknown, although it might have been more
since a piece of the tomb is missing with the objects placed there as well.

55
V.3 Ginosa Tomb 13-01-1935
This tomb was found during the building of a wine cellar in Ginosa at the Via Vittorio
Emanuele II nr. 132. After investigation three tombs were found. One was dated to the
Roman time, the other two which were a few meters under street level, were plastered and
painted tombs (www.concadellegravine.nbit.it).
The smallest of the two is Tomb 13-01-1935.
Not much his known about how the grave gifts laid in their tomb, we only know what
was inside and also nothing is known about the paintings.
Tomb contents: (D'Amicis 1994, 332-340)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Corinthian helmet (Fig. 113), 1 bronze Apulo-
Corinthian helmet C22 (Fig. 114), a bronze cuirass of short type (Fig. 115), 1
bronze belt (Fig. 116), 2 bronze greaves (Fig. 117), 2 bronze prometopidia (Fig.
118), 2 bronze prosternidia (Fig. 119) and a fragment of an iron spearhead.
- Bronze: 1 lebes (Fig. 120), 1 podanipter (Fig. 121), 1 basin (Fig. 122), 1 olpe
(Fig. 123), 2 sieves (Fig. 124 & 125), 1 fragment of an olpe, one mouthpiece
(Fig. 126) and 1 spatula (Fig. 127).
- Attic vessels: 1 lekythos (Fig. 128).
- Other pottery: 1 black varnished oinochoe (Fig. 129), 1 black varnished kylix
(Fig. 130), 3 black varnished skyphoi (Fig. 131, 132 & 133), 1 brown varnished
kantharos (Fig. 134) and 1 chytra (Fig. 135).
- Other finds: 1 bronze ring.

Fig. 113 & 114: An Corinthian helmet and an Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Dell'Aglio and Lippolis
1992, 162).

56
Fig. 115 & 116: Front and back view of the cuirass and a rear view of the belt (D'Amicis 1994,
334 & 335).

Fig. 117 & 118: Front and side views of the greaves and front view of the prometopidia (D’Amicis
1994, 336 & 338).

Fig. 119: Front view of the porsternidia (D’Amicis 1994, 338).

Fig. 120, 121 & 122: A lebes, a podanipter and a basin (D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 337).

57
 Fig. 123, 124 & 125: An olpe, a sieve and another sieve (D’Amicis 1994, 337).

Fig. 126, 127, 128 & 129: A mouthpiece, a spatula, an Attic lekythos and an oinochoe (D’Amicis
1994, 337).

Fig. 130, 131, 132 & 133: A kylix and three skyphoi (D’Amicis 1994, 337 & 338).

Fig. 134 & 135: A kantharos and a chytra (D’Amicis 1994, 338).

This tomb is dated to the beginning of the 5th century B. C. (500-475 BC) (D’Amicis
1994, 340). Unfortunately there is nothing known about the other tomb that was found.
When we compare the content of this grave with the other two graves in which Apulo-
Corinthian helmets were found, it becomes clear that it is much richer in military
equipment and bronze vessels. On the other hand it is poor in pottery, one might expect
more pottery for such an otherwise rich tomb. Also unusual are the two helmets, perhaps
the Corinthian helmet was used in battle while the Apulo-Corinthian helmets served
another function (see next chapter). There was no evidence for a chariot, but there were

58
found 2 headpieces and 2 sternum pieces for a horse. Since there are no clues for a
chariot, perhaps this was a soldier (maybe of a high rank) who rode on a horse, for which
he had a reserve armor, with a spear in his hand.

V.4 Gravina in Puglia Tomb 4/II

Unfortunately I was not able to find any information about this tomb, except that inside it
a Type C helmet was found, C11.

V.5 Guglionesi-Santa Margherita

Also for this tomb I could not find very much information, only its content is known by
me. It is dated to the middle of the 5th century B. C. (475-425 B. C.). the Picenian helmet
dated to the 6th century B. C. so it was already very old when it was placed inside this
grave.
Tomb contents: (Capini and Di Niro 1991, 89)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Picenian helmet (Fig. 136) and 1 bronze Apulo-
Corinthian helmet E07 (Fig. 137).
- Bronze: 1 stamnos handle (Fig. 138).

Fig. 136 & 137: A Picenian helmet and a Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Capini and Di Niro 1991, 98)
(http://www.archeologicamolise.beniculturali.it).

Fig. 138: Stamnos handle (Capini and Di Niro, 1991, 376).

59
V.6 Larino
Also about this tomb is not much known, other than the content.
Tomb contents: (Capini and Di Niro 1991, 89 & 90)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B28 (Fig. 139).
- Bronze: 1 stamnos (Fig. 140).
- Other finds: 1 statuette of Mars (Fig. 141).

Fig. 139, 140 & 141: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet, a bronze stamnos and a bronze statuette of
Mars (Capini and Di Niro 1991, 98 & 383).

The strange thing about this tomb and that of Guglionesi is that there are just 3 bronze
objects inside, and all other material categories are not present, which is very strange. I
think my information is incomplete. Still, this tomb is dated to the 4th century B. C. (400-
300 B. C.) (Capini and Di Niro 1991, 90).

V.7 Lavello Tomb 56

Tomb 56 was excavated in 1968. This tomb was a pit covered with tufa slabs. Inside it
were found the remains of two skeletons. The tomb is dated to the 5th century B. C. (500-
400 B. C.) (Adamesteanu et al. 1971, 130) and by Bottini to the end of the 5th and begin
of the 4th century B. C. (425-375 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112) and by Giorgi, Martinelli,
Osanna and Russo to after 375 B. C. (Giorgi, Martinelli, Osanna and Russo 1988, 71).
Tomb contents: (Adamesteanu et al. 1971, 130 & 131)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B05 (Fig. 142), 2 bronze
belts, an iron spearhead (Fig. 142) and an iron sauroter (Fig. 142).

60
 - Bronze: 1 basin (Fig. 142).
- Other pottery (Fig. 142): 1 black varnished calice, 1 black varnished kylix, 1
black varnished brocchetta, 1 reddish single-handled bowl, 5 brown and red
brocchetta’s, 1 reddish krateriskos, 1 reddish brown oinochoe, 1 reddish brown
kyathos, 1 two-handled bowl with red and brown paint, 1 brown and red painted
askos and 1 olla.
- Other finds: 4 rectangular bronze plates with curved sides and a nail on each
corner of which 1 has wood underneath and fragmented iron rods.

Fig. 142: Most of the tomb content, from left to right, back row first: olla, oinochoe, Apulo-
Corinthian helmet, 3 brocchetta’s, kyathos, calice, brocchetta, askos, 2 brocchetta’s, krateriskos,
two-handled bowl, bronze basin, single-handled bowl, kalyx, iron spearhead and an iron sauroter
(Adamesteanu et al. 1971, Tav. LVII).

The combination of an Apulo-Corinthian helmet a belt and a spear seems to be very

common. Unfortunately we have no map where we can see the place these objects had
inside the tomb.

V.8 Melfi-Chiucchiari Tomb A

This tomb was excavated in 1960. One skeleton was found inside. Also from this tomb
there is scarce information. The grave inventory presented below is incomplete.
Tomb contents: (Emiliozzi 2000, 311).
- Military equipment: 2 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmets A01 & A02 (Fig. 143 &
Fig. 144) and 2 iron wheel rims.
This Tomb is dated to the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 5th century B. C. (525-
475 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).

61
Fig. 143 & 144: 2 Apulo-Corinthian helmets, A01 and A02 (Bloesch 1976, 86) (Adamesteanu
1974, 182).

V.9 Melfi-Chiucchiari Tomb F

This tomb was excavated in 1956. It was not much more than a hole in the ground
covered with stone slabs. Inside lay the skeletons of a man and a woman and around them
lay many gravegifts. From this tomb I did not find a map were the spreading of the
objects can be seen. This tomb is dated to the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 5th
century B. C. (525-475 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).
Tomb contents: (Bottini 1988, 132-133)
- Military equipment: 2 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmets B01 & B02 (Fig. 145 &
146), 2 bronze belts, 6 bronze greaves, 1 bronze shield (fig. 147), 2 iron wheel
rims (Fig. 147) and bronze chariot decoration in the form of a serpent and a lion.
- Bronze: 1 stamnos, 2 lebes, 2 basins, 1 oinochoe, 1 oinochoe fragment, 1
perirrhanterion, 1 tripod, 3 paterae, 1 simpulum, 1 thymiaterion, 1 andiron
- Attic vessels: 2 kylixes.
- Other pottery: 4 oinochoe, 1 two-handled cup, 1 plate, 2 brocca’s, 1 olla.
- Other finds: 2 golden hair needles, 4 silver fibulae, 2 bronze handles, 1 bronze
ring, hooks in omega-form, 4 amber beads and 1 terracotta tablet with two holes.

This tomb is the richest of all tombs with Apulo-Corinthian helmets inside on the military
and bronze categories.

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Fig. 145 & 146: Apulo-Corinthian helmets B01 and B02 (Bottini 1988, 130 & 131).

Fig. 147: Two iron wheel rims, and a bronze shield in the middle, 3 of the 6 greaves to the right
with a belt behind them. In the back ground a stamnos, basins and lebetes (www.joinitaly.com).

63
V.10 Melfi-Leonessa Tomb 7
This tomb was excavated in 1973. It consisted of a pit with its walls reinforced with rows
of stones. It was covered by large blocks of limestone. From the skeleton were found only
a few traces. Also from this tomb the excavation map is missing. This tomb is dated to
the end of the 6th century B. C. (525-500 B. C.) by Adamesteanu (Adamesteanu et al.
1971, 114).
Tomb contents: (Adamesteanu et al. 1971, 114 & 115)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B04 (Fig. 148) parts of
bronze studded armor, 4 iron spearheads and 1 bronze belt.
- Other pottery: 1 olla (Fig. 149) and 1 simpulum.

Fig. 148 & 149: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet B04 and an olla (Adamesteanu et al. 1971, Tav.
XLVI).

Just as Tomb 56 in Lavello this warrior had the combination of helmet + belt + spear.
Another characteristic is the low amount of pottery, only Tomb A in Banzi has got a high
number of pottery, all other tombs have 15 or less pieces.

V.11 Miglionico
Not much is known about this tomb, it is said that it is the tomb of a warrior, but all that
is known of this tomb is the Apulo-Corinthian helmet A03 (Fig. 150).

Fig. 150: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A03 (Pflug 1988, 99).

64
V.12 Montescaglioso-Sterpinia
This tomb was excavated in 1953 and it has been dated to the first half of the 4 th century
B. C. (400-350 B. C.) (Bottini 1993, 193).
Tomb content: (Bottini 1993, 187-193)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C01 (Fig. 151) and a
bronze belt (fig. 152).
- Attic vessels: 1 skyphos (Fig. 153).
- Other pottery: 1 brown varnished single handled cup (Fig. 153), 1 krater (Fig.
154), 1 oletta (Fig. 153), 1 lebes (Fig. 153).
- Other finds: 1 bronze ring shaped spiral (Fig. 155).

Fig. 151 & 152: Apulo-Corintihan helmet C01 and a belt, the four loose objects on the right are the
hooks and eyes to fasten the belt (www.sas.upenn.edu) (Bottini 1993, 190).

Fig. 153: A lebes, Attic skyphoi, oletta and a one-handled cup (Bottini 1993, 191).

65
 Fig. 154: A Campanian crater (Bottini 1993, 192).

Fig. 155: A bronze ring shaped spiral (Bottini 1993, 190).

V.13 Ordona Tomb 25

Also from this tomb only the inventory is known, it was excavated in 1876. Bottini dated
this tomb to the first half of the 5th century B. C. (500-450 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).
Tomb contents: (Mayer 1914, 67)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B09 (Fig. 156), 2 bronze
greaves, 1 bronze belt and an iron spearhead.
- Other finds: 1 bronze armband and small bronze pince-nez shaped objects.

66
 Fig. 156: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet B09 (www.sas.upenn.edu).

Also this tomb is missing the pottery, according to the excavation list there was none in it.

V.14 Ripacandida Tomb 82

Only the inventory of this tomb is known to me, Bottini dated this tomb to the first half of
the 5th century B. C. (500-450 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B07 (Fig. 157).
- Other pottery (Fig. 158): 1 kylix, 1 patera, 1 oinochoe, 3 brocca’s, 1 askos, 1 olla
and 2 bowls.

Fig. 157 & 158: An apulo-Corinthian helmet and from left to right beginning at the back row: a
brocca, kylix, patera, bowl, brocca, askos, brocca, bowl, olla, oinochoe (Bottini 1988, 113).

67
V.15 Rutigliano Tomb 03
Other than that Type C Apulo-Corinthian helmet C08 was found in this tomb, I haven’t
found any information. Bottini dated this tomb to the end of the 5th century B. C. and the
beginning of the 4th century B. C. (425-375 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).

V.16 Rutigliano Tomb 11

This tomb is dated to the third quarter of the 5th century B. C. (450-425 B. C.)
The Apulo-Corinthian helmet found inside is said to still have some leather work inside
(Lo Porto 1976, 740). There were 66 objects found within this tomb, which make it one
of the richer tombs. Bottini dated this tomb to the last quarter of the 5 th century B. C.
(425-400 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 159): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C07, 2 bronze
belts and 2 bronze greaves.
- Bronze (Fig. 159): 1 lebes, 1 basin, 1 patera and 2 strigilae.
- Attic vessels (Fig. 160): 1 krater, 1 lekythos, 3 kylixes and 1 pelike.
- Other pottery (Fig. 160): 2 oinochoe, 3 kylixes, 1 no-handled cup, 3 single-
handled cups, 3 two-handled cups, 1 oletta, 1 skyphos, 5 brocca’s, 1 askos, 3
bowls, 1 lebes, 1 bowl with grease spout and 2 spouted pitchers.
- Other finds (Fig. 159): 4 bronze (maybe iron) curled fragments, 9 straight bronze
fragments and a bronze fragment of plate work.

Fig. 159: Metal objects form Tomb 11. From left to right beginning at the upper row: Apulo-
Corinthian helmet, basin, lebes, 2 greaves, basin handles, bronze fragments, sieve, bronze plate
work, metal fragments, fragment of a belt, an unidentified object, 2 strigilae, a fragment of a belt, a
belt and a patera (Bottini 1988, 122).

68
Fig. 160: Ceramic objects from Tomb 11. From left to right starting at the upper row: bowl with
grease spout, brocca, lebes, crater, oletta, pelike, oinochoe, two-handled cup, brocca, lekythos,
single handled cup, spouted pitcher, brocca, brocca, oinochoe, bowl, kylix, kylix, kylix, spouted
pitcher, two handled cup, one-handled cup, two handled cup, bowl, askos, bowl, brocca, skyphos,
no handled cup, single handled cup, single handled cup, kylix, kylix (Bottini 1988, 122).

V.17 Rutigliano Tomb 19

Other than that Type C Apulo-Corinthian helmet C09 was found in this tomb, I haven’t
found any information. Bottini dated this tomb to the last quarter of the 5th century B. C.
(425-400 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).

V.18 Rutigliano Tomb 24

Tomb 24 is dated around the same time as Tomb 11 from Rutigliano. The tomb was made
from slabs of rock with the top edges provided with notches for the frame of wooden
beams to support the roofing sheets. The tomb measured 1.80 X 0,86 X 0,90 the inside of
the tomb contained a decorative band of about 4 cm painted red (Lo Porto 1976, 741).
Bottini dated this tomb to the last quarter of the 5th century B. C. (425-400 B. C.) (Bottini
1988, 112).
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 161): 1 bronze Type A helmet A07, 1 bronze belt, 2
bronze greaves, 1 iron spearhead, 1 iron sword and 1 iron knife.
- Bronze (Fig. 161): 2 lebes, 2 sieves, 2 paterae and 1 iron thymiaterion
- Attic vessels: 1 crater, 1 pelike, 1 rhyton, 1 amphora and 1 oinochoe.

69
Fig. 161: Metal finds from Tomb 24. From left to right, starting in the back: lebes, oinochoe,
patera, unknown, lebes, lebes tripod, thymiaterion, unknown, parts of a sword and knifes, kylix, 2
sieves, a patera, 2 greaves a belt, Apulo-Coritnmihan helmet and 2 strigilae as well as bronze
fragments of unknown identity (Lo Porto 1976, Tav. CXII).

I could not find evidence for the other pottery category, but in such a rich tomb there
must have been some.

V.19 Rutigliano Tomb 77

Other than that Type C Apulo-Corinthian helmet C10 was found in this tomb, I haven’t
found any information. Bottini dated it to the second half of the 5 th century B. C. (450-
400 B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).

V.20 Ruvo del Monte Tomb 43

Other than that a fragmented Apulo-Corinthian helmet was found in this tomb, I haven’t
found any information.

V.21 Ruvo di Puglia Unknown Tomb

Other than that Type C Apulo-Corinthian helmet C06 was found in this tomb, I haven’t
found any information. Bottini dated it to the first half of the 5th century B. C. (500-450
B. C.) (Bottini 1988, 112).

V.22 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 002

Found under the Piazza G. Matteotti in 1907. The tomb was a monolithic sarcophagus
placed in a pit at around 2.20m deep. The tomb was covered by two slabs of tufa upon

70
which a single slab of limestone was placed. The tomb is dated to the first quarter of the
5th century B. C. (490-475 B. C.) (Montanaro 2007, 222).
Tomb contents: (Montanaro 2007, 223-235)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B22 (Fig. 162), bronze
cuirass fragments, 2 bronze belts (Fig. 163 & 164), 1 iron sword (Fig. 165), 2
iron spearheads (Fig. 166 & 167), 2 iron cusps (Fig. 166 & 168), 1 iron sauroter
(Fig. 167) and 1 iron knife (Fig. 169).
- Bronze: 1 lebes (Fig. 170), 2 basins (Fig. 171, 172 and 173), 1 iron tripod (Fig.
174), 1 tripod (Fig. 175), 2 tripod feet (Fig. 176), 1 sieve (Fig. 177), 1 keagra
(Fig. 178), and 1 lead andiron (Fig 179).
- Attic vessels: 1 krater (Fig. 180), 1 lekythos (Fig. 181) and 3 kylixes (Fig. 182,
183 & 184).
- Other pottery: 2 oinochoe’s, 1 kylix, 1 patera, 2 olpe’s and 1 calice acromo.
- Other finds: 1 lead lanceolate object (Fig. 185).

Fig. 162 & 163: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B22 and a bronze belt (Montanaro 2007, 235 & 227).

Fig. 164 & 165: A bronze belt and an iron sword. All swords found in tombs with Apulo-
Corinthian helmets were of this crucifix-form type (Montanaro 2007, 227 & 230).

71
Fig. 166 & 167: Iron cusp and spear points and an iron spearhead and sauroter (Montanaro 2007,
232).

Fig. 168 & 169: Iron cusp and an iron knife (Montanaro 2007, 232).

Fig. 170, 171 & 172: Bronze lebes and 2 basins (Montanaro 2007, 224 & 225).

Fig. 173, 174 & 175: Bronze handle from a basin, an iron tripod and a bronze tripod (Montanaro
2007, 227, 232, 227).

Fig. 176 & 177: Bronze feet of a tripod and a bronze sieve (Montanaro 2007, 228 & 227).

72
 Fig. 178 & 179: Lead keagra and lead parts of an andiron (Montanaro 2007, 229).

Fig. 180, 181 & 182: Attic crater with a depiction of the departure of a warrior, an Attic lekythos
and a kylix with eyes (Montanaro 2007, 234).

Fig. 183, 184 & 185: Attic kylix with eyes, a black varnished Attic kylix and a lanceolate lead
object (perhaps part of the lead keagra) (Montanaro 2007, 234 & 229).

V.23 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 045

Found under the Corso A. Jatta in 1924, The tomb consisted of two sarcophagi, one was
empty and in the other one remains of armor was found. It was said that it included
greaves, but none have been found in the museum where it should be. This tomb has been
dated to the last quarter of the 5th century B. C. (425-400 B. C.) (Montanaro 2007, 341).

73
Apparently only red figured pottery and a helmet have been found, the normal pottery as
well as the greaves are lost.
Tomb contents: (Montanaro 2007, 340-347)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 (Fig. 186, 187, 188
& 189) and is said to have also held 2 bronze greaves.
- Attic vessels (Fig. 189): 1 skyphos and 1 askos.
- Other pottery (Fig. 189): 1 oinochoe, 1 skyphos, 1 kantharos, 1 askos, 1 krater
and 2 amphora’s.

Fig. 186, 187 & 188: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81),
(www.atlantedellarteitaliana.it) & (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81).

Fig. 189: From the upper left corner to the lower right corner: panathenaican amphora,
protolucanian krater, panathenaican amphora, attic askos, attic skyphos, protolucanian skyphos,
protolucanian askos, protolucanian oinochoe, Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 and a protolucanian
kantharos (Montanaro 2007, 341).

74
V.24 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 115
This tomb was found under the Corso Cotugno in 1834. The tomb was made of several
slabs of tufa. It contained 2 greaves, but 1 was probably stolen from the grave. The tomb
was dated to the first half of the 5th century B. C. (500-450 B.C.) (Monataro 2007, 542-
546). This tomb was not dug scientifically, like the other tombs from Ruvo di Puglia it
may lack some finds. Most notably missing from all the tombs from Ruvo are the
unpainted pottery, only Greek-looking pottery is preserved if there is any ceramics at all.

Tomb contents: (Montanaro 2007, 542-546)

- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet A06 (Fig. 190), 1 bronze
Corinthian helmet (Fig. 191), 1 greave (the other one is lost) (Fig. 192) and 2
prosternidia (Fig. 193).
- Bronze: 2 paterae.

Fig. 190 & 191: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A06 and a partial Corinthian helmet. Note the unusual
noseguard of A06 (Montanaro 2007, 546 & 545).

Fig. 192 & 193: A greave for the right leg and two prosternidia (Montanaro 2007, 546 & 544).

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V.25 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 148
This tomb was found under the Piazza Bovio, in 1814. The tomb was made from various
slabs of tufa, and was plastered inside and decorated with parallel bands of different
colors caught between two black meandering bands. It can be dated to 420-410 B. C. by
the vases found inside (Montanaro 2007, 606-633).
Tomb contents: (Montanaro 2007, 612-633)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet B47 (Fig. 194 & 195), 1
cuirass and 1 iron sword.
- Attic vessels: 3 kylixes (Fig. 196, 197 & 198), 1 krater (Fig. 199), 2 amphorae
(Fig. 200 & 201), 2 oinochoe’s (Fig. 202 & 203), 1 askos (Fig. 204), 1 kantharos
(Fig. 205) and 1 rhyton (Fig. 206).
- Other pottery: 1 oinochoe (Fig. 207), 1 krater (Fig. 208), 3 amphorae (Fig. 209,
210 & 211) and 2 hydria’s (1 of which is depicted on Fig. 212).
- Other finds: 1 golden necklace with ram head ends (Fig. 213) and 1 golden fibula
(Fig. 214).

Fig. 194 & 195: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B47 (Montanaro 2007, 632).

Fig. 196, 197 & 198: 3 Attic kylixes (Montanaro 2007, 623, 625 & 626).

76
Fig. 199, 200 & 201: An Attic bell krater and two Attic amphorae (Montanaro 2007, 627, 632 &
633).

Fig. 202, 203 & 204: 2 Attic oinochoe’s and an Attic askos (Montanaro 2007, 621, 631, 630).

Fig. 205, 206 & 207: An Attic kantharos, an Attic rhyton and a protolucanian oinochoe
(Montanaro 2007, 622, 634 & 631).

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Fig. 208, 209 & 210: A protoapulian krater and two panathenaican amphorae (Montanaro 2007,
612, 618 & 620).

Fig. 211 & 212: A panathenaican amphora and a protolucanian hydria (Montanaro 2007, 629 &
615).

Fig. 213 & 214: A golden necklace with ramhead ends and a golden fibula (Montanaro 2007, 627
& 628).

78
V.26 Ruvo di Puglia Tomb 157
This tomb was found under the crossroad of the Via S. Barbara and Via Oberdan in 1834.
It is reported to have held several vessels and parts of a warriors panoply. Unfortunately
only 2 objects are known to exist today and it has been dated to the beginning of the 4 th
century B. C. (400-375 B. C.) (Monanaro 2007, 667).
Tomb contents: (Montanaro 2007, 667 & 668)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet A04 (Fig. 215), 1 bronze
belt (lost), and 1 cuirass of long type (Fig. 216).
- Other finds: various oxidized lead objects.

Fig. 215 & 216: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A04 and its associated cuirass (www.sheshen-
eceni.co.uk), (© Trustees of the British Museum).

V.27 Salapia Tomb 140

Other than that Type A Apulo-Corinthian helmet A08 (Fig. 217) was found in this tomb,
I haven’t found any information.

Fig. 217: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A08 (Fazia 1984, 25).

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V.28 Satriano Tomb 2
This tomb was excavated in 1987. It can be dated to the second half of the 5 th century B.
C. (450-400 B. C.) (Bottini 1993, 121).
Tomb contents: (Bottini 1993, 119-122)
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C02 (Fig. 218) and one
iron sword.
- Other pottery: 1 stamnos (Fig. 218), 2 kylixes (Fig. 218), 1 no-handled cup (Fig.
218), 1 single-handled cup (Fig. 218), 1 patera, 1 krater (Fig. 218), 1 nestoris
(Fig. 218) and 2 brocca’s (Fig. 218).

Fig. 218: Tomb content of Tomb 2, without the sword. From left to right, starting above: brocca,
Apulo-Corinthian helmet C02, stamnos, brocca, no-handled-cup, single-handled cup, crater,
nestoris, kylix and another kylix (Bottini 1993, 117).

80
V.29 Serra di Vaglio Tomb 108
This tomb was excavated in 1994. It contained a single burial in a wooden case which
was covered up by stones and the tomb was orientated south-west north-east. The person
buried in this tomb was a male of about 60 years old. The buried lay curled up on his
right side, with his head pointing to the south. In front of him were placed a spear and
helmet, associated with various metallic and ceramic pottery, the latter was, as usual,
placed at the feet on the bottom half of the tomb, while the skewers were placed
transversely in the tomb, partly resting on the ceramic. On the body, at the waist and
chest, two bronze belts were found; the wide one is placed at the waist, while the longer
and narrower belt at the chest and shoulder, which seems to be the end of the suspension
of the sword resting on his chest (Fig. 219). This tomb has been dated to the end of the 6th
century and the first half of the 5th century B.C. (525-450 B.C.) (Bottini and Setari 2003,
75).

Fig. 219: Excavation map of Tomb 108. Note that the belts lay flat and loose on the floor,
suggesting that when the man was buried he didn’t wear them, but that they were placed below or
on top of him (Bottini and Setari 2003, 76).

81
Tomb contents: (Bottini and Setari 2003, 75-80).
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet A34 (Fig. 220, 221 &
222), 2 bronze belts (Fig. 223 & 224), 1 iron sword (Fig. 225) and 2 iron
spearheads.
- Bronze: 2 basins and 1 iron tripod.
- Attic vessels: 2 kylixes.
- Other pottery: 3 no-handled cups (1 can be seen in Fig. 226), 2 single-handled
cups, 1 kantharos, 1 krater and 1 oletta (Fig. 227).
- Other finds: several iron rods and 1 fragmented iron blade.

Fig. 220 & 221: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A34 (Bottini and Setari 2003, Tav. XXIV).

Fig. 222: Reconstruction of A34 (Bottini and Setari 2003, 78).

82
Fig. 223 & 224: Bronze belts. The big one was usually worn around the waist while the thinner
one has been determined as being a strap where the sword was attached to (Bottini and Setari
2003, Tav. XXIX & XXX).

Fig. 225, 226, 227: The iron blade of a crucifix-form sword, a no-handled cup and an oletta
(Bottini and Setari 2003, 79 & 77).

Beside this tomb, 8 other tombs were excavated.

Tomb 101: male, around 60 years, 31 pieces of pottery found inside, also a crest holder, a
shield, 2 greaves, 3 belts, 2 prometopidia, 2 prosternidia, 3 spearheads, 1 blade point, 2
blade fragments and 2 swords.
Tomb 102: Tomb of a 7 year old girl, 28 ceramic pots, 8 metal vessels, and 132 other
objects.

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Tomb 103: Tomb of a 40 year old man and a 12 year old boy. 40 ceramics, 16 bronze
vessels, 2 Corinthian helmets, 1 shield, 2 greaves, 5 belts, 2 prometopidia, 2 spearheads, 6
rings, and 6 other objects.
Tomb 104: Tomb of a boy who was less than a year old. 32 ceramics, 3 metal vessels and
4 other objects.
Tomb 105: Tomb of a man of about 50 years old, 16 ceramics, 6 metal vessels, 2 helmets,
a shield, 3 belts, 2 spearheads, 1 sword, 1 blade fragment, parts of a chariot and 2 other
objects.
Tomb 106: Tomb of a 60 year old female. 12 ceramics, 4 metal vessels, and 107 other
objects.
Tomb 107: Tomb of a 40 year old man. 10 ceramics, 5 metal vessels, 2 helmets, 2
greaves, 5 spearheads and a sword, and 4 other objects.
Tomb 109: Tomb of a male, between 30 and 40 years old. 8 ceramics, 2 metal vessels, a
crest holder and a belt, 3 spearheads, 1 fragment of a sword and two other objects.

As can be seen, Tomb 108 was not the most richest of the tombs that were excavated.
Also when we compare it to the other male burials it still not the most richest and when
we compare it with tombs where the diseased were around the same age when they died,
it is the most poor burial. Also all male burials contain weapons and armor, and except
for Tomb 108 and Tomb 109 they all contain parts of horse armor or chariots. We get the
idea here that the buried person with a Apulo-Corinthian helmet was not the most
important person. Another strange thing is that all males were relatively old for an army,
from the 5 warrior burials here, 3 belong to men of 50 and above, two of those were very
rich, more rich than the younger persons graves, except for Tomb 108 which was
relatively poor. The reason for the old person of Tomb 108 to have less objects and less
military equipment is unknown to me.

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V.30 Unknown Tomb (A38)
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 228): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet (A37) and 2
bronze greaves

Fig. 228: All that remains of an unknown tomb: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A37 and two greaves
(http://www.hermann-historica.de).

V.31 Unknown Tomb (C23)

Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 229): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C23 and 2
greaves.

Fig. 229: Apulo-Corinthian helmet C23 and 2 accompanying greaves

(http://www.flickr.com/photos/taimoo/2966023440/).

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V.32 Unknown Tomb (C25)
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 230): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C25, 1 bronze
triple-disc cuirass plate, 1 bronze belt and 2 bronze greaves.

Fig. 230: The remains of an unknown tomb, an Apulo-Corinthian helmet C25, a triple-disc cuirass
plate, a belt and two greaves (www.sas.upenn.edu).

V.33 Unknown Tomb (C29)

Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 231): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet C29, 1 bronze
rectangular cuirass and 2 bronze greaves.

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Fig. 231: Apulo-Corinthian helmet C25, both halves of a rectangular anatomical cuirass and two
greaves (www.sas.upenn.edu).

V.34 Unknown Tomb (D05)

Tomb contents:
- Military equipment (Fig. 232): 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet D05 (Fig. 232
& 233), 1 bronze cuirass of long type and 2 bronze greaves.

Fig. 232 & 233: Apulo-Corinthian helmet D05, a long anatomical cuirass and two greaves
(www.artfact.com), (Eisenberg 2004, 7).

87
V.35 Unknown Tomb (E08)
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet E08 (Fig. 234) and 2
bronze greaves.

Fig. 234: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E08 (www.christies.com).

V.36 Unknown Tomb (U02)

From this tomb we also know the weapons and utensils, apparently they have not been
separated since their discovery.
Tomb contents:
- Military equipment: 1 bronze Apulo-Corinthian helmet U02 (Fig. 235), 2 bronze
greaves (Fig. 236), 4 iron lance heads (1 in Fig. 237), 4 iron spearheads (1 in Fig.
237) and 1 iron knife (Fig. 237).
- Other finds: 6 iron obeloi, 1 iron gripper (Fig. 237), 1 iron strigilis (Fig. 237) and
1 iron four pronged toaster (Fig. 237).

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 Fig. 235 & 236: Apulo-Corinthian helmet U02 and two greaves (Eisenberg 2004, 6).

Fig. 237: Iron utensils, from upper left corner to the lower right corner: 4-pronged toaster, knife,
lance head, gripper, strigilis and a spearhead (Eisenberg 2004, 6).

89
 Chapter VI
The use of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet

VI.1 Usage in life

In this Chapter I will investigate the use of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet. As I have
mentioned in chapter I, The Apulo-Corinthian helmet could not fit over the whole head. It
seems strange why the Apulian craftsmen made this type of helmet in a way that it could
not fit over the whole head, leaving the face unprotected. One would think that they must
have had hinged cheek pieces to protect the sides of the face. This hinged cheek pieces
idea is seen in many ‘reconstructions’ of Roman legionnaires in non-scientific books and
in games (Fig. 238). But the fact is, that not even one Apulo-Corinthian helmet has ever
been found with hinged cheek pieces, not even a fragment of a hinge on the helmet itself,
as can be seen in the previous chapters and in Table 1.
Still, there are holes in the sides of each helmet, but that is just one on each side. For
cheek pieces to be stable you need at least two on each side, (although hinges are better)
while for a chinstrap you need only one. So the holes in the sides of the Apulo-Corinthian
helmets are for chinstraps (Fig. 239).

Fig. 238: A Roman soldier wearing an Apulo-Corinthian helmet with cheek parts, one of many
examples of wrong portrayal of this type of helmet (Warry 1980).

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Fig. 239: A correct reconstruction of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet worn by a soldier, although the
helmet is correct, the sword is a falcata, while the sword used by the Apulians is of the crucifix-
form (Fig. 165). Also the long greaves were not very popular in Apulia and we know of only 1
occasion where a shield and Apulo-Corinthian helmet were found together (Connolly 1998, 88).

But if the Apulo-Corinthian helmets were not protective, what then, could be the reason
that that the Iapygian craftsmen made this helmet in such a form? As seen in the previous
chapters, all helmets had a crest and most also had feather supports and the majority of
the helmets are wealthily decorated. Perhaps this helmet is not intended for usage in
battle. This helmet might have been some kind of parade helmet, with its crest, feathers
and decorations it is a lot more impressive than a helmet that does not have such
attributes. Even today helmets with plumes and wealthy decorations are in use as parade
helmets, while the more protective helmets are used in battle.

91
This usage of different helmets for different purposes might be seen in the tomb at
Ginosa, which included a Corinthian helmet (which has cheeks and thus is more
protective for the face) and an Apulo-Corinthian helmet, which has inscribed decorations
and once had a crest but not much face protection. Although the Corinthian helmet has
some decoration on it (the edges of the helmet and on top of the helmet) it is not as
wealthily as the Apulo-Corinthian helmet, and the Corinthian helmet also did not have a
crest. The other finds in the tomb at Ginosa point out that this was a warrior on
horseback, so perhaps he wore the Apulo-Corinthian helmet while he was riding on a
horse, because when you are riding a horse you need good sight, and the Corinthian
helmet does close of quite a lot of the surroundings. This combination of Corinthian
helmet and Apulo-Corinthian helmet with horse armor has also been found at Ruvo di
Puglia’s Tomb 115, proving that the case of Ginosa is not just one of a kind, but is it still
exceptionally.

Other tombs where more than one helmet was found were found at Melfi and Guglionesi,
although I think the inventory of the Guglionesi tomb is incomplete and the inventory of
Melfi Tomb A is incomplete, the inventory of Tomb F is not. Both Tomb A and Tomb F
had 2 Apulo-Corinthian helmets and no Corinthian or other type helmet. This is rather
strange, why would one have two parade helmets? In both tombs were also found the
wheels of a two-wheeled chariot, of which all the wood has been lost unfortunately.
Perhaps these were ‘leaders’ who oversaw the battlefield and gave directions from their
chariot and were not expected to fight in the battle itself. The fact that all tombs with
horse armor posses two helmets is also remarkable, although this does not work around
the other way since the tomb of Guglionesi also held 2 helmets, but no evidence of
horses, armor or chariots. Since only the bronze objects are known to me, objects like
iron wheel rims as in both tombs at Melfi are still a possibility, although it remains
strange why they were not included in the description of Capini and Di Niro of 1991 if
that is the case.

When we compare the other tombs and their contents (Table 2, 3, 4, 5, 6), we see that
most tombs are not very rich and when we compare the tombs in which Apulo-Corinthian
helmets have been found with other tombs of that necropolis, in two of the three it is one
of the poorest warrior tomb (Braida di Vaglio and Cairano) while in the other one it is the
richest of its necropolis, but there are no warrior tombs there to compare with (Banzi).

92
Also the tombs of women contain a lot more objects than those of men, but military
equipment is restricted to tombs with male deceased.

When we look in what number armor and weapons were found, we see that out of 28
tombs (left out are Salapia, Gravina and Miglionico, tombs where I have found no
information from, other than that they included a helmet), only in 14 tombs greaves were
found. One or more belts were found in 12 tombs, in 8 tombs cuirasses were found,
spearheads also in 8, swords in 6 tombs and a shield in just one tomb.
Next we look at the combinations of the armor pieces.
- Helmet: 7 tombs, of which only 3 had a weapon, but since weapons are from iron
they may have rusted away since in these tombs no other iron objects have been
found.
- Helmet + greaves: 6 times, of which only 1 had weapons.
- Helmet + belt: 3 times, 2 of which had weapons.
- Helmet + belt + greaves: 3 times, 2 of them had weapons.
- Helmet + belt + cuirass: 3 times, 2 had weapons.
- Helmet + belt + greaves + cuirass: 2 times, 1 of them included weapons.
- Helmet + greaves + cuirass: 2 times, no weapons included.
- Helmet + belt + greaves + shield: 1 time, no weapons.
- Helmet + cuirass: 1 time, with a weapon.

We know that the tombs in which Apulo-Corinthian helmets were found normally were
poor, in comparison with the other tombs from their necropolis (although that is only
based on two cases), and when we look at the numbers above, we see that the
combinations with few armor are dominant: only helmet, helmet + belt and helmet +
greaves are 57% of the total. The combinations with cuirasses are more rare (28.5%) and
those with a shield are exceptionally (3.5%).

It might look strange to have only a helmet, or a belt or greaves or a combination of

those, since they do not protect the rump. But at the time there also existed the
‘linothorax’ which is a cuirass made of many layers of linen. And this linen does not
preserve, like leather in the tombs of the Mediterranean area. But when we look at tomb
paintings from the 4th century B. C. from Samnium, Lucania and Campania, we see that a
lot of soldier depiction have no armor besides the helmet, or just a helmet and belt or

93
greaves or both, while wearing a tunic (Weege 1909, Fig. 15, Fig. 18, Taf. 8, Taf. 9, Taf.
10 and Taf. 11). This proves that indeed not all, if not most of the soldiers did not wear a
cuirass. What we also see is what seems to be wicker shields (Weege 1909 Fig. 18), a
find category that also does not or scarcely preserve, which could be the reason for the
low amount of shields found in the tombs. This does, of course, not mean that the tombs
without bronze cuirasses and shields are suddenly rich because of the perishable materials
which might have been in them. Bronze cuirasses and shields are a lot harder to make
than linen and wicker, and they were probably also a lot more expensive because of that.

The tomb paintings I referred to have all not been found in Apulia, apparently the
Apulians did not paint warriors on their tombs (in Ginosa there was a painted tomb but
painted there were just colored bands), and only very few have been seen on painted
vessels, and of those only one can be of use here because they were actually worn in that
painting. This painting is the vase showing Patroklos’ funeral by the Darius painter (Fig.
240).

Fig. 240: Patroklos’funeral by the Darius painter, for a close up see Fig. 32 (www.hellados.ru).

Depicted is the funeral of Patroklos where a prisoner is being sacrificed and another
person is making a libation on the funeral pyre of Patroklos. If we look at what equipment
Patroklos had, we see 2 greaves, 1 shield, 2 cuirasses, 1 helmet and 1 sword. The other
person libating, is wearing another Apulo-Corinthian helmet, a cuirass and a spear, this is
perhaps Achilles. This depiction at least shows us that high ranking persons wore the
Apulo-Corinthian helmet too, and they also had a cuirass, which could mean that the

94
tombs in which an Apulo-Corinthian helmet was found along with a cuirass were also of
high ranking soldiers, although more than a quarter of the warriors would have been such
a person if we assume that.
Of course the fact that high ranking persons wore cuirasses does not mean that lower
ranks did not (if there even were ranks in the Apulian military system), perhaps if lower
ranks wore it too, the percentage of 28.5% doesn’t seem so big anymore. But
unfortunately we cannot prove that. What this painting does prove is that high ranking
persons did also wear them, so that unlike what we see from the few necropolis
comparisons, not all warriors wearing the Apulo-Corinthian helmet were more poor than
others of their time, so the few number of available necropolis comparisons were a bias, it
seems now that the Apulo-Corinthian helmet was used by the more common men, but
also by high ranking persons.

Apparently this ‘parade’ helmet was available to the lower classes too, who must have
used it in combat, because they did not have another more protective helmet to switch to.
Also we see in the tomb paintings that most of the soldiers, also those without a cuirass,
wear helmets with crests and feathers (Weege 1909, Fig. 15, Fig. 18) and they also wore
them during battles, although there are also scene’s of warriors fighting without a crest
and feather (Weege 1909, Taf. 11). So the Apulo-Corinthian helmet might not be only a
parade helmet after all, since most of its users had only this helmet and no other helmet to
switch to. Those that had 2 helmets, of which one does offer more facial protection,
probably did switch their helmet before battle and did not use the Apulo-Corinthian
helmet during the battle.

VI.2 Usage after life

The Apulo-Corinthian helmet is only known from a burial context. Because of the poor
documentation during the excavations of the tombs in which these helmets lay, not much
is known about the position these helmets took inside the graves. From the more than 150
helmets, we know of only 2 how the helmets were positioned in the grave and from 1
other we know only a possible position. In Cairano the helmet lay besides the skeleton,
who laid stretched on his back. The helmet was positioned next to the left femur. In
Braida di Vaglio the skeleton lay crouched on its right side, with the helmet in front of
him, between a spearpoint and metal vessels, on the left (south-east) side of the grave. In

95
Banzi the skeleton sat against one of the tufa slabs, and according to Pesce the helmet was
probably still on his head, although they knocked the skeleton over when they broke the
slab against which the skeleton rested. Because these 3 cases are they only ones known, I
can’t see a tradition of where the Apulo-Corinthian helmet should be placed inside the
grave nor how the skeleton should be laid down. In 2 of the 3 tombs the helmet lay next
to the skeleton, while in the third tomb the helmet was also found on the tomb ground,
but the excavator thought it would originally have rested on the head of the deceased. In
all three tombs the deceased was not cremated but was laid to rest inside the tomb,
although in all three tombs that was done in a different way. From this scanty information
it is not possible to conclude anything about rules of object placement in the Apulian
culture and society, also because two tombs were not inside Apulian territory at that time
(Cairano and Braida di Vaglio).

VI.3 Time of usage

As said in earlier chapters the chronology of the helmets is interesting, one would expect
that type A was the first type, then B, after that C etc. But the fact is that this was a much
faster development than we would expect. We see that from 525 until 500 Type A and B
were both in use at the same time. The first type C helmet is known from between 500-
475 and the earliest Type E helmet from 475 to 450 B.C. (Fig. 241). No Type D helmet is
known from a datable context, but probably they were first made between 500 and 450
B.C.
Very interesting is that Type A and B remain in use for almost the whole period that
Apulo-Corinthian helmets were worn and that they developed around the same time.
Type C has only one early example, the rest of the Type C helmets are found in contexts
later than 450 B.C. Type A and B were apparently less popular after 450 B.C. but
remained in use while the dominant Type became Type C, which was not very popular in
earlier times.
Type E was only found in contexts dating to the middle part of the time span, from 475
until 400 B.C. Apparently Type A and B were the most popular helmets, Type C took a
while to become popular and Type E was the latest development in the Apulo-Corinthian
helmets but was also the first type that stopped appearing.

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Fig. 241: Graph showing the distribution over time of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets. The dating of
the tomb at Larino is very broad and might be 400-350, as it is the only tomb dated this broad and
also being the most recent dated one of the 25 tombs which have been dated.

When we count the number of helmets found in each period (Fig. 242), we see that two
spikes arise, one between 500 and 475 B.C. and the other one between 425 and 375 B.C.
this could mean two things. One is that the popularity of these helmets came in two
waves, first a wave were Type A and B were popular and the second wave when Type C
was the most popular, followed by Type B and A. The reason for this may be that around
475 the helmet lost its popularity due to a conflict with the Taras and Rhegium, which the
Messapians and Peucetians won. The second option is that it should resemble one peak,
but by coincidence there have not been found a representative number of Apulo-
Corinthian helmets for the period between 475 and 425 B.C.
Although these graphs are very clear, they are based on 25 dated tombs, which are
sometimes dated very broad, and were counted in more than one period. A narrower
dating could show if there really are two waves of popularity. Also future excavations
might change the chronology of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet and hopefully some Type D
helmets will be unearthed in a datable context so that we know when this type was in use.

97
Fig. 242: Graph showing the number of Apulo-Corinthian helmets trough time. Note that because
in the period of 475 until 425 B.C. there have been found much lesser helmets two peaks arise on
both sides of this period.

98
 Chapter VII
Conclusion

In this final Chapter I will look back at the research questions posed in the beginning and
I will explain what the knowledge received from my investigation can add to the ongoing
debate about the interaction of ‘locals’ and ‘Greeks’. I will start with the most basic
research question:

VII.1 Research question 1

Where, when and in which contexts do these helmets occur?
As can be seen in chapter IV, except for a few exceptions, all helmets were found within
the borders of ancient Peucetia and Daunia, some have been found just over this border in
Molise and Basilicata, areas which belonged to the Frentani and the Lucani at that time.
So we can state that this is an Apulian helmet, especially because the cities where more
than one helmet were found lie around the Ofanto river and the east coast of Apulia,
which are definitely Apulian cities and not Greek or Lucanian.
The question when they were used was answered in Chapter V and in greater detail in
Chapter VI. The tombs in which the Apulo-Corinthian helmets were found date from 525
to 350 B. C. with 1 dated to 400-300 B. C. which is a very rough dating (Larino).
Remarkable is that around the time when the battle between the combined forces of Taras
Rhegium against Messapians and Peucetians took place (473 B.C.) we see that the
number of Apulo-Corinthian helmets decline. However 50 years later the helmet type was
more popular than it ever was. Of course we must take into account that this image of
rise, decline, rise again and decline forever is very easy to change when future
excavations will reveal more Apulo-Corinthian helmets from the period between 475 and
425 B.C.
The context in which the Apulo-Corinthian helmets were found has also been explained
in Chapter V and VI. From the few we know where they are found, they were found in
tombs. This fact however does not mean that they were only intended as grave gifts, we
have depictions of alive persons that wear them and some seem to have been used and
then repaired before they were deposited. Other places where one might expect these
helmets to occur are sanctuaries where they would have been devoted to a god for giving
them the victory, as in the case of the Etruscan helmets found at Olympia. Another place

99
to find helmets are battlefields, but most of these fields were cleaned after the battle. Until
now no Apulo-Corinthian helmets have been found in these contexts yet, but perhaps
future excavations will change this.

VII.2 Research question 2

What is the meaning of this type helmet in these contexts and what does this
meaning of the helmets say about the cultural character of Apulia between the end
of the 6th and the end of the 4th century B.C.?
When comparing the pictorial remains of warrior equipments in the 5th-4th century B. C.
we see that the combinations of armor found inside the tombs are also depicted in
paintings where soldiers are fighting or riding a horse. This means they were not random
grave gifts that other people gave to the deceased for in the afterlife, but that they were
actually their own equipment which they had owned during their life. This type of helmet
could have belonged to any kind of warrior, high ranks and low, so it is not possible to
say, when one finds such a helmet, that it was of a high ranking soldier. Even the fact that
this person would have been a warrior is debatable. If we look at the necropolis in which
they were found, all men which are older than 12 have got warrior equipment, so this
means that all men were warriors, or that one was supposed to have some sort of military
equipment even when someone was not a professional soldier.
Another thing that can be said about the cultural character is that the Apulians took over
quite a lot elements of surrounding cultures, especially those to their south (Greeks) and
to their west (Lucanians and Campanians). Firstly, the Apulo-Corinthian helmet which
was based on the Greek Corinthian helmet was invented by the Apulians, and was not a
product of smithies from Taras, since only one has been found there and many more in
the four centers indicated in chapter IV. Secondly, when we look at what was found
inside the tombs, we see Attic vases, Lucanian vases, Campanian ware (black varnished)
as well as pottery of local production. Which means that the Apulians did not took over
everything from other cultures, since they kept making their own pottery and their own
helmets. Thus the tombs show an international society, in which there still was room for
local products. The Apulians did not live in a closed off culture that kept their product to
themselves but had contacts with their neighboring cultures. In that respect, their culture
looks like that of ours, we also import non local objects, although the distances of today

100
are bigger. We also modify foreign ideas to our liking, as the Apulians did with the
Corinthian helmet.
The last thing that can be said about the inventory of the tombs is that in only one of the
tombs a religious object was found, in Larino, the statuette of Mars. In the rest of the
tombs no religious objects have been found, which is remarkable. However this does not
mean that they did not have a religion, it only shows us that it was not usual to take
religious objects in the grave.

VII.3 The bigger picture

What can the information from this thesis add to the ongoing debate about what the
relations between the Greek colonies and the local inhabitants was?
According to Burgers (Burgers 1999, 20) the idea that the Greek colonies were an island
of civilization in a marginal world should be rejected. In the research of the Salento
peninsula (Messapic territory) performed by the University of Amsterdam, Burgers saw
that before the Spartans founded Taras the Messapic area was already becoming more
densely populated. They also saw that more areas of the landscapes became in use and
that some settlements became bigger than surrounding settlements (Burgers 1999, 23).
This was linked to expansion and the reshaping of territories in the area. Because of the
material culture of this region being similar this was not seen earlier. With the arrival of
the Spartans it was possible to see Taras’ expansion because of the different material
culture, and so it was assumed that Taras was dominating and that the indigenous peoples
of Apulia were being dominated by Taras (Burgers 1999, 23). Burgers found out that that
this was not the case and that the indigenous peoples were actually on par with Taras
when looking at the central organization of territory and military sphere (Burgers 1999,
26).
When we compare this with the Peucetian and Daunian area we can draw the same
conclusions. Although this thesis did not investigate the centralization and spreading of
Apulian cities, we can still see by looking at the Apulo-Corintihan helmets and its
contexts that this area was certainly not undeveloped. We know the Apulians produced
their own weapons (e.g. crucifix-form sword and Apulo-Corinthian sword) that they
imported pottery from elsewhere (Attic vases, Lucanian and Campanian vessels) but also
produced their own pottery which have also been found outside their territory. So they
had contacts with surrounding cultures but were certainly not being dominated by them,

101
the amount of imports was in most tombs lesser than the amount of local made objects.
Another piece of evidence is the fact that the necropoles in which the Apulo-Corinthian
helmets were found include much warrior equipment. Almost every man found in these
necropoli had military equipment which indicates a military developed organization (an
army). Also the spreading of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets indicate at least 4 centres
(Melfi, Canosa, Ruvo di Puglia and Rutigliano) all well known for big amounts of
military equipment found in their necropoli. This might suggest that these 4 cities were
centres like those found on the Salento peninsula, indicating that this area of Apulia was
also in the same state of development as were the Messapians and Taras. Also the
historical evidence that the Messapians and Peucetians defeated Taras and Rhegium
seems to point out that Taras was on par with the other local cities in a struggle for
power. The fact that the Messapians and Peucetians could amass an army also points to a
certain degree of centralization.
So the image we get from Peucetia and Daunia is the same as for Messapia when looking
at the military sphere. A well developed military system with many warriors and good
equipment, which could compete and even win battles against the Greeks, and certainly
not a marginal world outside the island of civilization.

102
 Resume

This thesis has the subject of the Apulo-Corinthian Helmet, a south-east Italian helmet
type and what it can say about the culture in which it was used. After establishing what an
apulo-Corinthian helmet exactly is and which Type’s there are, I went on and found out
that we can also order these helmets by Groups that were made by the same craftsman.
After this I investigated the spreading, which very clearly pointed out Apulia was the
region were these helmets originate from. Then I explained that to helmets with a known
context were all from tombs, some very rich, some of them poorer than other graves of
their time, but most of the tombs had the same objects within them; military equipment,
metal vessels, Lucanian, Campanian and local pottery, and some had Attic pottery. In the
conclusion I answered the research questions, Where, when and in which contexts do
these helmets occur? And What is the meaning of this type helmet in these contexts
and what does this meaning of the helmets say about the cultural character of
Apulia between the end of the 6th and the end of the 4th century B.C.?
The answers on the first question are: Apulia, between 525 and 350 B. C. and in tombs.
The answer on the second question is: This type of helm might have been a parade helm,
but it was also used in combat. It was available to everyone, if they could afford it, and so
it was not only for high ranking persons. Looking at the tomb inventory we see that the
Apulians had quite a network with their neighboring tribes, as well as the Greeks, on
whose helmets they base the Apulo-Corinthian helmet.
What also comes forth from this thesis is that the area where this type of helmet was worn
was a centralized area with a big army, so well organized that they could take on the
struggle with Taras as is also the case for Messapia, shown in the regional pathways to
complexity project of the University of Amsterdam.

103
 Samenvatting

Deze scriptie heeft als onderwerp de Apulo-Corinthische helm, een zuidoost Italiaanse
helm type en wat dit type ons kan vertellen over de cultuur waarin deze werd gebruikt.
Nadat ik heb uitgelegd wat deze helm precies is en welke typen er zijn, ben ik
verdergegaan met deze helmen in te delen in groepen van dezelfde maker. Hierna
onderzocht ik de verspreiding, die vrij duidelijk wees naar Apulië als zijnde het gebied
van oorsprong. Vervolgens heb ik onderzocht uit welke context deze helmen afkomstig
zijn, wat allemaal tombes bleken te zijn. Sommige waren rijkelijk gevuld, andere juist
niet, maar bijna alle tombes hadden ongeveer dezelfde vondstcategorieën: militaire
uitrustingsstukken, bronzenvaatwerk, Lucanisch, Campanisch en lokaal aardewerk, en in
sommige gevallen ook nog Attisch aardewerk. In de conclusie probeerde ik de volgende
vragen te beantwoorden: Waar, wanneer en in wat voor context komen deze helmen
voor? En Wat is de betekenis van deze helmen in deze context en wat zegt deze
betekenis over het culturele karakter van Apulië tussen het eind van de 6e en het
eind van de 4e eeuw v. Chr.?
De antwoorden op de eerste vraag luiden; Apulië, tussen 525 en 350 v. Chr. en in
graftombes.
Het antwoord op de tweede vraag is dat dit type helm waarschijnlijk een parade helm
was, maar werd ook gebruikt in de strijd. Blijkbaar was dit type helm beschikbaar voor
iedereen, dus niet alleen hoog geplaatste personen. Kijkend naar de graf inventaris zien
we dat de Apuliërs waarschijnlijk goede banden onderhielden met hun buren, en daar ook
dingen van af keken en gebruikten zoals de Apulo-Corinthische helm zelf.
Wat ook uit deze thesis voortkomt is het beeld dat de regio waar deze helmen werden
gedragen gecentraliseerd was en zo goed georganiseerd en uitgerust was dat ze de strijd
met Taras aankonden en daar zeker niet de mindere waren, maar gelijken, een conclusie
die ook al werd getrokken in het pathways to complexity project van de Universiteit van
Amsterdam.

104
 Word of thanks

Firstly, I want to thank my tutor, Dr. Miguel John Versluys, who had the confidence in
me that I could handle this subject, and for giving me advice and time to get this thesis
ready. Secondly, I want to thank Prof. Angelo Bottini and Grad student Dan Diffendale
for giving me advice and help. Thirdly, I want to thank my parents for the patience they
had while I occupied the computer and my sisters for not occupying the computer for
some weeks.

My thanks also go out to Andrea Celestino Montanaro, Werner Rutishauser, Iva

Lisikewycz, the Trustees of the British Museum and Cecile Evers for sending me
information and photo’s.

105
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Galleries.

Eisenberg, J. M., 2000. Art of the Ancient World – Volume XI. New York: Royal Athena
Galleries.

Eisenberg, J. M., 2004. Ancient Arms, Armor& Images of Warfare. New York: Royal
Athena Galleries.

112
Emiliozzi, A., 2000. Carri Da Guerra E Principi Etruschi. Rome: L’Erma di
Bretschneider.

Fazia, G. M., 1984. Il Museo Civico Di Foggia. Bari: Adda Editore.

Galerie Günther Puhze, 1981. Kunst der Antike Katalog 1981. Freiburg: Die Galerie
Günther Puhze.

Giorgi, M. and S. Martinelli, M. Osanna and A. Russo (eds), 1988. Forentum, I: Le

Necropolo Di Lavello. Venosa: Edizioni Osanna Venosa.

Hoffmann, E., 1961. Bronzehelme der Sammlung Zschille, Jahrbuch des Museums für
Völkerkunde zu Leipzig18, 106-107, Taf. 37.

Jucker, I., 1991. Italy of the Etruscans. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum.

Kanowsky, M. G., 1978. The Antiquities Collection. Brisbane: The Department of

Classics and Ancient History, University of Queensland.

L’Arab, G., 1996. Works on Exhibit, in Pugliese Carratelli, G. (ed), 1996. The Greek
World. New York: Rizzoli International Publications Inc., 688 & 758.

Lapatin, K. and K. Wright (eds), 2010. The Antiquities Collection. Los Angeles: J. Paul
Getty Museum.

Lo Porto, F. G., 1973. Civiltà Indigena e Penetrazione greca Nella Lucania Orientale.
Rome: Academia Nazionale Dei Lincei.

Lo Porto, F. G., 1976. Locri Epizefirii. Taranto: Arte Tipografica Napoli.

May, H., 1968. Weltkunst Aus Privatbesitz. Cologne: Kölner Museen.

Mayer, M., 1914. Apulien, vor und während der Hellenisirung. Leipzig und Berlin: B. G.
Teubner.

Mazzei, M. (ed), 1984. La Daunia Antica. Milan: Electra Editrice.

Modesti, G. B., 1980. Cairano Nell’Età Arcaica. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale.

Montanaro, A. C., 2007. Ruvo Di Puglia E Il Suo Territorio: Le Necropoli. Rome:

L’Erma di Bretschneider.

Münzen und Medaillen A. G. 1975. Kunstwerke der Antike. Zürich.

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Orlandini, P., 1971. Aspetti Dell’Arte indigena In Magna Graecia, in Le Genti Non
Greche Della Magna Grecia. Taranto: Arte Tipografica Napoli.

Paddock, J. M., 1993. The Bronze Italian Helmet: The development of the Cassis from the
last quarter of the sixth century B.C. to the third quarter of the first century A.D. London:
University of London, Institute of Archaeology.

Pesce, G., 1936. Notizia Scavi 1936.

Pflug, H., 1988. Korinthische Helme, in Bottini, A. and M. Egg, F.-W Von Hase, H.
Pflug, U. Schaaff, P. Schauer and G. Waurick, 1988. Antike Helme. Mainz: Verlag Des
Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, 65-106.

Pirovano, C., 1985. Museo Poldi Pezzoli Armeria 1. Milano: Electa Editrice.

Schumacher, K., 1890. Beschreibung der Sammlung Antiker Bronzen. Karlsruhe.

Sotheby & Co., 1965. Egyptian, Near Eastern, Greek and Roman Antiquities. London.

Sotheby’s, 2001. Antiquities. New York: Sotheby’s.

Von Hase, F-W., 1982. Ein unbekannter Apulisch-Korinthischer helm im Reiss-Museum,

Mannheimer hefte 2, 99-107.

Von Lipperheide, F., 1896. Antike Helme. München: Mühlthaler.

Warry, J., 1980. Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of

Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome.
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Weizinger, F. X., 1918. Sammlungen Ludwig Marx-Mainz, Albert Sieck-München.

München.

114
 List of Figures

Figure 1: Map of south-eastern Italy. Indicated are the approximate territory boundaries
of the three Iapygian (Apulian) tribes. Also indicated is the place where the Spartans
founded Taras (Taranto). Dotted lines indicate imprecise boundaries (after
www.mapsof.net). 7

Figure 2: Crushed skull and helmet of Soldier no.46 on the ramp of "The King's Grave".
The grave of Pu-abi, Early Dynastic III from Ur. As can be seen, this bronze helmet is
fairly simple; it consists of only a semicircular globe (© Trustees of the British Museum).
9

Figure 3: A typical Corinthian helmet, as can be seen, except for the eye and mouth
opening everything is protected, even the ears haven’t got an opening. From the sanctuary
of Zeus at Dodona (© Trustees of the British Museum). 9

Figure 4: An early version of the Corinthian helmet of unknown provenance. Note that
the nose guard is missing (© Trustees of the British Museum). 11

Figure 5: A Corinthian helmet of the ‘sharp edge’ type, found in Corinth, note the sharp
edge between the face and the top of the helmet(© Trustees of the British Museum). 11

Figure 6: A helmet of the ‘Italic’ Corinthian type, note the difference in brow ridge with
the helmet of fig. 6. Found in Ruvo di Puglia (© Trustees of the British Museum). 12

Figure 7: An early version of a Type A Apulo-Corinthian helmet, provenance unknown,

ex private collection in Switzerland. Note the difference in the neck guard and eye
openings (Pflug 1988, 100). 12

Figure 8: A38, where the riveted bridge did not prevent the deformation of the helmet
(Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 13

Figure 9: A typical Type B helmet, note the sharp angle the neck guard makes and the
ring on top of it. Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-collection (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich). 14

Figure 10: A typical Type B helmet, note the sharp angle the neck guard makes and the
ring on top of it. Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-collection (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich). 14

115
Figure 11: A type C helmet, it’s form is resembling a Type B helmet, note the closed
cheeks. Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-collection (Hermann Historica auctions,
Munich). 15

Figure 12: A Type D helmet, it’s very clear here that the nose is not raised anymore.
Provenance unknown, ex Guttmann-collection (www.christies.com). 15

Figure 13: Type E helmet with inscribed eyes and nose. Note the holes in the skull roof
where the crest fixtures were once. provenance unknown (Hermann Historica auctions,
Munich). 16

Figure 14: A wealthily decorated Type E helmet with sculpted nose and inlaid eyes.
Tomb 45, Ruvo di Puglia according to Montanaro 2007, 347 (Bottini 1988, 114). 16

Figure 15: Italian Corinthian helmet from Ruvo del Monte, Tomb 147 (Bottini 1993,
113). 18

Figure 16: Intermediate helmet from Braida di Vaglio, Tomb 107 (Bottini and Setari
2003, Tav. XXI). 18

Figure 17: Intermediate helmet from Braida di Vaglio, Tomb 107 (Bottini and Setari
2003, Tav. XXIII). 18

Figure 18: Intermediate or Apulo-Corinthian helmet (A39), find spot unknown. Note the
green rectangles on top, which indicate that this helmet had crest holders like those of fig.
15 and 16. (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 18

Figure 19: Apulo-Corinthian helmet (A03), from a tomb at Miglionico (Pflug 1988, 99)
18

Figure 20: Apulo-Corinthian helmet (A34), from tomb 108 (Bottini and Setari 2003, Tav.
XXIV).18

Figure 21: A13. The two feather supports are still intact, only the main crest holder is
lost. Provenance unknown (Adam, 1984, 118).19

Figure 22: A13. The two feather supports are still intact, only the main crest holder is
lost. Provenance unknown (Adam, 1984, 118). 19

Figure 23: A16. Both feather supports are broken, as is the crest holder, but the basis of
all three are still visible, provenance is unknown (Von Hase 1982, 99 & 100). 19

116
Figure 24: A16. Both feather supports are broken, as is the crest holder, but the basis of
all three are still visible, provenance is unknown (Von Hase 1982, 99 & 100). 19

Figure 25: A40. Crest holder is broken off, no sign of feather supports, provenance
unknown (The Metropolitan Museum of Art) 20

Figure 26: A40. Crest holder is broken off, no sign of feather supports, provenance
unknown (The Metropolitan Museum of Art) 20

Figure 27: A45. Crest holder is broken off, also no sign of feather supports, provenance
unknown (www.artfact.com) 20

Figure 28: Note the leaf shaped decoration at the eyecorners which is not seen in the other
helmets, just as the crest holder placed in a way that the crest itself would be transverse.
Found in Syracuse (Bottini et al. 1988, 420). 21

Figure 29: A01. A deformed helmet, with a broken off crest holder. Found at Melfi in the
Chiucchiari necropolis in Tomb A (Bloesch 1976, 86). 22

Figure 30: A36. The style in which the boards are made can be seen here very good.
Unknown provenance (www.christies.com). 22

Figure 31: A32. Note the snapped crestholder which already was repaired while it was
still in use, and apparently snapped again. Unknown provenance (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich). 22

Figure 32: Close-up of a vase-painting by the Darius painter (dated between 340 and 330
B.C.) which was found in Canosa. Not the crest holders of the two helmets that are curled
instead of resembling a two pronged (www.sas.upenn.edu). 24

Figure 33: A38, one of the two Type A helmets in this group with a riveted bridge.
Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 24

Figure 34: B25, the other Type A helmet with the modification. Note that in both helmets
the riveted bridge is not intact anymore. The provenance of this one is also unknown
(Münzen und Medaillen AG 1975, 59). 24

Figure 35: B34, note that the brow ridges in this helmet still come together and point
downwards until the nose guard as in A38 and B25. In other helmets the two brow ridges
will come together at the beginning of the nose guard and forming a kind of V in the

117
middle, whereas in this helmet it is more of an Y. Provenance unknown, (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich). 25

Figure 36: B05, This helmet has been decorated with a prancing horse on each cheek, and
has both of its feather holders and the crest holder. Note the V shaped browridge near the
nose guard. It was found at Lavello in tomb 56 (www.joinitaly.com).25

Figure 37: B43, Decorated with at least one boar. Unfortunately the nose guard has been
broken off. Provenance unknown (L’Arab 1996, 758). 25

Figure 38: B41, which is decorated with two charging boars. Both feather supports and
the crest holder have broken off and the helmet has a hole in its side. Provenance
Unknown (Detroit Institute of Arts Museum). 25

Figure 39: B33, the feather supports are broken off, but the rest of the helmet is complete,
This helmet and B02 are almost identical, except for the fact that this one has one bridge
and B02 has two bridges. Provenance unknown (Metropolitan Museum of Art). 26

Figure 40: B02, has been decorated with two charging boars. The two grey areas on its
right cheek are modern restorations. Found at Melfi-Chiuchiari in tomb F (Bottini 1988,
131). 26

Figure 41: B36, is also decorated with two charging boars, but has, unlike most other
helmets of this group, oval eyeholes instead of semicircular ones. A38, B04 and C12 also
have oval eyes. Unknown provenance (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 26

Figure 42: B04, the crest holder and one of the feather supports have been broken off. It
is also decorated with two charging boars. Found at Melfi-Leonessa tomb 7 (Bottini
1988, 111). 26

Figure 43: B37 is decorated with two charging boars and has two feather supports and a
crest holder. It also has a hole in the middle of its brow ridge, the function of this hole is
unknown. Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 27

Figure 44: B40. The top of the crest holder has been broken off, just as the two feather
supports. Also this helmet is laterally compressed. Provenance unknown (Hermann
Historica auctions, Munich). 27

Figure 45: C12. Although this helmet is of Type C it still belongs to this group, the form
of the nose guard and the brow and forehead ridges are the same, only the eyeholes are
smaller and the cheeks are completely fused. Also the crest holder is different. It is

118
decorated with a lion and a dog on its left cheek and a warrior on a horse on its right
cheek. Said to be from Taranto (May 1968, fig. 31). 27

Figure 46: C30 is almost similar in appearance as C12 only the crest holder is of the
normal type and the decorations are not determinable. The function of the two
protuberances on its cheeks is unknown Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich). 27

Figure 47: C31 looks more like the Type B helmets of the group, since the other Type C
helmets of this group have small eyes and this helmet has eyes that are somewhat bigger.
Provenance Unknown (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 28

Figure 48: B39 probably never had feather supports, although it could be that they were
removed with their whole base, leaving behind no evidence of them ever being there.
Provenance unknown (Seattle Art Museum). 28

Figure 49: B39 probably never had feather supports, although it could be that they were
removed with their whole base, leaving behind no evidence of them ever being there.
Provenance unknown (Seattle Art Museum). 28

Figure 50: B12. The top of the crest holder has broken off. Also seems to be undecorated,
just as the other two helmets in this group. Found in Friuli (Von Lipperheide 1896, 70).
29

Figure 51: B23. Both feather supports and the crest holder are still intact. Note that the
crest holder has been bent. Undecorated. Provenance unknown (Comstock and Vermeule
1971, 495). 29

Figure 52: B16. The nose guard is broken off, just as the two feather supports and the
crestholder, which could be taken off, is lost. Provenance unknown (Pirovano 1985, 50).
30

Figure 53: B21. The end of the nose guard has been broken off, and the crest holder has
been made to mount the crest transverse. Provenance unknown (Jubelparkmuseum
Brussel). 30

Figure 54: B22. The crest holder and a feather support have been broken off, and it has
been found at Ruvo di Puglia in a tomb known as ‘Tomba a sarcofago rinvenuta in Piazza
G. Matteotti, and Montanaro has given it the number 2 (Montanaro 2007, 235). 30

119
Figure 55: B30. Not much is known about this helmet, this is the only photo, on which
cannot be seen if there are any lion decorations. What we can see is that the crestholder
has been twisted. Provenance unknown (www.sas.upenn.edu). 30

Figure 56: C33. This helmet does not seem to have had any feather supports. Provenance
unknown (Museum zu Allerheiligen). 31

Figure 57: C33. This helmet does not seem to have had any feather supports. Provenance
unknown (Museum zu Allerheiligen). 31

Figure 58: C32. One of two ‘early’ helmets, where especially the brow ridges are not as
finely made as in the other helmets of the group. Also the eyes are places higher than in
later examples. Its left cheek is decorated with a charging bull and its right cheek has a
lion on it. The back of the helmet is decorated with two dolphins. Provenance unknown
(Phoenix Ancient Art). 32

Figure 59: C32. One of two ‘early’ helmets, where especially the brow ridges are not as
finely made as in the other helmets of the group. Also the eyes are places higher than in
later examples. Its left cheek is decorated with a charging bull and its right cheek has a
lion on it. The back of the helmet is decorated with two dolphins. Provenance unknown
(Phoenix Ancient Art). 32

Figure 60: C07. The other ‘early’ helmet, the eyeholes are already lower but there are still
other early characteristics, the long nose guard and the round eyes for example, which, as
we will see later, will become less long and the eyeholes will become more oval. It has
been decorated on its cheeks with two charging bulls and on the back of the helmet are
two dolphins and a shell. Found at Rutigliano in tomb 11 (thierry.jamard.over-blog.com).
32

Figure 61: C16. The eyeholes of this helmet are still round, but the brow ridge is arealdy
more finely made and the ends curve more upwards, in contrast with the brow ridges of
C07 and C32. Good to see here is that the forehead ridge and the ridge on the back of the
helmet are one fluid line with the double row of dots above it. Provenance unknown
(Weizinger 1918, Tafel 7). 33

Figure 62: C03. The eyeholes of this helmet are already not round anymore and the nose
guard is also shorter. Its left cheek is decorated with a charging bull and its right is
decorated with a charging boar. The back of the helmet has been decorated with two sea
serpents. Found at Canosa (www.sas.upenn.edu). 33

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Figure 63: C23. The eyeholes are almond shaped and both cheeks are decorated with two
sphinxes. The back of the helmet is decorated with two reclining men with between them
a kantharos. Provenance unknown (http://theancientworld.tumblr.com). 33

Figure 64: C13. The nose guard of this helmet has broken off so that now it is possible to
see how the two cheek pieces are separated underneath the nose guard, as can be seen,
under the nose guard the two cheeks are not fused together. It has been decorated with
two boars. Found at Capua (Hoffmann 1961, Taf. XXXVII). 33

Figure 65: C04. The eyeholes are the smallest of the whole group but other than that the
rest of the characteristics are present. The left cheek is decorated with a bull, the right one
is decorated with a lion. Found at Canosa (L’Arab 1996, 688). 34

Figure 66: C21. Provenance unknown (Galerie Günther Puhze 1981, Taf. 33). 34

Figure 67: C22. Note the unusual crouching position of the boars and the long brow
ridge. Found at Ginosa in Tomb 13-01-1935 (Dell'Aglio and Lippolis 1992, 162). 34

Figure 68: C25. Note the similarities between this helmet and the previous two. The only
differences are that this one has flower decorations above the boars and on its forehead
and that this is the only helmet of the group that still has its crest holder. Provenance
unknown (Born 1993, Beispiel XIII) & (www.sas.upenn.edu). 35

Figure 69: C25. Note the similarities between this helmet and the previous two. The only
differences are that this one has flower decorations above the boars and on its forehead
and that this is the only helmet of the group that still has its crest holder. Provenance
unknown (Born 1993, Beispiel XIII) & (www.sas.upenn.edu). 35

Figure 70: A14. This helmet belongs to Type A according to Bottini (Bottini 1988, 134),
but he only knew it from fig. 69. Since then it has been restored and when we look at the
semi circular eyeholes and the long brow ridge, I can say with some confidence that this
is actually a Type C helmet where the connection between the two cheeks had been
destroyed. Provenance unknown (Pirovano 1985, 52) &
(http://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it). 35

Figure 71: A14. This helmet belongs to Type A according to Bottini (Bottini 1988, 134),
but he only knew it from fig. 69. Since then it has been restored and when we look at the
semi circular eyeholes and the long brow ridge, I can say with some confidence that this
is actually a Type C helmet where the connection between the two cheeks had been

121
destroyed. Provenance unknown (Pirovano 1985, 52) &
(http://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it). 35

Figure 72: 72: C24. Provenance unknown (www.sas.upenn.edu). 36

Figure 73: C29. Provenance unknown. Note the similarities between this helmet and C24.
Whereas C24 has both prongs of the crest holder, C29 has only one left
(www.sas.upenn.edu). 36

Figure 74: C29. Provenance unknown. Note the similarities between this helmet and C24.
Whereas C24 has both prongs of the crest holder, C29 has only one left
(www.sas.upenn.edu). 36

Figure 75: D01. Found in Serra di Vaglio, seems to have had a crest holder (Bertarelli
1962, 65). 37

Figure 76: D04. This helmet has two opposing boars as decoration, but because of the bad
photographs we cannot see in which style these boars are inscribed. Provenance unknown
(http://www.uq.edu.au). 37

Figure 77: D07. This helmet has the boars inscribed in the same style as D08. Provenance
unknown (Sotheby's 2001, 60). 38

Figure 78: D08. Provenance unknown (Hermann Historica auctions, Munich). 38

Figure 79: D02 is said to be found at Ponte Cucchiaio (Pesce 1936, 436) & (Paddock
1993, 90), but where they have this information from is not known to me. The helmet has
no crest anymore and never had feather supports (Bottini 1988, 120). 38

Figure 80: D05. Provenance unknown, note that the two prongs of the crest holder have
been bent (http://www.christies.com). 38

Figure 81: E02. Found at Cairano in tomb XVI. The crest holder has been removed, since
there are only two holes left on top of the helmet (Modesti 1980, Tav. 92). 39

Figure 82: E02. Found at Cairano in tomb XVI. The crest holder has been removed, since
there are only two holes left on top of the helmet (Modesti 1980, Tav. 92). 39

Figure 83: E03. Found at Vulci. The crest holder has been broken off (© Trustees of the
British Museum) & (Bottini 1988, 121). 39

Figure 84: E03. Found at Vulci. The crest holder has been broken off (© Trustees of the
British Museum) & (Bottini 1988, 121). 39

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Figure 85: E10. Provenance unknown, the boars are in the same style as those of Group 1,
D07 and D08 (© Trustees of the British Museum). 40

Figure 86: E12. Provenance unknown, has been compressed laterally and has two holes
near the nose bridge. Where these holes severed for is unknown (Hermann Historica
auctions, Munich). 40

Figure 87: E09. Perhaps from Ruvo di Puglia, since it is housed in a museum with only
finds from that city (http://www.techvision.it). 40

Figure 88: E11. Provenance unknown (http://www.christies.com). 40

Figure 89: Spreading of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets with an exact find spot (including
the 4 that are uncertain). The one with an arrow is B14 which was found in Athens (after
www.mapsof.net). 42

Figure 90: Map showing the spreading of Type A helmets (after www.mapsof.net). 43

Figure 91: Map showing the spreading of type B helmets. The helmet C12 from Group 1
has been included in Fig. 92 since it is a Type C helmet (after www.mapsof.net). 44

Figure 92: Map showing the spreading of Type C helmets. The one found at Taranto is
C12 from Type B’s Group 1 (after www.mapsof.net). 45

Figure 93: Map showing the spreading of Type D helmets (after www.mapsof.net). 46

Figure 94: Map showing the spreading of Type E helmets (after www.mapsof.net). 47

Figure 95: Map showing the spreading of the unknown Type helmet (after
www.mapsof.net). 47

Figure 96: Several views of Tomb A (Pesce 1936, 429). 49

Figure 97: Reconstruction of the inside of Tomb A. note the wealth of this tomb with
pottery stacked upon each other and almost no space left for the diseased (Pesce 1936,
430). 50

Figure 98: From left to right: Apulo-Corinthian helmet, lekythos and a crater. The Apulo-
Corinthian helmet is probably incomplete because of the tufa slab which was broken
when the tomb was discovered (Pesce 1936, 436, 432 & 431). 51

123
Figure 99: From left to right: Apulo-Corinthian helmet, lekythos and a crater. The Apulo-
Corinthian helmet is probably incomplete because of the tufa slab which was broken
when the tomb was discovered (Pesce 1936, 436, 432 & 431). 51

Figure 100: From left to right: Apulo-Corinthian helmet, lekythos and a crater. The
Apulo-Corinthian helmet is probably incomplete because of the tufa slab which was
broken when the tomb was discovered (Pesce 1936, 436, 432 & 431). 51

Figure 101: From left to right: stamnos, oenochoe and a kylix (Pesce 1936, 433 & 434).
51

Figure 102: From left to right: stamnos, oenochoe and a kylix (Pesce 1936, 433 & 434).
51

Figure 103: From left to right: stamnos, oenochoe and a kylix (Pesce 1936, 433 & 434).
51

Figure 104: From left to right: no-handled cup, skyphos and a krateriskos (Pesce 1936,
434 & 435). 52

Figure 105: From left to right: no-handled cup, skyphos and a krateriskos (Pesce 1936,
434 & 435). 52

Figure 106: From left to right: no-handled cup, skyphos and a krateriskos (Pesce 1936,
434 & 435). 52

Figure 107: A guttus and a lekythos (Pesce 1936, 435). 52

Figure 108: A guttus and a lekythos (Pesce 1936, 435). 52

Figure 109: Views of Tomb XVI. Note that the helmets is located near the left thigh, with
its ‘face’ almost to the north (Modesti 1980, Tav. 60 & 65). 53

Figure 110: Views of Tomb XVI. Note that the helmets is located near the left thigh, with
its ‘face’ almost to the north (Modesti 1980, Tav. 60 & 65). 53

Figure 111: Content of Tomb XVI (Modesti 1980, Tav. 92). 54

Figure 112: Content of Tomb XVI continued (Modesti 1980, Tav. 91). 55

Figure 113: An Corinthian helmet and an Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Dell'Aglio and

Lippolis 1992, 162). 56

124
Figure 114: An Corinthian helmet and an Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Dell'Aglio and
Lippolis 1992, 162). 56

Figure 115: Front and back view of the cuirass and a rear view of the belt (D'Amicis
1994, 334 & 335). 57

Figure 116: Front and back view of the cuirass and a rear view of the belt (D'Amicis
1994, 334 & 335). 57

Figure 117: Front and side views of the greaves and front view of the prometopidia
(D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 338). 57

Figure 118: Front and side views of the greaves and front view of the prometopidia
(D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 338). 57

Figure 119: Front view of the porsternidia (D’Amicis 1994, 338). 57

Figure 120: A lebes, a podanipter and a basin (D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 337). 57

Figure 121: A lebes, a podanipter and a basin (D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 337). 57

Figure 122: A lebes, a podanipter and a basin (D’Amicis 1994, 336 & 337). 57

Figure 123: An olpe, a sieve and another sieve (D’Amicis 1994, 337). 58

Figure 124: An olpe, a sieve and another sieve (D’Amicis 1994, 337). 58

Figure 125: An olpe, a sieve and another sieve (D’Amicis 1994, 337). 58

Figure 126: A mouthpiece, a spatula, an Attic lekythos and an oinochoe (D’Amicis 1994,
337). 58

Figure 127: A mouthpiece, a spatula, an Attic lekythos and an oinochoe (D’Amicis 1994,
337). 58

Figure 128: A mouthpiece, a spatula, an Attic lekythos and an oinochoe (D’Amicis 1994,
337). 58

Figure 129: A mouthpiece, a spatula, an Attic lekythos and an oinochoe (D’Amicis 1994,
337). 58

Figure 130: A kylix and three skyphoi (D’Amicis 1994, 337 & 338). 58

Figure 131: A kylix and three skyphoi (D’Amicis 1994, 337 & 338). 58

Figure 132: A kylix and three skyphoi (D’Amicis 1994, 337 & 338). 58

125
Figure 133: A kylix and three skyphoi (D’Amicis 1994, 337 & 338). 58

Figure 134: A kantharos and a chytra (D’Amicis 1994, 338). 58

Figure 135: A kantharos and a chytra (D’Amicis 1994, 338). 58

Figure 136: A Picenian helmet and a Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Capini and Di Niro 1991,
98) (http://www.archeologicamolise.beniculturali.it). 59

Figure 137: A Picenian helmet and a Apulo-Corinthian helmet (Capini and Di Niro 1991,
98) (http://www.archeologicamolise.beniculturali.it). 59

Figure 138: Stamnos handle (Capini and Di Niro, 1991, 376). 59

Figure 139: An apulo-Corinthian helmet, a bronze stamnos and a bronze statuette of Mars
(Capini and Di Niro 1991, 98 & 383). 60

Figure 140: An apulo-Corinthian helmet, a bronze stamnos and a bronze statuette of Mars
(Capini and Di Niro 1991, 98 & 383). 60

Figure 141: An apulo-Corinthian helmet, a bronze stamnos and a bronze statuette of Mars
(Capini and Di Niro 1991, 98 & 383). 60

Figure 142: Most of the tomb content, from left to right, back row first: olla, oinochoe,
Apulo-Corinthian helmet, 3 brocchetta’s, kyathos, calice, brocchetta, askos, 2
brocchetta’s, krateriskos, two-handled bowl, bronze basin, single-handled bowl, kalyx,
iron spearhead and an iron sauroter (Adamesteanu et al. 1971, Tav. LVII). 61

Figure 143: 2 Apulo-Corinthian helmets, A01 and A02 (Bloesch 1976, 86) (Adamesteanu
1974, 182). 62

Figure 144: 2 Apulo-Corinthian helmets, A01 and A02 (Bloesch 1976, 86) (Adamesteanu
1974, 182). 62

Figure 145: Apulo-Corinthian helmets B01 and B02 (Bottini 1988, 130 & 131). 63

Figure 146: Apulo-Corinthian helmets B01 and B02 (Bottini 1988, 130 & 131). 63

Figure 147: Two iron wheel rims, and a bronze shield in the middle, 3 of the 6 greaves to
the right with a belt behind them. In the back ground a stamnos, basins and lebetes
(www.joinitaly.com). 63

Figure 148: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet B04 and an olla (Adamesteanu et al. 1971,
Tav. XLVI). 64

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Figure 149: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet B04 and an olla (Adamesteanu et al. 1971,
Tav. XLVI). 64

Figure 150: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A03 (Pflug 1988, 99). 64

Figure 151: Apulo-Corintihan helmet C01 and a belt, the four loose objects on the right
are the hooks and eyes to fasten the belt (www.sas.upenn.edu) (Bottini 1993, 190). 65

Figure 152: Apulo-Corintihan helmet C01 and a belt, the four loose objects on the right
are the hooks and eyes to fasten the belt (ww.sas.upenn.edu) (Bottini 1993, 190). 65

Figure 153: A lebes, Attic skyphoi, oletta and a one-handled cup (Bottini 1993, 191). 65

Figure 154: A Campanian crater (Bottini 1993, 192). 66

Figure 155: A bronze ring shaped spiral (Bottini 1993, 190). 66

Figure 156: An Apulo-Corinthian helmet B09 (www.sas.upenn.edu). 67

Figure 157: An apulo-Corinthian helmet and from left to right beginning at the back row:
a brocca, kylix, patera, bowl, brocca, askos, brocca, bowl, olla, oinochoe (Bottini 1988,
113). 67

Figure 158: An apulo-Corinthian helmet and from left to right beginning at the back row:
a brocca, kylix, patera, bowl, brocca, askos, brocca, bowl, olla, oinochoe (Bottini 1988,
113). 67

Figure 159: Metal objects form Tomb 11. From left to right beginning at the upper row:
Apulo-Corinthian helmet, basin, lebes, 2 greaves, basin handles, bronze fragments, sieve,
bronze platework, metal fragments, fragment of a belt, an unidentified object, 2 strigilae,
a fragment of a belt, a belt and a patera (Bottini 1988, 122). 68

Figure 160: Ceramic objects from Tomb 11. From left to right starting at the upper row:
bowl with grease spout, brocca, lebes, crater, oletta, pelike, oinochoe, two-handled cup,
brocca, lekythos, single handled cup, spouted pitcher, brocca, brocca, oinochoe, bowl,
kylix, kylix, kylix, spouted pitcher, two handled cup, one-handled cup, two handled cup,
bowl, askos, bowl, brocca, skyphos, no handled cup, single handled cup, single handled
cup, kylix, kylix (Bottini 1988, 122). 69

Figure 161: Metal finds from Tomb 24. From left to right, starting in the back: lebes,
oinochoe, patera, unknown, lebes, lebes tripod, thymiaterion, unknown, parts of a sword

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and knifes, kylix, 2 sieves, a patera, 2 greaves a belt, Apulo-Coritnmihan helmet and 2
strigilae as well as bronze fragments of unknown identity (Lo Porto 1976, Tav. CXII). 70

Figure 162: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B22 and a bronze belt (Montanaro 2007, 235 &
227). 71

Figure 163: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B22 and a bronze belt (Montanaro 2007, 235 &
227). 71

Figure 164: A bronze belt and an iron sword. All swords found in tombs with Apulo-
Corinthian helmets were of this crucifix-form type (Montanaro 2007, 227 & 230). 71

Figure 165: A bronze belt and an iron sword. All swords found in tombs with Apulo-
Corinthian helmets were of this crucifix-form type (Montanaro 2007, 227 & 230). 71

Figure 166: Iron cusp and spear points and an iron spearhead and sauroter (Montanaro
2007, 232). 72

Figure 167: Iron cusp and spear points and an iron spearhead and sauroter (Montanaro
2007, 232). 72

Figure 168: Iron cusp and an iron knife (Montanaro 2007, 232). 72

Figure 169: Iron cusp and an iron knife (Montanaro 2007, 232). 72

Figure 170: Bronze lebes and 2 basins (Montanaro 2007, 224 & 225). 72

Figure 171: Bronze lebes and 2 basins (Montanaro 2007, 224 & 225). 72

Figure 172: Bronze lebes and 2 basins (Montanaro 2007, 224 & 225). 72

Figure 173: Bronze handle from a basin, an iron tripod and a bronze tripod (Montanaro
2007, 227, 232, 227). 72

Figure 174: Bronze handle from a basin, an iron tripod and a bronze tripod (Montanaro
2007, 227, 232, 227). 72

Figure 175: Bronze handle from a basin, an iron tripod and a bronze tripod (Montanaro
2007, 227, 232, 227). 72

Figure 176: Bronze feet of a tripod and a bronze sieve (Montanaro 2007, 228 & 227). 72

Figure 177: Bronze feet of a tripod and a bronze sieve (Montanaro 2007, 228 & 227). 72

Figure 178: Lead keagra and lead parts of an andiron (Montanaro 2007, 229). 73

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Figure 179: Lead keagra and lead parts of an andiron (Montanaro 2007, 229). 73

Figure 180: Attic crater with a depiction of the departure of a warrior, an Attic lekythos
and a kylix with eyes (Montanaro 2007, 234). 73

Figure 181: Attic crater with a depiction of the departure of a warrior, an Attic lekythos
and a kylix with eyes (Montanaro 2007, 234). 73

Figure 182: Attic crater with a depiction of the departure of a warrior, an Attic lekythos
and a kylix with eyes (Montanaro 2007, 234). 73

Figure 183: Attic kylix with eyes, a black varnished Attic kylix and a lanceolate lead
object (perhaps part of the lead keagra) (Montanaro 2007, 234 & 229). 73

Figure 184: Attic kylix with eyes, a black varnished Attic kylix and a lanceolate lead
object (perhaps part of the lead keagra) (Montanaro 2007, 234 & 229). 73

Figure 185: Attic kylix with eyes, a black varnished Attic kylix and a lanceolate lead
object (perhaps part of the lead keagra) (Montanaro 2007, 234 & 229). 73

Figure 186: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81),
(www.atlantedellarteitaliana.it) & (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81). 74

Figure 187: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81),
(www.atlantedellarteitaliana.it) & (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81). 74

Figure 188: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81),
(www.atlantedellarteitaliana.it) & (De Juliis 1983, Tav. 81). 74

Figure 189: From the upper left corner to the lower right corner: panathenaican amphora,
protolucanian krater, panathenaican amphora, attic askos, attic skyphos, protolucanian
skyphos, protolucanian askos, protolucanian oinochoe, Apulo-Corinthian helmet E01 and
a protolucanian kantharos (Montanaro 2007, 341). 74

Figure 190: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A06 and a partial Corinthian helmet. Note the
unusual noseguard of A06 (Montanaro 2007, 546 & 545). 75

Figure 191: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A06 and a partial Corinthian helmet. Note the
unusual noseguard of A06 (Montanaro 2007, 546 & 545). 75

Figure 192: A greave for the right leg and two prosternidia (Montanaro 2007, 546 &
544). 75

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Figure 193: A greave for the right leg and two prosternidia (Montanaro 2007, 546 &
544). 75

Figure 194: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B47 (Montanaro 2007, 632). 76

Figure 195: Apulo-Corinthian helmet B47 (Montanaro 2007, 632). 76

Figure 196: 3 Attic kylixes (Montanaro 2007, 623, 625 & 626). 76

Figure 197: 3 Attic kylixes (Montanaro 2007, 623, 625 & 626). 76

Figure 198: 3 Attic kylixes (Montanaro 2007, 623, 625 & 626). 76

Figure 199: An Attic bell krater and two Attic amphorae (Montanaro 2007, 627, 632 &
633). 77

Figure 200: An Attic bell krater and two Attic amphorae (Montanaro 2007, 627, 632 &
633). 77

Figure 201: An Attic bell krater and two Attic amphorae (Montanaro 2007, 627, 632 &
633). 77

Figure 202: 2 Attic oinochoe’s and an Attic askos (Montanaro 2007, 621, 631, 630). 77

Figure 203: 2 Attic oinochoe’s and an Attic askos (Montanaro 2007, 621, 631, 630). 77

Figure 204: 2 Attic oinochoe’s and an Attic askos (Montanaro 2007, 621, 631, 630). 77

Figure 205: An Attic kantharos, an Attic rhyton and a protolucanian oinochoe

(Montanaro 2007, 622, 634 & 631). 77

Figure 206: An Attic kantharos, an Attic rhyton and a protolucanian oinochoe

(Montanaro 2007, 622, 634 & 631). 77

Figure 207: An Attic kantharos, an Attic rhyton and a protolucanian oinochoe

(Montanaro 2007, 622, 634 & 631). 77

Figure 208: A protoapulian krater and two panathenaican amphorae (Montanaro 2007,
612, 618 & 620). 78

Figure 209: A protoapulian krater and two panathenaican amphorae (Montanaro 2007,
612, 618 & 620). 78

Figure 210: A protoapulian krater and two panathenaican amphorae (Montanaro 2007,
612, 618 & 620). 78

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Figure 211: A panathenaican amphora and a protolucanian hydria (Montanaro 2007, 629
& 615). 78

Figure 212: A panathenaican amphora and a protolucanian hydria (Montanaro 2007, 629
& 615). 78

Figure 213: A golden necklace with ramhead ends and a golden fibula (Montanaro 2007,
627 & 628). 78

Figure 214: A golden necklace with ramhead ends and a golden fibula (Montanaro 2007,
627 & 628). 78

Figure 215: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A04 and its associated cuirass (www.sheshen-
eceni.co.uk), (© Trustees of the British Museum). 79

Figure 216: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A04 and its associated cuirass (www.sheshen-
eceni.co.uk), (© Trustees of the British Museum). 79

Figure 217: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A08 (Fazia 1984, 25). 79

Figure 218: Tomb content of Tomb 2, without the sword. From left to right, starting
above: brocca, Apulo-Corinthian helmet C02, stamnos, brocca, no-handled-cup, single-
handled cup, crater, nestoris, kylix and another kylix (Bottini 1993, 117). 80

Figure 219: Excavation map of Tomb 108. Note that the belts lay flat and loose on the
floor, suggesting that when the man was buried he didn’t wear them, but that they were
placed below or on top of him (Bottini and Setari 2003, 76). 81

Figure 220: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A34 (Bottini and Setari 2003, Tav. XXIV). 82

Figure 221: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A34 (Bottini and Setari 2003, Tav. XXIV). 82

Figure 222: Reconstruction of A34 (Bottini and Setari 2003, 78). 82

Figure 223: Bronze belts. The big one was usually worn around the waist while the
thinner one has been determined as being a strap where the sword was attached to (Bottini
and Setari 2003, Tav. XXIX & XXX). 83

Figure 224: Bronze belts. The big one was usually worn around the waist while the
thinner one has been determined as being a strap where the sword was attached to (Bottini
and Setari 2003, Tav. XXIX & XXX). 83

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Figure 225: The iron blade of a crucifix-form sword, a no-handled cup and an oletta
(Bottini and Setari 2003, 79 & 77). 83

Figure 226: The iron blade of a crucifix-form sword, a no-handled cup and an oletta
(Bottini and Setari 2003, 79 & 77). 83

Figure 227: The iron blade of a crucifix-form sword, a no-handled cup and an oletta
(Bottini and Setari 2003, 79 & 77). 83

Figure 228: All that remains of an unknown tomb: Apulo-Corinthian helmet A37 and two
greaves (http://www.hermann-historica.de). 85

Figure 229: Apulo-Corinthian helmet C23 and 2 accompanying greaves

(http://www.flickr.com/photos/taimoo/2966023440/). 85

Figure 230: The remains of an unknown tomb, an Apulo-Corinthian helmet C25, a triple-
disc cuirass plate, a belt and two greaves (www.sas.upenn.edu). 86

Figure 231: Apulo-Corinthian helmet C25, both halves of a rectangular anatomical

cuirass and two greaves (www.sas.upenn.edu). 87

Figure 232: Apulo-Corinthian helmet D05, a long anatomical cuirass and two greaves
(www.artfact.com), (Eisenberg 2004, 7). 87

Figure 233: Apulo-Corinthian helmet D05, a long anatomical cuirass and two greaves
(www.artfact.com), (Eisenberg 2004, 7). 87

Figure 234: Apulo-Corinthian helmet E08 (www.christies.com). 88

Figure 235: Apulo-Corinthian helmet U02 and two greaves (Eisenberg 2004, 6). 89

Figure 236: Apulo-Corinthian helmet U02 and two greaves (Eisenberg 2004, 6). 89

Figure 237: Iron utensils, from upper left corner to the lower right corner: 4-pronged
toaster, knife, lance head, gripper, strigilis and a spearhead (Eisenberg 2004, 6). 89

Figure 238: A Roman soldier wearing an Apulo-Corinthian helmet with cheek parts, one
of many examples of wrong portrayal of this type of helmet (Warry 1980). 90

Figure 239: A correct reconstruction of the Apulo-Corinthian helmet worn by a soldier,

although the helmet is correct, the sword is a falcata, while the sword used by the
Apulians is of the crucifix-form (Fig. 165). Also the long greaves were not very popular

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in Apulia and we know of only 1 occasion where a shield and Apulo-Corinthian helmet
were found together (Connolly 1998, 88). 91

Figure 240: Patroklos’funeral by the Darius painter, for a close up see Fig. 32
(www.hellados.ru). 94

Figure 241: Graph showing the distribution over time of the Apulo-Corinthian helmets.
The dating of the tomb at Larino is very broad and might be 400-350, as it is the only
tomb dated this broad and also being the most recent dated one of the 25 tombs which
have been dated. 97

Figure 242: Graph showing the number of Apulo-Corinthian helmets trough time. Note
that because in the period of 475 until 425 B.C. there have been found much lesser
helmets two peaks arise on both sides of this period. 98

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