After the seeds are formed and become matured,

they are usually scattered in the environment - Corm – also used for storage of food
where they can grow as new plants. of the plant (bulbotuber) ; give rise
to new small corms called cormels

Seed dispersal Genetic Engineering

- scattering of seeds - Genes from one organism is
- important in the survival and distribution of transferred into another organism of
plant species an entirely diff. species.
Ways to Disperse: Genetics
1. External factors - Field of biology that studies heredity
a) Wind and the factors affecting heredity
b) Animals - Environmental Factors affects
c) Humans heredity
d) Water - Heredity – biological processes
2. Specialized structures involved in transmission of traits
a) Dandelion from parents to offsprings
b) Mahogany
Aristotle
Germination
- Blending hypothesis
- Early growth stage of a plant embryo - Matter substance came from the
- Leads to maturity, leads to reproduction mother, condition of traits came from
Plant biotechnologists father (FALSE)
- Contribution of traits came from
- Conduct researches and make use of male and female offspring are very
technologies to breed plants unequal
- Works and discoveries are very important to
the agricultural sector (farmers) Charles Darwin
Types of Reproduction - Blood Theory of Heredity
- Traits from both parents are
1. Asexual transmitted to their offsprings by
- Creates genetically identical blood
offspring - Blood line, blood relative, blue blood
- Offsprings considered as clones
- Advantageous adaptation in most Gene
plants - A molecular unit of heredity of all
- Vegetative structure of plants: living organism
runner, rhizome, tuber, bulb, and
corm Alleles
- Dr. Pedro Escuro - Group of genes
 Well-known plant-breeder in
Dominant
the Phil.
 Led improvement, - Traits that appear
segregation and release of - Always represented by a capital
nine seed Board rice letter
selections Recessive
- Arises from vegetative parts (stem,
roots and leaves) - Traits that do not appear
- Vegetative Reproduction – with the - Hidden
use of vegetative parts - Represented by a small letter
- Modified or specialized stems – Homozygous
Stolons, tubers, bulbs, and corms
- Stolons (runners) – strawberry - Similar traits
- Rhizomes – grow horizontally under - Ex.: AA or aa
the ground Heterozygous
- Tubers – used both for starch
- Different traits
storage and give rise to new plants
- Ex.: aA or Aa
(potato)
- Two or more
- Bulbs – underground stems (onions
& lilies) Phenotype
- Physical charac.
Genotype
- Inner charac.
History of DNA
1866 – Gregor Mendel
- Mendelian Genetics
- Father of Modern Genetics
- Austrian monk
- “Brunn” – Czech Republic
- Caretaker at Monistory
- Used pisum sativum (garden pea)
o Reproduces through self-
pollination
o Diff. varieties and observable
charac.
- 1884 – death
- Research span (1856-1863)
1869 – Friedrich Miescher
- Nuclein (DNA)
- Used bandages of one of wounded
soldier
- Used a procces of DNA isolation
1900 – Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, & Erich van
Tsechermark
- Rediscovered the works of Mendel
- Hugo – Flowering Plants
- Carl – Zea Mays (corn) & peas
- Erich – Peas
- The works of Gregor Mendel are
TRUE and right
- Factors: the one that carries the traits
from parents to offsprings
1911 – Thomas Hunt Morgan
- Genetics on Drosophila
Melanogaster (Fruit Fly)
o Easy to feed and maintain
o Reproduces rapidly
o Has only 4 pairs of
chromosomes
1920 – Herman Muller
- X-ray Mutants
- Friend of Thomas Hunt Morgan
- Radiation coming from the x-ray can
cause mutation
1928 – Frederick Griffith
- Transforming Principle: Protein
- Bacteria: Strepococcu pneumonia
o Causes pneumonia
1929 – Phoebus Levene
- Chemical Structure of Sugar
(C6H12O6)
- Concluded the parts of nuclein
1931 – Barbara McClintock
- Jumping Genes (crossing over)
- Won noble prize
1941 – George Beadle, Edward Tatum
- One gene, one protein
- Used a specimen / organism
Neurosporra crassa (red bead
molds)
- A gene can create protein for the
development of the body
1942 – Joshua Lederberg
- Conjugating bacteria
- Used E coli
o Multiplies twice in 20
minutes
- Conjugate – a genetic material is
passed on a bacteria to another
1944 – Maclyn McCarty, Collin Mcleod, Oswald
Avery
- Transforming principle: Nucleic
Acid
1945 – Evelyn Witkin
- DNA repair mechanism
- If a DNA fails, mutation happens
1950 – Erwin Chargaff
- Chargaff’s ratio, rules, & law
- Phosphate, Deoxyribose, & Base
- A = 33, T = 33, C = 17, G = 17
1951 – Rosalind Franklin
- DNA x-ray diffraction pattern
- X-ray crystallography – Exposed
substances in x-ray
- Worked with Raymond Gosling
- Photograph 51
1952 – William Hayes
- All bacteria conjugates
1952 – Alfred Hershley & Martha Chase
- Blender Experiment
- T4 Bacteriaphage (10 nanometers) /
T4 virus
1952 – James Watson & Francis Crick
- Double-Helix Structure
- Credited the idea of Rosalind
Franklin
- Double-helix – composed of 10
nucleotides
- Nucleotides – composed of 1
phosphate, 1deoxyribose, and 1 base
1954 – Seymour Benzer
- Genetics on mutant 104, RII gene,
mutant 51
- Cross-over
1955 – Francis Crick
- Central dogma of molecular
biology
 - Dogma – principle
- DNA – RNA – Protein
1956 – Paul Zamerick & Mahlon Hoagland
- Zamerick – Ribosomes to proteins
- Hoagland – DNA = RNA
- tRNA
- aminoacytyl tRNA Synthase –
activates amino acid
- t – transfer RNA
- DNA – Attracts to RNA
1957 – Matthew Maselson, Franklin Stahl
- DNA replication
- First step of central dogma
1959 – Arthur Kornberg
- DNA Polymerase
- Makes the permanent strand of DNA
- Construct new strands of DNA
1961 – Sydney Brenner
- mRNA
- messenger RNA
- sends info from RNA to protein
1961 – Marshall Nirenberg
- Genetic Code
- Codon (any 3)
- Info. Message in central dogma
- Amino acids (20) – proteins
- Codon is made up of 3 combination
- Codes for 20 amino acids (genetic
Code)
1965 – Roy Britten
- Repetitive DNA
- DNA can repeated
- 6 ft. strand of DNA per cell
- Repeated secquence
1972 – Paul Berg
- Produce the 1st recombinant DNA
- Recombine DNA
1972 – Stanley Conen, Herbert Boyer
- Recombinant DNA
- Improved DNA
1974 – Richard Roberts, Phillip Sharp
- RNA Splicing
- After transcription
1974 – Roger Kornberg
- Chromatin Structure
- 5 types of histone proteins (H1,
H2A, H2B, H3, H4)
1975 – Frederick Sanger
- Sanger Method (DNA Secquence)
- There are 51 amino acid in 1 insulin
- Insulin – substance produce by
pancreas to regulate blood sugar
levels
- dNTP (dideoxy nucleotide
triphosphate): used as indicator
1977-1979 - Genentech
- 1st engineering (genetic) company
able to produce artificial hormones
- ’77 (somatostatin) , ’78 (human
insulin), ’79 (human growth
hormone)
1985 – Kary Mullis
- PCR – polymerase chain reaction
- Machine that able to produce /
multiply one strand of DNA into
millions of copies
1985 – Alec Jeffreys
- DNA fingerprinting
- RFLP ( restriction fragment length
polymorphism)
- VNTR (variable number of tandem
repeats
- Used to caught Collin Pitchfork
(suspect for rape and murder)
1989 – Thomas Cech
- Self-splicing RNA
- Protozoa (Tetrahymena thermophila)
1990 – National Institutes of Health (NIH)
- Gene Theraphy
- Genetic engeneering company
- Able to produce 1st gene theraphy
- Gene theraphy – theraphy for fixing
cells
1993 – Calgene Inc.
- 1st commercially grown genetically
engineered food.
- Commercial GMO food
- Tomato (GMO) – resistant to rotting
1996 – Roslin Institute
- Dolly the Sheep
- 1st mammal to ever be cloned from
an adult cell.
2000 – Pat Brown
- DNA Microarray
- Measures the expression levels of
large numbers of genes
simultaneously or geno-type multiple
regions of genome.
2000 – Graig Venter
- Human Genome
- Complete set of genetic info for
humans.
- 3 billion component parts
(nucleotides)
- 1st person to secquence human
genome
 - Invented ESTs (Expressed Sequence
Tags)
- Cheaper way to sequence humane
genome
2003 – International Human Genome Sequence
Cosortium
- HGP (Human Genome Project)
- International scientific research
project with the goal of determining
the sequence of chemical base pairs
which makes up DNA and of
identifying & mapping all the genes
of the human genome from both
physical & functional strand point
- Determine the sequence of DNA
- Locate all genes in chromosomes
- To create linkage maps
2009 – Michael Worobey
- Traced the evolutionary origins of
HIV
2015 – Manel Esteller & his colleagues
- 6th possible DNA base: methyl
Adenine (mA)

Monohybrid
- Across between parents that differ
between 1 concrastic trait
- 1 trait
Dihybrid
- 2 concrastic trait
- 2 traits
Human Genetics
- Genetics of human blood types
- Inheritance of A B O blood types isa
influeanced by multiple alleles (IA,
IB, and i)
- IA & IB – responsible for the
production of antigens (dominant)
- Antigens – protein molecules elicit
immune response
- Blood type of an individual isa based
on the presence or absence of these
alleles on the cells
Blood types
A – due to the presence of alleles IA (codes for
production of antigen A)
B – due to the presence of allele IB (codes for
production of antigen B)
AB – has both IA and IB
O – do not have both alleles\