FFPT CYCLE 2

GROUP 1: CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER,

ORIFACE METER, ROTAMETER
GROUP 2: FREE SETTLING
GROUP 3: FLOCCULATION
GROUP 4: REYNOLD’S APPARATUS
 FLOCCULATION
AIM
To aggregate and separate cells in the given suspension by flocculation and compare the
flocculation power of different flocculants by determining optimum flocculent dosage.

THEORY
Flocculation refers to the reversible attachment of suspended particles in a suspension
when Van der Waal’s attractions are not counter acted by electrostatic repulsions (colloidal
instability). It is a process that is related to the electrokinetic properties of particles. Practically
all bio-particles suspended in aqueous solution are negatively charged. A suspension of
particles that do not aggregate is called a stable colloidal suspension. The transition of such a
stable suspension into an unstable one requires the reduction of the surface charge on the
particles. Flocculation is normally achieved by adding suitable chemicals called flocculants to
a particle suspension. Flocculants can act by forming inter- particle molecular bridges. In such
a case the flocculants are usually polymers or oligomers. They can also act by reducing the
repulsive force between cells by reducing the strength of electrostatic field. The effectiveness
of a flocculant depends on molecular weight, charge, solubility and other properties; and their
interactions with cells and particles depend on pH, ionic strength, temperature and dry solid
concentration. The flocculating power of flocculants can be compared by determining the
optimum flocculant dosage. Optimum flocculant dosage refers to the minimum concentration
of flocculant required to produce most effective inter particle aggregation and eventual
separation by flocculation. The flocculation dosage in v/V % can be evaluated as

(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑) × 100

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

MATERIALS REQUIRED

1) 10 mg/ml yeast suspension

2) 5 g/l CaCl2
3) 5 g/l starch
4) Ordinary bench top centrifuge
5) Colorimeter
PROCEDURE

1) The yeast suspension of required concentration was prepared.

2) 5 ml of the suspension was pipette out each into 12 centrifuge tubes.

3) Progressively increasing volumes (0,1,2,3,4 and 5 ml) of 5 g/l starch solution were added
respectively into six centrifuge tubes.

4) Similarly, progressively increasing volume of 5 g/l CaCl2 solution was added into another
six centrifuge tubes.

5) Water was added to attain a total volume of 10 ml in each tube.

6) The flocculant dosage in each tube was recorded in the observation table.

7) The samples were centrifuged approximately at 1000 rpm for 1 min.

8) The top 2 ml of supernatant was collected from each tube and OD was recorded at 600 nm
using a colorimeter.

9) A graph was plotted with OD against flocculant dosage for both flocculants and the optimum
flocculant dosage was determined for both flocculants.

10) The values of optimum dosage were compared and the effectiveness of the flocculants used
was inferred.

Observations

FLOCULANT – 1 -

Tube Vol. of Floculant Vol. of suspension Vol. of Total volume Floculant OD at 600nm
No. added water added of Suspension dosage
FLOCULANT – 2 -

Tube Vol. of Floculant Vol. of suspension Vol. of Total volume Floculant OD at 600nm
No. added water added of Suspension dosage

RESULT

EXERCISES

1. Differentiate Coagulation & Flocculation

2. Name five industrially use flocculants
3. Explain Orthokinetic & Perikinetic Coagulation
4. Define Flocculant Dosage
 FREE SETTLING
AIM:
To find the drag-coefficient of a falling spherical particle in the given liquid and verify
Stokes’ law by plotting logCD Vs. log NRe.

THEORY:
When a particle falls freely through a fluid, three forces act on it.

1) Gravitational force- Fg.

2) Buoyant force- Fb. and
3) Drag force- Fd.
When the particle is at sufficient distance from the boundaries of the container and from
all other particles or solid boundary should be within 20 times the diameter of the particle so
that they do not affect its fall, the process is called free settling. The settling particle quickly
reaches a constant velocity called terminal settling velocity (Ut) which is attainable from under
the circumstances. Under low flow regime, Stokes observed that the drag force is entirely from
viscous action and inertial forces are unimportant. At the terminal settling velocity the drag
coefficient (𝐶𝐷 ) can be determined from the relationship between CD and NRe.

The drag force; Fd= 3𝜋µ Dp U.

𝐹𝐷
⁄𝐴𝑝
Drag coefficient;𝐶𝐷 = 𝜌𝑈 2⁄
2

The resultant forces acting on the particle is Fg-Fb-Fd and the acceleration on the
particle is du/dt.
𝑑𝑢 𝜌 𝐶𝐷 𝑢2 𝜌 𝐴𝑝
𝑚 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑏 − 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚 𝑔 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑝 2
if m is the mass of the particle,
where 𝜌𝑝 - density of the solid, and
Ap- the projected area of the particle,
For a spherical particle,

𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑝 = 4 𝐷𝑝2 and 𝑚 = 𝐷𝑝3 𝜌𝑝
6

Substituting the value of m and Ap into the above equation and noting that du/dt=0 at
4 𝐷𝑝 2 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌
terminal settling velocity, we get; 𝐶𝐷 = 3 𝑈 2 [ ]𝑔
𝑡 𝜌
 At low Reynolds number, for NRe < 2, the drag force for a sphere is given by
𝐹𝐷 =3𝜋 𝜇𝐷𝑝 𝑢𝑡
This is called Stokes’ law. So in Stokes’ law range
𝜌𝜋
3𝜋 𝜇 𝐷𝑝 𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑢𝑡 2 2 4 𝐷𝑝2
24 𝐷𝑝 𝑈𝑡 𝜌
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑁 𝑁𝑅𝑒 =
𝑅𝑒 𝜇

𝑁𝑅𝑒= 𝐷𝑝𝑢𝑡 e/ 𝜇
Dp= the diameter of the particle, m
𝑢𝑡 = the terminal settling velocity, m/s
𝜌=the density of the liquid, kg/𝑚3
𝜇=viscosity of the liquid, kg/ms
A graph of log𝐶𝐷 Vs. log NRe will be a straight line with slope -1
PROCEDURE;

The equipment consists of a long glass tube filled with the given oil. Two points are
marked on the column - one near the top (at a distance of about 20cm from the top) and the
other near the bottom. It is assumed that by the time a particle reaches the first mark, it would
have attained terminal velocity. The distance between the marks is measured. The diameter is
measured 2 or 3 times keeping the particle in different positions and the average is taken. The
particle is now just dropped at the centre of the column with zero velocity and the time taken
to travel the distance between the marks is noted. The experiment is repeated with all the other
particles.

The density of the liquid is determined using a specific gravity bottle. The densities of
solid and the viscosity of liquid are taken as given below;

Density of steel= 7850 kg/𝑚3

Density of glass=2600 kg/𝑚3

Density and viscosity of castor oil is 950 kg/𝑚3 and 9.65 poise.
 Observations
Sl Fluid Spherical Diameter Time Terminal Particle Drag coe. CD logCD log
NRe =
No. Particle of Particle Taken (s) settling NRep
DpUt/
(Dp) t1 t2 velocity Expt. Theory
µ
Ut

Steel

1 Glass

Crystal

Steel

2 Glass

Crystal

Steel

3 Glass

Crystal
PRECAUTION:

The particle should not have initial velocity; i.e., it should be freely falling.

The particle should be dropped exactly at the centre of the tube.

RESULT:

EXERCISES

1. Compare free and Hindered settling

2. Explain terminal settling velocity at Hindered settling conditions
3. Define drag force and drag coefficient
4. Explain Stoke’s Law region, intermediate region & Newton’s Law region of settling of
particles
 CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER
AIM:
To calibrate the venturimeter for the determination of the coefficient of discharge, Cd
and to compare it with the experimentally obtained Cd.

THEORY:

Venturimeter

Water is allowed to flow through the meter at different rates ranging from zero to the
maximum and the corresponding pressure differences shown in the manometer are noted. The
actual discharge Qa is determined using the measuring tank and stopwatch as actual discharge,
Ax
Qa  where A is the area of the collecting tank, t is the time for x cm rise of water in the
t
collecting tank. The theoretical discharge, Qt through the venturimeter is calculated from

a1 a 2 2 gH
known dimensions and manometer reading. Theoretical discharge, Qt  cm2/s.
a1  a 2
2 2

Where a1 is the area at inlet side in cm2, a2 is the area at the throat in cm2, g = 981cm/s2, H is
the head difference in the manometer, converted to cm of water.

Qa
The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally as Cd  .
Qt

To get the Cd value from calibration, Qa  Cd Qt

 a1 a 2 2 gH
 Qa  C d which is in the form of Qa  KH n , where K and n are constants.
a1  a 2
2 2

Taking logarithms, log Qa  log K  n log H . Plotting log Qa Vs. log H , a straight line can

be obtained and the slope of the line will be n and y intercept will give the value of log K .

a1a2 2 g
From the value of K, the Cd can be obtained as, K  Cd . Now find out Qa
a1  a2
2 2

values for various assumed values of manometer readings to get the calibration chart and plot
the QaVs. H graph, which is called the calibration curve, from which we can find out the actual
discharge for any given value of the manometer reading.
PROCEDURE:
Start the pump by starting the electric motor coupled to the pump. Open the delivery
valve of the pump to start flow through the venturimeter. When the mercury column becomes
steady, note the level difference (h). Note the time taken for x cm rise of water in the collecting
tank (t). Repeat the experiment for different manometer readings (minimum six) by adjusting
the delivery valve. Close the discharge valve completely and switch off the motor.

Precaution: close the delivery valve of the centrifugal pump, which supplies water before
starting. Prime the pump if necessary.

OBSERVATIONS
Area of collecting tank =

Diameter of Pipe =

Diameter of throat =

Sl. No Pressure H, cm of Time,s Qt Qa log Qa log H Cv

drop, h water
cm

RESULT:
EXERCISES

1. List advantages of venturi meter compared to orifice meter

2. Give the principle of operation of venturi meter
3. Compare actual and theoretical discharge
4. What are the different methods of fitting venture meter in the given pipe line
5. Describe the working of Centrifugal Pump
6. What is the need for priming of pump
7. What is ‘Water hammer’
8. Discuss the working of (1) Butterfly valve (2) Gate valve (3) Ball valve
9. How is flow measured in (1) open channels (2) closed channels
 CALIBRATION OF ORIFICEMETER
AIM:
To calibrate the orifice meter for the determination of the coefficient of discharge, Cd from
the calibration constant and to compare it with the experimentally obtained Cd.

THEORY:

Orifice meter

Water is allowed to flow through the meter at different rates ranging from zero to the
maximum and the corresponding pressure differences shown in the manometer are noted. The
actual discharge Qa is determined using the measuring tank and stopwatch as actual discharge,
Ax
Qa  where A is the area of the collecting tank, t is the time for x cm rise of water in the
t
collecting tank. The theoretical discharge, Qt through the orifice meter is calculated from

a1 a 2 2 gH
known dimensions and manometer reading. Theoretical discharge, Qt  cm2/s.
a1  a 2
2 2

Where a1 is the area at inlet side in cm2, a2 is the area at the throat in cm2, g = 981cm/s2, H is
the head difference in the manometer, converted to cm of water.

Qa
The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally as Cd  .
Qt

To get the Cd value from calibration, Qa  Cd Qt

 a1a2 2 gh
 Qa  Cd which is in the form of Qa  KH n , where K and n are constants.
a  a2
2 2
1

Taking logarithms, log Qa  log K  n log H . Plotting log Qa Vs. log H , a straight line can be

obtained and the slope of the line will be n and y intercept will give the value of log K .

a1a2 2 g
From the value of K, the Cd can be obtained as, K  Cd . Now find out Qi
a1  a2
2 2

values for various assumed values of manometer readings to get the calibration chart and plot
the QiVs. h graph, which is called the calibration curve, from which we can find out the actual
discharge for any given value of the manometer reading.
PROCEDURE:
Start the pump by starting the electric motor coupled to the pump. Open the delivery valve of
the pump to start flow through the orifice meter. When the mercury column becomes steady,
note the level difference (h). Note the time taken for x cm rise of water in the collecting tank
(t). Repeat the experiment for different manometer readings (minimum six) by adjusting the
delivery valve. Close the discharge valve completely and switch off the motor.

Precaution: close the delivery valve of the centrifugal pump, which supplies water before
starting. Prime the pump if necessary.

OBSERVATIONS
Area of collecting tank =

Diameter of Pipe =

Diameter of orifice =

Sl. No Pressure H, cm of Time,s Qt Qa log Qa log H Co

drop, h water
cm

RESULT:

EXERCISES
1. List various flow measuring devices
2. Explain principle of operation of orifice meter
3. Give various fittings of orifice meter
4. Compare theoretical and experimental discharge
 REYNOLDS APPARATUS
AIM:
To identify various flow regimes by finding the critical velocity and Reynolds number
(NRe) by Reynolds ‘ experiment.

THEORY:

Flow of fluids through pipelines can be classified as laminar and turbulent based on
values of Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is dimensionless number defined as:

Inertial force
Reynold' s Number (N Re )  .
Viscous force

Laminar flow may be defined as the flow in which the viscosity of the fluid is dominating over
the inertial force; the converse being true for turbulent flow. For laminar flow, NRe< 2100. If
NRe is in between 2100 and 4000, it is neither laminar flow nor turbulent flow. If N Re> 4000,
the flow is turbulent.

APPARATUS:

The Reynolds apparatus is an experimental system designed by the British Engineer, Osborne
Reynolds for visualizing and studying various regimes for flow of liquids in pipelines.

The apparatus consists of a tank with steadying sections, a small tank for the supply of coloured
liquid, a transparent glass tube of suitable length for flow observation with control valve, a
collecting tank with gauge glass and scale fittings and a drain valve.
PROCEDURE:

Water supply was provided to the supply tank and the flow of water through the tube was
regulated to a minimum. Coloured liquid of the same specific gravity as that of water was
filled in the small tank and allowed to enter the centre of the glass tube. It was seen that a fine
thread of coloured liquid was carried by the flowing water. The coloured thread was observed
to move steadily. Such a flow is known as laminar flow. Water was collected in the collecting
tank. The time taken for 5 cm rise in water level in the collecting tank was noted. The
volumetric flow rate of water was determined, and the mean velocity of flow was calculated
as:

q
V=
A

d 2
where A = area of cross section of the pipe = .
4
mean velocity . diameter . density
Reynold's number 
dynamic viscosity

The flow rate of water into the tube was slowly increased until the coloured thread started
becoming irregular and began breaking up. Such a velocity is called lower critical velocity. As
the flow rate or velocity of flow was increased further, the length of the coloured tread started
decreasing, till the thread became diffused. Such a velocity is called upper critical velocity.
Beyond the upper critical velocity, flow was fully disturbed and such a flow is turbulent flow.
OBSERVATIONS
Diameter of Pipe, D = 8mm

Sl. No Quantity of Time, (s) Q Velocity NRe Type of

water (m/s) flow
collected, ml

RESULT:

EXERCISES

1. Give significance of NRe in process Engineering.

2. Give various dimension less groups used in momentum transfer
3. Give the numerical values of NRe in various regions
 CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER

AIM:
(1) To plot the calibration curve (flow rate v/s rotameter) for the given rotameter.
(2) To develop an equation relating the rate and leading from the calibration

THEORY:
Rotameter is an instrument widely used for continuous flow measurement of fluids. It
is installed vertically in pipeline Rotameter is a tapered vertical glass tube containing a float.
The larger the flow rate, me higher float rate in the tube.

In orifice an vertical meter the flowrate through constant area caauses a vertical pressure
drop. The pressure drop is related to the flow rate. The over through which fluid flowing varies
flow rate. (In rotameter the pressure drop constant) The area is set related to the flowrate by
calibration. Since the tube is tapered, the area of flow related to the position of the float. Floats
be constrected of metal and of vaying density lead to al or frim glass to plastic, stainless steel
floats are closcommon. For a given flow rate the equilibrium position of the float in the
rotameter is established by balance of 3 forces.

1. Weight of the float

2. Bought force on the float
3. Drag force
𝑚𝑔 𝑔 (1−𝜌)
At equilibrium, the eqn proves that FDgc = 𝑝𝑔

FD - Drag force
Mg - Mass of float
P - Density of fluid
Pg - Density of float
gc - Gravitational Constant.

For a given rotameter operating a desinite fluid, the RHS of the eq n is constant and
independentend of the flow rate, FD is constant. If the flow rate is changed, the effect of change
of flowrate is changed by the position of float. Before can be used determine reading must be
prepared. A calibaration curve for the fluid is to that prepared from the calibration curve an
equation can be developed by curve filling.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Rotameter, pump and supply of water eith regulating values, measuring cylinder,
stopwatch etc.

PROCEDURE

Rotameter is connected to the pump and supply of the water flow rate is set by adjusting
the valve. The rotameter reading is recorded. The discharge through the rotameter is collected
in a graduated cylinder.

Area of collecting tank =

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Sl.No Rotameter Rise in Level Time (s) Flow rate

Reading (mm) of water in me/t (cm3/s)
collecting
tank

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

RESULT

The given rotameter is calibrated and the calibration equation is Q =

 Where Q – stow rate

R – Rotameter Reading mm

EXERCISES

1. With a next sketch explain working of a Rotameter

2. List various types of flow measuring devices.
3. Give general steps for calibration of equipment’s.
4. Differentiate variable area and variable head flow measuring devices with suitable
examples.