PERMEABILITY OF LIME-TREATED LATERITIC SOIL

By Kolawole J. Osinubi,l Member, ASCE

(Reviewed by the Highway Division)

ABSTRACT: Laboratory investigations were carried out on a. residual lateriti~ soil t~eated with qUic~lime (up
to 8% by weight of dry soil) in order to evaluate the effect of lime conten~, cunng penod~ ~d compactlve ef~ort
on the permeability of lateritic soil-lime mixtures prepared at various maximum dry de":sltles and correspo~ding
optimum moisture contents. The permeability of uncured specimens (standard Proctor) mcreased to a maximum
at 4% lime content and decreased with increasing lime content. Specimens compacted at the energy of the West
African Standard had coefficients of permeability that decreased with increasing lime content. .For the cu~ed
condition, the permeability of all the lime-treated specimens compacted at the two energy levels mcreased With
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Monash University on 03/18/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

curing age up to 14 days and decreased with curing age beyond 14 days.

INTRODUCTION
Addition of lime to a soil tends to improve its properties as
a result of soil-lime reactions. The advantage of this property
has been utilized mostly for road subgrade stabilization
("Lime" 1990; Locat et al. 1990; Hammond 1992), although
increasing use is being made of lime stabilization for bulk fill
operations, embankments, and cutting slope repai~ ~n~ as a
bearing stratum for lightly loaded foundatIOns. This IS m .ad-
dition to lime slurry pressure injection, lime columns, and hme
piles for ground improvement (Rog~rs ~d Bruce 1991; R.og-
ers and Glendinning 1994). Two mam different results of hme
action are usually believed to occur in soil-lime mixes. The
first, quick action, occurs immediately on addition of lime and
is believed to be due to cation exchange and flocculation. The
second reaction, aggregation, which is time-dependent (days
to years), is rather slow. It is attributed to the pozzolanic re-
actions with formation of cementation compounds (Webb
1992; Rogers and Lee 1994; Narasimha Rao and Rajasekaran
1996).
Lateritic soils, which are defined by the ISSMFE Progress
Report ("Peculiarities" 1985) as soils belonging to .horizo~ A
or B of well-drained profiles developed under humid trOPiCal
climates with clay fraction constituted essentially of the kao-
linite group and of iron or aluminium hydrated oxides, can be
economically stabilized with lime (Ola 1975). The soil-lime
mixture so produced can be used as subbase or base courses
in roads. Moreover, the climate in Nigeria favors this type of
stabilization.
One of the most important points taken into consideration
in soil mechanics is the effect of water on the geotechnical
properties of soils. Permeability has not been studied as ex-
tensively as the other major soil engineering properties like
strength and compressibility. However, in recent times a sub-
stantial amount of work has been carried out by various re-
searchers [Ola (1983), Finno et al. (1996), Yin et al. (1996),
Nuik and Singh (1997), and others] on permeability.
In his study of the permeability of compacted clay. Mitchell
(1976) found that the permeability of compacted clay samples
on the dry side of optimum moisture content (OMC) for stan-
dard compaction was many times higher than on the wet side.
The reason for this phenomenon was explained in terms of
'Sr. Lect.. Dept. of Civ. Engrg.• Ahmadu Bello Univ., Zaria, Kaduna
State, Nigeria.
Note. Discussion open until March I, 1999. To extend the closing date
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of
Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on September 2, 1997. This paper is part of the
Journal of Transportation Engineering. Vol. 124, No.5, Septemberl
October, 1998. ©ASCE. ISSN 0733-947X198/0005-0465-0469/$8.00 +
$.50 per page. Paper No. 16546.
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998/465
clay particle structure. Many soils compacted drier than OMC
had more random particle orientations and a larger average
pore size than when compacted wetter than OMC, where ~e
particles had a more parallel arrangement. The larger the in-
dividual pores for any given total pore area, the greater ~e
flow would be, since permeability varies as a power functIOn
of pore size.
The effect of lime on soil permeability is still not clear.
Fossberg (1969) reported a decrease of as much as two orders
of magnitude in the coefficient of permeability with increasing
lime content, and found the decrease to be in direct proportion
to the lime content and curing time. He based his conclusions
mainly on the results of consolidometer tests. The samples
were compacted 1 h after mixing the soil and lime. Townsend
and Klym (1966), on the other hand, reported a substantial
increase in the coefficient of permeability of heavy clay soils
(from 2 X 10- 8 cmls to 4 X 10- 6 cmls). The samples were
compacted 24 h after mixing the soil and lime and were cured
as long as 19 weeks, with most of the increase in permeability
occurring during the first four weeks. The increase in the co-
efficient of permeability was explained in terms of the addi-
tional flocculation that occurred during the elapsed time after
mixing prior to compaction. Hunter (1988) explained the in-
crease in permeability of lime-treated clay as due to the siltlike
mechanical properties imparted on the natural soil.
Lateritic soils are normally utilized as base for road con-
struction and are generally regarded as good foundation ma-
terial because they are virtually nonswelling. However, the use
of the material is dependent on the degree of permeability,
which determines whether the proposed road foundation is
suitable for use. This study offered a good opportunity to in-
vestigate the effects of lime content, curing period, and com-
pactive effort on the coefficient of permeability of lime-treated
lateritic soil specimens obtained from mixtures prepared at
their maximum dry densities and corresponding optimum
moisture contents.
JUSTIFICATION FOR STUDY
Quite a large amount of research has been conducted on the
effect of lime on the strength properties of soils in the last two
decades, but permeability has received far less attention. How-
ever, these researches were mostly carried out on temperate-
zone soils, which are significantly different from tropical re-
sidual soils. Unlike the sedimentary soils of temperate zones,
the soil deposits generally referred to as lateritic soil have been
known to possess complex macro- and microfabric (Da Fon-
toura 1985), texture, and structure (Melfi 1985) due to their
morphological features. The response of lateritic soils to sta-
bilization using different additives also relates significantly to
the genetic (morphological, physical, chemical, and minera-

J. Transp. Eng. 1998.124:465-469.

 logical) characteristics as well as the moisture conditions of TABLE 1. Test Results of Natural Soli
the environment (Gidigasu and Kuma 1987). Property Quantity/description
One of the major problems confronting geotechnical engi- (1 ) (2)
neers in the tropics is the fact that most local soils are not
Natural moisture content (%) 7.1
amenable to standard pretest preparations and testing proce- Liquid limit (%) 44.0
dures, resulting in variations in the test results. These varia- Plastic limit (%) 24.0
bilities have been discussed by Gidigasu (1980) and Gidigasu Plasticity index (%) 20.0
and Yeboa (1972). However, differences in opinion are ex- Linear shrinkage (%) 9.5
pressed over the understanding of the engineering behavior of Percentage passing BS No. 200 sieve 52.0
residual soils. According to Vaughan (1985), the development Group index 7
AASHTO classification A-7-6
of classical concepts of soil mechanics has been based largely USCS classification CL
on the investigation of sedimentary deposits of unweathered Specific gravity 2.62
soils. These concepts have been found to be inappropriate in MOD (standard Proctor) (Mg/m') 1.84
describing the behavior of residual soils and could lead to OMC (standard Proctor) (%) 19.1
significant errors if inadvertently applied. Gidigasu (1988) MOD (West African Standard) (Mg/m') 1.89
concludes that classical soil-mechanics principles have failed OMC (West African Standard) (%) 15.7
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Monash University on 03/18/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

UCS (standard Proctor) (kN/m 2 ) 395

in answering some of the geotechnical problems in certain UCS (West African Standard) (kN/m 2) 590
soils formed under subtropical and tropical environments. pH 6.67
The major part of Nigeria is underlain by basement complex Color Reddish brown
rocks, the weathering of which had produced lateritic materials
spread over most of the area. It is virtually impossible to ex-
ecute any construction work in Nigeria without the use of lat- TABLE 2. Chemical Composition of Lateritic Soli
erite soils. On the basis of the foregoing, a study to determine Concentration
the effect of lime content, curing period, and compactive effort Oxide (% by weight)
on the permeability of lime-treated lateritic soil was con- (1 ) (2)
ducted. CaO 0.28
Si02 35.60
MATERIALS USED AND METHODS OF TESTING AI20, 27.40
Fe20, 2.40
Soil MgO 0.22
Na20 + K20
The soil samples used were obtained from a borrow pit in SO, 0.85
Zaria (latitude 11°15'N and longitude 7°45'E) using the Mn20, 2.0
method of disturbed sampling. A study of the geological and P20,
soil maps of Nigeria after Akintola (1982) and Areola (1982), Loss on ignition 1.46
respectively, shows that the samples taken belong to the group
of ferruginous tropical soils derived from acid igneous and TABLE 3. Oxide Composition of Quicklime
metamorphic rocks. The index properties of the natural soil as
well as its chemical composition are summarized in Tables 1 Concentration
and 2, respectively. The clay mineral present in the soil, which Oxide (% by weight)
was found to be kaolinite with some quartz, was qualitatively (1 ) (2)
assessed by way of differential thermal analysis (DTA) of ma- CaO 53.60
terial passing through a British Standard No. 200 sieve. The Na20 7.12
clay mineralogy was quantitatively assessed by X-ray diffrac- SO, 5.40
Fe20, 4.80
tion (XRD) analysis.
AI20, 4.08
MgO 3.80
Lime K 20 1.20
Loss on ignition 17.68
Hydrated lime was obtained by hydrating quicklime, due to
the nonavailability of the former. Before the quicklime was
hydrated the lumps were ground to particles less than 13 rom was at the foregoing two energy levels because the standard
in size. The quicklime is then able to react readily with water Proctor is easily achieved in the field, while the West African
to produce calcitic hydrated lime in which all the calcium ox- Standard compaction is the conventional energy level com-
ide is converted to calcium hydroxide, with the evolution of monly used in the region.
heat. The chemical analysis of the quicklime used gave the
oxide composition summarized in Table 3. With the proportion Water
of magnesium oxide being less than 5%, the quicklime can be
said to be a high-calcium lime in accordance with O'Flaherty Potable water was used to prepare the specimens at the var-
(1974). ious moisture contents, while distilled water was used as the
permeant in the permeability tests.
Compaction
Preparation of Specimens
Tests involving the moisture-density relationship and un-
confined compression were carried out using soil samples air- The soil-lime mixture used for preparing the permeability
dried for one day. The compactive efforts utilized throughout test specimens was obtained by first thoroughly mixing dry
the tests were the standard Proctor and West African Standard. predetermined quantities of pulverized soil and lime to obtain
If the British Standard (Proctor) compaction mold is utilized, a uniform color. The required quantity of water, which is de-
the compactive effort for the West African Standard consists termined from the moisture-density relation for the soil-lime
of the energy derived from a 4.5 kg rammer falling through mixtures, was then added and the mixing continued. After
45 cm onto five layers, each receiving 10 blows. Compaction compaction, the specimens and molds were placed in trans-
4661 JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 1 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998

J. Transp. Eng. 1998.124:465-469.

 21
parent cellophane bags. which were sealed and then cured in
the humidity room at 100% relative humidity and a tempera-
ture of 25 ± 2°C. After the curing period had been attained,
the specimens and the molds were removed from the sealed
cellophane bags for permeability testing.

Permeability Tests
The compaction mold with the specimen in it was used as ------ Stan. Proctor
part of the permeameter in order to eliminate disturbance of - + - - West African SIan.
the specimens on extrusion from the molds. The falling head
test was adopted for the investigation. The first step in carrying
out the permeability test was to saturate the specimen in the
mold. The saturation process involved placing the perme-
ameter in a small water container. A transparent plastic hose
12 -1-------\------+-------+------
was connected between the opening at the top of the cell cap
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Monash University on 03/18/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

2 4 6 8
and an electric suction pump. The function of the suction Lime Content, %
pump was to accelerate the saturation of the specimen by elim- FIG. 3. Variation of OMC of li'eated Lateritic 5011 with Lime
inating entrapped air in the voids as much as possible before Content
"sucking" water in order to saturate it. The permeability tests
were performed in accordance with BS 1377 ("Methods" soil. Sodium hexametaphosphate, which is considered most
1990). and the coefficients of permeability reported are the effective as dispersant for these lateritic soils (Gidigasu and
average of five tests per specimen performed on three speci- Kuma 1987) was used in the sedimentation analysis. The over-
mens for any given parameter. all geotechnical index properties of the soil show that it can
be classified under the A-7-6 subgroup of the AASHTO Soil
TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Classification System (Standard 1986) and CL in the Unified
Identification of Soil Soil Classification System ("Soil" 1993). It is a reddish
brown, well graded soil with a relatively high plasticity of 20%
Table 1 summarizes the geotechnical index properties of the and clay content of not more than 12%.
natural soil. Fig. 1 shows the particle size distribution of the
100 Compaction Characteristics
The effects of lime content on the maximum dry density
80 (MDD) and OMC of lateritic soil for the two compactive ef-
forts are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. respectively. The MDD de-
70
creased with increase in lime content. The decrease in MDD
with increasing lime content conforms with the usual trend
and is in agreement with Ladd et al. (1960) as well as Marks
and Haliburton (1970). The decrease resulted from the floc-
culation and agglomeration of clay particles. caused by the
cation exchange reaction, leading to corresponding decreases
in dry densities (Lees et al. 1982).
The decrease in OMC for the soil-lime mixtures at the en-
10
ergy of the standard Proctor for low lime contents is in agree-
ment with Ladd et al. (1960) as well as Marks and Haliburton
0+-----;-----+----+------1 (1970). When lime dissociates in the presence of water into
0.001 0.01 0.1
Particle size, mm
10 calcium and hydroxyl ions. either of two situations arises. The
calcium ions either replace cations of other elements present
FI,G. 1. Particle Size Distribution of Natural 5011 at the exchange sites in the soil. or the calcium ions are ab-
1.11
sorbed by the soil if there are other unattached anions. apart
from hydroxyl ions. on the soil surface. The decrease in OMC

I
was due to a cation exchange reaction. which caused floccu-
'")1.88
I--~'~
west
-+- Afrtc8n . . .
lation of clay particles. It has been reported (Millard 1993)
that when lime is added to soil the calcium ions replace the
C sodium ions in the clay fraction until the latter becomes sat-
Q
~1.82
urated with calcium and the pH rises to more than 12. The
~
conversion from sodium to calcium ions produced a marked
i reduction in the apparent plasticity of the soil. But the poz-
Q
~1.7s zolanic reaction of lime with clay fraction of the soil is re-
Q ported (Ola 1978) to cause an increase of OMC noticed at
5
E
higher lime contents. At the energy level of the West African
1 1 74
.
Standard. the OMC increased with increasing lime content in
conformity with reported cases.

1.7 Compressive Strength

a 2 4 8 I
Lime Content, % Fig. 4 shows the effect of lime content on the unconfined
FIG. 2. Variation of MOD of Treated lateritic 5011 with Lime compressive strength (UCS) of lateritic soil specimens com-
Content pacted at the two energy levels considered and cured for 7.
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998/467

J. Transp. Eng. 1998.124:465-469.

 ~ 3.50E-QS

~2500 T
..-< 1 P - Standard Proctor ., 3.00E·OS
~
~OOO j
I
WA - West Aflican Standard
"5
f; I ~2.5OE.OS

~ x~x ~

+6~.%===>.-:: i
r / -------- 7 days (P)

---.- 14 days (P) 2.00e-Q5

1!1000V;/~
500
--+-- 28 days (P) '0
--<>--- 7 days ryvA)
1i 1.5OE-Q5
'0

'tl 1./'/
- x - 14 days ryvA)
~ 1.00e-QS
Co)
CIl x
c ------- 28 days ryvA)
'E
8c 500 S.ooe-Qll
::::>
O.OOE+OO
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Monash University on 03/18/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

o j-.'~~~l'-I~~---jl~~~-+-~~- 0 2 4 e e
Lime Content, %
o 2 4 8 8
Lime Content, %
FIG. 5. Variation of Coefficient of Permeability of Uncured
FIG. 4. Variation of UCS of Treated lateritic Soli with Lime Treated lateritic Soli with Lime Content
Content
1.00E+02
P - Standard Proctor

14, and 28 days, respectively. The improvement in strength of WA - West Aflican Standard

lime-treated soil has been attributed to soil-lime reactions,

-------- 2% lime (P)
which result in the formation of cementitious compounds that x1.00E+01
- - - . - 4% lime (P)
bind soil aggregates (Locat et al. 1990; Narasimha Rao and
--+-- 8% lime (P)
Rajesekaran 1996). As expected, the compressive strength in-
creased with age for all the specimens tested. In general, the --<>--- 8% lime (P)

compressive strength increased with increasing lime content - x - 2% lime ryvA)

but decreased for 8% lime-treated specimens cured for 28 days
(standard Proctor) as well as those cured for 14 and 28 days
(West African Standard).
The compressive strength for all specimens compacted at
the energy of the standard Proctor varied from 395 to 1,110
kN/m 2, 530 to 1,420 kN/m2, and 600 to 1,525 kN/m2 at the
7-, 14-, and 28-day ages, respectively. Specimens compacted
at the energy of the West African Standard had compressive
strengths that varied from 590 to 1,350 kN/m2, 790 to 1,680
kN/m2 , and 900 to 1,940 kN/m2 at the 7-, 14-, and 28-day
ages, respectively.
Permeability
Figs. 5 and 6 show the variation of the coefficient of per-
meability with lime content for specimens prepared at the
MDD and corresponding OMC of the two energy levels con-
sidered for the uncured and cured conditions, respectively. For
the uncured specimens compacted at the energy of the standard
Proctor, the coefficient of permeability increased to a maxi-
mum at 4% lime content and decreased with further increase
in lime content. The increase in the coefficient of permeability
is due to flocculation caused by cation exchange reaction,
while the decrease recorded is due to the increase in the pH
value of the molding water as a result of the partial dissocia-
tion of the calcium hydroxide. The calcium ions in turn com-
bined with the reactive silica or alumina, or both, which were
present in the soil, to form insoluble calcium silicates or alu-
minates or both, which obstructed flow through the soil voids.
Furthermore the decrease in coefficient of permeability is
probably due to the excess amount of lime available for long-
term pozzolanic reactions. In effect, 4% lime content can be
said to be the lime-fixation point or lime retention point, in
agreement with Nandy and Handy (1977). Lime treatment of
soils in excess of this point is reported to result in lime being
available for long-term pozzolanic or cementing reactions for
ultimate strength of treated subgrade soils. The coefficient of
permeability values recorded for specimens prepared at the
energy level of the West African Standard showed a decrease
with increase in lime content (see Fig. 5). The decrease might
468/ JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998
- - 4% lime ryvA)
- - 8% lime ryvA)
- x - 8% lime ryvA)
5 10 15 20 25 30
Curing Period, Days
FIG. 6. Variation of Coefficient of Permeability of Treated lat-
eritic Soli with Curing Period
not be unconnected with the closer packing of the soil-lime
mixture due to the higher compactive effort.
For all the cured specimens prepared at the various lime
contents and the two energy levels considered, the coefficients
of permeability increased with curing age up to 14 days and
decreased up to the 28 days considered in the study. Generally,
cementation is supposed to increase with increase in lime con-
tent, leading to a decrease in permeability. However, the in-
crease in permeability for all the treated specimens up to 14
days' curing age could be attributed to the complexity of the
lime-soil reaction mechanism, which in general is very depen-
dent on the amount and type of clay mineral present in the
soil. As lime content increases, the quantity of free silt and
clay particles progressively reduces as coarser particles are
formed. Consequently, larger voids are formed, which allow
greater flow of fluid.
The decrease in permeability after 14 days' curing period
for all the lime-treated specimens is in agreement with the
hypothesis that when lime hydrates with age it reac~ with ~e
silica or alumina in the soil, and the gel grows With cunng
age, filling the voids. The decrease in the coefficient of per-
meability could be due to the precipitation of calcium carbon-
ate in the voids as the ionized calcium reacted with the dis-
solved carbon dioxide in the water.
CONCLUSIONS
The test results recorded from the investigation carried out
on the residual lateritic soil classified as A-7-6 or CL soil in

J. Transp. Eng. 1998.124:465-469.

 accordance with the AASHTO (Standard 1986) and Unified
Soil Classification Systems ("Soil" 1993), respectively,
showed that specimens treated with a maximum 8% lime and
compacted at the energy levels of the standard Proctor and
West African Standard yielded seven-day USC values of 1,100
and 1,350 kN/m 2 , respectively. These values are greater than
the conventional 1,034.25 kN/m2 criterion for adequate lime
stabilization.
The coefficient of permeability of uncured specimens com-
pacted at the energy level of the standard Proctor peaked at
4% lime content with a value of 3.38 X 10-' cm/s and de-
creased with further increase in lime content. For the speci-
mens prepared at the energy level of the West African Stan-
dard, the coefficient of permeability decreased from a value of
3.38 X 10- 6 cm/s at no lime content to 2.15 X 10- 6 cm/s at
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Monash University on 03/18/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
8% lime content.
The permeability of all the cured lime-treated specimens
prepared at the two energy levels considered increased with
curing age up to 14 days and decreased up to the maximum
28-day curing period considered. Specimens compacted at the
energy levels of the standard Proctor and West African Stan-
dard showed peak permeabilities at 4 and 6% lime contents,
respectively. Recorded permeability values increased from
3.38 X 10-' and 2.29 X 10- 6 cm/s for uncured specimens to
2.1 X 10- 3 and 1.0 X 10- 4 cm/s, respectively, at 14 days'
curing period and decreased to 1.9 X 10-4 and 4.0 X 10-'
cm/s, respectively, at 28 days' curing period.
APPENDIX. REFERENCES
Akintola, F. A. (1982). "Geology and geomorphology." Nigeria in maps,
R. M. Babour, ed., Hodder and Stoughton, London, U.K.
Areola, O. (1982). "Soils." Nigeria in maps, R. M. Babour, ed., Hodder
and Stoughton, London, U.K.
Da Fontoura, S. A. (1985). "Shear strength of undisturbed tropical lat-
eritic soils." ISSMFE Progress Rep. (1982/85), Committee on Tropical
Soils, International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Engi-
neering,47-66.
Finno, R. J., Chung, K. Y., Yin, J., and Feldkamp, J. R. (1996). "Coef-
ficient of permeability from AC electroosmosis experiments. II: Re-
sults." J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 122(5), 355-364.
Fossberg, P. E. (1969). "Some fundamental engineering properties of
lime-stabilized clay." Hwy. Res. Rec. 236, Highway Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 19-26.
Gidigasu, M. D. (1980). "Variability of geotechnical properties of
subgrade soils in a residual profile over phylite." Proc. 7th Regional
Conf. for Africa on Soil Mech. and Found. Engrg., Vol. 1,95-104.
Gidigasu, M. D. (1988). "Potential application of engineering pedology
in shallow foundation engineering on tropical residual soils." Proc.
2nd Int. Conf. on Geomechanics in Tropical Soils, Vol. I, 17-24.
Gidigasu, M. D., and Kuma, D. O. K. (1987). "Engineering significance
of laterization and profile development processes." Proc. 9th Regional
Conf. for Africa on Soil Mech. and Found. Engrg., Vol. 1,3-20.
Gidigasu, M. D., and Yeboa, S. L. (1972). "The significance of pretesting
preparations in evaluating index properties of lateritic materials." Hwy.
Res. Rec. 405, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., 105-106.
Hammond, A. A. (1992). "Manufacture and use of lime and pozzolana
cements in Africa." Lime and other alternative cements, Neville Hill,
Stafford Holmes, and David Mather, eds., Intermediate Technology
Publications, London, U.K., 35-46.
Hunter, D. (1988). "Lime-induced heave in sulfate-bearing clay soils."
J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 114(2), 150-167.
Ladd, C. C., Moh, Z. C., and Lambe, T. W. (1960). "Recent soil-lime
research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology." Presented at
39th Annual Meeting, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Lees, G., Abdelkader, M. P., and Hamdani, S. K. (1982). "Effect of clay
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998/489
J. Transp. Eng. 1998.124:465-469.
fraction on some mechanical properties of lime-soil mixtures." J. Inst.
Hwy. Engrg., 29(11), 2-9.
"Lime stabilization." (1990). State-of-the-Art-Rep. 5, Transportation Re-
search Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Locat, Y., Berube, M. A., and Choquette, M. (1990). "Laboratory inves-
tigations on the lime stabilization of sensitive clays; shear strength
development." Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada, 27, 294-304.
Marks, B. D., and Haliburton, T. A. (1970). "Effects of sodium chloride
and sodium chloride-lime admixtures on cohesive Oklahoma soils."
Presented at 49th Annual Meeting, Highway Research Board, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Melfi, A. J. (1985). "Characterization and identification of tropical lat-
eritic and saprolitic soils for geotechnical purposes." ISSMFE Progress
Rep. (1982/85), Committee on Tropical Soils, Transportation Research
Laboratory, International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Engineering, 9-20.
"Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes." (1990). BS
/377, British Standards Institute, London, U.K.
Millard, R. S. (1993). "Cement and lime stabilization." Road building
in the tropics. State-of-the-art review, Vol. 9, Transportation Research
Laboratory, 183-185.
Mitchell, J. K. (1976). Fundamentals of soil behaviour. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Nandy, R. M., and Handy R. L. (1977). "Simple field controls for soil-
lime construction." Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 60-66.
Narasimha Rao, S., and Rajasekaran, G. (1996). "Reaction products
formed in lime-stabilized marine clays." J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
122(5), 329-336.
Nuik, T. R., and Singh, S. S. (1997). "Permeability of flowable slurry
materials containing foundry sand and fly ash." J. Geotech. and
Geoenvir. Engrg., ASCE, 123(5), 446-452.
O'Flaherty, C. A. (1974). Highway engineering. Vol. 2, Edward Arnold,
London, U.K.
Ola, S. A. (1975). "Stabilization of Nigerian lateritic oils with cement,
bitumen and lime." Proc. 6th Regional Conj. for Africa on Soil Mech.
and Found. Engrg., Vol. I, 145-152.
Ola, S. A. (1978). "Geotechnical properties and behaviour of some sta-
bilized Nigerian lateritic soils." Q.J. Engrg. Geol., London, U.K., 11,
145-160.
Ola, S. A. (1983). "Permeability of some compacted Nigerian soils."
Tropical soils of Nigeria in engineering practice, S. A. Ola, Ed., A. A.
Balkema, The Netherlands, Rotterdam, 155 -171.
"Peculiarities of geotechnical behaviour of tropical lateritic and saprolitic
soils." (1985). ISSMFE Progress Rep. (1982/1985), Committee on
Tropical Soils, International Society of Soil Mechanics and Founda-
tions Engineering.
Rogers, C. D. F., and Bruce, C. J. (1991). "Slope stabilization using
lime." Proc. Int. Conf. on Slope Stability Engrg., Institution of Civil
Engineering, London, U.K.
Rogers, C. D. F., and Glendinning, S. (1994). "Deep-slope stabilization
using lime piles." Transp. Res. Rec. 1440, Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C., 63-70.
Rogers, C. D. F., and Lee, S. J. (1994). "Drained shear strength of lime-
clay mixes." Transp. Res. Rec. 1440, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 53-62.
"Soil and rock; dimension stone; geosynthetics." (1993). Annual book
of ASTM standards, ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
Standard specifications for transportation materials and methods ofsam-
pling and testing. (1986). 14th Ed., American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
Townsend, D. L., and Klym, T. W. (1966). "Durability of lime stabilized
soils." Hwy. Res. Rec. 139, Highway Research Board, Washington,
D.C., 25-41.
Vaughan, P. R. (1985). "Mechanical and hydraulic properties of in situ
residual soils." Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Geomechanics in Tropical and
Saprolitic Soils, Vol. 3, 1-33.
Webb, D. J. T. (1992). "Lime stabilized soil blocks for Third World
housing." Lime and other alternative cements, Neville Hill, Stafford
Holmes, and David Mather, eds., Intermediate Technology
Publications, London, U.K., 246-257.
Yin, J., Finno, R. J., Feldkamp, J. R., and Chung, K. Y. (1996). "Coef-
ficient of permeability from AC electroosmosis experiments. I: The-
ory." J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 122(5),346-354.