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BOTSWANA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCES

BSB 113 BIOLOGY OF CELLS

CELLS: THEIR STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES


AND TRANSPORT

Course Material

AUGUST 2018

Dr S. W. Makhabu
COURSE INTRODUCTION

Aim
• To give students a general appreciation of chemical, cellular and basis of life and
for them to appreciate the role of macromolecules in the life of living organisms
• Also to introduce genetics that deals with the processes and principles of
inheritance
• For this part of the course, students are expected that at the end, they should be
well conversant with the structures and functions of cell organelles and transport
of substances in and out of cells

What is Biology?
• Biology is the study of life. So, it is the science dealing with living organisms
• The term Biology was coined by J. b. de Lamarck in 1802

What are the characteristics common to all living organisms?


 Composed of cells – unicellular or multicellular
 Require nutrients and energy
 Respond to their environment
 Contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Reproduce – asexual and sexual
 Organized – There are organized into atoms, molecules, macromolecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and individual organism

Living things are organized


•The list below shows increasing levels of biological organization.

–Atoms
–Molecules
–macromolecules
–organelles
–cells ¬ The smallest unit of life is the cell.
–tissues
–organs
–organ systems
–individual organism
–population
–community
–ecosystem

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What is Cell Biology?
• Cell biology is a branch of Biology in which many techniques are combined to gain
an understanding of living organisms at the cellular level.
• Deals with fundamental processes which are common to most or all cells
• Also deals with the structure and functions of cell organelles
• This helps in providing evidence that all organisms had a common ancestry
How are cells studied?
• Most cells are extremely small
• Biologists rely heavily on microscopes to detect cell structures
• Cells are often killed and stained with various dyes to make certain structures stand
out
• The history of Cell Biology parallels that of the invention of and improvements of
microscopes
• As such, a brief introduction on microscopy is essential
Microscopy – It is the study of objects using a microscope.
There are 2 types of microscopes used in microscopy
• Light microscope
• Electron microscope (transmission, scanning & reflection)

Light microscope
• Zacharias Jansen invented the first compound microscope around 1595
• It combined 2 lenses for greater magnification
• The light microscope uses glass lenses and visible light to form a magnified image
of an object.
• 2 features of a microscope determine how clearly small objects can be viewed
– Magnification – The word magnify means to make something look bigger
than it really is, e.g. by using a lens or microscope. Magnification therefore is
the degree to which something is made to look larger. It is calculated as the
ratio between the size of an image produced by a microscope and its actual
size. It is no more than 2000 times for the best light microscopes. For BCA
Basic Sciences labs the maximum Total magnification is 1000x.
– Resolution or resolving power – In microscopy, it is the ability to observe two
adjacent objects as distinct from one another. In other words it is the minimum
distance between two points at which they can both be seen separately rather
than a single, blurred point. That is, it is the capacity to distinguish fine detail
in an image. In Microscopes, resolution depends on the wavelength of the
illuminating light.
• Light microscope has a resolving power of about 200 nm (0.2 µm or 0.2 x10-6m),
which is 1000 times that of human eye. In fact, human eyes have a resolution of
about 200 µm (0.2 mm).
• This limit is due to the wavelength of light (0.4-0.7 µm). Living or killed and fixed
cells may be stained and viewed with light microscopes.

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Fig. 1. The Scale of Life

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Fig 2a.Light microscope

Fig 2b. Light microscope

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Electron Microscope
• Electron microscopes were developed around the 1930s
• Enabled much improved resolution.
• The first transmission electron microscope was build by Ernst Ruska at the
University of Berlin
• An electron microscope uses magnets to focus an electron beam, much as a light
microscope uses glass lenses to focus a beam of light
• The Electron beam is directed to a fluorescent screen or photographic film to create
a visible image
• The wavelength of the electron beam is far shorter than that of light, and the
resulting image resolution is far greater
• Its resolution is about 0.2 nm or 1 000 000 times finer than that of the human eye
• Subcellular features can be distinguished at this resolution

Types of Electron Microscopes include:


a. Transmission electron microscope
b. Scanning electron microscope
c. Reflection electron microscope

Electron microscopes have advantages over light microscopes because they have:
• much greater resolving power than light microscopes
• much higher magnifications of up to 2 million times, while the best light
microscopes are limited to magnifications of 2000 times

However, both electron and light microscopes have resolution limitations, imposed by
the wavelength of the radiation they use.

The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) has a limit of resolution of about


2nm. This is due to limitations of the lens used to focus electrons onto the sample. A
TEM looks at replicas of dead cells, after fixation and heavy metal ion staining.
Electrons are scattered as they pass through a thin section of the specimen, and then
detected and projected onto an image on a fluorescent screen.

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) also has a limit of 2nm. Like the TEM, the
SEM allows you to look at replicas of dead cells, after fixation and heavy metal ion
staining. With this technique, electrons are reflected off the surface of the specimen.

CELLS
• Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665 in a piece of cork he viewed under a
primitive microscope
• Cork cells are dead and without cytoplasmic contents so Hooke actually observed
cell walls
• Hooke coined the word “Cell” from the latin word ‘cellula’ which means small
compartment

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CELL THEORY
• Research on cells by the use of microscopes led to the development of the cell
theory
• The cell theory is a set of statements that encapsulates the essential characteristics
of cells
• Credit for developing the theory is usually given to Theodor Schwann, Matthias
Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow
• In 1839 Schwann and Schleiden suggested that cells were the basic unit of life
• In 1855, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre- existing cells
thus completing the classical cell theory

Classical Cell Theory


 Cells are the fundamental units of life
 All organisms are composed of cells
 All cells come from preexisting cells

There are NO Exceptions!!!!!

However, some people argue that the following are the exceptions
 Viruses are considered by some to be alive, yet they are not made up of cells
 The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell

Modern Cell Theory


The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
 The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division

 All known living things are made up of cells


 Some organisms are unicellular, made up of only one cell
 Others are multicellular, composed of countless member of cells
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
 Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
 The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells

Cell theory has three important implications:


• Functions of all cells are similar – i.e. the principles that underlie the functions
of the single-celled bacterium are similar to those governing the 60 trillion cells
of your body
• Life is continuous, arising from other cells
• The origin of life on earth was marked by the origin of the first cells

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Table 1. Some historically important events in cell biology (Green et al. 1984,
pg 185)

Year Event
1595 Zacharias Jansen invented the first compound microscope, which combines 2 lenses for greater magnification

1665 Robert Hooke, examined cork under an improved compound microscope and used the term‘cell’ to describe its basic units.
He thought the cells were empty and the walls were the living material

1650- Antony van Leeuwenhoeck, using a good quality simple lens mag( . X200), observed nuclei and unicellular organisms,
1700 including bacteria. In 1676, bacteria were described for the first time as ‘animalcules’, meaning “little animals”.

1831-3 Robert Brown described the nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in plant cells.

1838-9 Matthias Schleiden (a botanist) and Theodor Schwann ( a zoologist ) produced the “cell theory”

1840 Purkinje gave the name protoplasm to the contents of cells, realiizing that the latter were the living material, not the cell wal
ls.
Later the term cytoplasm was introduced (cytoplasm + nucleus = protoplassm

1855 Virchow showed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division

1866 Haeckel established that the nucleus was responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary characters

1880 August Weismann, added an important corollary to Virchow’s concept by pointing out that the ancestry of all the living cells
alive today can be traced back to ancient times

1880-3 Plastids, e.g. chloroplasts, discovered

1890 Mitochondria discovered

1898 Golgi apparatus discovered

1930s Electron microscope developed, enabling much improved resolution. The first transmission electron microscope was build by
Ernst Ruska at the University of Berlin

1998 Mice cloned from somatic cells

Nature and Diversity of Cells


• Cells exists as discrete, free-living, single-celled species (Unicellular) of bacteria,
protozoa, and algae
• Or as subunits making up the tissues, organs, and organ systems of multicellular
organisms-the fungi, plants, and animals

Organisms according to some classifications are grouped into 5 kingdoms: Monera


(viruses & bacteria), Protista (include algae), Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.

Cell Size
• Diverse cell sizes
• Animal cells range from the ostrich egg yolk, which is more than 3 cm in diameter,
to small bacterial cells less than 0.2 µm or 0.0000002 cm, in length
• Most single cells, do not exceed a diameter of about 35 µm
• Plants cells vary from 0.5 µm to 10 cm
• But for most higher plants the general size range from 10-100 µm
• Number of cells in a plant are astronomical many e.g. single leaf has 40 million
cells: But there are many leaves then stems and roots

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Limits on Cell Size
Why are most cells so small?
• Cell size and shape are related to function and are limited by the need to maintain
homeostasis
• Most cells are tiny, with volumes in the range of 1 to 1000 m3.
• Some cells are relatively large (e.g., birds’ eggs, some nerve cells, and several
types of bacteria and algae).
• The surface of a cell is the area that interfaces with the cell’s environment. The
larger the surface area of a cell, the faster a cell can take in substances and remove
waste products.
• The volume of a cell is a measure of the space inside a cell. The larger the volume
of a cell, the more chemical activity it can have.
• Surface area-to-volume ratio is defined as the surface area divided by the volume.
For any given shape, increasing volume decreases the surface area-to-volume ratio.
• Cells should have enough surface area to exchange sufficient amounts of nutrients,
gases, ions, and wastes with the environment
• Advantage of greater surface area and small size in cells is that gases and nutrients
have a shorter distance to travel from the edge to the center of the cell

• Small size benefits cells in many ways:


• As a cell grows larger its need for resources and generation of waste increase
faster than its surface area.
• Cells must often distribute substances within themselves, which is made much
easier if the cell is small.
• This explains why large organisms must consist of many small cells to maintain
sufficient surface area-to-volume ratios and to maintain an ideal internal
volume.

4
2
1
2
1 1 2 4
4

Fig. 4. Cubes of different sizes


Surface area 6 sides x 12 = 6 6 sides x 22 = 24 6 sides x 42 = 96
Volume 13 =1 23 =8 43 =64
Surface- to-volume 6/1 = 6 24/8 = 3 96/64 =1.5
ratio

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 The volume increases more rapidly than the surface area as the length doubles from
1 to 4
 The ratio of surface area to volume goes down
 Better if the big cell are subdivided into smaller ones to increase the surface to
volume ratio

Types of Cells
Cells are classified in 2 ways
• By fundamental elements of structure
• By the way they obtain energy

Structural classification
• Prokaryotes
• Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells
• The word prokaryotes (pro, before: karyon, nucleus) means “before nucleus”

• It describes cells in which DNA is localised in a region called the nucleoid but is

not bounded by a membrane


• The DNA lies free in the cytoplasm

• That is, a prokaryotic cell lacks a true, membrane-bound nucleus

• All prokaryotes are independent and single-celled organisms

• Today, prokaryotes are represented by two broad groups of single-celled organisms,

the archaea and the bacteria


• They have no nucleus or other membrane-bounded compartments. They lack

distinct organelles, although some do have invaginated membrane structures


• Include thousands of species of bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

Prokaryotic cells share certain features


• All have a plasma membrane.
• All have a region called the nucleoid where the DNA is concentrated.

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• The cytoplasm (the plasma membrane-enclosed region) consists of the nucleoid, ribosomes (the
molecular protein synthesis machines), and a liquid portion called the cytosol. The cytoplasm is not a
static region and substances in it are in constant motion.
Some prokaryotic cells have specialized features
• Cell walls:
• Most prokaryotic cells have a cell wall just outside the plasma membrane.
• The cell wall functions to prevent plasma membrane lysis (bursting) when cells are exposed to
solutions with lower solute concentrations than the cell interior. It also protects the membrane.
• In most bacteria (but not in archaea) the cell wall is made of a polymer of amino sugars called
peptidoglycan, which is covalently cross-linked to form one giant molecule around the entire
cell.
• Some bacteria have another membrane outside the cell wall, a polysaccharide-rich phospholipid
membrane. This membrane has embedded proteins that make it more permeable than the interior
membrane.
• Some bacteria have another layer in addition to a plasma membrane, a cell wall, and an outer
membrane. The outermost slimy layer is made of polysaccharides and is referred to as a capsule.
• For some bacteria, this capsule provides a means to escape detection by the immune systems of
the animals they infect.
• The capsule can prevent drying out of the cell and help the bacterium attack other cells.
• The capsule is not essential to cell life; if the cell loses the capsule, it can survive.
• Internal membranes:
• Some bacteria, including cyanobacteria, can carry on photosynthesis; that is, they have the ability
to collect solar energy.
• Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll in the infolded plasma membrane for this purpose.
• In eukaryotes, separate organelles have specialized membranes for this process.
• Some bacteria have internal membrane folds that remain attached to the plasma membrane and are
involved in cell division or in certain energy-releasing reactions.
• Flagella and pili:
• Some prokaryotes have flagella, locomotory structures shaped like a corkscrew. They spin like a
propeller to move the cell.
• The flagella are moved by a motor protein anchored to the plasma membrane and in some bacteria
to the outer membrane of the cell wall.
• Some bacteria have pili, threadlike structures that help bacteria adhere to one another during
mating or to other cells for food and protection.
• Cytoskeleton:
• Some prokaryotes have an internal filamentous helical structure just below the plasma membrane.
The proteins that make up this structure are similar to actin, a major component of the eukaryotic
cytoskeleton, and so it is thought that perhaps these structures play a role in maintaining cell
shape.

Fig.5a. Prokaryotic cell

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Fig. 5b. Prokaryotic cell

Fig.5c. Bacterial Cell Structure

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Eukaryotic cells
• “true nucleus”
• Much more complex in structure
• Have a membrane-enclosed nucleus that houses the DNA in complex structures
called chromosomes
• Contain several types of internal membrane-bounded compartments called
organelles
• These organelles include mitochondria, a nucleus, and in plants and a few other
groups, plastids (e.g. chloroplast)
• Have a special network of minute filaments and tubules called cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton gives shape to the cell and allows movement
• All single-celled organisms other than bacteria and cyanobacteria are eukaryotic
cells
• Also, the basic units that make up all multicellular plants, animals, and fungi are
eukaryotic cells
• Therefore, animals, plants, fungi, and protists have a membrane-bounded nucleus
in each of their cells and are classified as eukaryotes.
• Eukaryotic cells tend to be larger than prokaryotic cells, up to 10 times.

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Fig.5. Eukaryotic cell diagram

Compartmentalization is the key to eukaryotic cell function


• The subunits, or compartments, within eukaryotic cells are called organelles, each
with its own distinct shape and function.
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genetic material (DNA).
• The mitochondrion is a power plant and industrial park for the storage and
conversion of energy.
• The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus make up a compartment where
proteins are packaged and sent to appropriate locations in the cell.
• The lysosome and vacuole are cellular digestive systems where large molecules
are hydrolyzed into usable monomers.
• The chloroplast performs photosynthesis.

How did eukaryotic cells originate?


The endosymbiosis theory suggests how eukaryotes evolved
• Most early prokaryotes probably absorbed their food directly, but some fed on
smaller prokaryotes by engulfing them.
• The origin of chloroplasts may have come about if a small photosynthetic
prokaryote was ingested, but not digested, by a larger cell. If it could survive in the
cytoplasm of the larger cell and reproduce at about the same rate as the larger cell,
then a symbiotic relationship could form that would benefit both partners.
• This endosymbiosis, the living of a smaller cell within a larger one, could have
provided the smaller photosynthetic cell with protection while the larger cell would
benefit from the production of monosaccharides from photosynthesis.
• Similar arguments are offered for the evolution of mitochondria.
• The endosymbiosis theory was first suggested over 100 years ago but was given
credence by the work of Lynn Margulis during the 1980s.
• There are several lines of evidence to support this theory:

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• Chloroplasts and mitochondria are about the same size as prokaryotic cells and
each contains its own DNA.
• Today, both mitochondria and chloroplasts are self-duplicating organelles.
• In chloroplasts and mitochondria, the DNA, ribosomes, and gene reproduction on
the organelle level all seem to resemble those of prokaryotes.
• Over millions of years there is evidence of the movement of DNA between
organelles in the eukaryotic cell.
• There are many biochemical similarities between chloroplasts and photosynthetic
bacteria.
• DNA sequencing of chloroplasts and photosynthetic bacteria shows strong
similarities.

Fig. Events giving rise to photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms (Smith et al. 2010, pg8)

Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes continue to evolve


• It is probable that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes because both use nucleic acids as their
genetic material; both use the same 20 amino acids in their proteins; and both use D sugars and L
amino acids.
• Folds in the plasma membrane, also seen in today’s prokaryotes, could easily have curved back on
themselves and formed compartments, leading to the formation of the endoplasmic reticulum, the
Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. During cell reproduction, the DNA in prokaryotic cells becomes
attached to the plasma membrane. If the membrane, aided by microtubules, had folded to enclose the
DNA, the cell would have created a nucleus.

Types of Cells
Classified in 2 ways
• By fundamental elements of structure
• By the way they obtain energy

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2nd classification – method of obtaining energy
• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs

Autotrophs
• “self-feeders”
• Use light energy or chemical energy to manufacture their own sugars, fats, and
proteins
• A few bacteria and more than 400 000 plant species on earth are autotrophs

Heterotrophs
• “other-feeders”
• Derive their energy by taking in foods in the form of whole, part or waste products
of autotrophs and other heterotrophs
• Include many kinds of bacteria and all millions of animal and fungal species

Structure of cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell


Difference of plant cells from animal cells
Plant cells have all of the same organelles as animal cells except:

 Plant cells don't have centrioles.

 Plants have chloroplasts that are active in photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have a double
membrane and contain chlorophyll.

 Plants have cell walls made of cellulose in addition to cell membranes. (Note: bacteria have cell
walls made of peptidoglycan and fungi have cell walls made of chitin)

 Water vacuoles in plants are much larger and support much of the cell.
 Plant cells have another kind of cell junction called plasmodesmata.

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 Plants have leucoplasts that store starch, oil, or protein.


Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells
Typical animal cell Typical plant cell
Organelles  Nucleus  Nucleus
o Nucleolus (within o Nucleolus (within
nucleus) nucleus)
 Rough endoplasmic  Rough ER
reticulum (ER)  Smooth ER
 Smooth ER  Ribosomes
 Ribosomes  Cytoskeleton
 Cytoskeleton  Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes)
 Golgi apparatus  Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm  Mitochondria
 Mitochondria  Vesicles
 Vesicles  Chloroplast and other plastids
 Lysosomes  Central vacuole(large)
 Centrosome o Tonoplast (central
o Centrioles vacuole membrane)
 Vacuoles  Peroxisome (e.g. Glyoxysome)
 Vacuoles

Additional  Plasma membrane  Plasma membrane


structures  Flagellum  Flagellum (only in gametes)
 Cilium  Cell wall
 Plasmodesmata

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Diversity of Cells
Plant Cells

Fig.7. Plant cells (Source: Raven et al. 1992, pg 628)

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Animal Cells

Red blood cells

Fig. 8. Red blood cells. (Source: Solomon et al. 1999, pg 907)

• Structure and function related


• Mammalian RBC is flexible & biconcave disc shaped
• Biconcave shape provides a high ratio of surface area to volume, allowing
efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the cell

Structure and related functions of cell organelles

Cell wall and cytoskeleton

Structure Description Function


Cell wall A rigid cell wall Provides mechanical support and
surrounding the protection. It allows turgor pressure
cell, consisting of to be developed which aids in
cellulose support. It prevents osmotic bursting
of the cell. It is a pathway for
movement of water and mineral
Centrioles Pair of hollow Mitotic spindle forms between
cylinders located near centrioles during animal cell division.
nucleus Absent in most plants
Flagella Long projections; Cellular locomotion by sperm cells
extend from surface and some single-celled eukaryotes
of cell
Cilia Short projections Movement of some single-celled
from the surface of organisms; used to move materials
the cell on surface of some tissues

What Are the Roles of Extracellular Structures?


• Extracellular structures are made by cells of multicellular organisms, but are outside the cell
membrane.
• Extracellular structures are made up of two components—a fibrous molecule and a gel-like medium.
The plant cell wall is an extracellular structure
• The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of other complex
polysaccharides and proteins.

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• It has three main functions:
• The cell wall provides a rigid structure for the plasma membrane under turgor pressure, giving
important support.
• It is a barrier to many fungi, bacteria, and other organisms that may cause plant diseases.
• It contributes to plant form by growing as plant cells expand.
• Adjacent plant cells are connected by numerous plasma-membrane lined channels called
plasmodesmata. These are 20–40 nm in diameter and extend through the walls of adjoining cells. They
permit the diffusion of water, ions, small molecules, RNA, and proteins

The cytoskeleton is important in cell structure


• The cytoskeleton is comprised of a set of long, thin fibers found in the cytoplasm.
• The cytoskeleton supports the cell and maintains its shape; provides for cell movement; positions
organelles within the cell; acts as tracks for “motor proteins” that help move materials within cells;
and interacts with extracellular structures to help anchor the cell in place.
• There are three major types of cytoskeletal components: the microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules. Other important related structures arising from microtubules are the cilia and
motor proteins.
• Cilia and flagella.
• Microtubules are structurally essential parts of cilia
and flagella, common locomotory appendages of cells.
• Cilia and flagella are plasma membrane-covered cell projections.
• Flagella typically are longer than cilia, and cells that have them usually only have one or two.
• Usually cilia are present in great numbers.

• Centrioles are found in an organizing center near the cell nucleus.


• The microtubules that radiate from centrioles help in the movement of chromosomes during cell
division.
• Most eukaryotic cells have centrioles; exceptions are flowering plants, pine trees and their
relatives, and some protists.

Cell Nucleus

Structure Description Function


Nucleus Large structure surrounded by double membrane Information in DNA is transcribed in RNA
synthesis: specifies cellular proteins
Nucleolus Granular body within nucleus; consists of RNA Site of ribosomal RNA synthesis (i.e.
and protein manufactures ribosomes)
Chromosomes Composed of a complex of DNA and protein Contain genes (units of hereditary
information) that govern structure and
activity of cell

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acids


RNA – ribonucleic acids

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Telomere

Telomere
Fig.9. Chromosome

Endomembrane System in Eukaryotic Cells


•All eukaryotic cells have within them a functionally interrelated membrane system, the
endomembrane system
•Consist of the nuclear envelope, ER and Golgi apparatus, vesicles and other organelles
derived from them, and the plasma membrane.
•Many materials are moved around the cell by the endomembrane system, including
some proteins.

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Fig. 10. Endomembrane system

Endomembrane System in Eukaryotic Cells


The endomembrane system is a group of interrelated organelles
• The endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells occupies much of the cell volume.
• The endomembrane system is composed of two main components: the endoplasmic reticulum and
the Golgi apparatus.
• There are continuities between this membrane and the nuclear envelope, as well as connections via
small vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.
• Endoplasmic reticulum.
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of interconnecting membranes distributed
throughout the cytoplasm.
• The internal compartment, called the lumen, is a separate part of the cell with a distinct protein and
ion composition.
• Most of the membrane of the cell is found in the ER.
• Approximately 10 percent of the entire fluid volume of the cell is inside the ER.
• The ER’s folding generates a surface area much greater than that of the plasma membrane.
• The rough ER (RER) has ribosomes attached, which actively synthesize proteins destined for the
ER interior or incorporation into the membrane of the ER.
• Some of these membrane and lumen proteins stay with the ER, and some are transported to other
points of the endomembrane system.
• Some of the proteins that enter the lumen (or face the lumen interior) are folded, shaped by
disulfide bridges, or gain carbohydrate groups.
• Some of the proteins that enter the ER have address information encoded by attached
carbohydrate groups (glycoproteins) that determines their final destination.
• There is a ribosome-free region of the ER called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) that has
several functions.
• Within the lumen of the SER some proteins synthesized on the RER are modified.
• The SER of liver cells is the site for the synthesis and hydrolysis of glycogen.
• SER of the liver is also the site for detoxification of small molecules taken in by the cell,
especially drugs and pesticides.
• It is also the site for the synthesis of lipids and steroids.
• Cells that are specialized for synthesizing proteins for extracellular export have extensive
endomembrane systems. Examples are the cells of glands and white blood cells that secret
antibodies.
• Golgi apparatus:
• The organization of the Golgi varies in different organisms, but it always consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae and small membrane-bounded vesicles. The whole structure is
about 1m long.
• The Golgi apparatus has several roles:
• Receives and modifies proteins from the ER.
• Concentrates and packages proteins before they are sent off to their final destinations.
• It is the location where polysaccharides for the plant cell wall are synthesized.

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• In organisms other than vertebrates, compartments are separate and scattered.
• In vertebrates, the Golgi is stacked like pancakes into a single structure called the Golgi apparatus.
• Golgi apparatus appears to have three functionally distinct sections:
• The compartment closest to the nucleus is called the cis region.
• The middle compartment is the medial region.
• The compartment closest to the plasma membrane is the trans region.
• These three parts have different functions and different associated enzymes.
• Vesicles from the ER fuse to the cis region. Vesicles from the cis compartment move to the next
compartment, the medial region, and then to the trans compartment.
• Some vesicles fuse with the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. This is where the plasma
membrane originates. The contents of the vesicles are released to the outside of the cell.

• Lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are organelles that come in part from the Golgi. They are approximately 1 m in
diameter.
• The Golgi creates primary lysosomes, vesicles containing digestive enzymes.
• Food and foreign objects are brought into the cytoplasm through a process called phagocytosis.
The resulting phagosomes are vesicles that contain the foreign material.
• Primary lysosomes created by the Golgi fuse with phagosomes to create secondary lysosomes.
• Within the secondary lysosomes, the digestive enzymes hydrolyze macromolecules such as
nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides into monomers. These small molecules
diffuse through the lysosome’s membrane into the cytoplasm.
• The remaining undigested material is expelled from the cell when the “used” secondary
lysosome fuses with the plasma membrane and releases the undigested contents.
• Lysosomes are also the sites where digestion of
spent cellular components occurs, a process called autophagy.
• Autophagy results in monomers that pass through the lysosomal membrane into the cytoplasm for
reuse.
• Plant cells do not seem to have lysosomes, but their role may be performed by the central vacuole.

Structure Description Function


Plasma Membrane A differentially permeable barrier
membrane boundary of cell controlling exchange between the
cell and its environment; Encloses
cellular contents; helps maintain cell
shape

Endoplasmic Network of internal Synthetic site of lipids and many


reticulum membranes proteins; origin of intracellular
(ER) extending through transport vesicles carrying proteins
cytoplasm
Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes Lipid biosynthesis: drug
on outer surface detoxification
Rough ER Ribosomes stud Manufacture of many proteins
outer surface destined for secretion or for
incorporation into membranes

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 22


Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 23
Structure Description Function
Ribosomes Granules Sites of protein synthesis, holding in
composed of RNA place the various interacting
and protein; some molecules involved.
attached, some free
in cytosol
Golgi A stalk of flattened Modifies proteins; packages
apparatus membrane sacs secreted protein; sorts other proteins
to vacuoles and other organelles
Lysosomes Membranous sacs Contain enzymes to break down
(in animals) ingested materials, ssecretions, wastes
Vacuole A sac bounded by a Storage of various substances
single membrane including waste products. It makes
(mostly in plants, an important contribution to the
fungi, algae) osmotic properties of the cell.
Sometimes it functions as a
lysosome

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 24


Some organelles transform energy
• Mitochondria:
• Mitochondria are small organelles less than 1.5 m in diameter and 2–8 m in
length.
• The primary function of mitochondria is to convert the potential energy of fuel
molecules into a form that the cell can use.
• Mitochondria use simple energy molecules and oxygen to generate ATP from
ADP in a process called cellular respiration. Most of the oxygen taken in by
eukaryotic organisms is used directly by mitochondria.
• A human liver cell contains more than a thousand mitochondria.
• Mitochondria have an outer lipid bilayer and a highly folded inner membrane.
• Within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix containing enzymes, some
ribosomes, and DNA used to make the proteins needed for cellular respiration.
• Mitochondria have a small amount of DNA and some ribosomes located within
this matrix.
• The inner, deeply folded membrane (cristae) has embedded proteins, which are
important to the functioning of the organelle. The folding gives this membrane a
greater surface area on which chemical reactions can occur.

• Plastids:
• Plastids are organelles of several types found in eukaryotic plants and some
protists.
• Chloroplasts are a type of plastid that contain chlorophyll and are the sites where
photosynthesis (conversion of light energy to chemical energy) occurs.
• Chloroplasts are variable in shape and size and are surrounded by two membranes.
• The chloroplast in flowering plants has the following structure:
• The internal membrane is stacked like hollow pita bread. The stacks are called
grana and consist of flat circular compartments called thylakoids.
• Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments needed for
photosynthesis along with phospholipids and proteins.
• The stroma is the fluid-filled area of the inner membrane where the membrane-
bounded thylakoids reside.
• Next is the stroma, which is the fluid-filled area of the inner membrane. Inside
the stroma are the membrane-bounded thylakoids. This is where chlorophyll and
other pigments for photosynthesis are embedded.
• Chloroplasts have a small amount of DNA and some ribosomes in the stroma.
• Animal cells do not produce chloroplasts but some, like coral and sea anemones,
contain them either from ingested food or from symbiotic algae living within the
animal’s tissues.
• Other plastids found in plants include:
• Chromoplasts, which contain red, orange, or yellow pigments and give color to
plants organs such as flowers.
• Leucoplasts, which are specialized for storage of starch and fats.

Structures and functions of other Cell organelles


Structure Description Function
Mitochondria Sacs consisting of Site of most reactions of cellular
two membranes; respiration; transformation of energy
inner membrane is originating from glucose or lipids into
folded to form ATP energy
cristae and
encloses matrix
Chloroplasts Double membrane Site where photosynthesis takes
Dr S. W. place.
structure containing Makhabu – August 2018
Chlorophyll captures light 25
chlorophyll energy; ATP and other energy-rich
compounds are formed and then
used to convert CO2 to glucose
Several other organelles are surrounded by a membrane
• Peroxisomes:
• Peroxisomes are small organelles (0.2 to 1.7 m in diameter) that are specialized to compartmentalize
toxic peroxides (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, H2O2), that are the unavoidable by-products of cellular
chemical reactions, and break them down.
• Peroxisomes have a single membrane and a granular interior containing specialized enzymes.
• Glyoxysomes:
• Glyoxysomes are structurally similar organelles to peroxisomes and are found only in plants.
• They are most prominent in young plants and are the sites where stored lipids are converted into carbo-
hydrates for use in growing cells.

• Vacuoles:
• Vacuoles, found in plants and protists, are surrounded by membranes and filled with an aqueous
solution.
• They have several functions:
• Storage— used to store wastes and toxic by-products . The storage of these poisonous or distasteful wastematerials from
eating the plants and so may contribute to plant survival.
• Structure—vacuoles may develop turgor pressure, a swelling that helps the plant cell maintain
support and rigidity. Water enters the vacuole because of dissolved substances in the vacuole,
which cause it to swell and press against the cell wall.
• Reproduction—some pigments (especially blue and pink) in the petals and fruits of flowering
plants are contained in vacuoles. These pigments, called anthocyanins, provide visual cues for
pollinators and seed dispersers.
• Digestion—vacuoles in the seeds of some plants contain enzymes used to hydrolyze seed
proteins that a developing embryo can use as food.
• Food vacuoles are formed in single-celled protists. They are similar to the phagosomes mentioned
earlier.
• The cytoplasm of freshwater protists is generally higher in salt concentration than the freshwater
environment; as a result, water tends to move into the cytoplasm. Many freshwater protists have a
contractile vacuole that helps eliminate excess water and restore the proper salt balance in the
cytoplasm.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 26


The Unit membrane: Concept and structure
Structure
• Composed of both lipids and proteins
• The core is composed of lipids, mostly phospholipids
• Phospholipids are primarily responsible for the physical properties of biological
membranes
• Have unique attributes, including features that allow them to form bilayered
structures

Two models commonly cited


• The Davson-Danielli “Sandwich” model
• Fluid mosaic model
• Models such as these are very important in science
• Much of science deals with models
• Models are conceptual plans that relate component parts to each other
– A good model incorporates what is known about some entity and adds in the best
guesses one has about missing parts and/or the ways the parts inter-relate
– Models can be quite useful when the subject under study (the membrane in this
case) cannot be observed directly
– Models, like hypotheses, may turn out to be wrong, but they serve a valuable
purpose if they stimulate experiments and the search for confirmatory evidence.

The Davson-Danielli “Sandwich” model


Proposed by H Davson and J F Danielli in the 1930s.

It proposes that cells are covered by a thin flexible envelope composed of 2 layers and
that this bilayer contains phospholipids molecules and proteins

The “Sandwich” model illustrate the membrane as


 a bimolecular lipid layer
 capped on the inside and outside by protein
 To account for the easy movement through membranes by small molecules, they
also postulated the presence of protein-lined pores.

“The Davson-Danielli model can be thought of as a sandwich where the bread


represents the outer and inner layers of protein and the sandwich filling the lipid
component (however, this sandwich model is inadequate since it has no protein pores!)”

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 27


Fig. 11. Davson-Danielli model

Conflict or Problems with the Davson-Danielli Sandwich and Unit Membrane


• Problems developed when it was found that each membrane bound organelle had its
own particular function
• How could membranes vary in function if they all had the same structure?
• Variations in membrane thickness were also observed which cast further doubt on
the generalization
• Furthermore, the Davson-Danielli model seemed inadequate to explain some
membrane properties, e.g. , how could lipid soluble material pass through
membranes regardless of size if a protein cap protected the lipid?

The Unit membrane: Models of Membrane Structure


• Robertson in 1959 combined the available evidence and put forward the ‘unit
membrane’ hypothesis
• Proposed that all biological membranes shared the same basic units
 They are about 7.5 nm wide
 They have a characteristic trilaminar appearance when viewed with the electron
microscope

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 28


 The three layers are a result of the same arrangement of proteins and polar lipids as
proposed by Davson and Danielli and represent two protein layers surrounding a
central lipid layer

Has now been modified due to recent research findings

The Fluid mosaic model

Proposed by Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson in 1972


States that at normal biological temperatures, the plasma membrane behaves like a
thin layer of fluid covering the cell surface
Emphasized the dynamic nature of membranes in sharp contrast to the static Davson-
Danielli model

Hydrophobic region
of protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Figure 7.3 Hydrophobic region of protein

Fig. 12a. Fluid mosaic model

Fig. 12b. Fluid mosaic model

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 29


The Fluid mosaic model
According to this model:
•the molecular structure of the membrane is not rigid and fixed
•but rather flows - especially the bimolecular layer of lipids
•the lipids are not capped with a solid protein coating
•Instead, protein molecules are dispersed throughout the membrane
•Lipids are like the water of a lake in which proteins “float”
•leaving many portions of the lipid bare and exposed to the extra- and intra-cellular
environments
•It is through these bare areas that lipid soluble molecules pass
•A crucial part of the model was the realization that the membrane lipids were typically
di-glycerides with any of several types of phospholipids attached to the remaining
carbon atom of the fat's glycerol
•Carbohydrates attach to lipid or protein molecules on the membrane, generally on the
outer surface
•Has some support & is the current one mostly used

Lipids constitute the bulk of a membrane


• Most of the lipid molecules found in biological membranes are phospholipids.
• Each has a hydrophilic (“water-loving”) side, where the phosphate groups are located, and a
hydrophobic (“water-hating”) side, the fatty acid “tails.”
• The phospholipids organize themselves into a bilayer with the hydrophilic regions facing either the
outside of the cell or the interior, cytoplasmic face. The hydrophobic, hydrocarbon-rich regions of
each layer face each other, away from the watery internal or external environment, an arrangement
that stabilizes the entire membrane structure.
• This capacity helps biological membranes fuse during vesicle formation, phagocytosis, and related
processes.
• The interior of the membrane is fluid, with the consistency of lightweight machine oil. This fluidity
allows some molecules to move laterally along the plane of the membrane, and some can travel from
one end of the cell to the other in little more than 1 second.
• Although all biological membranes are structurally similar, some have quite different compositions
of lipids and proteins.
• Some lipid membranes have 25 percent cholesterol, whereas others have no cholesterol at all.
• Cholesterol is an important part of the lipid membranes that contain it. Under some conditions,
cholesterol increases membrane fluidity; at other times it decreases fluidity.
• The effect of cholesterol on fluidity depends on other factors, such as the fatty acid composition of
the other lipids found in the membrane.
• In general, shorter fatty acids make for a more fluid membrane, as do unsaturated fatty acids.
• For any given membrane, fluidity decreases with declining temperature and membrane function
may decline in organisms that cannot maintain warm bodies. The membranes of cells that live at
low temperatures tend to be high in unsaturated and short-chain fatty acids.
• Although phospholipid molecules can move laterally and do so rapidly, they seldom “flip-flop”—
that is, they rarely move from the exterior layer to the cytoplasmic layer or vice versa.
• Flip-flop is rare without the aid of special proteins designed for the task.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 30


Glycerol and Fatty acids
Phosphate group (Hydrophobic tails)
(hydrophilic ‘head’)

Fig. 13. Phospholipids

There are two general types of membrane proteins:


• Integral membrane proteins are those that have hydrophobic regions of amino acids that penetrate
or entirely cross the phospholipid bilayer.
• -helical region, which
tends to interact with only the hydrophobic membrane core.
• They also have hydrophilic groups that face the aqueous areas and interact with them.
• Peripheral membrane proteins lack hydrophobic regions and are not embedded in the bilayer.
These proteins have polar or charged groups that interact with exposed portions of integral
membrane proteins or phospholipid molecules.
• Some membrane proteins are covalently attached to fatty acids or other lipid groups. The lipid
portion inserts into the lipid bilayer and tethers the protein to the membrane.
• Transmembrane proteins protrude on both sides of the membrane, with each side showing a different
face.
• They have at least three specific domains: one on the outer side of the membrane, different ones on
the inside of the membrane, and still other domains on the inner side of the membrane.
• Peripheral membrane proteins are localized on one side of the membrane, giving the two surfaces of
the membrane different properties.
• Some of the proteins and lipids can move around in the membrane.
• Experiments have demonstrated that when two cells are fused, a single continuous membrane
forms around both cells, and membrane proteins distribute themselves uniformly around this
membrane.
• Some proteins are restricted in movement because they are anchored to components of the
cytoskeleton or are trapped within regions of lipid rafts.
• This tethering causes an unequal distribution of proteins, allowing for specialization of certain
regions of the cell membrane.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 31


Role of the plasma membrane
Membranes performs a variety of functions;
o Membrane bound organelles permits certain cell activities to be localized within
specific enclosed regions of the cell
o Reactants in a localised parts of the cell are likely to come into contact, and the
rate of reaction can be dramatically increased
o Compartmentalizing also permits many different activities to go on
simultaneously
o Membranes also allow the storage of energy
o Membranes also serve as important work surfaces, e.g., a number of chemical
reactions in cells are carried out by enzymes that are bound to membranes
o With its component lipids, acts like an oilskin raincoat
o Slows or prevents the passage of polar ions or proteins through the uncharged,
hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer
o A major activity at the cell membrane is regulation of ions and molecules
movement in and out of cells
o Some ions and molecules are permitted to enter the cell via the passive process of
simple diffusion and carrier diffusion and via the energy requiring process of
active transport

Movement of materials into and out of cells


Movement of materials into and out of cells is through two processes
a. Passive transport
b. Active transport

What Are the Passive Processes of Membrane Transport?


• Biological membranes are selectively permeable. They allow some substances to pass, while other
substances are restricted in their movement.
• There are two processes by which substances can cross biological membranes:
• Passive transport does not require input of outside energy to allow some substances to diffuse
through the phospholipid bilayer.
• Active transport requires the input of external chemical energy to allow some substances to cross
the membrane.
• Passive transport involves two types of diffusion: simple and facilliated.
• Simple diffusion occurs through the phospholipid bilayer.
• Facilliated diffusion occurs through the use of membrane proteins, but the driving force is still
diffusion.
• There are two kinds of proteins involved in facilitated diffusion: channel and carrier proteins.
Diffusion is the process of random movement toward a state of equilibrium
• Molecules in solution vibrate, rotate, and move from place to place. The greater the temperature, the
more quickly they move.
• The random movement of molecules results in their even distribution around an area.
• Once they are distributed evenly, they are said to be at equilibrium.
• Diffusion is the process of random movement toward the state of equilibrium.
• Although individual particles move randomly, in diffusion the net movement is directional, from
regions of greater concentrations to regions of lesser concentrations until equilibrium is reached.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 32


• With all diffusion, it is the concentration, not the total number of molecules, that determines the net
direction of movement, because the probability of molecules moving from one point to another
depends on the relative number of molecules there are per unit area.
• In a complex solution containing different solutes, the diffusion of each solute is independent of the
others.
• The speed of diffusion depends on four factors:
• The diameter of the molecules or ions—smaller molecules and ions diffuse faster.
• Temperature—higher temperatures lead to faster diffusion because the molecules or ions have
more energy and thus move faster.
• The electrical charge of the diffusing material.
• The concentration gradient in the system—the greater the concentration gradient, the faster the
diffusion.
• Diffusion within cells and tissues.
• The process of diffusion cannot adequately distribute materials over the length of the human body.
However, within our cells—across layers of membranes or from one cell to another—diffusion is
rapid enough to distribute small molecules and ions almost instantaneously (milliseconds).
• Diffusion across membranes.
• In a solution without barriers, diffusion rates are determined by temperature, the physical size of
the solute, the electrical charge of the diffusing material, and the concentration gradient.
• The insertion of a biological membrane affects the movement of chemicals in solution according to
the membrane’s properties.
• It may be permeable to some molecules and impermeable to others.
• If permeable, the concentration of the diffusing substance eventually reaches equilibrium with
equal numbers of the molecule moving in each direction so that there is no net change in
concentration.
Simple diffusion takes place through the phospholipid bilayer
• Substances that can move freely through the lipid bilayer move by a passive process.
• Some substances can move by simple diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer.
• Membranes can influence diffusion rates.
• How quickly molecules move across a lipid membrane depends on how permeable the membrane is
to the solute.
• Substances to which the membrane is permeable move along the concentration gradient from the
outside to the inside or from the inside to the outside.
• Molecules to which the membrane is impermeable necessarily remain on one side or the other.
• Polar and charged molecules such as amino acids, sugars, and ions do not pass readily across the
lipid bilayer.
• The hydrophobic interior of the membrane tends to exclude hydrophilic substances.
• One notable exception to this impermeability is water, which can pass through the lipid bilayer
more readily than its lipid solubility would predict.
• Consider two types of molecules: a small protein (a polar molecule) and a steroid of equivalent size.
The polar nature of the protein will cause it to diffuse slowly through the membrane, while the
nonpolar steroid will diffuse through it more readily.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across membranes
• Water diffusion across membranes, or osmosis, is a special case.
• Osmosis is a completely passive process and requires no metabolic energy.
• Two examples of osmosis are discussed: one in red blood cells and one in plant cells.
• Red blood cells are normally suspended in a fluid called plasma containing salts, proteins, and other
solutes.
• If pure water is added to red blood cells, they will burst, but if placed in a concentrated solution of
sugar or salt, they will pucker and shrink.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 33


• If two solutions are separated by a membrane that is permeable to water but not other solutes, the
water molecules will move from the side with the higher concentration of water (i.e., lower
concentration of solutes) across the membrane to the side with lower concentration of water (i.e.,
higher concentration of solutes).
• Three terms are used to compare the solute concentrations of solutions: isotonic, hypertonic, and
hypotonic.
• Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentrations. When all the individual particles outside the
cell are totaled and then adjusted for a certain volume (e.g., per ml), they will equal the total
number of all particles inside the cell, per the same volume.
• A hypertonic solution has a greater total solute concentration than the solution to which it is being
compared.
• A hypotonic solution has a lower total solute concentration than the solution to which it is being
compared. Cells placed in solutions that are hypotonic (relative to the cell’s cytoplasm) swell as
water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient.
• The integrity of cells such as red blood cells depends absolutely on the maintenance of constant
solute concentrations in the plasma.
• Plants can be exposed to pure water because their rigid cell walls limit the amount of water that can
enter. Animal cells, lacking cell walls, may continue to take on pure water and eventually burst.
• If a plant cell is placed in a solution with a high concentration of sucrose (table sugar), the plant
cell membrane will shrink inside the cell wall.
• If the plant cell is placed in pure water, the cell membrane will expand (build turgor pressure) until
it presses very firmly against the cell wall. Because the concentration of water is greater outside
the cell, the net movement of molecules (in the absence of any obstruction) will be into the cell
until equilibrium is reached.
Diffusion may be aided by channel proteins
• Polar substances (such as amino acids and sugars) and charged substances (such as ions) do not
diffuse across lipid bilayers.
• One way for these important raw materials to enter cells is through the process of facilitated
diffusion.
• There are two kinds of facilitated diffusion across biological membranes, one that depends on carrier
proteins and another that makes use of channel proteins.
• Channel proteins are integral membrane proteins that form channels lined with polar amino acids.
Nonpolar (hydrophobic) amino acids face the outside of the channel, toward the fatty acid tails of the
lipid molecules.
• Ion channels and membrane potential
• The best-studied protein channels are the ion channels, of which hundreds have been identified.
• Ion channels can be open or closed (i.e., they are gated), with various mechanisms controlling their
opening and closing.
• The gated channel opens when something changes the three-dimensional shape of its protein.
• The stimulus to open the gate can arise from a number of things including binding of a chemical
signal (a ligand-gated channel) or an electrical charge (a voltage-gated channel).
• Once the channel is opened, millions of ions can rush through per second. Just how fast and in
which direction these ions move depends on two factors:
• Concentration gradient
• Electrochemical gradient. For example, in animal cells there is a higher concentration of Cl – and
other negatively charged ions inside the cell than outside because they cannot get through the
membrane.
• The combination of the concentration gradient and the electrochemical gradient determines the
direction that an ion, such as potassium (K +), flows through a channel protein until an equilibrium
is reached.
• The relative concentrations of K+ on both sides of the membrane will not be equal because the
inside is negatively charged so the positively charged potassium ions are attracted to the inside of
the cell, and thus there is more K+ on the inside than outside.
• This sets up a charge imbalance across the membrane that is called the membrane potential.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 34


• The membrane potential can be measured for any ion using the Nernst equation that, in simplified
form, gives the membrane potential, in volts, based on the ion’s concentration inside and outside
the membrane. Here is the Nernst equation for the membrane potential for K +: EK = 58log
[K]o/[K]i.
• Actual measurements from animal cells give a membrane potential of approximately –70
millivolts across the membrane where the inside is negative with respect to the outside.
• Because plasma membranes are thin, this translates into a large amount of potential energy,
100,000 times more per centimeter than the potential energy flowing in the high-voltage power
lines powering your reading light.
• The specificity of ion channels
• Ion channels are specific for one type of ion.
• The mechanism for this specificity was discovered when the structure of a bacterial potassium
channel was determined.
• Specificity results from a tight fit between the ion and the funnel-shaped stem of the channel,
where oxygen atoms are located.
• Positive ions normally have a “shell” of water surrounding them in solution with up to 12 water
molecules attached. If the fit between the ion and the funnel opening is exact, the ion will be
more strongly attracted to the oxygen atoms in the funnel than those of water, and they will enter
the channel.
• If the ion is too small, it will retain its water “shell” and not enter the channel.
• One way that water crosses the plasma membrane is by hydrating ions as they pass through.
Another way is through protein-lined membrane channels called aquaporins.

Carrier proteins aid diffusion by binding substances


• Facilitated diffusion using carrier proteins involves not just opening a channel but also binding the
transported substance.
• Carrier proteins allow diffusion in both directions. This is one way sugars and amino acids are
transported.
• Mammalian cell membranes contain a glucose carrier protein, called the glucose transporter, that
facilitates glucose uptake by the cell.
• Binding of glucose to the carrier protein on the outside surface of the membrane causes the protein
to change its shape, pulling the glucose molecule across the membrane and releasing it inside the
cell.
• The transporter allows glucose molecules to enter the cell much faster than they would by simple
diffusion.
• The concentration gradient can be kept by metabolizing the transported substance once it enters the
cell. For example, as soon as glucose enters the cell, it is metabolized; therefore, the cell’s glucose
concentration stays low, and the movement of glucose continues.
• The rate of movement through carrier proteins is dependent on concentration, but only to a point,
because the carrier must bind the substance it transports.
• If the limited number of carrier protein molecules are loaded with solute molecules, the carrier
proteins are said to be saturated.
• Saturation can limit the number of molecules that can move into the cell per unit of time.

How Do Substances Cross Membranes against a Concentration Gradient?


• In contrast to diffusion, active transport requires the expenditure of energy.
• Ions or molecules are moved across the membrane from regions of lesser concentration to regions of
greater concentration.
• This is movement against the concentration gradient.
• ATP is the energy currency used either directly or indirectly to achieve active transport.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 35


Active transport is directional
• Three different protein-driven systems are involved in active transport: uniport, symport, and
antiport.
• Uniport transporters move a single type of solute, such as calcium ions, in one direction.
• Symport transporters move two solutes in the same direction.
• For example, amino acid transport may be coupled to sodium ion transport on the same transport
protein.
• Antiport transporters move two solutes in opposite directions, one into the cell and the other out of
the cell.
• An example is the sodium–potassium pump, which moves sodium out of the cell and
potassium into it.
• For each molecule of ATP used, three sodium ions are pumped out and two potassium ions are
pumped in.
• Symports and antiports are known as coupled transporters because they move two solutes at once.

Example of Sodium-potasium pump - found in all animal cells


Pump is a group of proteins in plasma membrane
Uses energy in the form of ATP to exchange Sodium ions on the inside of the cell for
potassium ions on the outside of the cell
Exchange unequal, 3 Na+ exported for 2 K+ imported and uses 1 ATP
Because of fewer K inside relative to Na outside the cell is negatively charged
Concentration plus electrical charge difference – elecrochemical gradient

Fig. 14. Sodium-potassium pump (Source: Solomon et al. 1999, p121)

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 36


Primary and secondary active transport rely on different energy sources
• There are two basic types of active transport:
• Primary active transport requires the direct use of ATP for the pumping system, as in the sodium–
potassium pump.
• Only cations, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium, are transported directly by pumps that use a
primary active transport system.
• Secondary active transport systems use established gradients to move substances.
• This form of transport uses ATP indirectly. The ATP molecules are consumed to establish the ion
gradient.
• The gradient is then used to move a substance, as described for the symport and antiport systems.
• Sodium and potassium ions are pumped by the primary active transport system, while glucose gains
entry to the cell via a secondary active transport system.
• An example is the symport system found in intestinal cells, which moves glucose up its concentration
gradient, while moving sodium ions down its ion concentration gradient. Both sodium and glucose
enter the cell. The sodium must be pumped out again, but the energy harvested from the glucose more
than pays for this energy expense.

How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?


• Macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids are too large and too charged or
polar to pass through biological membranes.
• Macromolecules, in general, enter the cell via endocytosis and exit via exocytosis.
Macromolecules and particles enter the cell by endocytosis
• A group of processes called endocytosis brings macromolecules, large particles, small molecules,
and even other cells into the eukaryotic cell.
• There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
• In all three, the plasma membrane invaginates toward the cell interior while surrounding the
materials on the outside.
• A vesicle is formed when the pocket of membrane deepens, pinches off, and migrates with its
contents to the cell’s interior.
• Phagocytosis, which involves the largest vesicles, even allows entire cells to be engulfed.
• Phagocytosis is common among unicellular protists.
• White blood cells in humans and other animals also use phagocytosis to defend the body against
invading, foreign cells.
• Pinocytosis, which means “cellular drinking,” involves vesicle formation as well, but the vesicles are
far smaller.
• Dissolved substances and fluids are brought into the cell.
• There is little or no specificity as to what the cell brings in.
• In humans, the single layer of cells separating blood capillaries from surrounding tissue uses
pinocytotic vesicles to acquire fluids from the blood.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is highly specific


• Receptor-mediated endocytosis is similar to pinocytosis, but it is highly specific. Animal cells use this
type of endocytosis to transport specific macromolecules from the environment.
• Receptor proteins are exposed on the outside of the cell in regions called coated pits.
• Clathrin molecules coat the cytoplasmic surface of the pits. The forming vesicles are the pits.
• As the receptors bind specific macromolecules outside the cell, the coated pits invaginate and form
coated vesicles with the macromolecules trapped inside.
• After the vesicles form and are embedded in the cell cytoplasm, they lose the clathrin coat. Depending
on the particular substance retrieved, they end up at specific locations within the cell or are digested in
lysosomes.

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 37


• Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the method by which cholesterol is taken up by mammalian cells.
• Cholesterol, which is water insoluble, is synthesized in the liver and transported throughout the body
within lipoprotein particles.
• Low-density lipoproteins, or LDLs, must be taken up by the liver for recycling.
• The LDL binds to the receptors found on the surface of the liver cell in coated pits.
• Clathrin-coated pits cause an invagination of bound receptors.
• Vesicles containing LDL are brought into the cell.
• The LDL receptors are recycled back to the cell’s surface. The LDL ends up in a lysosome and is
digested, freeing the cholesterol for use by the cell.
• Some humans inherit a condition in which their LDL receptors are deficient, resulting in dangerously
high levels of cholesterol in their blood.
Exocytosis moves materials out of the cell
• Exocytosis is the process by which materials, packaged in vesicles, are secreted (cast out) from the cell.
• The vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane and releases the vesicle’s contents (wastes,
enzymes, hormones, etc.) into the cell’s environment.

Fig. 15. Endocytosis and exocytosis. (Source: Solomon et al. 1999, pg 101)

3 types of Endocytosis processes


A. Phagocytosis
B. Pinocytosis
C. Receptor-mediated endocytosis

In phagocytosis, the plasma membrane encloses a particle such as a bacterium or protist, forms a vacuole
around it, and moves it into the cell
In pinocytosis, the cell takes in dissolved materials by forming tiny vesicles around droplets of fluid
trapped by folds of the plasma membrane
In receptor-mediated endocytosis, ligands bind to specific receptors in coated pits along the plasma
membrane. These pits, coated by the protein clathrin, form coated vesicles by endocytosis
Phagocytosis - Fig 5-17 (Solomon, p 124)
Pinocytosis – Fig 5-18
Receptor-mediated endocytosis – (Fig 5-19, p 125)

Exocytosis

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 38


In exocytosis, the cell ejects waste products or secretes substances such as hormones or mucus by fusion
of a vesicle with the plasma membrane

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 39


Cell Recognition and Adhesion
• The cells of multicellular organisms often exist in specialized blocks of cells with similar functions called
tissues.
• There are about 60 trillion cells in the human body, arranged in different tissues such as muscle, nerve, and
skin.
• Cells are able to arrange themselves into groups by two processes involving the plasma membrane:

a. Cell recognition
b. Cell adhesion

• In cell recognition, one cell specifically binds to another cell of a certain type.
• In cell adhesion, the relationship between the two cells is “cemented.”
• Experiments with sponges demonstrate these processes.
• If a sponge’s cells are made to disaggregate by forcing the animal through a fine wire screen several
times, what was a single animal is now hundreds of individual cells suspended in seawater.
• If the cells are left together in a solution for a few hours, they reaggregate into a sponge. This is an
example of species-specific cell adhesion.
• If two different species of sponges are disaggregated into individual cells and the two types of cells are
placed together, the cells from one species will aggregate only with cells from their own species and two
sponges will appear.
• However, if the cells from two sponges of the same species are combined, one large sponge will form
upon reaggregation.
• These tissue-specific and species-specific aggregations occur because of plasma membrane recognition
proteins.

Fig. 16. Sponge

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 40


Cell recognition and cell adhesion involve proteins at the cell surface
• The membrane proteins responsible for the cell–cell recognition in sponges were the first ever to be
identified and purified.
• The recognition protein is a large glycoprotein, composed of 80 percent sugar, that is partially
embedded in the plasma membrane.
• The species-specific recognition portion faces outward and is exposed to the environment.
• There are two general ways that cell adhesion molecules work.
• Homotypic (homo, “same” and typic, “type”) binding occurs when both cells possess the same type of
cell surface receptor and their interaction causes them to stick together. In most cases, including that of
the sponge cell adhesion proteins, cell binding involves homotypic cell–cell adhesion.
• Heterotypic binding occurs between two different but complementary proteins and resembles a plug and
socket. Mammalian sperm and egg binding is heterotypic.

General principles of cell recognition and adhesion


Tissue-specific and species-specific cell adhesion is vital
Essential for the formation and maintenance of tissues and multicellular organisms
It keeps cells of tissues together
Depend on membrane proteins at the cell surface
Macromolecules such as proteins have a specific shape and chemical groups
These interact with other substances including other proteins

The binding of cells in a tissue is in most cases homotypic


Homotypic is whereby the same molecule stick out of both cells, and the exposed
surfaces bind to each other
Binding can also be heterotypic whereby different proteins bind
E.g., sperm and egg in mammals
Here 2 types of cells have complementary binding surfaces
Fig. 5.5 (Life p 92)

Cell adhesion proteins from many multicellular organisms do not just bind the 2 cells
together
But also initiate formation of specialized cell junctions
The functions recognition and cell adhesion reside in different molecules

Specialized cell junctions


Cell recognition proteins allows specific kinds of cells to bind to each other
The material that “cement” the relationship between cells is contributed by both cells
The membrane structures that “cement” their relationships are called the Cell junctions
Evident in electron micrographs of epithelial

Types of Cell Junctions


a. Tight junctions – seal tissues and prevent leaks
b. Desmosomes – hold cells together
c. Gap junctions – are a means of communications
d. Adherens junctions – joins actin bundles
e. Hemidesmosomes – anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 41


Types of Cell Junctions and their Functions

Fig. 17. Types of cell junctions

Tight junctions

Fig. 18. Model of a tight junction

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 42


Tight junctions

Fig. 19. Junctions

Specialised structures at the plasma membrane that link adjacent epithelial cells
Tight junctions consist of rows of proteins which form strong associations
Result from the mutual binding of strands of specific membrane proteins
The name is misleading as there is some diffusion of small proteins.
The more rows, the tighter the junction

Functions of Tight junctions


They prevent substances from moving through the spaces between cells
Thus, any substance entering the body from the lumen must pass through the epithelial
cells
They restrict the migration of membrane proteins and phospholipids from one region of
the cell to another
Ensure the directional movement of materials into the body

Desmosomes
Also associated with the plasma membrane
Is cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion
They are localized spot-like adhesions randomly arranged on the lateral sides of plasma
membranes
Holds adjacent cells firmly together, acting like spot welds or rivets
Each has a dense structure called a plaque on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma
membrane
Intracellular plaque anchors intermediate filaments on one side and cadherins on the
other

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 43


Fig. 20. Desmosome adhesion

Gap Junctions

Fig. 21. Gap Junction

Whereas tight junctions and desmosomes have mechanical roles the Gap junctions
facilitate communication between cells.
Made of specialized proteins channels, called connexons
Connexons span the plasma membrane of two adjacent cells and the intercellular space
between them
Dissolved molecules and electric signals can pass from cell to cell through these
junctions

Dr S. W. Makhabu – August 2018 44


References
Green, N.P.O., Stout, G.W. and Taylor, D.J.1984. Biological Science 1: Organisms,
Energy and Environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hopson J. L. and Wessels N. K. 1990. Essentials of Biology. McGraw- Hill publishing
company, New York, USA.
Purves, W.K, Sadava, D., Oriens, G. and Graig, H.C. (2007) Life: Science of Biology.
8th Edition. Library of Congress, USA.
Raven, P.H., Evert, R.F. and Eixhhorn, S. E. 1992. Biology of Plants. 5th edition.
Worth Publishers. N.Y.
Solomon, E.P., Berg, L.R. and Martin, D.W. 1999. Biology. 5th edition. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia
Smith, A.M., Coupland, G., Dolan, L., Harberd, N., Jones, J., Martin, C., Sablowski, R.,
and Amey, A. (2010). Plant Biology. Garland Science, Taylor & Francis group,
New York.

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