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EDUC 1077
Learning and Cognition
Assignment 2: Essay
Alexandra McCann – 110144843

Topic 3: Cognitive Development and Piaget

Developmental stage theories are theories that separate distinctive stages of child
development, each defined by categorizing qualitative alterations in behaviour. There is not
one solitary theory but rather multiple theories, each portraying the diverse ways in which
physical and psychological development occurs throughout the duration of life. Although
each theorist provides their own, altered theory, developmental psychologists are generally in
agreeance that personal development occurs in a systematic order. Originally an organism
studying biologist, Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget bacame renowned for his
specific cognitive development theory, focusing particularly on children. Piaget became
engrossed with the explanations children provided when they were to give a wrong answer for
questions that required purely logical thinking. It was through these observations; Piaget
designed an inference involving the relationship between these incorrect answers and the
difference between stages of development for both adults and children. This essay will define
and discuss the key elements and principles that construct Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory, the strengths and limitations of the theory, relevance to educational practices and the
intent for future practice.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Born in 1896, Jean Piaget began studying the functioning of children’s minds after
developing an interest in behaviourism. ‘Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable
behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. Observable (i.e. external)
behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured. Internal events, such as thinking
should be explained through behavioral terms’ (McLeod, 2013). Behaviourism is beneficial as it
allows us to understand different emotions and reactions. Before Piaget’s study, learners were
described as either fast or slow. Arnold Gesell (1930) believed that children had periods of

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developmental growth but when presented with a major changed, a plateau occurred.
‘Behavior is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex, can be
reduced to a simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the purpose of
psychology as: “To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the
reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction’ (1930, p. 11)(cited
in McLeod, 2009).

During the 1920’s, Piaget first advocated that children moved from a position of egocentrism
to sociocentrism through development. For clarification, Piaget used both clinical and
psychological methods to compose his own systematized interview. He began his testing by
interviewing children of varying ages and asking them identical questions and dependent of
their answers, he then asked a series of varying questions. Piaget was aiming to produce a
spontaneous conviction, which meant the children were unprepared or not expecting these
particular questions. Throughout his studies, Piaget became aware of a gradual progression
from spontaneous to logical as well as socially acceptable answers dependent on the age of
the child. Piaget them hypothesized that this was due to the children’s social skills and level of
interaction and also the difference between the ideas and concepts produced by the varied
age groups.

Piaget’s cognitive development theory is an inclusive theory based around the development
of human intelligence. Although it is primarily a developmental stage theory it also includes
the nature of knowledge and how individuals have progressively come to use this consistently
throughout day to day life. In accordance to Piaget’s beliefs, cognitive development was a
gradual restructuring of mental developments due to the impacts of biological maturation
and environmental experience. ‘Accordingly, children construct an understanding of the
world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and
what they discover in their environment’ (McLeod, 2009).

Continuous versus discontinuous is an incessant debate centred on developmental

psychology. Diverse views cause tension and have presented the query, which nature of
theories are accurate. Psychologists who support the continuous understanding of
development propose that cognitive development occurs gradually and consistently,
throughout the individual’s life duration. Their behaviour in the beginning stages of

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development, provide the necessary skills and abilities while establishing a foundation required
for the following stages. The opposing approach is the discontinuous process, which involves
diverse stages with different types of behaviours occurring throughout each stage. This
concept suggests that development of particular capabilities, types of thinking and emotions
in each stage have a fixed beginning and end point. Although, there is no specific indication
as to when a capability is introduced or withdraws. Piaget’s cognitive development theory is
based around the discontinuous concept, as the theory is divided into four stages, each
consisting of variety of characteristics and appropriate development levels.

Key Principles

Schema

Piaget (1952) defined a schema as 'a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing
component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning'. A
schema consists of a cognitive concept or basis that assists in organizing and comprehending
information. Schemas assist us by allowing us to absorb and comprehend information that is
present within the environment, in only a short duration of time. Although, these frameworks
are restricted, as they predominately focus on pre-existing knowledge not what is relevant at
the time. ‘Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new
information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world’ (Cherry, 2011).

In reference to the development of a person’s mental processes, Piaget explained that this
occurred through the quantity and intricacy of the schemata that a person had learned.
‘When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is
said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance’ (McLeod,
2009).

The notion of schema is an important concept in Piaget’s cognitive development theory.

Piaget’s theory highlights the importance of schemas and how they are significant to a child’s
cognitive progress. ‘A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the
world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations’ (McLeod, 2009). Piaget

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specifies that these schemas are stored and applied when the necessary information is
required.

Adaptation Processes; Disequilibrium, Equilibrium, Assimilation and

Accommodation

Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation, a process as to which children

begin to decipher and understand presented schema or cues. In reference to Piaget’s theory,
a state of disequilibrium or a discrepancy between what is understood and what is being
presented, occurs when faced with the unknown. To reduce the state of disequilibrium,
children and adults use the stimuli that caused the disequilibrium and form new schema or
alter old ones until equilibrium is restored.

A state of equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can accommodate and process
information through assimilation. Assimilation takes place when an existing schema is used to
deal with a foreign object or circumstance. Disequilibrium is sustained when the presented
information cannot be associated with an already existent schema. When this occurs, the
brain must accommodate new information that cannot be associated with any pre-
established knowledge. Accommodation occurs when already existing schema cannot
process this information, so it requires a completely new, distinctive schema. ‘Once the new
information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the
next time we need to make an adjustment to it’ (McLeod, 2013).

Stages of Development

‘A child's cognitive development is about a child developing or constructing a mental model

of the world’ (McLeod, 2009). Piaget was intrigued in how children learnt and their constant
thought process. Throughout his studies, Piaget considered children aging from toddlers to
adolescence, and performed multiple examinations and questions, predominately utilizing his
own three children for his study. Piaget used both naturalistic observation and clinical
interviews and observations as research methods. Through naturalistic observation, Piaget
recorded detailed and precise observations while observing the children play naturally and
unrestricted. Clinical interviews and observations were carried out with older children who

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were able to comprehend and respond to a series of questions. Through these observations
and results, Piaget strongly believed that children learnt differently to adults and deciphered
their process of cognitive development into distinctive stages.
Piaget determined that there were evidently four different stages in the cognitive
development of children, the stages being Sensory Motor Stage (0-2), The Pre-operational
Stage (2-7), the Concrete Operational stage (7-11) and the Formal Operations Stage (11-16).

The Sensory Motor Stage (0-2), is based around the concept of object permanence. ‘A
discovery by Piaget surrounding this stage of development was that when an object is taken
from their sight, babies act as though the object has ceased to exist. By around eight to
twelve months, infants begin to look for objects hidden, this is what is defined as 'Object
Permanence'’ (EHLT, Flinders, 2014).

‘Pre-operational children are usually 'ego centric', meaning that they are only able to consider
things from their own point of view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is
the only one possible’ (EHLT, Flinders, 2014). Progressively through this stage, children start to
acknowledge and discover the wider world around them and the possibly that not everything
revolves around themselves and their own interpretations, an aim listed in the play activity
plan.

The Concrete Operational Stage occurs from the ages 7-11. ‘During this stage, the thought
process becomes more rational, mature and 'adult like', or more 'operational' (EHLT, Flinders,
2014). Children in this stage are able to uphold purposeful conversations while also being able
to accept alternate viewpoints. Children also begin to form inferences based on reason rather
than perception and their own views.

Throughout the fourth stage, Formal Operations Stage (11-16), ‘the structures of development
become the abstract, logically organized system of adult intelligence. When faced with a
complex problem, the adolescent speculates about all possible solutions before trying them
out in the real world’ (EHLT, Flinders, 2014). There are two key characteristics of the formal
operations stage, hypothetic-deductive reasoning and propositional in nature. This indicates
that children in this stage are able to logically reason as well as concentrate on verbal

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assertions and consider their logical rationality without making reference to real-world
situations.

‘Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed -
although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in
the rate at which children progress through stages’ (McLeod, 2009). Piaget (1952) believed
that these stages are universal - i.e. that the same sequence of development occurs in
children all over the world, regardless of their culture (cited in McLeod, 2013).

Strengths and Limitations

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is a collective theory that extends world-wide. The
strengths of this theory are present through the great influence that Piaget has had on
understanding child development. Piaget has succeeded in changing the world’s views on
how people perceive children and the effective methods of studying children. The
introduction of Piaget’s theory has caused a significant increase in childhood studies and
improved the understanding of cognitive development through learning. Piaget’s concepts
have been accommodated in practical situations, improving the understanding and
communication between children and adults in multiple learning environments.

While the strengths of his theory are present, Piaget’s cognitive development theory offers
multiple limitations and criticisms as well. Piaget is often scrutinized for his lack of or little
evidence to justify his theory. Piaget did not design his investigations so that they would
disregard alternate explanations while also not considering the full effects that factors such as
social and educational influences had on cognitive development. ‘While Piaget's research
contribution to our understanding of cognitive development are substantial, his work often
focused exclusively on the use of logical patterns of reasoning and largely neglected other
cognitive processes that are important (eg. creatively problem solving and "right hemisphere"
processes - art, etc)’ (EHLT, Flinders, 2014).

Piaget’s methods of collecting data, through observation and clinical interviews, were biased
in comparison to other methods. As Piaget worked alone, his primary data and observations
were based on one subjective interpretation. By working alongside an associate, Piaget could
have been able to maintain a larger sample size with further observations recorded and

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material to compare with. He also used his own children throughout his observations which
have caused an ongoing controversy. Although Piaget’s cognitive development theory is
relevant, further investigating and the correct scientific method should be put in place.

Relevance within an Educational Setting

Although Piaget did not construct his cognitive development theory with the sole intention of
this theory being used for educational purposes, it has been included within schools and
educational settings. Contemporary researchers have clarified and elaborated on how the
key features of Piaget’s theory can be applied to teaching in order to benefit children’s
learning.

The theory has underlined importance of discovery learning and the benefits that
children obtain from this type of learning. Discovery learning is the idea that children learn
best through physical activity and actively exploring. ‘According to Piaget (1958), assimilation
and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving
skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered’ (cited in McLeod, 2013).This notion has
evidently increased the amount of schools that provide a play-based curriculum in aiming to
achieve improved results.

Piaget’s theory is based around the impact of biological maturation, environmental

experience and stages of learning. ‘Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts
should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain
concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development’ (McLeod,
2009). Piaget’s key concepts and four stages assist teachers in understanding the cognitive
capabilities of children at various ages. ‘Within the classroom, learning should be student
centred and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to
facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition’ (McLeod, 2009). This helps to potentially increase
children’s results and reduces overload and eliminates stress for the child.

Intent for Future Practice

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is influential in both society and the classroom. As an
educator, designing and scheduling effective lessons plans are vital as it provides a clear aim
and multiple objectives as to what the child/children will learn from this experience. Based in

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an Early Childhood Setting from ages 2 to 7, most children will belong to the Pre-Operational
Stage. Piaget’s theory will be represented through the nature of lesson plans selected.
Specified by Piaget, as a teacher I will remain focused on the process of learning rather than
concentrating on the results, using methods of teaching that require discovering and creating,
planning purposeful lessons and situations that produce disequilibrium for the child and
correctively observing and evaluating the level of each child’s development, so that
appropriate tasks can be assigned.

Following Piaget’s approach will help to ensure that children are continuously developing and
provided with the support needed to further their individual knowledge and cognitive
development. By focusing on plans relevant within the pre-operational stage of development,
the learning criteria will predominately focus on activities that these particular children are
capable of achieving without constant assistance.

Although presenting uncertainties of credibility, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development has resonated across the globe and is a well-recognized theory within
educational institutions. Piaget has succeeded to alter the view of children’s learning and
promote questioning and understanding of the process of cognitive development. Piaget’s
distinct four stages provide evidence and understanding for adult’s, educators and parents as
to what a child is capable of intellectually. The notion of schema’s offers a detailed
explanation and understanding of how new information is processed or categorized alongside
previously existing information. Without the influential work of Piaget, modern day researchers
wouldn’t have the existing and basic foundation of knowledge to continue further research.
Multiple educational settings have also profited from Piaget’s work, by aspiring teachers to
provide more discovery learning and play to enhance not only the child’s cognitive
development but their overall general wellbeing.

References

Berk, L. (2012). Infants, children, and adolescents. 1st ed. Boston: Pearson /Allyn & Bacon.

Cognitive Development: Foundational Theories of Core Domains. (1992). 1st ed. [ebook]
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002005?journalCod
e=psych [Accessed 2 Jun. 2014].

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Ehlt.flinders.edu.au, (2014). Criticisms. [online]

http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/DLiT/2000/Piaget/critics.htm [Accessed 3 Jun. 2014].

Ethics & Decision Making Workbook, (2012). Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development.
[online] http://studentlife.tamu.edu/sites/studentlife.tamu.edu/files/EDM%20Workbook.pdf
[Accessed 3 Jun. 2014].

Fischer, K. (2013). American Psychological Association. [online] APA PsycNET.

http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1981-02339-001
[Accessed 4 Jun. 2014].

McLeod, S. (2009). Jean Piaget. [online] Simply Psychology.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html [Accessed 2 Jun. 2014].

Nadelman, L. (2014). Research Manual in Child Development. 2nd ed. [ebook]

http://www.astro.hr/edu/LIBRARY/Research.Manual.In.Child.Development.pdf [Accessed
3 Jun. 2014].

Piaget, J. (1945). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. London: Heinemann.

Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence

Piaget’s Stages of Development. (2014). 1st ed. [ebook]

http://haileyburypsychology.edublogs.org/files/2012/01/Simple-overview-PIAGET-
1jrf0nr.pdf [Accessed 3 Jun. 2014].

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