Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The use of submersible pumps in sewage and drainage tors affecting pump selection are also discussed. Chap-
pumping applications has increased greatly in the last ter 4 offers comprehensive information on pump testing
decades since they entered the market. The introduc- and interpretation methods for all common pump test
tion of heavy-duty submersible pumps with motor power standards. Basic design of pumping stations is dis-
ratings exceeding 600 kW has also made them avail- cussed in Chapter 5, offering design information for both
able for central municipal pumping duties. The good large and small applications. Chapters 6 and 7 deal
service record and high quality standard attained by with pumping station monitoring and control, offering
these pumps has all but excluded the use of conven- information on wiring and state-of-the-art remote moni-
tional pumps in municipal service. toring methods. The possibilities of continuous regula-
By the same token, the special characteristics of tion of submersible pumps are described briefly in
submersible pumps have also required the development Chapter 8.
of new knowledge on their implementation, such as the One objective of the book has been to make the con-
design of pumping stations. This work has been ad- tents easy to read and comprehend. The presentation
vanced by both pump manufacturers and municipal e n- is therefore enhanced with a large number of illustra-
gineers. tions, providing examples of and complementary infor-
The intention of this book is to bring the newest i n- mation on the matter at hand.
formation on both submersible pumps and pumping The book is compiled by the editor, Mr. Bengt Lind-
stations to the use of all concerned professional people qvist, M.Sc., using the combined knowledge of the
in a concise form. The book is divided into chapters technical staff of Oy E. Sarlin Ab. Special thanks for
according to the related topics. his contribution is extended to Mr. Hannu Sarvanne for
Basic pump theory is described in Chapter 1, provi d- his numerous articles on submersible pumps and
ing a reference background for the assessment of pump pumping theory as well as his pioneering work on the
performance. Submersible pump design and construc- design of pumping stations.
tion is described in Chapter 2. Pump performance is
dealt with in Chapter 3, offering methods for the calcu-
lation of pump performance in various installations. Fac- The Editor
2
Table of contents
1. Pump Theory 5 3.2.4. Electric Current Curve 29
1.1. The Head Equation 5 3.2.5. NPSH Curve 29
1.1.1. Flow With Losses or Addition of 5 3.3. Pipe Losses and Rising Main 29
Energy Characteristic Curves
1.1.2. Fluid Flowing From a Container 5 3.3.1. Friction Losses 29
1.2. The Basic Pump Equation 6 3.3.2. Local Losses 30
1.3. Pump Curve and Losses 7 3.3.3. Rising Main Characteristic Curve 31
1.3.1. The Effect of Finite Number of Vanes 7 3.4. Rising Main Size 31
1.3.2. Friction Losses Hf 7 3.4.1. Economy 31
1.3.3. Discontinuity Losses Hs 7 3.4.2. Free Passage for Solids 32
1.3.4. Leakage Losses Hv 8 3.4.3. Avoiding Settling of Solids and Sludge 32
1.3.5. Other Losses 8 3.4.4. Water Hammer 32
1.4. Affinity Laws 8 3.4.5. Avoiding Water Hammer 33
1.4.1. Calculation of Pump Curves for 9 3.5. Pump Operating Point 34
Different Rotational Speeds 3.5.1. Single Pump Operation 34
1.4.2. Maximum and Minimum Allowable 9 3.5.2. Parallel Operation, Identical Pumps 34
Rotational Speed 3.5.3. Parallel Operation, Different Pumps 34
1.5. Cavitation and NPSH 10 3.5.4. Serial Operation 35
1.5.1. Definition of NPSH 11 3.5.5. True Operation Point 35
1.5.2. Reference Plane 11 3.6. Sludge Pumping 35
1.5.3. Required NPSH 11 4. Testing of Pumps 37
1.5.4. Available NPSH 11 4.1. Testing Arrangements 37
2. Pump Construction 13 4.1.1. Production Testing 37
2.1. General 13 4.1.2. Field Testing 38
2.2. Pump 14 4.2. Acceptance Tests 38
2.2.1. Impellers 14 4.2.1. Test Standard Usage 38
2.2.2. Pump Casings and Details 19 4.2.2. ISO Standard 2548 and 3555 39
2.3. Motors 20 4.2.3. ISO Standard 9906 40
2.3.1. General 20 4.2.4. Hydraulic Institute Standard 41
2.3.2. Explosion-proof Motors 20 4.2.5. DIN Standard 1944 41
2.3.3. Motor Cooling 20 5. Pumping Stations 43
2.3.4. Motor Tightness 21 5.1. Pumping Station Basic Design 43
2.3.5. Bearings 23 5.1.1. Wet Well Volume and Surface Area 43
2.4. Pump Connection 24 5.1.2. Pumping Station Inlet Pipe 43
2.5. Construction Materials, Corrosion and 25 5.1.3. Wet Well Floor Shape 44
Wear 5.1.4. Stop Levels 44
2.5.1. Corrosion Resistance 25 5.1.5. Start Levels 45
2.5.2. Wear Resistance 25 5.1.6. Suction Pipe Dimension and Design 45
2.5.3. Abrasive Liquids 25 5.1.7. Pumping Station Internal Pipework 46
3. Pump Performance 27 5.1.8. Flushing Devices 46
3.1. Pump Head 27 5.1.9. Pumping Station Design Examples 47
3.1.1. Submersible Pumps 27 5.2. Pumping Station Construction 48
3.1.2. Dry-installed pumps 27 5.2.1. Submersible Pumps 49
3.2. Pump Performance Curves 28 5.2.2. Dry-Installed Pumps 49
3.2.1. H Curve 28 5.2.3. Package Pumping Stations 50
3.2.2. Efficiency Curves 28 5.2.4. Indoor Pumping Stations 51
3.2.3. Power Curves 28 5.3. Pumping Station Dimension Selection 51
3
5.3.1. Regular Sewage Pumping Stations 51 8. Pumping Station Flow 66
5.3.2. Stormwater Pumping Stations 52 Regulation
5.3.3. Combined Sewage Pumping Stations 52 8.1. Stepped Regulation 66
5.3.4. Pump Selection Based on Pump 52 8.2. Continuous Regulation 66
Curves Symbols 68
5.3.5. Number of Pumps 52 APPENDIX A 69
5.3.6. Pumping Station Capacity in Relation 53 APPENDIX B 73
to Starting Frequency APPENDIX C 79
5.3.7. Economic Aspects of Pump Selection 53 APPENDIX D 81
6. Pump Motors and Starters 54
6.1. Submersible Motor Design 54
6.2. Motor Safety Devices 54
6.2.1. Short-circuit Protection 54
6.2.2. Overload Protection 54
6.2.3. Thermal Protection 54
6.2.4. Moisture Protection 55
6.3. Motor Connection and Starting 55
6.3.1. Motor Connection 55
6.3.2. Motor Starting 55
6.3.3. Direct on Line (DOL) Starting 55
6.3.4. Star (Wye) Delta (Y/D) Starting 56
6.3.5. Soft Start 56
6.4. Pump Starters and Control Panels 57
6.4.1. Contactors 57
6.4.2. Starter Control 57
6.4.3. Control Panel Construction 59
7. Pumping Station Monitoring 60
and Control
7.1. Local Control 60
7.1.1. Manual Control 60
7.1.2. Relay-Based Control Units 60
7.1.3. Programmable Logic Controllers 60
7.2. Pump Control Units 60
7.2.1. Features 61
7.2.2. Pump Condition Monitoring 61
7.2.3. Parameters and Signals 62
7.2.4. Data Logging and Analysis 62
7.2.5. User Interface 62
7.3. Level Sensors and Other Sensors 62
7.3.1. Pressure Transducers 62
7.3.2. Ultrasonic Devices 62
7.3.3. Capacitive Devices 63
7.3.4. Float Switches 63
7.3.5. Other Sensors 63
7.4. Remote Control and Monitoring 64
7.4.1. Software and Hardware 64
7.4.2. Data Transmission 65
7.4.3. Alarm Transfer 65
7.4.4. System Integration 65
4
1. Pump Theory Fig. 1
p1 1 2 p 1 2
where Hr is the head loss.
mgh 1 + mg + mv 1 = mgh 2 + mg 2 + mv 2 .
ρg 2 ρg 2
If energy is added to the flow by placing a pump be-
tween section 1 and section 2 in Figure 1, the equation
Dividing both sides of the equation with the term mg it 2 can be written
is obtained
2 2
p1 v 1 p v p 1 v1
2
p v
2
h1 + + = h2 + 2 + 2 (1) h1 + + + H = h2 + 2 + 2 + Hr (3)
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g
This equation is called Bernoulli's equation after the where H is the pump total head.
engineer who first derived it. The terms of the equation
are expressed as heads, and the terms are conse-
quently called static head, pressure head and kinetic
1.1.2 Fluid Flowing From a Container
head, respectively.
An example of the application of the Bernoulli equation
The equation is essential for fluid mechanics and can
is the calculation of the flow rate of a fluid flowing freely
be used to account for many hydrodynamic phe-
from an open container.
nomena, such as the decrease in pressure that ac-
Figure 2 shows an open container with an outlet ori-
companies a reduction in a flow cross section area. In
fice near the bottom. For practical purposes the area
this case the fluid velocity increases, and for the total
A1 is assumed much larger than the orifice area A 2 ,
head to remain constant and assuming the potential
and the atmospheric pressure p1 in the container is
head remains unchanged, the pressure term or static
equal to that outside the orifice, p2 .
head, must decrease.
5
Fig. 2 1.2 The Basic Pump Equation
A p The basic pump equation is used to calculate and de-
1 1
sign geometrical shapes and dimensions of centrifugal
pumps. The basic pump equation is also used to de-
duce the pump Q/H curve.
v A pump impeller vane and its associated velocity vec-
1
h tors are shown in Figure 3.
6
Fig. 3
u2
v2
v m2
α2
vu 2
β2 w2
w1
β1
d2
v m1 d1
vu1
α1
v1
u1
Return
Pump impeller vane with the velocity triangles at leading and trailing edges. Fluid true velocity v, relative velocity w,
vane perimeter velocity u, liquid true velocity tangential component vu and radial component vm.
7
turbulence leading to losses, growing with increas- 1.3.5 Other Losses
ing difference of actual flow from design flow. There are further losses in a centrifugal pump, not af-
The effects of the discontinuity losses are shown in fecting the Q/H curve, but that will increase the motor
Figure 4. shaft power requirement. These include:
− friction losses at the impeller outside surface
Fig. 4 − shaft seal friction losses
− bearing friction losses
For submersible pumps, the last two items are included
H Reduction of flow, Q,
in the motor losses.
caused by leakage losses, H v
Velocity in casing
Friction losses H r
Ht ∞
HN Ht Discontinuity losses Hs
H Impeller
perimeter
velocity
Q Q
QN
Resulting Losses
Return Return
True pump Q/H curve (H) reduction from theoretical Effect of the difference of velocities in the pump
pump head Htì by subtracting losses. casing and at the impeller perimeter. Pump casing
dimensions are designed to accommodate nominal
flow at the perimeter speed, leading to losses at
other flow rates.
Fig. 5
losses w1
v1
Q > QN 1.4 Affinity Laws
Q = QN
The affinity laws describe the interdependence of the
Q < QN w1 Q/H and P (Power) curves and the speed of rotation,
provided the efficiency remains unchanged, a fact that
v1 can be readily assumed in practice. Usually the de-
w"1 crease of speed of rotation of as much as 50%, will
v"1 have only marginal effect on efficiency.
β1 Figure 7 shows the velocities u2 , v 2 and w2 at the pe-
rimeter of the impeller at the Q/H point A (Figure 8) and
u1 at the rotational speed n. At a lower rotational speed n'
the corresponding velocities are u 2 ', v2 ' and w 2 ', which
are parallel to the original velocity vectors. It is known
Return that the flow rate Q is directly related to the flow veloc-
Vane leading edge relative velocities (w) and losses ity at an unchanged section. Hence
at various flow rates. Minimum losses occur at the
pump nominal flow when the fluid angle of attack is ′
equal to the vane leading edge angle β1 . Q ′ v2 m
= (12)
Q v 2m
1.3.4 Leakage Losses Hv From the equation of perimeter velocity and uniform
triangles it is deduced
Leakage losses occur at the clearance between impel-
ler and pump casing. Even if the clearance is kept as
′ n′ v ′
small as possible, a small backflow passes from the n′ v 2 m
= = u2 (13)
high pressure area at the impeller rim to the low pres- n v2 m n v u 2
sure area of the impeller eye. Thus the flow through the
impeller is slightly larger than the flow out of the pump combining 12 and 13 it is obtained
casing, and the pump head is met with a reduced flow,
the difference being the leakage loss Hv. The effect of Q′ n′ n′
= Q′ = Q (14)
the leakage loss is shown in Figure 4. As the pump Q n n
wears out, this loss will increase the most.
8
The basic pump equation is Fig. 8
u 2 v u2
H = k ηh (10)
g η Characteristic Curve of Pipe
H
When the rotational speed changes, the velocities u2
P Affinity Parabola
and v2 change in direct relation. Thus the head H is T
H A
2 2
H′ n′ n′ T’
= H ′ = H (15) H
H n n H’ A’
H’
C’
η η
The power equation is C η
gρQH
P= (16) B P
η P
P’
P’
B’
Q is directly related and H related to the square of rota-
tional speed. Hence the power P is related to the cube 0
of the rotational speed Q’ Q Q
Return
3 3 Pump characteristic curves at two rates of rotational
P ′ n′ n′
= P ′ = P (17) speed. At the operating point A the flow is Q, head
P n n
H, power P (B on the power curve) and efficiency η
(C on the efficiency curve). For other rotational
For all practical purposes speeds these variables are calculated with the affin-
ity laws.
η′ = η (18)
The equations 14, 15, 17 and 18 constitute the Affinity head, power and efficiency are Q, H, P (point B) and η
Laws for centrifugal pumps. (point C), respectively.
According to the affinity laws, at a lower rotational
speed n' the point A moves to A' and point B to B' . If
Fig. 7 the rotational speed is still reduced, the point A will
approach the origin O along the affinity parabola. The
v2 vm2 w2 efficiency η is assumed to remain constant through the
analysis.
v’2 v’m2 w’2 By transforming a number of points on the curves for
rotational speed n, complete curves for H', P' and η',
α2 β2 corresponding to the new rotational speed, n' can be
plotted. In Figure 8 also the characteristic curve of the
u2 u’2 vu2 v’u2 piping is plotted, from which the shift of the operating
point T at the rotational speed n to point T ' at the speed
n' can be calculated. (This procedure is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 3 of this book).
The affinity laws are applied when the pump curves
Return for submersible pumps controlled by frequency convert-
ers are calculated. In this case the rotational speed can
Velocity triangles at vane trailing edge at different
be substituted with the values for frequencies in the
rotational speeds. With unchanged efficiency the
equations. The maximum and minimum speed allowed
vector directions are constant.
for each pump set the limits for the extension of these
curves.
1.4.1 Calculation of Pump Curves for Differ- 1.4.2 Maximum and Minimum Allowable Rota-
ent Rotational Speeds tional speed.
Figure 8 shows a point A on the characteristic curve
Operation of a pump may need to be restricted at very
at rotational speed n. At point A the values for flow,
small flows due to pump vibration or at large flows due
to the risk of cavitation. The restriction limits typically
follow the paths as presented in Figure 9. The vibration
9
limit is an affinity parabola whereas the cavitation limit The implosion causes a transitory, extremely high local
is parabolic for n < nN and vertical for n > nN. shock wave in the fluid. If the implosion takes place
If a pump is considered for operation at rotational near a surface, the pressure shock will, if occurring
speeds higher than nominal (n > n N), the following fac- repeatedly, eventually erode the surface material.
tors must be taken into account: The cavitation phenomenon will typically occur in
− Increased pump power requirement on the motor. In centrifugal pumps at a location close to the impeller
addition, the modulated shape of the alternating cur- vane leading edge, see Figure 10. Cavitation also low-
rent from frequency converters may reduce motor ers the pump Q/H curve and efficiency. A cavi tating
efficiency and further increase the power require- pump emits a typical rattling noise, like sand being
ment. pumped through the pump. No pump material will
− Pump mechanical durability. Pump shaft and bear- completely withstand cavitation, so care should be ex-
ings will be subject to increased load from larger hy- ercised if the pump operating conditions present a risk
drodynamic forces. of cavitation.
− Risk of cavitation. The limit for cavitation will rise A submersible pump, pumping cold water from an
sharply with increasing pump speed. open container, is unlikely to cavitate if the operating
point is chosen on the allowed section of the Q/H
Fig. 9 curve.
Submersible pumps may cavitate in any of the fol-
lowing rare cases:
H
Vibration Zone − Pump inlet is blocked, possibly causing the pres-
sure to fall below vapour saturation pressure behind
nN
the inlet.
− Pumped liquid is other than water, with low vapour
pressure (e.g. Ammonia)
− Vacuum in container.
Cavitation
Zone
If the submersible pump is installed dry with a suction
Affinity
Parabola pipe, the installation must be checked for cavitation. In
these cases the concept of NPSH is used.
Q
Fig. 10
Return
Pump operation restriction zones for vibration and
cavitation. For various rotational speeds, the vibra-
tion limit follows the affinity parabola, whereas the
cavitation area limit is parabolic for n < nN and verti-
cal for n > nN.
10
Fig. 11
p min
ρg
HORIZONTAL PUMP VERTICAL PUMP
Hrt
∆h
Minimum Pressure
NPSH v o2
required 2g A
p
b
ρg h
A Reference Plane
A
ht
pb
1.5.1 Definition of NPSH through the centre point of the circle described by the
NPSH is the acronym for Net Positive Suction Head. tip of the vane leading edge. For horizontal pumps the
The following pressure heads are used for the calcu- reference plane coincides with the shaft centre line. For
lation of NPSH: vertical pumps the location of the reference plane is
stated by the pump manufacturer.
ht = inlet geodetic head
hA = height difference between reference plane 1.5.3 Required NPSH
and tip of vane leading edge. The required NPSH is obtained from the following equa-
tion:
Hrt = flow losses in inlet pipe
2
v0 2
= pressure drop caused by inlet velocity v0
2g NPSHrequired = h A + + ∆h (19)
2g
∆h = local pressure drop at vane leading edge
pb = ambient pressure at liquid level International testing standards provide rules for the
pmin = minimum static pressure in pump measurement of this value. It can be presented as a
pv = liquid vapour pressure at prevailing function of flow as shown in Figure 13. It is independent
temperature of temperature and type of liquid being pumped. The
pump manufacturer is required to state this value.
The pressure heads are shown in Figure 11.
In order to avoid cavitation, the minimum static pres- 1.5.4 Available NPSH
sure in the pump (pmin) must be larger than the liquid The available NPSH indicates the pressure available for
vapour pressure, or the pump suction under the prevailing conditions.
pmin > pv pb p
NPSH available = − H rt − h t − v (20)
ρg ρg
Figure 12 shows the principle of static liquid pressure
distribution in inlet pipe, pump and pressure pipe of a
The term ht is positive when the reference plane is
dry pump installation.
above the liquid surface and negative if below it. Avail-
able NPSH is determined by the pumping station de-
1.5.2 Reference Plane signer. In order to avoid cavitation,
The reference plane is the plane on which the NPSH
calculations are performed. It is the horizontal plane NPSHavailable > NPSHrequired
11
Fig. 12
p
b ht
ht
pb
ρg
p
min p
ρg v Absolute 0 pressure
ρg
Return
Pressure variation in a dry pump installation. Distribution of static liquid pressure in inlet pipe, pump and pressure
pipe.
12
signs for various special applications have been de-
2. Pump Construction vised.
Since submersible pumps find most of their applica-
This section describes the construction of modern elec- tions in duties other than continuous processes, they
tric submersible pumps. Various designs and the main are designed to allow for intermittent operation, with
parts of the pumps are discussed as well as topics relatively few yearly running hours but with frequent
concerning pump operation and maintenance. The starts and stops. Thus a submersible pump installed as
study is limited to pumps for municipal sewage, drain- one of two duty and standby pumps in a sewage
age and raw water. pumping station may run for typically 200... 500 hours
a year but with up to 200...400 starts and stops per
day. Pumps in continuous duty may, on the other
hand, log over 8000 running hours per year, making it
2.1 General necessary to closely follow the manufacturer's recom-
mendations for service and maintenance in order to
secure trouble-free operation.
The submersible pump is a unit combining a pump and
an electrical motor to an enclosed unit, suitable for
submersible installation in a wet well holding the liquid Fig. 15
to be pumped. The submersible pump may be con-
nected to the pressure piping with a special baseplate
connection at the bottom of the wet well for ease of
installation and removal, or it can be installed con-
nected with a flexible hose or other arrangements with
riser pipes. Power to the unit is fed through one or more
flexible cables, supplied with the pump in lengths suit-
able for the installation.
Many submersible pumps can also be installed dry
like conventional pumps. This type of installation en-
sures uninterrupted operation of the installation in case
of flooding of the dry well.
Fig.14
Return
Section of a SARLIN 17 kW submersible pump
showing details of motor and pump. The pump is
fitted with a guide shoe for use with a submerged
baseplate in the wet well, facilitating easy pump i n-
stallation and removal. The pump casing is adjust-
able with set screws for maintenance of impeller
suction clearance.
13
includes watertight cable inlets and a handle for lifting Impellers for Sewage Pumps
the unit. In order to avoid pump blockage, or clogging, special
Figure 14 shows a modern small submersible sewage impellers have been developed for sewage pumping.
pump and Figure 15 a medium-sized submersible These include single-channel impellers, double-channel
sewage pump. Submersible pumps are available with impellers and vortex impellers. The design principles of
motors rated from under 1 to over 600 kW for duties these are shown in Figure 20. For very large sewage
ranging from light portable use to large city sewerage pumps, impellers with a multitude of vanes may also be
system main pumping installations. A submersible used.
pump for dry installation is shown in Figure 16.
Free passage
Fig. 16 The concept of free passage is of special relevance to
sewage pumps. It refers to the ability of the pump to let
solids in the pumped liquid pass through. The dimen-
sion of the free passage usually refers to the largest
spherical object that may pass through the impeller and
the casing openings. The dimension is normally given
in millimeters, but also other units may be used.
The ability of a pump to operate without clogging r e-
lates strongly to the free passage, as can be seen in
the diagram in Figure 17. Normally a free passage of 80
mm will be sufficient for unscreened sewage in small
and medium-sized pumps. In larger pumps (flow > 100
l/s) the minimum free passage should be at least 100
mm.
Fig. 17
2.2 Pump
The pump comprises the impeller and the pump casing
as well as ancillary devices and fittings. 40 60 80 100 120
Return Free passage (sphere) [mm]
2.2.1 Impellers
Submersible pumps are fitted with different impeller A diagram showing the relation between probability
designs depending on intended use. The various impel- of clogging and pump free passage. Good safety
lers can be classified as against clogging is achieved with 80 mm free pas-
− Impellers for sewage pumps sage.
− Impellers for dewatering pumps
− Impellers for raw and clean water Single-channel impellers
− Propellers for axial pumps A single-channel impeller is shown in Figure 19. The
Impellers can also be classified according to con- single vane is designed as long as possible for best
struction as closed, semi-open or open impellers. efficiency within the limits set by the requirement of free
These are shown in Figure 18. Semi-open impellers and passage. The impeller having only one route of passage
open impellers rely on the close clearance between for the pumped liquid ensures good inherent character-
impeller and pump casing (abt. 0,5 mm) for their func- istics against clogging. The asymmetric shape requires
tion. The efficiency of these impellers is very sensitive the impeller to include integral counterweights for bal-
to wear and will decrease rapidly as the clearance i n- ance. The single-channel impeller is the standard
creases. The open impeller is also susceptible to i m- choice for small to medium-size sewage pumps. The
purities becoming jammed between impeller and suc- design has acceptable to good pumping efficiency.
tion plate, slowing down or completely stopping the
pump.
14
Fig. 18
s
s s
a b c
closed semi-open open
Return
Different impeller designs. The closed impeller has integral shrouds on both sides of the vanes, whereas the semi-
open impeller incorporates only one shroud on the back side. An open impeller consists of only a hub and vanes,
relying on close clearances (s) to the pump casing for its function.
Double-channel impellers
A double-channel impeller is shown in Figure 21. A l-
though not as inherently safe against clogging as single Fig. 19
channel impellers, a well-designed double-channel i m-
peller will have good characteristics against clogging.
The risk of clogging will increase if the pumped medium
contains long fibers, that may enter both impeller chan-
nels and become stuck in these. Double-channel impel-
lers offer good pumping efficiency, and are the choice
for most larger pumps.
Vortex impellers.
The principle of the vortex impeller is to induce a strong
vortex in the open pump casing. The pumping action of
the vortex pump is therefore indirect, with the impeller
being situated outside the main liquid flow. Vortex i m-
peller pumps have inherently excellent properties
against clogging and a number of other benefits, such
as good resistance against wear and good balance.
The use of small vortex impeller pumps for sewage is
increasing largely due to improved design and efficiency
Return
in later years. Good properties against wear makes it A SARLIN S-1 single-channel impeller for sewage
possible to use vortex pumps as sand separation use. The impeller is semi-axial in design with one
pumps in sewage treatment plants. A vortex impeller is long continuous vane, ensuring good properties
shown in Figure 22. against clogging. The asymmetric design requires
the casting to include counterweight masses to facili-
The diagram in Figure 23 shows the choice of impeller tate static and dynamic balancing of the impeller.
type as function of pump size.
15
Fig. 20
winglets
16
− Decrease axial loads on bearings, particularly if Fig. 22
semi-axial impellers are being used
− Reduce impeller and casing wear at the suction
clearance
− Prevent the wedging of fibers in the suction clear-
ance
− Prevent fibers and rags from wrapping around the
pump shaft behind the impeller.
The use of auxiliary vanes extending to the shroud pe-
rimeter is not possible on very large impellers, since at
high flow rates they could cause a pressure drop below
the vapor pressure of the liquid, leading to cavitation.
Large pumps are, however, less prone to jamming be-
cause of high motor torque. Auxiliary vanes are there-
fore not included on the inlet side of large impellers
Fig. 23
60
Head
H [m]
50
Three-channel
impeller
40
Double-channel
impeller
30
Single-channel Four-channel
impeller impeller
20
Vortex
impeller
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 100 150 200 300 400 500 1000 1500 2000
Flow Q [l/s]
Return
A diagram showing the usage of impellers in sewage pumps of different size using pump efficiency and reliability
as selection criteria. At small flows the properties against clogging will be a premium, hence vortex pumps will be
used, whereas pump efficiency will be important in larger pumps. Likewise, single-channel impellers are preferred
over double-channel impellers in medium-sized pumps. In very large multichannel impellers the properties against
clogging are ensured with good design and size.
Pump performance and efficiency over time are de- procedure is easily done by service technicians in the
pendent on the suction clearance being kept within field, whereas a pump with fixed impeller suction clear-
specified limits. If the suction clearance widens to 2...3 ance will have to be brought to the shop for overhaul, or
mm for impellers without auxiliary vanes and to 4...5 worse, scrapped for high costs of spare parts and work.
mm for impellers with auxiliary vanes, it is necessary to In pumps with adjustable axial suction clearance
restore the clearance in order to retain pump perform- performance can always be guaranteed by checking
ance. If the suction clearance is made adjustable, this and adjusting the suction clearance during routine
17
maintenance. Figure 15 shows a submersible pump Fig. 25
design, where the suction clearance is adjusted with
the help of three set screws.
Fig. 24
Auxiliary
vanes
S
S Return
Cylindrical suction clearance. The design is suscep-
tible to jamming, since fibers that get wedged in the
p’S space between impeller and casing may accumulate
and drag down the pump. In case of wear a wear ring
or the entire suction cover will have to be changed or
pS
re-machined.
Fig. 26
Pressure distribution
with auxiliary vanes
Pressure distribution
without auxiliary vanes
Return
Cross section of a SARLIN S-1 impeller showing S
auxiliary vanes. The effect of the auxiliary vanes on
the suction shroud is a lowered pressure difference
p's over the suction clearance. With less back-flow
the suction clearance will last longer and the risk of
jamming is reduced.
Macerating pumps
Macerating pumps are used for sewage pumping in very
Return
small applications, where piping dimension is kept
small for cost reasons. The pump includes a macerator Axial suction clearance. This improved SARLIN de-
located at the pump intake immediately prior to the sign is less prone to jamming, since drag forces will
impeller, which shreds the solids into particles so small remove wedged material towards the pump suction.
that they can pass through the impeller and pipework. The clearance can be made adjustable for ease of
The performance of macerator pumps deteriorates rap- maintenance and wear compensation.
idly with wear, and they are therefore not suitable for
use with effluents with heavy sand content. Figure 27
shows a macerating pump.
18
Fig. 27
Return
A SARLIN macerating pump for small flows and high heads. The macerating unit consists of a rotating cutter and a
scalloped stationary ring, mounted outside the pump intake. Solids and fibers are shredded against the sharp
edges of the cutting elements. The macerating unit is made of hardened stainless steel.
2.2.2 Pump Casing and Details the impeller screw. The pump manufacturer issues cor-
Pump casings for submersible pumps are normally d e- rect tightening torque information and possible recom-
signed with volute-shaped flow compartments but also mendation of screw lubricant in each case.
circular shapes may be used. The difference is shown
in Figure 28. Fig. 28
Cross section of the flow passage of a volute-shaped
casing increases almost linearly. The design offers high
efficiency at the optimal point of operation. The cross
section of the flow passage of a circular pump casing is Circular
initially larger than it is in a volute-shaped casing. The casing
resulting more evenly distributed pressure around the
impeller reduces the hydrodynamic radial forces on the
shaft and bearings by 20...50%, resulting in the pump Volute
running quieter. casing
The effect of pump casing design on pump efficiency
is shown in Figure 29.
Impeller attachment
The attachment of the impeller onto the shaft must be
both reliable and easy to dismantle. Removal is neces-
sary for shaft seal maintenance, and for impeller re-
placement if the pump is used for pumping abrasive
materials. The impeller may have either a cylindrical or
tapered fit onto the shaft end.
A shaft joint tapered to an angle of 5...7° is easy to
dismantle. The tapered joint is additionally tightened
with an end nut or screw, which eliminates the risk of
Return
damage to the joint surfaces due to looseness. Different types of pump casings. The cross-section
The joint is normally keyed for a safe transmission of of the volute casing increases linearly towards the
torque, even if tapered joints are tightened to be able to casing outlet. Circular casings are frequently used in
transmit the torque by friction. The use of a key elimi- torque flow pumps for high heads.
nates the risk of joints working loose even if the impel-
ler nut or screw is not tightened exactly to specified
torque.
Solid impeller mounting is a key component in pump
operational reliability, and great care should always be
exercised when the impeller is dismantled. It is good
practice to always use a torque wrench when setting
19
Fig. 29 bodies (for example, Euronorm 50014 and 50018). The
requirements are detailed, involving among others the
selection and gauge of construction materials, casing
η joint design and manufacturing tolerances, motor inte-
rior volume utilization as well as the structure and
strength of fasteners and shaft seals. Certification and
approval of a design is always subject to extensive
tests, where the actual ability to withstand internal ex-
Volute plosions, is determined.
Casing Usually explosion-proof motors are based on the
regular designs of a manufacturer, and form a com-
Circular plement to these. The power characteristics are nor-
Casing mally not altered, and the pump parts are common for
both. The structural requirements on explosion-proof
motors make these more expensive than regular mo-
QN Q tors.
20
is necessary to protect the pump from overheating due gence. Other motors may have to be downrated for dry
to disruption of the external cooling water supply. installations, limiting the selection of pump components
from the matching range.
Fig. 30
Fig. 31
Return
21
merged, water may travel by capillary action between by spring force and, for the primary seal, in addition by
the copper strands of the leads to the motor. This ac- the pump pressure.
tion is enhanced by the temperature changes of the Sealing between the slip rings is based on the ex-
motor, and water may this way enter an otherwise un- tremely smooth and flat contact surfaces of the slip
damaged motor. The condition can arise in new pumps rings. The surfaces are in such close contact that no or
that have been stored outdoors prior to installation with only a very minute leakage can pass between them.
the cable free end unprotected. The flatness and smoothness of the rings are in the
Most pump manufacturers deliver their pumps with magnitude of 0,0005 mm and the faces are finished by
protecting sleeves on the cable free ends. Warning l a- lapping. The slip rings seal against the stationary seat
bels are attached to warn the storage and installation or shaft with O-rings, permitting slight movement
personnel of the risk of submerging the cable free end. caused by wear. The material of the O-rings is selected
For dewatering pumps that frequently are shifted to withstand high temperature and the corrosive and
from one place to another, methods for cable internal dissolving action of the seal oil and the impurities in the
sealing with resins have been devised. If the original pumped liquid.
cable is replaced this feature is usually lost. Notches in the stationary slip rings secure them in
the seat against turning. The rotating rings are locked
to the shaft similarly with spring cams or drive pins.
Shaft seals Spring clips or washers keep the stationary rings in
The shaft seal, providing safety against leakage of the their seats during abnormal pressure situations.
pumped liquid into the motor, is one of the most impor- The material of the primary seal faces is normally
tant elements in a submersible pump. hard, because of the abrasive action of the pumped
Modern submersible pumps almost exclusively use a liquid. The material used today is silicon carbide (SiC),
shaft sealing arrangement with double mechanical which has a hardness around 2000 on the Vickers
seals separated by an oil-filled chamber. The arrange- scale and ranks next to the diamond. The silicon car-
ment, developed and refined over the years, provides bide rings can be either solid or converted. Converted
adequate protection against leakage and motor damage carbide rings are sintered to SiC to a depth of approxi-
in most cases. mately 1 mm, leaving the ring interior unchanged. SiC
also has very good resistance against corrosion, and
Fig. 32 can be used in all wastewater and dewatering applica-
tions.
If the secondary seal is oil lubricated, a combination
of materials may be used. A stationary ring of a softer
material with good friction properties in combination
with a hard rotating ring provides for low seal rotation
resistance. The oil lubrication protects the seal against
wear. Frequently, though, also the secondary seal uses
SiC for both slip rings because of the superior proper-
ties of the material.
Modern submersible pumps utilize mechanical seals
custom-designed for the purpose. Good designs have
been developed by most major manufacturers. A pro-
prietary design combining primary and secondary seal
is shown in Figure 33.
All mechanical seals used in submersible pumps
must allow rotation in either direction, since pumps
frequently get started in the wrong direction or may be
Return turned backwards by back-flowing water in installations
A SARLIN double mechanical seal with fully inde- without check valves.
pendent primary and secondary seals. Lapped slip All submersible pumps with double mechanical seals
rings of silicon carbide provide wear-resistant contact have an oil space between the seals. The oil serves the
surfaces for long service. following functions vital to the function of the seals and
the pump:
− Seal lubrication, especially of the secondary seal
Figure 32 shows a mechanical seal arrangement used
− Seal cooling
in submersible pumps. There is a lower or primary seal
− Emulsification of possible leakage water, thus ren-
and an upper or secondary seal. The seals, being sepa-
dering it less harmful
rated by an oil bath, operate under different conditions.
− Seal condition monitoring. By checking the seal oil
This is reflected in their construction with different m a-
during maintenance, the rate of seal leakage can be
terials and spring systems. Both seals comprise two
estimated.
contacting slip rings, one stationary and one rotating
with the shaft. The rings are pressed against each other
22
The flat surfaces of the slip rings may not retain a the pump operating point. Volute and circular pump
liquid film between surfaces at all times. Direct contact casings have different radial hydrodynamic force char-
between the materials is normal, and must be reflected acteristics.
by the choice of surface material The hydrodynamic axial force is the resultant of the
Overfilling of the seal oil chamber should be avoided forces induced by the impeller diverting the flow from
in order for the oil to be able to absorb leakage water by axial suction to radial discharge, and from the pressure
emulsification and to prevent possible overpressure due difference between suction and pressure side of the
to thermal expansion of the oil. impeller. The axial force is also strongly related to the
In special applications, where the pumped liquid con- pump flow and operating point. Figure 34 illustrates the
tains very fine materials, the primary seal may open relation between radial and axial forces and the pump
due to material build-up on the slip ring faces. In these operating point or flow ratio.
cases it may be warranted to arrange for continuous Fig. 34
external flushing of the seal. These installations are
always considered separately for each case by manu-
facturer and customer.
F
Fig. 33 r
Fa
F
r
3
1
Fa
Return
A SARLIN double mechanical seal with interdepend-
ent primary and secondary seal. The seals are pre-
loaded with a common spring system, protected i n- Q Q
side the seal oil chamber. Lapped seal slip rings of N
silicon carbide are used throughout.
23
To allow for heat expansion of the shaft and for Fig. 35
manufacturing tolerances, the shaft upper bearing is
allowed axial movement, whereas the lower bearing is
locked axially.
Bearing selection is governed by international stan-
dards with regard to bearing life. A conservative design
policy is to base the bearing selection on the pump
operating continuously at the point with the most unfa-
vorable shaft loads. The bearings will then be overdi-
mensioned in normal use, even when the bearings have
an unfavorable tolerance distribution.
Submersible pump bearings are normally lubricated
for life at the pump factory, using special grease suit-
able for the high operating temperatures allowed in
submersible motors.
Other connections
Figure 36 shows a connection using a detachable riser
pipe in connection with a pump on a stand. It may be
used in installations where a submersible pump is re-
placing obsolete vertical wet well pumps or when the
pump is installed in a working wet well that cannot be
shut down and emptied for the installation of a sub- Return
mersible baseplate.
Submersible pump on stand with flanged riser pipe
connection. This installation version is used in pump
replacement installations.
24
Figure 37 shows a submersible pump installation with If submersible pumps are used for seawater pump-
hose connection. It may be used for temporary installa- ing, the pump parts will have to be made of stainless
tions or in applications where the pump is shifted steel. Corrosion in seawater is dependent on a number
around the wet well for sludge pumping. of factors, such as salinity, oxygen content and pollu-
tion, and the right material selection must be consid-
ered for each case.
Fig. 37 The supply cable sheath material must be able to
withstand oils and other pollutants present in sewage.
Suitable materials are Neoprene or Viton. Other rubber
parts, such as O-rings are made of Nitrile or Neoprene
for resistance against sewage, oil and chemicals.
Submersible pumps are also available made entirely
of stainless steel for use in highly corrosive liquids,
such as process industry effluents. The materials for
these pumps are specified separately for each project,
and may include special materials for cables and seals
as well. In difficult applications the pump manufacturer
may not be able to guarantee the corrosion properties
for a specific case, but will cooperate with the client to
find the right solution for the case.
pm ≈ 3·pv (22)
2.5 Construction Materials, Cor-
rosion and Wear where pm is weight content and pv is volume content in
%. Thus pv = 5% equals pm =15%.
2.5.1 Corrosion Resistance. With increased sand content the density of the liq-
Cast iron is the main construction material in sub- uid/sand mixture increases. Since required pump power
mersible sewage pumps, with shaft, fasteners and is directly related to the density of the pumped liquid,
hardware made of stainless steel. Where the pump or required power will have to be checked separately in
baseplate includes fabricated steel parts, these are hot- each case to ensure pump performance, whenever liq-
dip galvanized. These materials will last for decades in uids with high sand content are being pumped.
regular sewerage duty if adequately protected by suit- The density of a mixture water and sand can be writ-
able epoxy painting. Only a paint thickness of at least ten
200 microns will provide protection.
In cases, where the pumped liquid contains industrial ρ = 1 + 0,007pm (23)
effluents, the corrosion resistance of cast iron may not
be sufficient, especially for parts subject to fast flow where pm is expressed in %.
velocities, such as impellers and pump casings. In Thus, if pm = 15%, ρ = 1,1 kg/l.
these applications the natural corrosion layer, providing
the underlying material with natural protection becomes The following factors affect the wear of a pump:
scrubbed away, leading to rapid corrosion. The use of − Sand content
stainless materials for these vulnerable parts may be − Sand quality
warranted. − Pump material
25
− Pump head
− Type of impeller
Fig. 38
Sand content
Pm [%]
Pump head H0 [m]
20
10
5 5
10
20
1 50
0,5
0,2
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Pump service life [h]
Return
Pump wear rate as a function of sand content and
pump head. H0 is pump head at Q=0. Wear rate is
expressed as expected service life of a cast iron im-
peller and is strongly dependent of sand content and
pump head. The graph is based on experiments, and
can be used generally.
Figure 38 is a diagram showing the relations between
the pump wear rate and the sand content and pump
head. High sand contents in the liquid will have a dra-
matic effect on pump service life. The effect of the sand
content is exacerbated by high pump head.
Pump wear can be minimized using suitable wear-
resistant materials and through appropriate design. For
best results, materials with a hardness over 500 HB
should be used. The difficult machineability of hard ma-
terials, such as Nihard and some alloyed steels, may
require special impeller and pump casing designs
where machining is minimized.
The use of submersible pumps in abrasive environ-
ments must be considered separately on a case by
case basis and using sound engineering judgment.
26
Hst = pump static head (m)
3. Pump Performance Hd = pump dynamic head (m)
Hgeod = geodetic head (m)
Pump performance is the result of the interaction be- HJ = pipeline losses (m)
tween pump and rising main or pressure pipeline. An pL = atmospheric pressure in pump well
introduction to pump selection and the calculation of pU = atmospheric pressures in upper container
rising main resistance characteristics are presented . v2 = flow velocity at outlet (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s2)
27
Fig. 41
where HJt represents flow losses in the suction pipeline
and HJp flow losses in the pressure pipeline. 32
H [m]
Fig. 40 28 η 70
η [%]
ηgr
24 60
η gr [%]
20 I (380 V) 40 50
I [A]
16 32 40
H
Hgeod HJ
12 24 30
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
HJ S1 174 M1 50 Hz
Return
Return
Specimen pump performance curve sheet according
Pipeline loss components for dry-installed pumps.
to testing standard ISO 2548 Annex B. The curves
for head (H), pump power input (P), motor power i n-
3.2 Pump Performance Curves put (P gr), pump efficiency (η) and overall efficiency
(ηgr) are plotted against pump volume rate of flow
Centrifugal pump characteristics are normally pre- (Q). The curve for motor drawn current (I) may be
sented as a set of curves, where the data has been plotted as complementary information.
established through the testing of the pumps. For sub-
mersible pumps the following important information is The efficiency can also be marked on the head curve,
plotted as curves against the flow rate Q: with numbers indicating different efficiency values. If
− H or head curve several head curves for various impeller diameters are
− η or efficiency curve(s) plotted in the same graph, these markings can be con-
− P or power curves nected to form isograms, or operating areas with the
− I or electrical current curves same efficiency. The pump performance diagram will
then assume its typical mussel-like appearance as
3.2.1 H Curve shown in Figure 42.
The head or H curve gives the pump total head as a
function of the flow Q. The curve may contain additional 3.2.3 Power Curves
information on pump usage, such as limits due to cavi- The pump required power is also a function of the flow
tation or vibration. Figure 41 shows a typical pump rate Q. Figure 41 contains both the pump power curve
performance curve sheet with information important for and the motor power curve. The motor power is the
the user. electric power drawn by the motor and measured at the
cable junction box at the motor. According to interna-
3.2.2 Efficiency Curves tional standards on pump testing the pump power is
Pump efficiency η is also a function of the flow rate Q. designated P and the power absorbed by the motor Pgr.
The efficiency can be indicated as a ratio or percent- The required power can also be calculated using the
age. For submersible pumps both the pump efficiency formula
η and the overall efficiency ηgr are defined, where ηgr
includes motor losses. It is important to distinguish be- ρQgH
P= (29)
tween these definitions for efficiency, especially when η
comparing pump performance. The losses leading to where
the pump efficiency are discussed in Chapter 1 of this P = power (W)
book. Thus it can be written: ρ = liquid density (kg/m³)
Q = volume flow (m³/s)
ηgr = ηmot · η (28) g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s² )
H = pump head (m)
where ηmot is motor efficiency. η = efficiency
28
Fig. 42 Return 3.3 Pipe Losses and Rising
28 Main Characteristic Curves.
H[m]
45 In the following the theory for calculation of flow losses
24
50
55 in pipelines is presented. Practical calculations can be
60
65
made with the help of the detailed instructions with cal-
20
67
η [%] culation diagrams and nomograms presented in Ap-
pendix A.
16
H Flow velocities used in sewage pumping are high
enough (at least 1 m/s) to ensure uniform turbulent flow
H in the piping. Flow losses therefore increase with the
12 square of the flow velocity. The flow loss of a rising
H
main is the sum of the friction loss of the pipeline con-
8
stituent parts and the local losses from the various
components and fittings.
3.2.5 NPSH Curve The equation for pipeline losses can be written:
Since NPSH calculations are performed only for dry-
installed pumps, the NPSH curve is not usually in-
lv2
cluded on submersible pump data sheets. It will be HJp = λ (31)
D2 g
provided by the manufacturer on request if cavitation is
feared in a dry installation or if otherwise required by
the client. The NPSH curve can be based on either a c- where
tual tests or, more infrequently, on theoretical calcu- HJp = pipeline loss
lations. λ = friction factor
l = pipeline length (m)
Results from tests performed with clean water are ap- v = flow velocity (m/s)
plicable as such on normal municipal sewage and most g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
industrial effluents, since the low solids content in sew- D = pipeline internal diameter (m)
age (less than 0,05%) does not significantly affect
pump performance.
29
Obtaining the friction factor λ from the diagram in Fig- Pipe material k new k old
ure 43, equation 31 can be solved. Surface roughness Plastic 0,01 0,25
values (mm) presented in the following table can be Drawn steel 0,05 1,0
used:
Welded steel 0,10 1,0
Drawn stainless steel 0,05 0,25
Welded stainless steel 0,1 0,25
Cast iron 0,25 1,0
Bituminized cast iron 0,12
Asbestos cement 0,025 0,25
Concrete 0,3...2,0
Fig. 43
Return
Moody diagram for establishing the friction factor λ. The value of λ is obtained using Reynold's number and the
relative roughness number k/D as parameters, where D is pipe internal diameter in mm and k equivalent surface
roughness in mm. Complete turbulence of flow can be assumed in wastewater applications.
The surface of an old pipe material becomes rougher different diameter, particularly since accurate surface
from erosion. Corrosion and sediment layers forming on roughness values are seldom available.
the pipe surface may decrease the pipe diameter, also Rising main flow losses are frequently calculated
leading to higher flow losses. with the help of proprietary computer programs, also
The effect of pipe diameter change can be calculated available from some pump manufacturers. These pro-
with the following relation: grams may also suggest a pump selection from the
manufacturer’s range to best suit the purpose.
5
D′
HJp′ ≈ HJp (32) 3.3.2 Local Losses
D
Changes in pipeline internal diameter and shape,
Thus an increase of pipe diameter from, for instance,
bends, valves, joints, etc. as included in the rising main
100 mm to 108 mm decreases the flow loss by 30%.
cause additional losses that comprise both a friction
Equation 32 is sufficiently accurate for practical pur-
and turbulence component. The following formula is
poses when comparing flow losses in rising mains of
used to calculate the losses:
30
v2 characteristic curve will contain the geodetic head and
HJn = ζ (33) the flow losses only. Figure 44 shows the general
2g
shape of the characteristic resistance curve for a pipe-
line. Since the flow is turbulent at the flow velocities in
where
consideration, it can be assumed that the flow loss
HJn = local loss (m)
varies in proportion to the square of the flow rate. Thus,
ζ = local resistance factor
if the flow loss at one flow rate is calculated with the
v = flow velocity (m/s)
method described above, the other points of the curve
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
are obtained sufficiently exactly with the following for-
mula:
Local resistance factors for different pipeline elements
and fittings are presented in Appendix A. The friction 2
loss of these are not included in the local resistance Q′
H′J = HJ (35)
factor, but is calculated as part of the rising main fric- Q
tion loss by including their length and internal diameter
when calculating pipeline length.
Pipe expansion discontinuity loss can be calculated
using the Borda formula:
3.4 Rising Main Size
HJn =
( v1 − v2 )2 (34) Rising main size is selected based on the following
2g factors:
− Economy
where − Required internal diameter for the application
HJn = local loss (m) − Required smallest flow velocity for the application.
v1 = flow velocity 1 (m/s)
v2 = flow velocity 2 (m/s) Fig. 45
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
3
Fig. 44 Pipe size
Flow velocity
H’ J
H
Pipe losses 1. Procurement Cost of Rising Main
(friction and 2. Procurement Cost of Pumping Station
HJ local resistance) 3. Cost of Energy
4. Total Cost
Return
Hgeo
The relation of key cost components for a pumping
d
installation as related to rising main size. With costs
having opposite relations to pipeline size and flow
Q’ Q Q velocity, an optimum can be found.
Return
Characteristic resistance curve for a pipeline. Pipe 3.4.1 Economy
losses (HJ) are plotted against flow rate (Q) and The economy of an installation is made up by both pro-
added to the geodetic head, which is constant. curement costs and operational costs during its life-
time. A number of installation and operational costs are
directly dependent on rising main size, and will react to
3.3.3 Rising Main Characteristic Curve changes in pipeline size as follows:
In sewage installations the pump sump and the delivery With decreased pipeline diameter
well are open to the atmosphere, and the rising main
31
− Piping and pipework component procurement prices Fig. 47
will decrease. ζ = 0,6
− Pumping station procurement cost will increase due
to increased flow losses with consequent require- ζ = 0,3
ment for larger pumps and control equipment. Costs ζ = 0,2
for increased electrical supply systems, such as ζ = 2,0
substations may increase significantly.
− Operating costs will increase due to higher energy ζ = 0,4
Fig. 46
1
2,0
v (m/s) 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Intermittent operation
1,8 DN DN DN DN DN QI [l/s]
< 1000 h / year 100 150 200 250 300
Size Recommendation
1,6
Return
1,4 Flow loss in the internal pipework in a pumping sta-
Continuous tion for each of two submersible pumps in duty-
1,2 standby operation as a function of flow. Each indi-
operation
1,0
vidual pipe installation includes a baseplate with
bend, valves, an upper bend and a branch pipe.
0,8
0,6
3.4.3 Avoiding Settling of Solids and Sludge.
0,4 If the flow velocity in a rising main is too low, sand or
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 sludge may have time to settle, which increases the
Q (l/s) risk of clogging. Settled sludge may harden and form a
crust on the pipeline wall that permanently decreases
Return the diameter, leading to increased flow losses. Larger
Guideline values for economically optimal flow ve- sludge clots moving with the flow may block bends or
locities for submersible pump installations. The fig- other fittings in the rising main.
ure is based on a study of submersible pump instal- For municipal sewage a minimum flow velocity of 0,7
lations using geodetic head, pipeline length, yearly m/s is recommended. Where only domestic sewage is
operation hours and energy cost as parameters. pumped, the minimum flow velocity may be as low as
0,5 m/s, but if sand is found in the sewage, this lower
value is not endorsed. In installations with varying flow,
Where possible, a more detailed study can, and e.g. where frequency converters are used, the flow ve-
should, be conducted. locity may temporarily be lower.
Pumping station internal piping should be selected Where settling is known to occur, flushing out of the
so as to minimize component costs without unduly system with all pumps running simultaneously at inter-
increasing the flow losses in the station. Figure 47 vals is recommended. The shape of the pipeline is also
shows the flow loss in the internal pipework in a pump- important, and sedimentation is likely to occur in rising
ing station with two pumps in duty-standby operation. mains having a pronounced low, such as pipelines laid
underneath waterways, e.g. a river. In these cases it is
3.4.2 Free Passage for Solids recommended to select a higher flow velocity.
For untreated municipal sewage the smallest allowable
free passage of the rising main is generally 100 mm in
order to allow passage of solids without clogging. In 3.4.4. Water Hammer
pumping stations with small flows the internal pipework Oscillating pressure waves are generated in a liquid
may have a free passage of 80 mm, especially when being pumped through a pipeline during starting and
the pump free passage is also 80 mm or less. stopping of the pumps. This phenomenon is called w a-
ter hammering, and, if severe, may lead to pipeline and
equipment damage. The severity of the phenomenon is
32
dependent on a number of variables, such as change of
velocity during the reflection cycle, pipe material char- where
acteristics as well as liquid characteristics. ∆h = pressure change (m)
When the liquid is accelerated or decelerated, a a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
transitory pressure wave oscillates back and forth until ∆v = flow velocity change (m/s) during one reflec-
dampened by friction. The oscillating frequency can be tion cycle
calculated with the following formula: g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
33
ing the flow to gradually slow down before complete rising main operating in parallel, we obtain the charac-
stop. teristic rising main curve as illustrated in Figure 49. The
point of operation for both pumps is obtained by plotting
the sum of two pump head curves at constant head
onto the characteristic rising main curve for two pumps.
3.5 Pump Operating Point
Fig. 49
Pump H curve
3.5.1 Single Pump Operation
By adding the geodetic head (Hgeod ) and the piping H
loss (HJ), the pump head is obtained. The geodetic a a
head is a constant independent of the flow, whereas the Rising main curve
losses increase with approximately the square of the two pumps running
Fig. 48
QD Q
34
Fig. 50 Fig. 51
a a
B
A E External rising
D Pump published
main losses
H curve
C
Q Q
Flow tolerance
range
Return
Operating points for two different pumps discharging Return
into a common rising main. Losses in the individual Tolerance area for the duty point. The true duty point
pipework are reduced from the pump head curves for an installation may lie within the shaded area lim-
plotted to scale in the graph. The combined output ited by the allowed tolerance zones for pump head
curve is obtained using the reduced head curves, curve and rising main characteristic curve. Pump
giving the combined operating point D. The individual output Q may vary largely.
operating points are A and B. For the pumps operat-
ing singly, the points of operation will be C and E,
respectively.
3.6 Sludge Pumping
3.5.4 Serial Operation Sludge of varying consistence is frequently being
It is possible to connect a number of pumps in series in pumped by submersible pumps in sewage treatment
order to increase head. The combined head is obtained plant duty. With increasing solids content in the
by adding the individual heads at constant flow. The sludge, the rising main flow losses will increase while
complexity of the arrangement makes it warranted only pump performance decreases. When selecting a pump
in rare instances, and it is nearly always advisable to for sludge duty these two factors must be considered.
use one larger pump from the manufacturer’s range that The effect is illustrated in principle in Figure 52.
can do the job alone. The situation is complicated by the fact that not
Submersible pumps can be connected in series only enough is known about the behavior of sludge in cen-
if the boosting pumps are installed dry, thus making trifugal pumps. Treatment plant sludge may have a high
them different from the lead pump. The benefit of inter- gas content, either dissolved or entrained, and this will
changeability of pumps is therefore lost, giving further have a profound effect on centrifugal pumps. As a rule,
reason to advise against such a solution. a sludge with high solids content also has a high con-
Another risk involving pumps connected in series is tent of gas, which will lower pump performance signifi-
the possible failure of the lead pump, which may lead to cantly. In extreme cases the pump will stop pumping
cavitation in the booster pump due to increased suction when the separated gas accumulates in the impeller
losses or loss of suction head. eye, preventing it from developing the necessary cen-
trifugal force.
As a precaution when pumping dense sludge, the
3.5.5 True Operating Point
pump should be placed as low as possible, to ensure
The true pump operating point will almost always differ
positive suction head. The use of long suction pipes
from calculated. The reason for this is the inaccuracies
should also be avoided, since the pressure drop in
in all numeric methods for calculation of rising main
these is also increased by the solids content.
losses, as well as the tolerances allowed in the pub-
Sewage pump impellers with wide channels are gen-
lished pump performance curves. Furthermore, the
erally best suitable for sludge pumping. For denser
properties of the pump will change with use due to
sludge (solids content over 2%), a pump with higher
wear, and corrosion or sedimentation will change the
head curve should be chosen, so as to ensure desired
rising main with age. Figure 51 shows the relation be-
performance. Sewage treatment plant sludge is not
tween performance tolerances. Pump inherent perform-
always uniform, and it is therefore warranted to select a
ance tolerances are discussed in detail in Chapter 4 of
pump with an oversize motor to compensate for surges
this book.
in solids content and consequent power requirement.
35
Fig. 52
Pump H curves
3%
H 2%
1%
0%
0%
1%
Rising main curves 2%
3%
Return
The effect of solids content in sludge on pump head
curve and rising main characteristic curve. The graph
shows the principle only, and cannot be used for
numeric evaluations.
36
as not to slow down the production process. Figure 53
4. Testing of Pumps shows the principle of a submersible pump testing
facility. The test rig includes the necessary pipework
Actual pump performance is established or confirmed and instruments for pressure and flow rate measure-
through testing. Tests may be conducted for a number ment. The testing facility may also include various
of different reasons and at various locations. In order to measurement recording devices as well as computing
reach unambiguous results, testing standards have equipment for the processing and presentation of the
been developed and agreed upon. The standards measured data. For pump head the total head, includ-
require controlled and calibrated testing circumstances ing both the static and dynamic component is used.
and are therefore generally not applicable for field or Pump total head was established in equation 25 and
site testing. can be written:
A pump manufacturer tests his pumps at the works
for both production development purposes and quality p2 v 2
control. Corroborated tests may be required to confirm H= + Z2 + 2
ρg 2g
pump performance according to the terms of purchase
or to settle performance disputes. (38)
Field testing of pumps in actual installations will not
yield exact data on pump performance, but provides where
useful information on pumps and pumping stations, and
may be used for pumping station monitoring, if per- p2
= pressure gauge reading changed to head
formed periodically or if suitably automated. ρg
Testing standards are conventions that are agreed for
use as a gauge for pump performance evaluation. The
Z1.2 = pressure gauge height above water level
presentation below offers methods for their interpreta-
tion. It has been kept brief for clarity, and therefore it
can and should be used with the appropriate standard v2 2
= pump dynamic head at pressure measure-
text as immediate reference. 2g
ment point
4.1 Testing Arrangements 4⋅ Q
v2 =
4.1.1 Production Testing π ⋅ D2 2
Testing of submersible pumps under controlled cir-
cumstances requires a testing facility built and cali- For a given flow rate the dynamic head can be obtained
brated to the standards governing the testing. Testing from the nomogram for local loss in Appendix A, using
facilities in a production line should also be designed 1 for ζ.
for efficient handling and connection of the pumps so
Fig. 53
Pressure gauge
Flow meter Control valve
H [m]
Z1.2
Q [l/s]
Return
Principle of a submersible production pump testing facility, where water is circulated. All pipework is designed to
provide ideal and known operating conditions for the pressure gauge and flow meter for unambiguous readings.
Obtained data are fed into computer for speedy results and evaluation service.
37
4.1.2 Field Testing Site conditions rarely or ever fulfill the testing rig
Testing of pumps in actual installations is useful when requirements of the testing standards. The results can
information on pump performance with reasonable therefore not be used for pump acceptance tests.
accuracy is required, or when pumping station perfor-
mance over time is monitored. Fig. 55
The pump flow rate can be accurately estimated with
the volumetric method, where the change of wet well v 22
level in a pumping station with known dimensions is H
2g
measured against time. If the incoming flow in the
pumping station cannot be stemmed for the duration of Pump H curve
the measurements, the effect of this must be checked
v 22
separately with the pumps stopped. The pump flow rate H
D D 2g
can then readily be calculated.
v 22
Pump static pressure is measured with a pressure
2g
gauge connected to the submersible pump near the
outlet flange. The pump total head can then be calcu- z2
lated using equation 38. The test arrangement is shown
in Figure 54. P2
ρg
Fig. 54
Pressure Gauge Q Q
D
Return
Using a pump head curve sheet for operating point
estimation. Measured static head and dynamic head
function against flow rate are plotted. Pump operat-
Z2 ing point D is obtained graphically.
38
the ISO 2548. Most major manufacturers of submersi- Fig. 56
ble pumps issue their pump specifications and data
sheets with reference to Annex B of this standard, and
most contracts for submersible pumps are done with
reference to it.
The use of ISO 3555 is restricted to special cases
where there is a need to have pump performance very
precisely defined. In submersible pump applications for HG
sewage and raw water, there is normally no need for
the higher precision of this standard, because of the Hmax
intermittent operation schedule of the pumps. Minute
Hmin
start and stop level irregularities, always to be reckoned
with in sewage installations, cause variations of the flow
rate larger than allowed by the exacting tolerance
QG
requirements of the ISO 3555, rendering the standard
Return
irrelevant for most submersible pump installations.
Common for all these standards is that evaluation of A general system for the presentation of tolerance
test results can be based on a limits based on any pump test standard. Hmax =
− graphical procedure, and maximum allowable head, Hmin = minimum allowable
− calculations. head at guaranteed flow rate QG. H G is guaranteed
The ISO and DIN standards have instructions with head at the same point.
figures for the graphical procedure. They show how the
measured results should be plotted on a diagram. The 4.2.2 ISO Standards 2548 and 3555
Hydraulic Institute standard does not mention dia- The essence of ISO 2548 is an elliptic tolerance zone,
grams, although a graphical method can be assumed for which the center point is the chosen point of ope-
for the measured H value "at rated capacity". The result ration (QG HG). The guaranteed performance has been
of the calculations is either a percentage or a formula met if at least one point of a straight line parallel to the
for the allowable deviation of actual performance from measured pump head curve lies within an ellipse with
the guaranteed value. the semi-axes defined by the expressions QG XQ and
All standards give instructions for the evaluation of HG XH. Values for the tolerance factors XQ and XH are
test results. It lies in the interest of the pump manufac- given in the standard, and for mass-produced sub-
turer and customer to be able to work out the accept- mersible pumps with standard performance curves,
able performance limits for a pump under evaluation for these factors are found in Annex B. These factors are
its ability to meet the contractual requirements. These referred to as tolerances in the ISO standard, but are in
requirements can either be as a single point of opera- reality factors and do not directly represent the size of
tion or the manufacturer's published performance the tolerance.
curves. The elliptic tolerance zone is shown in Figure 57.
In the following a method is presented for the nu- The semi-axes of the ellipse are QG XQ and HG XH. A
merical determination of acceptable minimum and straight line can be drawn as a tangent to the ellipse.
maximum performance for a tested pump. The method The tangent will then intersect the horizontal line H G at
was developed out of a need to interpret the ISO a distance ∆Q from the center of the ellipse and the
standards, but it is possible to also apply the method vertical line Q G at a distance ∆H from the center. The
on the other standards, and it will unambiguously define relation between these distances can be expressed as
tolerance limits based on the different standards. follows:
The upper limit Hmax and the lower limit Hmin for
head at a chosen point QGHG of a printed curve can 2 2
H G XH Q X
then always be found, as shown in Figure 56, when we + G Q =1 (39)
assume the same slope for the printed curve and the ∆H ∆Q
limit curves.
Tolerance factors for head and flow, t H and t Q, are With the expression in equation 39 the tolerances for a
introduced to facilitate the calculations if not provided given duty point can be determined without having to
by the standard. The method is described for the graphically plot measured performance values or elliptic
evaluation of the tolerances for the head (H) curve only, tolerance zones. It can also be used to find the upper
but is also applicable as such on the evaluation of the and lower limits of tolerance for any point along a
tolerances for the power (P) curve, for which the published pump curve. The result is a tolerance zone of
standards usually specify the same requirements. nearly uniform width at both sides of the curve.
To numerically determine the acceptable tolerance
limits for a given duty point of a published pump curve,
the slope value of the tangent to the curve at the
guaranteed point is used.
39
Figure 58 shows how to evaluate the limit values for Fig. 58
head at a chosen flow rate QG according to ISO 2548 Return
and ISO 3555. The slope of the printed curve at a given
point is defined graphically using elementary curve
analysis.
If the printed curve is created using a computer, it is
possible to get a numeric value for the slope using
statistical methods such as regression analysis.
HG
Fig. 57 Hmax
Hmin
∆Q QGXQ
QG
H HGXH Tolerance limits according to ISO 2548 and ISO
HG 3555. The slope S of the head curve at the guaran-
∆H teed point can be determined S = H0 /Q0 .
40
Fig. 59 Hmax = HG + ∆HT
Hmin = HG.
4.2.4 Hydraulic Institute Standard 1.6 (1988) 4.2.5 DIN Standard 1944
Figure 59 shows the principle for calculation of the First the criterion for the curve slope according to the
tolerance limit values according to the Hydraulic formula in § 3.2.3.1 of the standard is determined.
Institute standard 1.6 (1988). Two alternatives should The symbols t H, tQ, QG, HG, familiar from the ISO
be considered. Depending on the curve slope, the upper standards, are here used for convenience of interpre-
limit curve is either at the vertical distance tHHG or at tation, although they do not appear in the DIN standard
the horizontal distance tQQG from the guaranteed point 1944.
QGHG. Two values for the allowable head deviation, QN dH
If the value for ⋅ is > 0,2 the evaluation pro-
∆HT and ∆HT' are calculated, of which the larger value HN dQ
is used in the further steps. ceeds according to Figure 60.
In the following the symbols tH, tQ, QG, HG, familiar Next the value for measurement uncertainty can be
from the ISO standards, are used for convenience of calculated with the following formula:
interpretation, although they do not appear in the
Hydraulic Institute Standard.
MQ = (QN ⋅ fQ )2 + (HN ⋅ fH / S)2 (47)
Two values for the allowable head deviation ∆HT and
∆HT' can be calculated for Level A and Level B pumps
where
∆HT = tH ⋅ HG (44) S = curve slope =
dH
dQ
∆QT = tQ ⋅ QG (45) MQ = flow measurement uncertainty
QN = nominal flow rate
∆HT' = |S| ⋅ ∆QT (46) HN = nominal head
fQ = flow measurement uncertainty factor
where fH = head measurement uncertainty factor
tH = head tolerance factor
tQ = flow rate tolerance factor and the tolerance deviations
HG = guaranteed head
QG = guaranteed flow rate ∆QU = t Q ⋅ QN + MQ (48)
S = curve slope
∆QT = allowable flow rate deviation ∆QL = 0,05 ⋅ QN + MQ (49)
The larger of ∆HT and ∆HT' is selected and called ∆HT. where tQ is obtained from the table
For pumps Level A, HG up to 152 m the tolerance
factors tH and tQ are obtained from the table:
Stufe III Stufe II Stufe I
Range of H and Q tH tQ tQ 0,15 0,10 0,05
HG < 61 m, QG < 189 l/s 0,08 0,1 Using the slope value S the deviations for head are
HG < 61 m, QG > 189 l/s 0,05 0,1 obtained:
61 m ≤ HG ≥ 152 m, any Q 0,05 0,1
and then the limits for total head: ∆HU = |S| ⋅ ∆QU (50)
41
∆HL = |S| ⋅ ∆QL (51) HN = nominal head
fQ = flow measurement uncertainty factor
and then the limits for total head: fH = head measurement uncertainty factor
Fig. 60
H [m]
UL
PC
∆Q L
LL Hmax
0,05 Q N
∆H U
MQ
MH
tQ QN
HN
∆H L MQ
∆Q U
Q min
Hmin Qmax
Q [l/s]
QN
Tolerance limits according to DIN 1944. The following parameters are used:
PC Performance curve QN Guaranteed flow rate
HN Guaranteed total head UL Upper limit curve for PC
LL Lower limit curve for PC ∆QL Lower deviation for Q
∆QU Upper deviation for Q ∆HU Upper deviation for H
∆HL Lower deviation for H MQ Measurement uncertainty for flow
MH Measurement uncertainty for head Qmin Min. limit value for Q at head HN
Qmax Max. limit value for Q at head HN Hmin Min. limit value for total H at flow QN
Return
Hmax Max. limit value for total H at flow QN
42
where
5. Pumping Stations AW = Wet well surface area in m²
Q = Pumping station total flow rate, l/s
The working environment for submersible pumps, re-
gardless of size, is the pumping station. Pumping sta- For small pumping station flow rates, however, the sur-
tion design and construction is decisive for the perform- face area will be limited by the physical dimensions of
ance of the pumps, and care and diligence should the pumps when submersible pumps are used. The
therefore be exercised whenever specifying them. The surface area will then be larger than obtained with
following is a primer of pumping station design offering equation 55. Recommended pump installation dimen-
hints and advice for the design engineer and the opera- sions are shown in Figure 61.
tor of pumping stations.
Fig. 61
43
Fig. 62 of flotsam on the surface. The following principles
should be recognized in a good bottom design:
All corners should be benched to a minimum bench
2,0
angle of 45°. The angle may be smaller, if the section is
s [m]
flushed by a strong flow.
1,5
Bottom area should be minimized and liquid volume
v below pump stop level should be kept to a minimum.
1,0 s Minimizing the bottom area and the residual volume,
the flow velocities near the inlets will increase, flushing
0,5 out possibly settled sludge. A surface area decreasing
with the falling water level leads to less accumulation of
0 surface debris.
0 2 4 6 8
v [m/s]
Fig. 64
Return
Inlet splash velocity as a function of inlet height
above the liquid surface in the wet well.
K
Fig. 63
hs2
hs1
E
hs1 = E + a
a = 100 - 300 mm
hs2 = E + K/2
Return
Recommended stop levels at the design stage. hs1 =
stop level for two submersible pumps in duty-
standby operation or pumps with cooling independent
of motor submergence. hs2 = stop level for mul-
tipump installations with motors cooled by submer-
gence. Final stop level settings should be deter-
mined during commission trials.
44
pumping station flow alone, and the risk of the liquid In pumping stations with several identical submersi-
level remaining for long near the stop level is slight. ble pumps the start levels can be set so as to divide
In pumping stations with a multitude of submersible the height of the effective volume into equal sections.
pumps running under varying conditions, the stop level In pumping stations with dry-installed pumps the
must be set so that the pump motors always have starting levels have to be set above the pump casing in
enough submergence for adequate cooling. Pumps with order to ensure that the casings fill up and the pumps
cooling water jackets or other means of heat dissipa- start pumping. For vertical pumps, this height may be
tion independent of submergence are preferred in such considerable and should be set with a margin according
installations. to Figure 65.
The stop level setting for dry-installed pumps is de- Horizontal pumps do not normally require special
pendent on the suction pipe inlet height, shape and flow considerations for the start levels, if the suction pipe is
velocity. 200 mm above the suction pipe inlet is a good designed to prevent air pockets from forming, see Fig-
rule-of-thumb for this height, and useful for the designer. ure 66.
The shape of the suction pipe inlet is important, and
good designs are shown in Figures 64 and 65. For this Fig. 66
inlet shape a provisional pump stop level height can be
calculated using the following formula:
45
available NPSH and lead to pump cavitation. The rec- 5.1.8 Flushing Devices
ommended NPSH margin should be observed in instal- In installations with settling problems the use of flush-
lations where the suction pipe geometry gives reason to ing devices may be considered. These consist of a re-
concern. The concept of cavitation and NPSH is ex- mote-controlled by-pass valve mounted on the sub-
plained in detail in chapter 1 of this book. mersible pump before the connection to the pipework.
When the valve is opened, the pump flow is directed
5.1.7 Pumping Station Internal Pipework back into the wet well, agitating the liquid and causing
The internal pressure pipework in a pumping station settled sludge and scum to disperse. The suspended
should be selected for a flow velocity of 2...3 m/s. The matter will then be pumped out with the liquid when the
pressure pipework should have a dimension of at least flushing valve is closed.
100 mm but can be 80 mm in small pumping stations, The flushing valve should be of the normally closed
provided that the pump free passage is 80 mm or less. type (e.g. a spring-loaded pneumatic device) so that in
The use of flexible joints in the internal pipework is the case of a malfunction the pumping action will be
not recommended, since most pipe vibrations are pres- able to proceed.
sure-induced by the flowing liquid, and cannot be
avoided by the use of flexible joints. Fig. 68
In multipump installations the pump pressure pipes
should be joined by a branch designed to prevent set-
tling of solids during pump stoppage into the individual
pipes, which may lead to valve blockage. Good branch
designs are shown in Figure 67.
Fig. 67
Return
Pumping station design for submersible pumps and
Return relatively small flows (Q = 4...50 l/s). The preferred
Pressure pipework branch designs. The design cross section of small pumping stations is circular,
should emphasize smooth transition and prevent which minimizes liquid surface area and avoids cor-
rising main sludge from settling on valves in pump ners where sludge could accumulate. Minimum di-
risers when the pumps are stopped. ameter 1,5..2 m to facilitate service workovers.
46
5.1.9 Pumping Station Design Examples liquid is at stop level. The dimension D can be calcu-
Wet well design will depend on pumping station size lated using the relation
and flow volume. Figures 68...71 show principles for wet
well design for various cases and pumping station Q
D= (57)
sizes. 1000 ⋅ v D ⋅ C
A pumping station with submersible pumps for large where
flows can be designed according to Figure 70. If the Q = Pumping station flow rate, l/s
pumps require it, the stop level can be set at height hs2. vD = Flow velocity in expanding section, 0,1...0,3
The flow velocity vD in the expanding section of the wet m/s
well must be high enough to avoid sludge settling. A D, C = Pumping station dimensions, m
suitable value for v D is 0,1...0,3 m/s when the
Fig. 69
Return
Pumping station design for two submersible pumps and moderate flows (Q = 50...2000 l/s). The elongated wet well
shape is an important feature that places the inlet pipe away from the pumps and prevents the build-up of sludge
on the wet well floor.
47
Fig. 70
stop
v max =1,2 m/s
D vo
hs
2
~30° 0-5°
30°
Return
Pumping station design for several submersible pumps and large flows. If the pumps are depending on submer-
gence for cooling, the stop level hs2 is chosen accordingly.
48
5.2.1 Submersible Pumps Small to moderate-size pumping stations can either
Figures 67 and 68 show typical pumping station out- be delivered as a ready-made package or built using
lines for submersible pumps. The pumps are lowered concrete rings or form casting on site. Large pump sta-
and hoisted along guide rails and connect automatically tions are always built on site and may show greater
to baseplates located on the pumping station floor. The variety in shape and lay-out as required by the sur-
joint between the pump and the pipework may be rounding topography or existing structures.
sealed with a rubber seal. The pumps are kept in place If required, the submersible pump pumping station
by their own weight. Access to the pumping station is can be provided with a superstructure on top to facili-
provided through hatches on the top. tate pump withdrawal and service and for safe housing
The conventional submersible pump pumping station of the controls.
is compact and affordable, and is installed for municipal
and estate pumping where small or moderate capacity
is needed.
Fig. 71
B M
Return
Wet well design for a pumping station with multiple dry-installed pumps. Flow velocity across the suction bends vo
= 0,3...0,4 m/s with the liquid at stop level. Pump internal distance B can be selected as for submersible pumps,
whereas the distance M should be selected according to inlet fall height, and should ensure an even flow at the
suction inlets.
5.2.2 Dry-Installed Pumps sonnel and ease of pump inspection and service. An-
Figure 72 shows outlines of pumping stations with dry- other advantage is the safe location of the pumping
installed pumps. The pumps are mounted on pedestals station controls out of way and away from possible
or baseplates in the dry chamber next to the wet well. vandalism.
The suction pipe extends through the wall into the wet The inherently higher cost of the wet well-dry well
well and connects tightly to the pump suction cover. pumping station over conventional pumping stations
Hatch covers provide access to both wet and dry wells. has successfully been offset by the obvious advantages
Advantages of the wet well-dry well pumping station they offer and the growing use of prefabricated package
as compared to the conventional submersible pump pumping stations, further reducing installation costs.
pumping station are added safety for the operating per-
49
The buoyancy of the pumping station when empty
Fig. 72 requires it to be anchored to a foundation or concrete
slab, which also may be prefabricated and matched to
the pumping station foundation bolts. The concrete
slab mass can be calculated using the following equa-
tion:
MB = 2000·VG (58)
where
MB = Concrete mass (kg)
VG = Volume of pumping station below water ta-
ble (m³)
Fig. 73
B
Return
Wet well-dry well pumping station outlines. Pumps
can be installed vertically (A) or horizontally (B).
Submersible pump construction is protected against
accidental flooding of the dry chamber. A separate
sump pump is provided in the dry well for drainage of
leakage water. The pumping station control panel
can be installed on the top or in the dry well space
above flood level.
50
5.2.4 Indoor Pumping Stations sewerage system future expansions must also be
Pumping stations for very small capacities can be i n- considered as reserve capacity or flexibility in pump
stalled indoors, for instance in basements of buildings size installation. Sewage pumping station incoming
close to the source of the effluent. These may be de- flow is also typically greatly varying with time, both in
signed as containers with the pumps integrated or short and long cycle.
mounted externally. Figure 75 shows a typical ar- Incoming flow estimation always starts with the
rangement. analysis of the possible constituent parts. These are
normally classified as
Fig. 74 − Residential sewage
− Industrial effluent
− Stormwater (rain and melting snow)
− Leakage water
Of these leakage water is water entering the sewer-
age system from ground water leaks, leaking water
mains or stormwater inadvertently entering a separate
sewage system through manholes or other entrances,
such as worksite excavations.
To correctly dimension a pumping station, the type
of use must be known. Sewerage systems are classi-
fied as
− Sewers for regular sewage, receiving domestic
and/or industrial effluents only
− Stormwater sewers, handling stormwater only
− Combined sewers, handling both regular sewage
and stormwater in various proportions.
Fig. 75
Return
A package wet well-dry well pumping station. Round
wet well shape adds strength and facilitates manu-
facturing. Dry-installed submersible pumps are safe
against flooding and are easy and clean to maintain.
Intermediate platform offers access to control panel,
mounted above flood level.
Return
Pumping station for small flows. The pump may be
5.3 Pumping Station Dimension integrated into the structure of the container and can
easily be removed. Air-tight construction is suitable
Selection for indoor installation, and the unit can be installed
near the effluent source.
Pumping station dimensioning is based on the ex-
pected incoming flow, which usually must be estimated
without the use of collected data. Guidance values 5.3.1 Regular Sewage Pumping Stations
cannot always be applied, since flow rates depend on a Flow rate estimation of residential sewage is normally
great number of variables. Figures are available from the based on population numbers. The flow rate varies in
sewerage systems designers or, less accessible, from daily and weekly cycles, the variation being in the
technical literature on the subject. The possibility of range of 0,5...1,5 times average flow. Industrial effluent
51
must be estimated on a case by case basis, depending erations, such as pump efficiency, size and weight may
on the plant type in question. The amount of leakage be economically decisive factors.
water present depends on a number of variables, such The intermittent character of sewage pumping station
as water table level, local rainfall and soil characteris- operation allows a wide margin for the pump selection,
tics and general condition of the subterranean pipe- giving the designer freedom of choice beyond a fixed
work. It can be estimated as units per pipeline length nominal point of operation. Theoretically calculated op-
unit, e.g. kilometer or as a ratio related to quantity of erating points are uncertain in any case, since actual
the sewage. head may vary due to changing start and stop levels
The possibility of flooding at the pumping station with brought forth by programmed level control, pump wear
consequent environmental damage must be taken into and tolerances in pipeline and pump characteristic
account. For this reason sewage pumping stations curves.
have two pumps in duty-standby configuration, with For instance, a pump with a head curve higher than
each pump capable of handling peak flow. Thus flooding originally desired may offer better overall economy, e s-
will not occur in situations when one pump is out of pecially if the pipeline characteristic curve is flat or the
order or being shut down for service. If pumping station dynamic losses are small compared to geodetic head.
capacity is based on two pumps operating in parallel, a The pumping station designer is therefore well ad-
third pump should be provided as standby. Estate or vised to select a pump from the manufacturer's stan-
other private pumping stations may be equipped with a dard range and to refrain from requesting exactly tuned
single pump, since the incoming sewage flow can eas- pumps. The use of standard pumps will also simplify
ily be controlled by restricting the usage of facilities. pump spare part service and later pump replacement, if
needed.
5.3.2 Stormwater Pumping Stations Finally, the pump selection should be checked so as
Rain water flow rates are considerably larger than other to make sure that the operating point does not fall out-
stormwater sources, such as melting snow. Dimension- side allowable range of the pump curve. Operating
ing of the system is based on the largest anticipated range restrictions can be imposed for a number of rea-
amount that will reach the pumping station. This sons such as risk of cavitation or vibration, or overload-
amount may not necessarily be the most severe tor- ing. The operating point should be checked using the
rent, for stormwater sewers are allowed to flood under combined effect of all known tolerances in the worst
heavy rain circumstances because of the relative direction.
harmlessness of rainwater. The design values are also The pump choice is also affected by the cost of an-
affected by flood tolerance of the area and the type of cillary equipment for each alternative. Ancillary equip-
urban environment in question. Leakage water addition ment, depending on pump type, are baseplates, ac-
must also be considered. cess covers, guide rails and control equipment. Thus a
Controlled flooding at the pumping station is ar- nominally more expensive pump may be more eco-
ranged with overflow weirs, discharging in a suitable nomical because of its lower overall costs.
direction, such as a ditch or canal.
Stormwater pumping stations do not have the same 5.3.5 Number of Pumps
required reliability factor as sewage pumping stations, Sewage pumping station pumps are selected so that at
and they can be designed to handle the maximum flow least one pump always is on standby. Especially in
with all pumps running in parallel duty. larger pumping stations, the number of pumps should
be selected so as to optimize pump usage and invest-
5.3.3 Combined Sewage Pumping Stations ment cost. The cost of pumping capacity, or pump
The dimensioning flow rate for combined sewage power in kW, decreases with increased pump unit size.
pumping stations is the sum of the estimated sewage, On the other hand, the requirement of one standby unit
stormwater and leakage water flow rates. Reliability will increase the cost of redundancy if few very large
requirement is the same as for sewage pumping sta- units are used. Installation costs are therefore almost
tions, making it necessary to dimension them with at constant for a given capacity, regardless of number of
least one pump as standby. Combined sewage pump- pumps used to meet the requirement, at least within a
ing stations combine in an unfavorable way the proper- reasonable range. Likewise, the energy cost will remain
ties of regular sewage and stormwater pumping sta- almost constant, if the pumps considered can run near
tions, and their use is therefore discouraged. the optimal operating point.
Factors affecting pump number selection may also
5.3.4 Pump Selection Based on Pump Curves be the requirement of even or continuous output and
The pumps for a pumping station project are initially energy usage, which is easier to accomplish with a
selected using the methods described in Chapter 3 of large number pumps.
this book. It is good practice to consider a number of Unless special requirements are put forth, the opti-
pumps from a manufacturer's range that have curves mal number of pumps for most small to medium size
passing near the desired operation point. pumping stations is two.
Pumps having curves both above and below the initial
requirement should be included, because other consid-
52
5.3.6 Pumping Station Capacity in Relation to
Starting Frequency
As stated earlier, the holding volumes of a pumping
station must be suitable with regard to the operation of
both the pumps and the pumping station. Water vol-
umes must not be too large or too small. Sump vol-
umes and pump starting frequency are, of course,
functions of each other and for all practical purposes
the volume is determined after selection of the pump
operating frequency. A method for the selection of
starting frequencies and pumping station volume is pre-
sented in Appendix B.
Appendix C offers a method for determining the
combined output of two pumping stations discharging
at different points into a common rising main.
53
becomes clogged or during loss of phase in the mains
6. Pump Motors and supply. Overload protection is frequently provided by
overload relays coupled to the motor contactors. These
Starters consist of ambient temperature-compensated bimetal
elements, that trip the current to the contactor coils in
case the current exceeds the set specified value.
Overload relays provide good protection against loss of
phase in the supply. The overload relay should be set
according to the motor nominal current. When star
6.1. Submersible Motor Design delta start is used, the current through the overload
relay is reduced by the factor 0,58 (1/√3), which must
The submersible motor is in essence a regular three- be taken into account when setting the relay. Figure 76
phase squirrel-cage, asynchronous electric motor shows an overload relay.
designed for use submerged in the pumped liquid. Typi- Electronic motor protectors provide accurate and
cally the submersible motor is proprietarily designed by versatile motor protection. The device measures the
the pump manufacturer to match a range of pump parts actual motor drawn current and calculates the winding
and to form a single unit with the pump. The motor temperature, taking into account stand-by time, running
design comprises the following special features: time and starting frequency. The electronic motor
− Motor casing and sealing arrangements are protector may include functions for detection of and
designed waterproof to class IP 68. protection against short-circuit, two-phase operation,
− Motor bearings and shaft are designed to carry all motor jamming, wrong phase sequence and low cur-
loads induced by the short-coupled pump impeller. rent. Figure 77 shows an electronic motor protector.
− The motor is dimensioned for cooling submergence
in the pumped liquid. For dry installation, cooling is Fig. 76
provided by liquid circulation in a cooling jacket or
by other means of heat transfer into the pumped
liquid.
− Power to the motor is supplied by one or several
flexible cable(s) that connect to the motor through a
sealed inlet or connection box. The cable is
supplied to specified length by the manufacturer so
as to avoid any extensions between pump and
control box. The cables contain a sufficient number
of leads for motor start and operation as well as for
control impulse transmission.
54
6.2.4. Moisture Protection. The principle of these is shown in Figure 80. Small
Water intrusion into the sealed motor can be checked motors (eg. 3 kW and less) can be built at the factory
with a moisture switch that reacts to excess moisture. to run connected in either star or delta, and with a
The moisture switch is connected, sometimes in series supply cable with only three phase leads, allowing only
with the winding thermal switches, to a circuit that, direct on line starting. In larger motors all the armature
when actuated, disconnects the contactor coil and winding ends are connected to a cable with six phase
stops the motor. Figure 79 shows a moisture switch. leads, permitting choice of voltage or star-delta start.
Water intrusion into the shaft seal oil housing may
be monitored by an oil conductivity probe. The probe is Fig. 79
normally connected to a separate circuitry that issues
an alarm if excess water is found in the oil. This
indicates that shaft seal service is required, or, if the
condition occurs within prescribed service intervals, that
the seal oil should be changed.
Fig. 77 Return
Return
A SARLIN moisture switch. The unit consists of a
number of moisture-sensitive disks stacked onto an
actuating rod, and a micro switch. The hygroscopic
disks expand upon contact with excess moisture,
pulling the actuating rod. A cam at the rod end trips
the micro switch and breaks the circuit. The unit is
non-reversing and must be replaced after use.
55
Fig. 80
Star connection Delta connection
I = I ph I = Il
Ul Ul
56
With motor starting gear dimensioned for DOL start, box door. Figure 86 shows a pump control panel for two
the extended starting process of the soft start unit will pumps.
not cause harm to the equipment, because the current
is considerably less than in DOL starting. The regulated Fig. 82
(chopped) supply causes, however, the motor to heat,
so repeated and unduly prolonged start-ups should be L1
avoided. L2
The effects of the different starting methods on the
L3
motor current are shown graphically in Figure 81.
N
PE
6.4.1 Contactors
The contactor is selected according to the pump motor
size and voltage. The selection criterion for an appro-
priate contactor from a manufacturer’s range provides
for no less than a million connections and breaks under
nominal load. Under normal circumstances this means
more than eight years of operation, if the contactor is
operated fifteen times per hour on average. A contactor
is shown in Figure 85.
57
Fig. 83 Fig. 84
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
N N
PE PE
F1 F1
1 3 5
K1
2 4 6
1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5
K1 K2 K3 F2
2 4 6
2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
F2
2 4 6
1 3 5
K2 G1
U V W P P U V W
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 6
U V W U V W P P
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
U1 V1 W1 U1 V1 W1
M1 P1 M1 P1
FM FM
P2 P2
3∼ 3∼
U2 V2 W2 U2 V2 W2
Return Return
A Y/D starter diagram. Initially contactors K1 and K3 A soft start diagram. The motor is started by closing
close to connect the stator in star configuration. contactor K1. The soft start unit G1 regulates the
While switching, contactor K3 opens and a moment voltage during the starting cycle from set initial to
later contactor K2 closes to connect the motor stator nominal. After completed starting cycle, the parallel
in delta. Contactors K1 and K2 have the same rating, contactor K2 engages, removing any residual load
whereas contactor K3 is smaller. P1-P2 is the motor from the soft start unit, thus minimizing thermal
protection circuit. wear. P1-P2 is the motor protection circuit.
58
Fig. 85 control panel also serves as the pumping station main
electric panel, it will have to include mains supply fuses
and provisions for energy measuring. A main electric
panel will also include fuses for wall sockets and
pumping station lighting. A comprehensive pumping
station main electric panel is shown in Figure 87.
Fig. 86
Return
A motor starter contactor. An overload relay or
electronic motor protector (Fig. 75 and 76) from the
same manufacturer and range mounts directly onto
the contactor. The contactor connects the three
Return
phases of the current to the pump. Spring-loaded
contacts close when actuated by the control current A SARLIN pump starter and control panel. The fully
in magnetic coils. enclosed unit contains the relay-based control unit
and the starter as well as fuses. Switches, meters
and lights mounted on the cabinet doors provide the
operator with control of and information on the
6.4.3 Control Panel Construction pumps.
A complete control panel includes a pump starter, a
control unit, control circuit fuses or circuit breakers,
main fuses or circuit breakers, and main switch. If the
Fig. 87
Return
A pumping station main electric panel. The panel includes all the pump control functions as well as mains supply
switch and fuses, energy metering, three-phase and single phase power sockets and the pumping station lighting
panel.
59
operational flexibility is required. Lack of operational
7. Pumping Station flexibility and monitoring capabilities has, however,
often rendered relay-based control units obsolescent in
Monitoring and Control demanding applications. Figure 88 shows a relay-based
pump control unit.
Fig. 88
All sewage pumping stations, either working singly or
as part of a larger sewage pumping system comprising
several stations, should be reliably controlled in order to
provide safe and efficient operation. New electronic
control technology offers possibilities to design and
build versatile control systems that reduce operating
costs and increase reliability.
60
integrated package. Figure 89 shows an electronic Flow measurement is possible without a flow
pump control unit. meter installed. It is done with the volumetric method,
where the changes of levels in a wet well of known
Fig. 89 dimensions are measured against time. The unit
Return software calculates both incoming and pumped flows
with the same accuracy as that of a magnetic flow
meter.
In case of an overflow of a pumping station, it
should be possible to estimate the volume accurately
and unambiguously in order for the operator to handle
possible claims of damage. When the incoming flow at
the time and the duration of overflow is known, the
volume can be calculated by the unit software for
presentation at any time.
Pump motor current measuring is necessary for
protection and condition monitoring purposes. With
adjustable over and under current limit values, the unit
is set to protect the pump motor in abnormal situations.
The pump is stopped should the current rise to levels
A SARLIN PumpManager electronic pump control where a burnout of the motor is risked due to pump
unit. The unit controls all pumping station functions failure or clogging. Together with thermal relays or
with software stored in a PLC circuitry. Operational electronic motor protectors in the pump motor starter
parameters are set using the keypad and the LCD this offers reliable motor protection. An abnormally low
display of the unit. Pumping station data logged and drawn current indicates that the pump is not pumping
calculated by the unit are readable on the display by normally, which may be due to pump impeller wear or
entering codes on the keypad. A scanning function failure or gas entrapment.
allows the operator to get all important data with a Pump running hours and number of starts are
minimum of keystrokes. information needed for scheduling of pump mainte-
nance.
All these features are available in the pump control
unit, and readable from the interface display. Thus the
7.2.1. Features
motor control panel can be simple without separate am-
The main parameter to measure is the liquid level in the
meters, hour counters and sequencing relays, features
pumping station. A continuous level indicator is always
which are all incorporated in the PLC.
used in this type of control unit. Several types of
With the pumps entirely controlled by software, it is
sensors are available, such as sealed pressure trans-
simple to embed special features in the program. Thus
ducers for use in the liquid, and ultrasonic devices.
it is possible, for example, to let the pumping station
The pump control sequence is normally quite simple.
pump down to pump snoring levels (controlled dry
In a regular duty-standby application, the preset ope-
running) at intervals to prevent sludge accumulation and
ration levels are stop level, start level and second start
cake formation in the wet well. In this manner possible
level. The duty pump starts when the liquid in the well
pump blockages can be avoided with savings in
reaches the start level, and stops when the level is
unscheduled maintenance costs. Another possible
pumped down to the stop level. The duty pump is alter-
advantageous operational feature is to let the pump
nated at each cycle in order to ensure even distribution
starting level intentionally fluctuate around its setting,
of usage and wear between the pumps. The standby
so as to prevent a sludge rim from forming on the wet
pump starts at the second start level in a situation
well wall at the start level.
where the incoming flow is larger than the capacity of
The pump control unit is also programmed to
one pump. If more than one standby pump is installed,
indicate all operation failures in the station, such as
these may be started at the same level at preset or
alarms for high level, low level, pump outage, and other
adjustable intervals.
alarms based on settings of parameter limits.
The pumps are stopped when the level reaches the
stop level. If more than one pump is running, these can
7.2.2. Pump Condition Monitoring
be stopped at given intervals if required. In some
The pump control unit can perform automatic pump
multipump installations all pumps may have different
condition monitoring based on the parameters
start and stop levels. This, however, makes pump
logged and analyzed. When the rate at which the liquid
condition monitoring calculations more complicated and
level in the wet well rises and falls during the pumping
less reliable.
cycle is monitored, the pumping rate of each pump can
In some cases a separate overflow pump with diffe-
be calculated. The unit then compares these values to
rent characteristics may be installed to handle large
the pump nominal performance data stored in the
flows. This pump does not participate in the sequencing
memory of the unit and releases an alarm if the
and should be controlled by a separate unit inde-
performance is outside set tolerance limits.
pendently from the other pumps.
61
The benefit of such a system lies in its capability to all necessary parameters and read logged and calcu-
give early warning for slowly developing defects that lated data. Normally some helpful feature, like an auto-
ultimately could lead to sudden and unexpected pump matic scanning function, makes the routine checking of
failure and consequent environmental damage. Also the pumps easy and fast. Separate LED lights are used
developing pressure pipework problems can be de- for indicating alarms and pump status.
tected by closely analyzing pump performance. An-
other benefit of such a system is the economy of
operation, where maintenance procedures can be
planned and executed according to need as opposed to
the calendar, or worse, after equipment failure.
7.3. Level Sensors and Other
7.2.3. Parameters and Signals Sensors
The pump control unit needs a number of parameters in
order to operate as required. The parameters are The pump control unit is not capable of controlling and
entered into the unit based on actual dimensions and monitoring the pumps alone. Sensors are needed for
units taken from the pumping station plans or mea- indicating pump sump level, measuring pump motor
sured at site. For calibration of the measurements electric current, indicating loss of voltage, and so forth.
either actual dimensions or percentages of reference
values can be used. Values to be entered are various 7.3.1. Pressure Transducers
levels such as start and stop levels, alarm and overflow Experience shows, that the use of pressure trans-
levels. Other parameters needed are pump sump ducers is the most reliable and economic way of mea-
dimensions, reference values for pump motor electric suring levels in sewage applications. Especially piezo-
current values and pump performance values. These resistive pressure sensors integrated into a sealed
parameters are available on the pump data sheets. liquid-filled rubber construction is excellent when used
Several signals are necessary for the pump control in wastewater. Pressure transducers are sensitive to
to operate. Signals are either digital or analogous. Di- sedimentation, but that situation is easily avoided with
gital signals are either input or output signals and indi- careful pumping station design. Figure 90 shows a
cate an ON or OFF status. Necessary digital input sig- pressure transducer.
nals are pump running or standby indication from the
contactors and ON and OFF signals from the phase Fig. 90
voltage relays and the energy meter when installed. Di-
gital output signals are needed for starting and stopping
the pumps.
Analogous input signals from outside sensors are
used for continuous measurement. These are supplied
by the level sensors and the motor current meters,
providing necessary information for control and
monitoring purposes. Optional analogous signals are for
example pump motor winding and bearing temperature
measurements or pump sealing house oil conductivity
measurements when specified. The use of these
signals may need additional input cards and processing
software in the control unit.
62
normally accurate and reliable. Foam and steam on the Fig. 92
liquid surface may cause level indication errors or,
worse, loss of echo, which can lead to interrupted level
monitoring. Problems arising from such situations can
be avoided with the installation of backup devices for
the most vital functions, such as high level alarm float
switches. Figure 91 shows an ultrasonic level sensor.
Fig. 91
Return
A capacitive level control unit by SARLIN. The unit
contains a reference liquid and is installed with the
Return bladder at the bottom of the wet well. Inside the pipe
a wire forms an element with the pipe and the internal
An ultrasonic level sensor. The transceiver is con- liquid, with an electric capacity changing with the
trolled by the unit transmitter that includes control liquid level. A transmitter mounted on top of the unit
software for various operating conditions. The unit transmits the signal to the control unit, providing
provides continuos level reading. continuous level reading.
63
7.4. Remote Control and
Fig. 93
Monitoring
Wastewater pumping stations are designed to incor-
porate extra capacity in case of too large an inflow or a
pump failure. This reserve volume does not, however,
prevent overflow if the fault goes unnoticed for a longer
period. Scheduled maintenance visits alone cannot
prevent all contingencies possible in pumping stations,
so systems for remote control and alarm have been
devised.
The pumping station outside visible and audible alarms
of earlier years have developed into the sophisticated
and decentralized remote control systems that are
installed today. These latest systems are based on
PLCs connected to a central computer and used to
control and monitor the local processes in the pumping
stations. The PLCs also function as telemetry
Return outstations and alarm transfer units, and can be re-
programmed and controlled by the central station.
A SARLIN float switch. The float switch turns when it
contacts the water level. The weight of the unit
7.4.1. Software and Hardware
keeps the float submerged, preventing it from
The central control station consists of a standard PC
floating about in the wet well. The unit does not
workstation, a printer and specially designed software.
contain mercury or other substances harmful to the
The user interface is menu-driven and flexible for ease
environment.
of use. Depending on system configuration, up to 100
pump control units can be controlled and monitored by
a single control station.
Fig. 94
Return
The SARLIN SystemManager remote control system. The pumping station local control unit is connected via
telephone, leased line or radio to the central control station. The pumping station control unit can also be accessed
by portable or remote computer, and alarms can be transferred to the operating personnel over standard telephone,
mobile phone or paging device.
64
The central control station performs remote monitoring, 7.4.4. System Integration
by which real time conditions at the pumping stations A wastewater pumping control system can be inte-
can be viewed at all times. This feature largely grated into some other control system, such as a
substitutes for site visits by the operating personnel. treatment plant control system, or an integrated water
Pumps can be started and stopped, levels and other company control system, if combined control is pre-
parameters can be changed, and so forth. The system ferred.
is capable of storing pump and flow data for years for Integration does not mean that all systems run in the
further analysis if desired. The software also generates same computer and with the same software. It is
numeric and graphic reports on flows, pump data, normally useful to pick the best system for each appli-
alarms and other parameters. Figure 94 shows a cation and to combine them at a suitable level. This
remote control arrangement. could mean common software for alarm transfer and
reporting. To make integration possible, the systems
7.4.2. Data Transmission should be designed using standard procedures such as
Transmission of data is crucial for remote control sys- PC operating systems, standard data transmission and
tems to work. The time needed for data transfer can be signal input and output protocols.
decreased if the pump control unit performs data
analysis locally and stores the results to memory. Then
only the calculated results instead of all logged data
need to be transferred to the central control station.
These results can be stored at the outstation for some
period of time, usually one week, before it is
automatically sent as a package.
Data transmission can be configured to suit
individual needs, and can be carried over public
switched telephone network, leased line, private wire or
radio. A modem is needed to modulate the data for
transfer. The choice between the different transfer
methods depends on availability and cost. Radio and
private wire can be used over short distances, and do
not require third party lines. If connected with the public
telephone network, the pumping station and the central
control station can be situated at a practically unlimited
distance from each other. The public telephone network
also makes it possible to authorize third parties, such
as equipment vendors and service companies, to
access a pumping station for special purposes.
65
nominal, in order to secure a smooth operational
8. Pumping Station Flow sequence. In these installations only one pump is
speed-controlled (this pump being rotated among the
Regulation pumps), and the others are started and stopped when
the regulation range of the speed-controlled pump is
Pumping stations in a sewage collecting network work exceeded. Great care must be exercised when
in an environment where flow is irregular and inter- designing this kind of pumping installation, and
mittent by nature. Normally the pumping stations have consultations with the pump manufacturer is highly
ample storage capacity to buffer incoming flow, and will recommended.
transfer the content to the next node in the network With frequency regulation, the pump efficiency is
when filling up to preset levels, and at a given constant lowered, since the pump operation point is likely to
rate. move to a lower point on the efficiency curve. The
In some cases, however, there is need to have a efficiency of the frequency converter and the pump
continuous output that may be regulated by the in- motor is also reduced progressively with lower
coming flow, or by the desire to keep an even level in frequencies, which may warrant pump or motor
the wet well or in the receiving reservoir. Such a modifications in such installations.
situation prevails, for example, at the last pumping step When the desired output fluctuates near the capacity
before a treatment plant, where the sewage enters the of one or more pumps running at nominal speed, the
continuos settling and purification process. situation, where a pump running at nominal speed
repeatedly is being started and stopped, should be
8.1 Stepped Regulation avoided. Therefore the speed-regulated pump is run
A stepped flow regulation operation is possible in a beyond the nominal speed, so as to achieve a regu-
pumping station equipped with a multitude of pumps, lating margin. The regulating margin should be ex-
and where the pressure pipework resistance curve is tended so, that the maximum output is equal to the
flat, allowing a significant volume flow increase when combined output of one pump at nominal speed and the
the pumping output is increased. This method of flow speed-controlled pump running at the chosen minimum
regulation is suited for applications where a pumping frequency. The minimum speed of the pump should be
station output roughly proportional to the incoming flow selected so that the pump operates without vibration
is desired. For practical reasons the pumps are pre- and with an output large enough to carry sand and
ferred to be identical, so as to allow duty alternation other sediments safely out of the pump. The principle is
and simplified service procedures. shown in Figure 95.
Control of the pumps in a stepped operation is by an
electronic control unit. The control unit software may be Fig. 95
written to keep the level in the sump between set limits.
With increasing inflow, the control unit calls additional fN fmax f min
pumps into service. The operational step width will be H
the increment in flow achieved by the additional pump
as determined against pipeline characteristics.
HJpipe
H2
8.2 Continuous Regulation
Continuous flow regulation is possible with speed η
control of the pump motor. Since the output of the η(fN)
pump is relative to the pump speed according to the
affinity laws, the flow is readily regulated with the use of
a frequency converter. The frequency converter changes
η(fmin)
the mains supply from the standard 50 or 60 Hz to a
desired frequency changing the speed of the pump
accordingly. In single pump installations the pump
speed is regulated downward only. In these cases a
standard pump can normally be used, because modern Q1 Q2 Q
frequency converters, operating near the nominal Return
frequency, cause very little loss of motor efficiency,
Parallel operation of speed-controlled pumps. Only
rendering impeller trimming unnecessary. Sewage
one pump is speed-regulated at the time. Q1 =
treatment plant return sludge pumping is a common
Nominal output of one pump, Q 2 = Regulated output
application where several parallel operating pumps are
of one pump at minimum speed. Regulated output of
regulated with operating frequencies below nominal
one pump is extended to Q1 + Q2, preventing
only.
repeated starting and stopping of pumps at full
In multipump installations, where the combined
speed. fN = Nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz), fmax =
output of unregulated and speed controlled pumps is
Maximum frequency, fmin = Minimum frequency, η =
needed, the frequency will have to be converted above
efficiency.
66
The minimum speed of a pump maysafely be chosen to
correspond to a flow that is, for example, 25% of the
nominal pump performance. Since pump speed is
roughly proportional to the pump output, it can be
calculated that the required frequency for maximum
performance in this case is 54 Hz if the nominal fre-
quency is 50 Hz. With such a small variation of ope-
rating speed, the pump efficiency will remain un-
changed. Hence, the power requirement will be roughly
equal to the cube of the relation between the frequen-
cies, resulting in this case in a power requirement
approximately 25% higher than for the nominal speed.
With a margin for frequency converter and motor los-
ses, the additional power requirement of the motor will
be approximately 30%. This is likely to require a pump
motor of higher power rating to be used. Alternatively, a
larger pump from the manufacturer’s range, with the
impeller trimmed to suit the requirements, may be
used.
67
Symbols
68
APPENDIX A 4. Local resistance factors
2. Local Loss
To calculate the local loss in pipeline bends and fit-
Q v
h h
tings, the following data for each item are used:
− Pipeline inner diameter D (mm)
− Local resistance factor ζ
− Flow rate Q (l/s) α
The local resistance factor ζ is different for different
pipe fittings, and may vary with installation parameters,
such as flow direction. Values for ζ for the most com- Q Q
mon pipe fittings used in sewage and water pipelines
s
are presented below and on the enclosed local loss v v
nomogram. Whenever special fittings are used, the e x- s
act values for ζ are available from the manufacturer.
With the input of the data above, the loss can be
read from the nomogram. The loss is given as absolute Merging flows
head for each fitting. Qh /Q α = 90° α = 45°
ζh ζs ζh ζs
3. Combined Loss 0,0 -1,00 0,04 -0,90 0,04
The total head loss for an installation is calculated by
0,2 -0,40 0,17 -0,38 0,17
combining the losses obtained for each part of the
pipeline with the losses for all the various fittings ni- 0,4 0,08 0,30 0,00 0,19
stalled. The final component of the flow losses in a ris- 0,6 0,47 0,41 0,22 0,09
ing main is the discharge loss, which is read from the 0,8 0,72 0,51 0,37 -0,17
nomogram in the same way as the other local losses. 1,0 0,91 0,60 0,37 -0,54
69
4.2 Bends
Qh v h
45° D
Qs Q R
vs v
D
Qh /Q Merging flows
ζh ζs
D = 15
, ; ζ = 0,4
0,0 -0,82 0,06
0,2 -0,30 0,24
R
0,4 0,17 0,41
0,6 0,60 0,56
0,8 1,04 0,80
1,0 1,38 1,13
Qh v h D
R
45°
Qs Q
vs v
D
Qh /Q Diverging flows
ζh ζs
0,0 0,92 0,06
0,2 0,97 -0,06
D = 15
0,4 1,12 0,00
R , ; ζ = 0,7
0,6 1,31 0,09
0,8 1,50 0,20
1,0 0,30
70
4.3 Expansions and Contractions
D
R v1 v2
90°
R/D 1 2 3 4 6
ζ 0,36 0,19 0,16 0,15 0,21 ( v1 − v2 )2
R/D 8 10 12 16 20 HJn =
ζ 0,27 0,32 0,35 0,39 0,41
2g
A2
A1
D v1 v2
α β
R
ζ
2
α R/D v12 A
1 2 4 HJn =ζ ζ = k 1− 1
20° 0,07 0,03 0,03 2g A2
40° 0,13 0,06 0,06
60° 0,20 0,10 0,09 β° k β° k β° k
80° 0,27 0,13 0,12 5 0,13 45 0,93 100 1,06
90° 0,32 0,15 0,13 10 0,17 50 1,05 120 1,05
120° 0,39 0,19 0,17 15 0,26 60 1,12 140 1,04
140° 0,46 0,23 0,20 20 0,41 70 1,13 160 1,02
160° 0,52 0,26 0,23 30 0,71 80 1,10
180° 0,60 0,30 0,26 40 0,90 90 1,07
71
4.4 Bend Combinations
A1
A2
v1 v2
v 22
HJn =ζ
2g ζ = 2 × ζ90°
A2 /A1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
ζ2 0,50 0,46 0,41 0,36 0,30
A2 /A1 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
ζ2 0,24 0,18 0,12 0,06 0,02
v1<<v 2 v2
ζ = 3 × ζ90°
v 22
HJn = 0,5
2g
v1 v2<<v1
v12 ζ = 4 × ζ90 °
HJn =
2g
72
APPENDIX B Starting frequency is the inverse value of T, hence:
Pumping station starting frequency and pumping capac-
ity. QinQ − Q in2
Z=
VhQ
In a pumping station the water volume comprises the (B7)
volume below the lowest pump stop level and the
pumpable volume above this level, fluctuating with pump The starting frequency Z is a function of the ratio Q in /Q
usage and water incoming flow rate. The starting fre- and is shown in Figure B1.
quency of the pumps depends on the available pumpa-
ble volume and the incoming flow rate.
Fig. B1
Return
The following different cases are investigated: Z max
− Single pump pumping station 100
− Pumping station with two pumps in duty-standby Z [%]
80
operation
− Pumping station with more than two pumps 60
40
The same volume must be removed by the pump during Differentiating the equation B7 over Qin is obtained:
the cycle, whence
dZ Q − 2Q in
= (B8)
V = Q⋅t (B2) dQin VhQ
Vh = Qin ⋅(T -t) = Qin ⋅T - Qin ⋅t (B4) The solution to equation B10 is shown graphically in
Figure B2.
Substituting with the expression B3 for t in equation
B4: In practice there may be situations where the incoming
flow to a pumping station is very small and only mo-
Q in T mentary, for instance in pumping stations serving a few
Vh = Q in T − Q in (B5)
Q households only. In such cases the selected pump
capacity should be selected much larger, in order to
Solving equation B5 for T is obtained: attain high enough a flow velocity in the rising main to
prevent sedimentation. In this situation the Qin /Q ratio
VhQ remains small, and the Zmax value is not reached at all
T= (B6) or very seldom only.
QinQ − Q in2
73
Fig. B2 Fig. B3
1000
3
QI or QII
V h [m ]
100 Q in
Start level 2
Start level 1
Z max 2/h
H
10 4
h
6
10
15 Stop level
20
30
A B
1
Return
Pumping station with two pumps in alternating duty.
0,1
2 10 100 1000 2000
The lead pump starts when the water level rises to
Q [l/s] start level 1. If the incoming flow exceeds the capac-
ity of one pump, the lag pump will start at start level
2. Pumps alternate between lead and lag positions
Return with each running cycle.
Q = Pump capacity, l/s
Zmax = Maximum starting frequency, 1/h
Vh = Effective wet well volume, m³ Fig. B4
74
Qin < QI QI
Equations B9 and B10 can be used in the situation ZIm ax = (B11)
8 ⋅ Vh
where the incoming flow is smaller than the capacity
of one pump for the calculation of starting frequency
QI
for each pump. With two pumps starting alternately, Vh = (B12)
the expressions are divided by two, whence 8 ⋅ ZIm ax
Fig. B5
ZImax
1/h
1000
ZIImax 1/h
2
Vh 2
3 3 4
[m ] 7
5 10
15
7 20
100 10 30
40
15
60
20 80
30 100
ZImax 1,0
1/h 1,1
10 2
3 1,2
5
7 1,3 Q
10 II
15
20
Vh /VH 1,4 QI
30
1,5
1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4
0,95 1,6
1,0 0,9
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,0
0,1
2 10 100 QI [l/s] 1000
Qin > QI capacity to the first start level, Vh, and the second
In the case when the incoming flow is larger than the start level, VH, and the combined capacity of the
capacity of one pump, two additional factors must be pumps QII. The following equation for the starting fre-
considered. These are the ratio of the pumping station quency can then be derived:
75
−1
Q ( V − Vh ) QIIVH
ZII = I 2 H + 2
(B13) Pumping Station Capacities and Starting Fre-
Qin − QI Qin Qin QII − Qin quencies
With several pumps installed in a pumping station, the
The expression for ZIImax can be solved by differentia- starting frequency changes dramatically with variations
tion, but the expression is very complex. A graphic in the incoming flow. The starting frequency will vary
presentation of the solution is presented in Figure B5. between zero and peak values, of which there are sev-
Figure B6 shows the relation between starting fre- eral.
quency and the Qin /QI ratio. The starting frequency
rises sharply at conditions requiring parallel duty. The Fig. B7
diagram shows a marked peak value ZIImax.
Vh/VH =1,0
Fig B6
Vh/VH = 0,4
ZIImax
Z
0,8
0,6 0,6
Z 0,8 0,4
[%] ZImax 1,0
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 1,0 1,6
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
Qin /QI Q in / QI
QI Q II
Q in / QI < 1 Qin / QI > 1 Return
Starting frequency curves for different Vh /VH ratios
Return with constant VH and a Q II /QI ratio of 1,6.
Starting frequency curve Z for one pump and two
pumps in pumping station with two pumps in duty-
Fig. B8
standby configuration as function of the ratio be-
tween incoming flow rate Qin and pump capacity QI.
76
Fig. B9
10000
3
VH [m ] Pump Pump Pump Pump
1 2 3 4
Start
1000
V4
Start
V3
Z 1/h
100 2 Start
3 VH
5
7
10
15 V2
20
30
Start
10
V1
Stop
77
Fig. B10
10000
3
VH [m ] Pump Pump Pump Pump
1 2 3 4
Start
1000
V4
Start Stop
V3
Z 2/h
100 4 Start Stop
6 VH
10
15
20
30 V2
Start Stop
10
V1
Stop
78
APPENDIX C
Fig. C2
A graphical method for determining the combined out-
put of two or more pumping stations discharging at dif-
ferent points into the same common rising main. H2
H
Figure C1 presents graphically the situation where two
pumping stations operate in parallel discharging into a
common rising main. When both pumping stations are
H J2-3
operating, the pump operating points are governed by H1
the pressure at the junction point 3, where the outputs
of the pumping stations merge in the common rising
main. The total heads for the individual pumping sta- H J1-3
tions can be separated into components as is shown in
Figure C2. The heads comprise the following compo-
nents:
Hgeod 2
Fig. C1
Hgeod 1
Common pipeline Discharge
4
Separate pipelines
3
HJ3-4
1 Station 1 Station 2
H geod 1
H geod 2
2
79
at these points, Q 1 and Q 2 , represent the pumping The procedure can be extended for installations with
station individual outputs. even more pumping stations in a common main.
6. Plotting the individual outputs Q1 and Q 2 onto the Working out the various operating points becomes,
individual head curves for each pumping station, the however, an arduous task. Large sewerage systems
operating point for each pump is obtained as the in- comprise collection wells and gravity sewer sections,
tersection points T1 and T2. breaking the network into separate pressurised sec-
The operating points for the pumping stations working tions that each can be determined exactly. It is there-
singly are the intersection points C’ and B’ of the re- fore unlikely that very complex combined calculations
duced individual head curves 1 and 2 and the head loss will have to be performed.
curve HJ 3-4 as plotted in step 3 above.
Fig. C3
Hgeod 1 Hgeod 2
1 T2
H2
H1 T1
HJ 1-3 H J 2-3
2
H-curve
in Point 3 H-curve
in Point 3
Q1 Q Q2 Q
Station 1 Station 2
H
1
1 + 2
B C A
HJ 3-4
C'
B'
Establishing operating points for pumping stations discharging into a common rising main.
Return
80
APPENDIX D
Conversion table for engineering measurement units.
81
Conversion of measuring units.
Volume Cubic metre Litre Cubic inch Cubic foot Cubic yard U.S. gallon Brit. gallon
m3 l cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. U.S. gal. Imp. gal.
1 m3 1 1000 6,10237·104 35,31467 1,30795 264,177 219,975
1l 1·10-3 1 61,0237 3,53147·10-2 1,30795·10-3 0,264177 0,219975
1 cu. in. 1,63871·10-5 1,63871·10-2 1 1/1728 2,14335·10-5 4,32909·10-3 3,60475·10-3
1 cu. ft. 2,83168·10-2 28,3168 1728 1 1/27 7,48067 6,22901
1 cu. yd. 0,764555 764,555 4,6656·10 4
27 1 201,978 168,183
1 U.S. gal. 3,78543·10 -3
3,78543 230,995 0,133678 4,95103·10 -3
1 0,83268
1 Imp. gal 4,54596·10 -3
4,54596 277,412 0,160539 5,94589·10 -3
1,20094 1
82
Mass kg kps 2/m Ounce mass Pound mass Short ton Long ton
oz. lb. mass (U.S.) mass (G.B.)
1 kg 1 0,101972 35,27396 2,20462 1,10231·10-3 9,84206·10-4
2 -2
1 kps /m 9,80665 1 345,919 21,61996 1,08099·10 9,65177·10-3
1 oz. 2,83495·10-2 2,89085·10-3 1 1/16 1/32000 2,79018·10-5
1 lb. 0,453592 4,62536·10-2 16 1 1/2000 4,46429·10-4
1 short ton 907,18487 92,50711 32000 2000 1 0,89286
1 long ton 1016,0471 103,60797 35840 2240 1,12 1
83
Temperature conversion Temperature Change Temperature Level
5 5
Temperature Celsius tC ∆t C = ∆t F tC = ( tF − 32 )
9 9
9 9
Temperature Fahrenheit tF ∆t F = ∆t C tF = t C + 32
5 5
84