CHAPTER 7
Position and M o t i o n - C o n t r o l Systems
1 GENERAL
@ 2 BASICS OF MOTION CONTROL
3 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS
~ 4 PROGRAMMABILITY
~ 5 SUMMARY
1 GENERAL
The origins of motion controllers were closely related to
textile machine developments. In the very early history of
such machines the control of position and velocity was
accomplished by elaborate, expensive and time-consuming
solutions comprising cams, gears and shuttles.
The automotive and machine tool industries were among
those which saw the control of motion as a means of pro-
viding complex shapes and integrating complex operations.
Being able to move heavy materials and process them in a
repeatable and continuous manner added value and increased
the productivity of their operations.
175
177
180
187
188
With the emergence of computers and microprocessor tech-
nology, other options became possible and modern motion
controllers were born.
A position or motion controller can be considered as a
system for providing an outer position or path control at the
front end of a drive which traditionally may be considered to
be a speed controller. This can be represented as shown in
Figure 7.1.
Although position control is frequently used in single
axes, the generic motion-control system is most frequently
176 GENERAL

A.C. supply

....................................................................................................................................
convet ona0rve 1......[.....I...............
position
controller s0ee0 current' 'vo a0e' I 0over
con,,o,,er "1 con,ro,,er I "1 con,ro,,er I " conver,e,
measured current
L
......................................................................................................

measured speed
(
measured position

Figure 7.1 Control loops within a position-control system

speed
.......................................................

i drive 1
i.:~i.i.~l~~'.~ i
demand •
•
p,-,

.... i

measured speed
.~..
measured position

motion
controller
A.C[ supply
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i..1.......
speed drive 2
demand

reasure0spee0
measured position

Figure 7.2 Two-axis system with a motion controller

associated with multiaxis applications. In such systems, the digital) which are fed to a drive (often referred to as an
motion controller is often, but not always, used to coordinate amplifier in motion applications) for controlling some type
the position or velocity of a number of drives. This form of of actuator.
application has been illustrated for a two-axis system in
Sometimes the controllers are designed for specialised
Figure 7.2.
applications such as:
A more precise definition of a motion controller would be -
the application of programmable hardware and software (in • machine tools - computerised numerical controls (CNC)
conjunction with input sensory devices, actuators and other • industrial robots
feedback devices)for the control of one or more linear or • transfer lines
rotary motions. • coordinate measuring systems
• laser welding and cutting
The controller clearly includes a means of entering a set of
instructions or code into its memory. These instructions are In the 1990s general purpose standalone controllers became
translated into a series of electrical signals (analogue and/or popular. This type of controller is typically more flexible
 Chapter 7.2 177

than a dedicated controller and is adaptable to many dif-

ferent applications. The Control Techniques MC204 shown
in Figure 7.3 is in this category.
General-purpose motion controllers are used in a wide
variety of applications, including such generic requirements
as X-Y positioning, palletising etc.
As well as being available as standalone units, motion
controllers are also available as board-level components or
can be integrated into a larger system. Various computer-
based devices, such as programmable controllers, PCs,
standalone industrial computers or remote mainframe com-
puters serve to link and coordinate the motion-control
function with other functions. In addition, an operator
interface is present to input control logic, change existing
programs or provide real-time modifications, such as system
shut down or schedule changes.
Increasingly, it is possible to incorporate position control
into standalone drive products either through option modules
or, for some simple motion functions, this may be built into
the core product.

Figure 7.3 General-purpose motion controller- Control

Techniques MC204

2 BASICS OF M O T I O N CONTROL

The requirement for a motion controller is essentially deter- acceleration (a) - velocity/time
mined by the need to control a system or process beyond the
capability of a single device. The control invariably requires = dv/dt (rate of change of velocity)
the profiling of one or more axes within a machine. The
properties to be profiled are usually either velocity (speed)
or position.
j "~. dt (integral of jerk x time)

Before considering the applications further it is helpful to jerk (-y) - acceleration/time

understand a few of the basic relationships associated with
machine control, and how motion controllers can be used.
First consider the relationships between the key motion
parameters"
distance (0) - velocity x time
- d a / d t (rate of change of acceleration)
Consider a motion profile, Figure 7.4, in which constant
acceleration and deceleration is assumed; the position pro-
file is also shown.

If we analyse this simple motion in terms of acceleration and

= /v. dt (integral of velocity x time)
velocity (v) - distance/time
= dO/dt (rate of change of distance)
jerk, the latter being very important for the smooth transport
of many items, including people in elevators, the results are
seen in Figure 7.5. Figure 7.5 also includes the return motion
to the original position.

- [ ~. dt (integral of acceleration x time) The high levels of jerk can be attenuated by changing
J the velocity/time profile. The implementation of a simple
 178 BASICS OF MOTION CONTROL

~~......~ typical linear

velocity
(1)
E
o
.9o.o_=

I< acceleration ,ll< steady

state ,..I..,Vl.., deceleration >1

(1)

or,=
o-.

(/} .~
o
o.o
G)
>

Figure 7.4 Motion profile showing constant acceleration and deceleration

position
if)

e-

0
e-
return
................. ~ ~I¢ position
if)
o~
"o
~.z,-- t
maximum
.m ............................................................................. velocity
l-

o ~- t

maximum
acceleration
t-

(1)
0
(.}

i !ilil

]ii i l

ii v t
t_
(1)

Figure 7.5 Analysis of the motion profile of Figure 7.4

S-ramp function impacts the performance characteristics

as shown in Figure 7.6.
Further reductions in the jerk can be achieved by more com-
plex speed ramps. Figure 7.7 shows the effect of a sine ramp.
Motion/position controllers are applied to many diverse
applications. There does, however, exist a small number of
functions which are common to many applications. A
number of these are illustrated below.
 C h a p t e r 7.2 179

I
target position
t-

O
t-
return
"0
position

maximum
velocity
4-,
t-

J ................
"~t
O

>

%
t-
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
maximum
acceleration

•v ,L t

(D

O
0

.. maximum
. . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
jerk
e~

~t
L

Figure 7.6 Simple motion profile incorporating S-ramp on velocity

I
let position
t-
:3

o
¢-

. D

"0
return
position
(!)
~j.- t
. m

c- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . .
maximum
,

velocity

>

%
maximum
acceleration

~t
o
O
kj kj
maximum jerk

....~

Figure 7. 7 Simple motion profile incorporating sine ramp on velocity

180 TYPICALMOTION FUNCTIONS" Position L o c k - E l e c t r o n i c G e a r b o x

3 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS

POSITION LOCK-ELECTRONIC GEARBOX speed. In other words, during the acceleration period it is not
important to maintain lock. Figure 7.9 illustrates the speed
This function is often used to provide a ratio between dif- profile of such an application as well as showing the period
ferent drives. It can be used on machines which historically when digital lock is applied.
had a line shaft providing coordination.
A typical implementation of such a system could be as
Three basic forms exist. shown in Figure 7.10.

Direct Positional Lock

Ramped Rigid Lock
In applications such as screw tapping (Figure 7.8), it is
essential that two axes are directly locked in position. A third digital lock option is to allow the slave drive to lose
This lock, between spindle motion and the up/down motion, synchronism with the master during acceleration, but to re-
must be maintained at all times including acceleration and cover the position error when at the target speed. Figure 7.11
deceleration. illustrates the speed profile of such an application as well as
showing the period when digital lock is applied.

Ramped Nonrigid Lock A flying shear (rotary knife) is a good example of a system
requiring this type of control. In this application only after
In applications such as a take-off conveyor, it is only synchronous lock is achieved can the shear, knife or punch
important to maintain lock once the drive has accelerated to be fired. When the shear, knife or punch is withdrawn the

screw tapping

spindle up~down
motion

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motion

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Figure 7.8 Screw tapping

master speed

-(3
/
Q.

slave speed profile (x ratio)

system position locked

1 .

Figure 7.9 Ramped nonrigid lock speed profile

 Chapter 7.3 181

master conveyor
A pick and place

slave conveyor

fast
slow

line
speed

motion controller .J~

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "'1
I
'

master position reference I

!
!
peed reference,
2:1
. . . . . . . j

slave position feedback

Figure 7.10 Take-off conveyor- a ramped nonrigid lock system

master speed recovery speed

"0
¢

slave speed profile (x ratio)

system position locked

1 ÷

Figure 7.11 Ramped rigid lock speed profile

| °
|
.......... conveyorspeed
| a

"13

c~

~' J, time

sta

trigger
point

.~ system
locked

Figure 7.12 Flying-shear speed profile

182 T Y P I C A LMOTION FUNCTIONS: P o s i t i o n L o c k - E l e c t r o n i c Gearbox

digital lock can be deselected and the position ramped back In all these examples of single-axis positioning the essence
to the original datum. Figure 7.12 illustrates the speed pro- of the control system is the counting of pulses derived
file of such an application as well as showing the period from the motor-mounted encoder or process-line-mounted
when digital lock is applied. feedback.

SIMPLE SINGLE-AXIS POSITIONING CAM FUNCTIONS

Single-axis positioning systems are characterised by the
need to move from one position to another, usually in as
short a time as possible and as accurately as possible. Further
enhancements are often included to allow for position refe-
rencing, or homing. Figure 7.13 shows a typical system
where the rotary motion of the motor shaft is translated into a
linear motion v i a a ball screw.
Alternatively in the case of an indexing application, a
repetitive action is undertaken after a prescribed duration or
travel, as in the example shown in Figure 7.14.
In many applications a slave-drive motion is required to
follow the master in a nonlinear relationship. To illustrate
this, consider the relationship between the slave and
master in the following example of a packaging application
(Figure 7.15).
Such a profile has historically been achieved using a
mechanical CAM, but has been substituted using electronic
controls with the master-slave function embedded in look-up
tables. The relationships between such tables and mechan-
ical CAMs are of the form shown in Figure 7.16.

position control used once datum has been established

any index position can be achieved within the full travel length

speed control for searching

for home datum position

~+++i+++++++

I proximity switch i
for home reference
. _ .

software and hardware

!i:i:~,i!! limits can be implemented
--+ :+.)~
v v

t
position and profile reference

Figure 7.13 Simple positioning system

pneumatic
knife
unwind
feed rolls
take-off-conveyor

unwind -- --
software index
position
software

Figure 7.14 Simple indexing system


reference
proximity
sensor
IP V (slave)
!
! I
_ _
O
constant speed conveyor
Figure 7.15 Packaging application showing nonlinear master-slave relationship
I
i
I
Figure 7.16 Mechanical CAM- master-slave relationship
The more CAM coordinates in the table, the smoother the
motion between master and slave. This relationship is illu-
strated in Figure 7.17.
The granularity/smoothness of motion can be improved
by the use of interpolation techniques within the controller.
In essence, interpolation calculates intermediate points
between the data given in the table. The simplest form of
interpolation is linear interpolation. Figure 7.18 shows the
principle. As the name suggests, a linear motion between
datum points is assumed.
More complex interpolation algorithms can be found in
many motion controllers including square interpolation
(Figure 7.19), cosine interpolation (Figure 7.20) through to
more complex helical and spline interpolation which will
not be considered here.
It is possible to combine different forms of interpolation to
create very specific profiles. This flexibility allows complex
CAM profiles to be effected with relatively small numbers
of data points.
C h a p t e r 7.3 183
(master)
180
225
270 -I
315
slave axis
45
90
135
180
MULTIAXIS POSITIONING
The power of motion controllers becomes of critical
importance in multiaxis applications. It is all too easy to
consider all multiaxis applications as highly demanding.
This is not the case, indeed perhaps as many as 90 per cent of
multiaxis systems demand little more than loose coordina-
tion of their respective motion. In such systems single-axis
controllers can perform admirably with simple referencing
between drives. It is in applications with precise contouring,
such as axis drives on a machine tool, that true multiaxis
control is demanded. In these applications it is not adequate
to simply ensure that motion commands are accurately
synchronised, but also that the motion of all drives is
closely monitored; the actual position of each drive influ-
ences the trajectory of every drive. It is truly control of a
point in space, and that space can have more than three
dimensions!
Multiaxis positioning systems also bring a requirement for
multiaxis interpolation, which will not be discussed here.
184 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS" Multiaxis Positioning

reduced
number of
coordinates required
.
c
0
m
profile
(/)
0
Q.

> increased
(/) number of
coordinates

master position

>,,
.
,.i-,
m

o
m
0
>
(1)
> J
...4j
m

(/)

J
J
..i J

J time

Figure 7.17 Effect o f granularity on master-slave motion smoothness

¥ ¥

Y2 / ','1

y. J y.

Y~ Y2

I
Xl X' x2 x~ X
!

x2

~X
dY/dX v

dY/dX
"-X

Figure 7.18 Linear interpolation

 Chapter 7.3 185

Y2
.---......
y,
/ y,

Y2

l
X1 X, x2
~X

Xl X' X2
~X

~X
v

~,X
-y

Y2 m

t m f

----~ X ~X
I
x~ X, x2 x~ x' x2

I v

X -y

Figure 7.19 Square interpolation

a linear acceleration ramp in velocity
b linear deceleration ramp in velocity
186 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS: Multiaxis Positioning

Y2 Y1

y,

y l
/
Y1 Y2

~X ~X

x~ x' x2 x~ x' x2

~X

X -y

f
y,

Y2

m
---~ X ~X
I
X 1 X' x2 X, X2

I ~X

X -y

Figure 7.20 Cosine interpolation

a sine acceleration ramp in velocity
b sine deceleration ramp in velocity
 Chapter 7.4 187

4 PROGRAMMABILITY

The power and flexibility of motion controllers demands used listing of codes are G codes. Examples of G codes for
powerful, easy to use programming tools. Today many various functions are given in Table 7.1.
proprietary programming tools are available. For general-
purpose controllers WindowsTM-based systems pre-
dominate. IEC 61131-3 provides a standard framework Table 7.1 Examples of G codes for
around which many systems have been successfully devel- CNC controllers
oped.
G 00 rapidtraverse
Many standalone systems include the ability to import data G 01 linearinterpolation
from mechanical CAD packages providing a direct CAD/ G 02 circularinterpolation (clockwise)
CAM link. helical interpolation (clockwise)
G 04 dwell
Text editors are incorporated to ensure good documentation G 06 splineinterpolation
and version control of all software. Further, performance can G 17 planeselect XY
be monitored using features such as oscilloscope functions. G 21 metricprogramming
G 45 tool offset increase
CNC controllers tend to be programmed utilising broadly
G 94 feed per minute
recognised codes for specific functions. The most widely

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Figure 7.21 CAD to motion screen with automatic motion code generation
188 SUMMARY

5 SUMMARY

Position and motion-control systems are not necessarily
complex. Most applications, when considered carefully, will
involve the requirement for motion coordination rather than
a rigid link. The recognition of this can greatly simplify the
control system required and introduce the possibility of
radical fully distributed control topologies. The growth of
PC-based programming tools provides great scope for future
development relating to both centralised and distributed
solutions.