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On planetary bodies in the outer solar system where water ice acts as a rock-forming
defined as the eruption of liquid or gaseous volatiles (usually water) which would normally be
solid at the surface temperature of the planetary body where it is occurring (2). Cryovolcanic
activity was first observed in 1989 by the Voyager 2 probe on the Neptunian satellite Triton,
where plumes of nitrogen were photographed erupting on the moon’s south pole (Kirk 1990).
Since then cryovolcanic activity has been observed on other icy satellites and has been
requires a source of heat and large, subsurface water reservoirs. The source of heat can be
radioactive decay in the core (which places a lower limit on the size of the object), frictional heat
from tidal flexing, or even sunlight (Neveu 2013). It also requires a mechanism for propelling
water up to the surface. Magmas in terrestrial silicate systems have a large negative density
contrast with their host rock, which gives the magma a large positive buoyancy. However,
because water ice has a lower density than liquid water, density contrasts between cryomagmas
and the surrounding ice are often positive, giving melts a greater tendency to propagate
downwards (Lopes 2013). Clearly, since cryovolcanic activity has been observed, this problem is
not prohibitive, and several potential solutions have been proposed. High concentrations of
dissolved ammonia in the cryomagma would lower its density enough to create positive
buoyancy (Desch 2008). Tidal flexing could also create a large enough force to drive water to the
surface (Fortes 2006). For explosive cryovolcanism, volatiles in the cryomagma exsolving could
drastically lower the density of the liquid and propel it to the surface (2). Freezing a small pocket
of water in the crust would cause overpressure, which could also force a liquid upward. An
undifferentiated crust with silicates mixed into ice could be dense enough to solve the buoyancy
problem, although Neveu (2013) showed that an undifferentiated crust could also inhibit
cryovolcanism by raising the confining pressure and by being harder to fracture. An additional
constraint is that the fluid ascent must be rapid enough to allow the fluid to reach the surface
before it freezes. Antifreezes such as ammonia can lower the freezing temperature of water, but
ammonia also increases the viscosity of the water magma, making its ascent slower (Neveu
2013). Different mechanisms for producing cryovolcanism have been proposed for nearly each
of the celestial objects where it is thought to occur, implying a wide diversity of manifestations
Triton:
In 1989 Voyager 2 documented plumes rising 8 to 10km from the surface of the
Neptunian moon Triton. All of the observed plumes were located in areas near Triton’s south
pole, which is experiencing a maximum summer solstice and thus is in permanent sunlight
(Brown 1990). This suggests that sunlight triggers the plume activity. The dominant hypothesis
currently is that sunlight passes unattenuated through a layer of transparent frozen nitrogen.
Beneath that layer, another layer of carbon-rich impurities traps the heat energy from the
sunlight. The accumulated heat vaporizes subsurface nitrogen, which builds up until the vapor
pressure is high enough for it to erupt through the crust. These carbon impurities may be
photolysis products of methane on the surface (2). Several surface features on Triton are thought
to have cryovolcanic origins. Croft (1990) identified cryoclastic deposits on basis of softened
terrain and feathered edges to flow units. Valleys and ridges on the surface may also be of
cryovolcanic origin, though probably resulting from some other form of volcanism separate from
the “cryovolcanic” geysers. In addition to this, Voyager 2 also observed long, dark streaks on
Triton’s surface in the vicinity of the plumes. These are thought to be the result of winds carrying
dust particles from the plumes downstream (Kirk 1990). There were approximately ten streaks
observed for every active plume. If these streaks are taken to be evidence of extinct or dormant
geysers, this suggests that the geysers are relatively short-lived. Kirk (1990) estimated that the
lifetime of a geyser may be on the order of 1/10 of a Tritonian season, which would be about 5
Earth years. This may be because the geysers drown themselves out with their own dust. If dust
from the eruption covers the ground over the geyser, over time it would create another layer
which would absorb sunlight instead of the carbon layer. Kirk (1990) estimated that the plumes
produce 10 kg/s of dust. This corresponds to a gas flux of several hundred kg per second. The
geysers on Triton are in some ways similar to terrestrial geysers, which occur when water sinks
low enough through the crust to come into contact with hot, magmatic rocks, and the over-
pressurization from boiling propels the water up to the surface. Terrestrial geysers are powered
geothermally, but solar powered geysers like those on Triton are thought to erupt on the south
polar cap of Mars each Martian spring when sunlight causes frozen CO2 to sublime (23).
Enceladus:
In 2005 during Cassini’s first flyby of the Saturnian moon Enceladus, a water-rich plume
emanating from the moon’s southern pole was observed, along with many dark streaks
nicknamed “tiger stripes”. Since then Cassini has documented over 100 “geysers”, each arising
out of a tiger stripe, and the geysers are now known to be the source of material in Saturn’s E-
ring (14). During later flybys, Cassini flew through several plumes and measured their
compositions. Trace amounts of NaCl and silica found in the erupted material indicate that the
plumes originate not from the crust but from the mantle and possibly the rocky core (Neveu
2013). The plume activity is highest when Enceladus is at the furthest point in its orbit from
Saturn, and no plumes have been observed when the moon is at its closest to Saturn. It is thought
that gravitational forces squeeze shut the ice fractures through which the water propagates to the
surface, and the fractures are forced open when Enceladus is at apoapsis (11). The exact
mechanism for producing the geysers is still poorly understood, as is the source of the heat
driving it. Neither radioactive decay not tidal flexing nor a combination of the two can fully
account for Enceladus’ observed internal heat generation of 4.7 gigawatts (13). Cooper (2008)
proposed that ionizing cosmic radiation and radiation from Saturn could oxidize water ice on
Enceladus’ surface, producing oxides which would be carried into the mantle through
rheological convection and react with primordial hydrocarbons in the presence of high
temperatures to produce explosive gas bursts. Oxidation from radiolytic chemical alteration of
surface ice could also provide a source for oxidized material observed by Cassini. Rapid surface
turnover, especially in the vicinity of existing geysers where temperatures are elevated, could
make this possible, and the presence of hydrocarbons in the plumes implies their presence in the
mantle. Cooper (2008) also points out that plume activity must be episodic, because continuous
plume activity over the age of the solar system would have removed 9% of the moon’s mass,
which would leave topographic evidence in the south polar region. No such evidence has been
observed. The wide variance in ages for different regions in Enceladus’ south polar region also
supports the idea of episodic plume activity. An alternate mechanism for the plumes is that
fractures in the surface ice depressurize subsurface liquid containing dissolved CO2, and the
nucleation of the CO2 bubbles drives the eruption. Additionally, Tobie (2015) posits that the
presence of grains of silica in the plumes and in Saturn’s E-ring is evidence for hydrothermal
activity below Enceladus’ sub-surface ocean. Hot water (at least 90°C and with a pH greater than
8.5) containing dissolved silica from the core would precipitate SiO2 upon reaching colder water
in the ocean. The hydrothermal system described here is similar to a low-temperature, alkaline
hydrothermal field on Earth called the Lost City. The existence of hydrothermal vents on
Enceladus would show that such hydrothermal systems can occur outside of the Earth.
Hydrothermal activity on Enceladus would also dramatically increase its potential habitability by
Europa:
In 2013 the Hubble Space Telescope observed a plume rising about 200km from
Europa’s surface. Europa is surrounded by a layer of hot plasma, which at the time was thought
to be produced by plume activity. However, since then members of Cassini's ultraviolet imaging
spectrograph team have reanalyzed data from Cassini’s Europa flyby and shown that almost all
of the material surrounding Europa actually comes from the nearby Jovian moon Io. This reveals
that plume activity on Europa is much less than was previously thought (15). Either plumes
occur very infrequently because of rare geologic processes, or the plume seen by Hubble was a
chance event caused by a micrometeorite impact. It remains unknown what factors result in the
Cryovolcanic activity has been speculated to occur on the following astronomical objects:
Titan:
The Cassini/Huygens mission revealed the Saturnian moon Titan to be, surprisingly, one of the
most Earth-like objects in the solar system due to its thick atmosphere and large bodies of
surface liquids (2). Several surface features seen by Cassini have been interpreted as being of
cryovolcanic origin, and cryovolcanism has been suggested as a source for volatiles on the
surface, including hydrocarbon lakes and methane in the atmosphere. Cryovolcanism is also a
possible source for the sediments making up Titan’s dune field, as cryotephra from eruptions
would erode easily into sediment particles (Fortes 2006). Soon after analysis of Cassini’s data on
Titan, a feature called Ganesa Macula was interpreted to be the cryovolcanic equivalent of a
volcanic dome or shield. However, more recent data has shown that Ganesa Macula is not dome-
shaped at all, and it is now thought to be the result of fluvial processes (Lopes 2011). Other
features have since been identified as likely being of cryovolcanic origin, namely a group of
features all located in a region between 30°W-150°W and 30°S-60°N called Sotra Patera. The
most prominent of these features is also called Sotra Patera after the region, and has been
described as “the very best evidence, by far, for volcanic topography anywhere documented on
an icy satellite” (24). Sotra Patera has been interpreted as a cryocaldera. It is the deepest known
pit on Titan’s surface and is located adjacent to the highest mountain chain (containing the two
tallest peaks on Titan - Doom Mons and Erebor Mons, which may be cryovolcanic shield
volcanoes). The Sotra Patera pit is oval-shaped rather than circular, which makes an impact
origin unlikely, as does the fact that it is several times deeper than all known craters on Titan,
and the fact that it is located next to the highest mountains on Titan supports a cryovolcanic
source. Flow deposits collectively called Mohini Fluctus appear to emerge out of Doom Mons,
suggesting that Doom Mons is probably the source of the flows. Another series of flows
surrounds Erebor mons, and other, non-circular depressions occur between the two mountains.
The overall area is devoid of fluvial channels and a dune field between Doom and Erebor Montes
indicates that the region is very dry, making fluvial origins for these features unlikely. Another
region which could include cryovolcanic features is Hotei Regio. This region includes multiple
overlapping flow lobes and two large, roughly circular features which could be calderas. The
flows are topographically high (200m), which is consistent with the rheology of ammonia-water-
behavior and a higher dielectric constant than other terrain on Titan, indicating that the possibly
cryovolcanic terrain is distinct. The presence of ammonia-water ice could explain both of these
systems, so cryovolcanic features might have similar structures to silicate volcanic features on
Earth. Interestingly, most of the possibly cryovolcanic features on Titan occur along the edge of
the large plain-like feature Xanadu. It is possible that faulting along the borders of Xanadu
created conduits for cryomagmas to reach the surface (Lopes 2013). Titan is large enough that
the heat needed for cryovolcanism can be supplied by radiogenic heat in the core, however other
factors in the mechanisms for eruptions are still not known. Lopes (2006) proposed that cooling
of a sub-surface ocean on Titan would result in underplating of the crust with ice Ih and the
resulting density contrast would be enough to create a gravitational instability in which the
pockets of ice would be propelled upward. The ascending ice would generate a stress field in the
surrounding material and cause radial fracturing in the crust. Melt pockets would be driven
upwards by the rising diapiric bodies of ice. Explosive cryovolcanism can occur if the magma
contains volatiles which exsolve during ascent decompression. On Titan potential volatiles for
explosive cryovolcanism include methane, CO, and N2. Explosive activity could also take place
in the event that blocks of wall rock containing clathrates come into contact with the magma.
This could occur through a dike being intruded through a clathrate-crust (or through volatile rich
sediments, which were observed at the Huygens landing site), or from stoping of magma
chamber roofs. Fortes (2006) shows that the cryomagmas on Titan probably consist of
methane clathrates take too long to dissociate in these substances. If the bubble fraction gets high
enough (60-85%) in a melt containing volatiles, the magma fragments, resulting in hawaiian-
style explosive volcanism. With higher viscosity, bubbles can coalesce and drive strombolian
eruptions. If the vent is blocked, pressure can build up and eventually destroy the blockage,
resulting in a large explosive eruption similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The
introduction of even small quantities of clathrate xenoliths to the magma system would
significantly increase the explosivity of the eruption. This would suggest that explosive
volcanism may be common on Titan, although it is also possible that the high atmospheric
pressure will suppress eruptions. The discovery of 40Ar (but only traces of 36Ar) in Titan’s
atmosphere supports the possibility of current or recent active eruptions on Titan, as the parent
potassium must exist deep within Titan’s mantle (25). Cryovolcanism on Titan is very
comparable in form and also possibly in mechanisms to terrestrial volcanism. Given the similar
viscosities between silicic magmas and water-ammonia magmas, volcanic structures on Titan
similar to rhyolitic structures on Earth would be expected. If Sotra Patera and/or other
depressions on Titan truly are calderas, they would be the first observed cryocalderas, although
not the first extraterrestrial calderas. Calderas have been observed on the moon, Venus, Mars,
and Io. Within those planets, caldera structure is similar everywhere but size varies greatly. On
average, Earth calderas are the smallest with an average maximum diameter of 6-18km
(Gudmundsson). Sotra Patera is about 65km in diameter, although it is much larger than the
other potential cryocalderas on Titan. Determining the characteristics of cryocalderas would shed
light on the caldera formation process and how material differences change it. Explosive
cryovolcanism, if it exists on Titan, would also be more similar to terrestrial volcanism than the
Evidence of cryovolcanism can be seen on Miranda and Ariel, two moons of Uranus.
Miranda and Ariel were observed by Voyager 2 during its flyby of the Uranus system, and
features which have been interpreted as cryovolcanic were seen on both (Schenk 1991). Miranda
is marked by three large, grooved features called coronae. The coronae consist of long ridges
with shallow crest grooves and linear banding. These ridges cross but do not fill depressions, and
they have been interpreted by Schenk (1991) as lateral flows emanating from linear vents. The
crest grooves could be linear equivalents of calderas. The insensitivity of flow width to
topography suggests that the lava was viscous or emplaced slowly. One ridge similar to these has
been seen on Ariel, however on Ariel the surface features most likely of cryovolcanic origin are
smooth plains found on the floors of chasmata (canyons) and filling some surface depressions.
The plains filling chasmata are convex and are often separated from the chasma walls by
grooves, and the plains material is sometimes seen to have steeply sloping boundaries. The sharp
topographic margins and convex features indicate that, like on Miranda, the liquid agent was
very viscous. The plains may have been deposited by flooding, however, they may also be the
result of viscous flows originating along a linear fracture. On both Miranda and Ariel the aspect
ratios of the ridges are comparable to those of terrestrial lava domes. The ridges are 2-10 times
larger and are linear, but they are similar enough that terrestrial viscous lava domes can be
Earlier in 2015 when the New Horizons probe took the first detailed pictures of the Pluto
system, it photographed what may be two cryovolcanoes near Pluto’s south pole, on the southern
edge of Sputnik Planum (Pluto’s “heart”) (19). The two mountains (Wright Mons, which is 3-
5km high, and Piccard Mons, which is about 6km high) are roughly circular and both have deep
depressions at their centers which could be cryocalderas. The many mountains and plains
observed by New Horizons on Pluto show that the surface is geologically active, with activity
possibly being powered by radioactive decay in the core. Since the mountains are located at the
edge of a possible impact basin, their formation may have been induced by stress from an impact
opening up conduits in the crust. On Mars volcanoes surround Hellas Basin for the same reason
(20). If these mountains are truly cryovolcanoes, they would be the largest cryovolcanoes
observed anywhere, and they would imply a greater role of cryovolcanism in shaping the bodies
of the outer solar system. Neveu (2013) posits that cryovolcanism on Charon (the moon or twin
planet of Pluto) could explain the presence of ammonia hydrates and crystalline water ice which
should have been destroyed by radiation if they are not being actively replenished, and could also
explain Charon’s youthful surface. No surface features directly indicative of cryovolcanism have
Ceres:
The Dawn spacecraft returned photographs earlier in 2015 of Ceres (a dwarf planet in the
asteroid belt) showing several extremely bright spots all within one basin on Ceres’ surface. The
nature of the bright spots is still unknown, but some planetary scientists argue that they may be
ice deposits from cryovolcanoes (21). However, no fractures or mounds have been seen in the
Quaoar is the largest Kuiper Belt Object after Pluto (it is roughly half the size of
Pluto) and was discovered in 2002. Crystalline water ice has been observed on its surface, which
is strong evidence for cryovolcanism within the last million years (Desch 2008). Crystalline ice
is amorphized by cosmic radiation, so the existence of crystalline ice shows that the surface must
have been warm enough (at least 160°C) to remelt the water and allow it to crystallize. Heat from
micrometeoric impacts is not sufficient to raise the temperature this high, leaving cryovolcanism
as the most plausible answer. Quaoar is large enough that its radioactive decay could produce
enough heat to power cryovolcanic activity, and is also large enough to retain volatile ices,
including methane, on its surface. Ammonia hydrate may also play a role as an antifreeze,
allowing water to exist as a liquid for short periods of time on the surface, or by lowering the
density of the water magmas so that they can rise to the surface. Cryovolcanism on Quaoar
would indicate that cryovolcanism is more common in the outer solar system than we currently
assume.
Conclusion:
Even though cryovolcanic processes have only been directly observed on a few astronomical
objects, they are suspected to occur widely throughout the outer solar system. The mechanisms
which drive cryovolcanism and the ways that cryovolcanic processes manifest themselves on
planetary surfaces are very diverse, just as hot volcanism varies widely on Earth. Many terrestrial
volcanic processes seem to have cold analogs: cryocalderas (presumably also formed from
magma chamber collapse) may have been observed on Titan and Pluto, low temperature
hydrothermal vents may be operating under Enceladus’ ocean like those of the terrestrial Lost
City, potential volcanic domes similar in shape to terrestrial volcanic domes have been observed
on Miranda and Ariel, and geysers on Enceladus may form like some terrestrial geysers. More
direct evidence of cryovolcanism would allow us to determine to what extent these processes are
exobiology, as cryovolcanic activity provides an energy source and a way to circulate nutrients
through icy oceans. If hydrothermal vents do exist on Enceladus (or Europa, where they have
also been thought to exist (26)), they could create a warm haven in which life could form, as
some scientists think life formed in a hydrothermal vent on Earth (27), and where life could
how volcanoes form and function, and to the investigation of habitability in the solar system.
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