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Amelia Lindsay-Kaufman

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Cryovolcanism: Mechanisms and Comparisons to Terrestrial Volcanism

On planetary bodies in the outer solar system where water ice acts as a rock-forming

mineral, cryovolcanism is the analogous process to terrestrial volcanism. Cryovolcanism is

defined as the eruption of liquid or gaseous volatiles (usually water) which would normally be

solid at the surface temperature of the planetary body where it is occurring (2). Cryovolcanic

activity was first observed in 1989 by the Voyager 2 probe on the Neptunian satellite Triton,

where plumes of nitrogen were photographed erupting on the moon’s south pole (Kirk 1990).

Since then cryovolcanic activity has been observed on other icy satellites and has been

speculated to exist on many more bodies in the outer solar system.

There are several factors limiting the occurrence of cryovolcanism. Cryovolcanism

requires a source of heat and large, subsurface water reservoirs. The source of heat can be

radioactive decay in the core (which places a lower limit on the size of the object), frictional heat

from tidal flexing, or even sunlight (Neveu 2013). It also requires a mechanism for propelling

water up to the surface. Magmas in terrestrial silicate systems have a large negative density

contrast with their host rock, which gives the magma a large positive buoyancy. However,

because water ice has a lower density than liquid water, density contrasts between cryomagmas

and the surrounding ice are often positive, giving melts a greater tendency to propagate

downwards (Lopes 2013). Clearly, since cryovolcanic activity has been observed, this problem is

not prohibitive, and several potential solutions have been proposed. High concentrations of

dissolved ammonia in the cryomagma would lower its density enough to create positive
buoyancy (Desch 2008). Tidal flexing could also create a large enough force to drive water to the

surface (Fortes 2006). For explosive cryovolcanism, volatiles in the cryomagma exsolving could

drastically lower the density of the liquid and propel it to the surface (2). Freezing a small pocket

of water in the crust would cause overpressure, which could also force a liquid upward. An

undifferentiated crust with silicates mixed into ice could be dense enough to solve the buoyancy

problem, although Neveu (2013) showed that an undifferentiated crust could also inhibit

cryovolcanism by raising the confining pressure and by being harder to fracture. An additional

constraint is that the fluid ascent must be rapid enough to allow the fluid to reach the surface

before it freezes. Antifreezes such as ammonia can lower the freezing temperature of water, but

ammonia also increases the viscosity of the water magma, making its ascent slower (Neveu

2013). Different mechanisms for producing cryovolcanism have been proposed for nearly each

of the celestial objects where it is thought to occur, implying a wide diversity of manifestations

of cryovolcanism in the solar system.

Cryovolcanic activity has been observed on the following satellites:

Triton:

In 1989 Voyager 2 documented plumes rising 8 to 10km from the surface of the

Neptunian moon Triton. All of the observed plumes were located in areas near Triton’s south

pole, which is experiencing a maximum summer solstice and thus is in permanent sunlight

(Brown 1990). This suggests that sunlight triggers the plume activity. The dominant hypothesis

currently is that sunlight passes unattenuated through a layer of transparent frozen nitrogen.

Beneath that layer, another layer of carbon-rich impurities traps the heat energy from the

sunlight. The accumulated heat vaporizes subsurface nitrogen, which builds up until the vapor

pressure is high enough for it to erupt through the crust. These carbon impurities may be
photolysis products of methane on the surface (2). Several surface features on Triton are thought

to have cryovolcanic origins. Croft (1990) identified cryoclastic deposits on basis of softened

terrain and feathered edges to flow units. Valleys and ridges on the surface may also be of

cryovolcanic origin, though probably resulting from some other form of volcanism separate from

the “cryovolcanic” geysers. In addition to this, Voyager 2 also observed long, dark streaks on

Triton’s surface in the vicinity of the plumes. These are thought to be the result of winds carrying

dust particles from the plumes downstream (Kirk 1990). There were approximately ten streaks

observed for every active plume. If these streaks are taken to be evidence of extinct or dormant

geysers, this suggests that the geysers are relatively short-lived. Kirk (1990) estimated that the

lifetime of a geyser may be on the order of 1/10 of a Tritonian season, which would be about 5

Earth years. This may be because the geysers drown themselves out with their own dust. If dust

from the eruption covers the ground over the geyser, over time it would create another layer

which would absorb sunlight instead of the carbon layer. Kirk (1990) estimated that the plumes

produce 10 kg/s of dust. This corresponds to a gas flux of several hundred kg per second. The

geysers on Triton are in some ways similar to terrestrial geysers, which occur when water sinks

low enough through the crust to come into contact with hot, magmatic rocks, and the over-

pressurization from boiling propels the water up to the surface. Terrestrial geysers are powered

geothermally, but solar powered geysers like those on Triton are thought to erupt on the south

polar cap of Mars each Martian spring when sunlight causes frozen CO2 to sublime (23).

Enceladus:

In 2005 during Cassini’s first flyby of the Saturnian moon Enceladus, a water-rich plume

emanating from the moon’s southern pole was observed, along with many dark streaks

nicknamed “tiger stripes”. Since then Cassini has documented over 100 “geysers”, each arising
out of a tiger stripe, and the geysers are now known to be the source of material in Saturn’s E-

ring (14). During later flybys, Cassini flew through several plumes and measured their

compositions. Trace amounts of NaCl and silica found in the erupted material indicate that the

plumes originate not from the crust but from the mantle and possibly the rocky core (Neveu

2013). The plume activity is highest when Enceladus is at the furthest point in its orbit from

Saturn, and no plumes have been observed when the moon is at its closest to Saturn. It is thought

that gravitational forces squeeze shut the ice fractures through which the water propagates to the

surface, and the fractures are forced open when Enceladus is at apoapsis (11). The exact

mechanism for producing the geysers is still poorly understood, as is the source of the heat

driving it. Neither radioactive decay not tidal flexing nor a combination of the two can fully

account for Enceladus’ observed internal heat generation of 4.7 gigawatts (13). Cooper (2008)

proposed that ionizing cosmic radiation and radiation from Saturn could oxidize water ice on

Enceladus’ surface, producing oxides which would be carried into the mantle through

rheological convection and react with primordial hydrocarbons in the presence of high

temperatures to produce explosive gas bursts. Oxidation from radiolytic chemical alteration of

surface ice could also provide a source for oxidized material observed by Cassini. Rapid surface

turnover, especially in the vicinity of existing geysers where temperatures are elevated, could

make this possible, and the presence of hydrocarbons in the plumes implies their presence in the

mantle. Cooper (2008) also points out that plume activity must be episodic, because continuous

plume activity over the age of the solar system would have removed 9% of the moon’s mass,

which would leave topographic evidence in the south polar region. No such evidence has been

observed. The wide variance in ages for different regions in Enceladus’ south polar region also

supports the idea of episodic plume activity. An alternate mechanism for the plumes is that
fractures in the surface ice depressurize subsurface liquid containing dissolved CO2, and the

nucleation of the CO2 bubbles drives the eruption. Additionally, Tobie (2015) posits that the

presence of grains of silica in the plumes and in Saturn’s E-ring is evidence for hydrothermal

activity below Enceladus’ sub-surface ocean. Hot water (at least 90°C and with a pH greater than

8.5) containing dissolved silica from the core would precipitate SiO2 upon reaching colder water

in the ocean. The hydrothermal system described here is similar to a low-temperature, alkaline

hydrothermal field on Earth called the Lost City. The existence of hydrothermal vents on

Enceladus would show that such hydrothermal systems can occur outside of the Earth.

Hydrothermal activity on Enceladus would also dramatically increase its potential habitability by

providing a source in the sub-surface ocean of heat and nutrients.

Europa:

In 2013 the Hubble Space Telescope observed a plume rising about 200km from

Europa’s surface. Europa is surrounded by a layer of hot plasma, which at the time was thought

to be produced by plume activity. However, since then members of Cassini's ultraviolet imaging

spectrograph team have reanalyzed data from Cassini’s Europa flyby and shown that almost all

of the material surrounding Europa actually comes from the nearby Jovian moon Io. This reveals

that plume activity on Europa is much less than was previously thought (15). Either plumes

occur very infrequently because of rare geologic processes, or the plume seen by Hubble was a

chance event caused by a micrometeorite impact. It remains unknown what factors result in the

many cryovolcanic geysers on Enceladus but none on Europa.

Cryovolcanic activity has been speculated to occur on the following astronomical objects:

Titan:
The Cassini/Huygens mission revealed the Saturnian moon Titan to be, surprisingly, one of the

most Earth-like objects in the solar system due to its thick atmosphere and large bodies of

surface liquids (2). Several surface features seen by Cassini have been interpreted as being of

cryovolcanic origin, and cryovolcanism has been suggested as a source for volatiles on the

surface, including hydrocarbon lakes and methane in the atmosphere. Cryovolcanism is also a

possible source for the sediments making up Titan’s dune field, as cryotephra from eruptions

would erode easily into sediment particles (Fortes 2006). Soon after analysis of Cassini’s data on

Titan, a feature called Ganesa Macula was interpreted to be the cryovolcanic equivalent of a

volcanic dome or shield. However, more recent data has shown that Ganesa Macula is not dome-

shaped at all, and it is now thought to be the result of fluvial processes (Lopes 2011). Other

features have since been identified as likely being of cryovolcanic origin, namely a group of

features all located in a region between 30°W-150°W and 30°S-60°N called Sotra Patera. The

most prominent of these features is also called Sotra Patera after the region, and has been

described as “the very best evidence, by far, for volcanic topography anywhere documented on

an icy satellite” (24). Sotra Patera has been interpreted as a cryocaldera. It is the deepest known

pit on Titan’s surface and is located adjacent to the highest mountain chain (containing the two

tallest peaks on Titan - Doom Mons and Erebor Mons, which may be cryovolcanic shield

volcanoes). The Sotra Patera pit is oval-shaped rather than circular, which makes an impact

origin unlikely, as does the fact that it is several times deeper than all known craters on Titan,

and the fact that it is located next to the highest mountains on Titan supports a cryovolcanic

source. Flow deposits collectively called Mohini Fluctus appear to emerge out of Doom Mons,

suggesting that Doom Mons is probably the source of the flows. Another series of flows

surrounds Erebor mons, and other, non-circular depressions occur between the two mountains.
The overall area is devoid of fluvial channels and a dune field between Doom and Erebor Montes

indicates that the region is very dry, making fluvial origins for these features unlikely. Another

region which could include cryovolcanic features is Hotei Regio. This region includes multiple

overlapping flow lobes and two large, roughly circular features which could be calderas. The

flows are topographically high (200m), which is consistent with the rheology of ammonia-water-

methanol mixtures. The possibly cryovolcanic flows exhibit an unusual diffuse-scattering

behavior and a higher dielectric constant than other terrain on Titan, indicating that the possibly

cryovolcanic terrain is distinct. The presence of ammonia-water ice could explain both of these

differences. Ammonia-water magma systems have comparable viscosities to terrestrial silicate

systems, so cryovolcanic features might have similar structures to silicate volcanic features on

Earth. Interestingly, most of the possibly cryovolcanic features on Titan occur along the edge of

the large plain-like feature Xanadu. It is possible that faulting along the borders of Xanadu

created conduits for cryomagmas to reach the surface (Lopes 2013). Titan is large enough that

the heat needed for cryovolcanism can be supplied by radiogenic heat in the core, however other

factors in the mechanisms for eruptions are still not known. Lopes (2006) proposed that cooling

of a sub-surface ocean on Titan would result in underplating of the crust with ice Ih and the

resulting density contrast would be enough to create a gravitational instability in which the

pockets of ice would be propelled upward. The ascending ice would generate a stress field in the

surrounding material and cause radial fracturing in the crust. Melt pockets would be driven

upwards by the rising diapiric bodies of ice. Explosive cryovolcanism can occur if the magma

contains volatiles which exsolve during ascent decompression. On Titan potential volatiles for

explosive cryovolcanism include methane, CO, and N2. Explosive activity could also take place

in the event that blocks of wall rock containing clathrates come into contact with the magma.
This could occur through a dike being intruded through a clathrate-crust (or through volatile rich

sediments, which were observed at the Huygens landing site), or from stoping of magma

chamber roofs. Fortes (2006) shows that the cryomagmas on Titan probably consist of

ammonium sulfate and not of ammonia-water or ammonia-methanol-water systems because

methane clathrates take too long to dissociate in these substances. If the bubble fraction gets high

enough (60-85%) in a melt containing volatiles, the magma fragments, resulting in hawaiian-

style explosive volcanism. With higher viscosity, bubbles can coalesce and drive strombolian

eruptions. If the vent is blocked, pressure can build up and eventually destroy the blockage,

resulting in a large explosive eruption similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The

introduction of even small quantities of clathrate xenoliths to the magma system would

significantly increase the explosivity of the eruption. This would suggest that explosive

volcanism may be common on Titan, although it is also possible that the high atmospheric

pressure will suppress eruptions. The discovery of 40Ar (but only traces of 36Ar) in Titan’s

atmosphere supports the possibility of current or recent active eruptions on Titan, as the parent

potassium must exist deep within Titan’s mantle (25). Cryovolcanism on Titan is very

comparable in form and also possibly in mechanisms to terrestrial volcanism. Given the similar

viscosities between silicic magmas and water-ammonia magmas, volcanic structures on Titan

similar to rhyolitic structures on Earth would be expected. If Sotra Patera and/or other

depressions on Titan truly are calderas, they would be the first observed cryocalderas, although

not the first extraterrestrial calderas. Calderas have been observed on the moon, Venus, Mars,

and Io. Within those planets, caldera structure is similar everywhere but size varies greatly. On

average, Earth calderas are the smallest with an average maximum diameter of 6-18km

(Gudmundsson). Sotra Patera is about 65km in diameter, although it is much larger than the
other potential cryocalderas on Titan. Determining the characteristics of cryocalderas would shed

light on the caldera formation process and how material differences change it. Explosive

cryovolcanism, if it exists on Titan, would also be more similar to terrestrial volcanism than the

geysers on Triton and Enceladus.

Miranda and Ariel:

Evidence of cryovolcanism can be seen on Miranda and Ariel, two moons of Uranus.

Miranda and Ariel were observed by Voyager 2 during its flyby of the Uranus system, and

features which have been interpreted as cryovolcanic were seen on both (Schenk 1991). Miranda

is marked by three large, grooved features called coronae. The coronae consist of long ridges

with shallow crest grooves and linear banding. These ridges cross but do not fill depressions, and

they have been interpreted by Schenk (1991) as lateral flows emanating from linear vents. The

crest grooves could be linear equivalents of calderas. The insensitivity of flow width to

topography suggests that the lava was viscous or emplaced slowly. One ridge similar to these has

been seen on Ariel, however on Ariel the surface features most likely of cryovolcanic origin are

smooth plains found on the floors of chasmata (canyons) and filling some surface depressions.

The plains filling chasmata are convex and are often separated from the chasma walls by

grooves, and the plains material is sometimes seen to have steeply sloping boundaries. The sharp

topographic margins and convex features indicate that, like on Miranda, the liquid agent was

very viscous. The plains may have been deposited by flooding, however, they may also be the

result of viscous flows originating along a linear fracture. On both Miranda and Ariel the aspect

ratios of the ridges are comparable to those of terrestrial lava domes. The ridges are 2-10 times

larger and are linear, but they are similar enough that terrestrial viscous lava domes can be

plausible analogs for rheological behavior on these moons (Schenk 1991).


Pluto and Charon:

Earlier in 2015 when the New Horizons probe took the first detailed pictures of the Pluto

system, it photographed what may be two cryovolcanoes near Pluto’s south pole, on the southern

edge of Sputnik Planum (Pluto’s “heart”) (19). The two mountains (Wright Mons, which is 3-

5km high, and Piccard Mons, which is about 6km high) are roughly circular and both have deep

depressions at their centers which could be cryocalderas. The many mountains and plains

observed by New Horizons on Pluto show that the surface is geologically active, with activity

possibly being powered by radioactive decay in the core. Since the mountains are located at the

edge of a possible impact basin, their formation may have been induced by stress from an impact

opening up conduits in the crust. On Mars volcanoes surround Hellas Basin for the same reason

(20). If these mountains are truly cryovolcanoes, they would be the largest cryovolcanoes

observed anywhere, and they would imply a greater role of cryovolcanism in shaping the bodies

of the outer solar system. Neveu (2013) posits that cryovolcanism on Charon (the moon or twin

planet of Pluto) could explain the presence of ammonia hydrates and crystalline water ice which

should have been destroyed by radiation if they are not being actively replenished, and could also

explain Charon’s youthful surface. No surface features directly indicative of cryovolcanism have

been discovered on Charon yet.

Ceres:

The Dawn spacecraft returned photographs earlier in 2015 of Ceres (a dwarf planet in the

asteroid belt) showing several extremely bright spots all within one basin on Ceres’ surface. The

nature of the bright spots is still unknown, but some planetary scientists argue that they may be

ice deposits from cryovolcanoes (21). However, no fractures or mounds have been seen in the

vicinity of the bright spots, making a cryovolcanic origin unlikely (22).


Quaoar:

Quaoar is the largest Kuiper Belt Object after Pluto (it is roughly half the size of

Pluto) and was discovered in 2002. Crystalline water ice has been observed on its surface, which

is strong evidence for cryovolcanism within the last million years (Desch 2008). Crystalline ice

is amorphized by cosmic radiation, so the existence of crystalline ice shows that the surface must

have been warm enough (at least 160°C) to remelt the water and allow it to crystallize. Heat from

micrometeoric impacts is not sufficient to raise the temperature this high, leaving cryovolcanism

as the most plausible answer. Quaoar is large enough that its radioactive decay could produce

enough heat to power cryovolcanic activity, and is also large enough to retain volatile ices,

including methane, on its surface. Ammonia hydrate may also play a role as an antifreeze,

allowing water to exist as a liquid for short periods of time on the surface, or by lowering the

density of the water magmas so that they can rise to the surface. Cryovolcanism on Quaoar

would indicate that cryovolcanism is more common in the outer solar system than we currently

assume.

Conclusion:

Even though cryovolcanic processes have only been directly observed on a few astronomical

objects, they are suspected to occur widely throughout the outer solar system. The mechanisms

which drive cryovolcanism and the ways that cryovolcanic processes manifest themselves on

planetary surfaces are very diverse, just as hot volcanism varies widely on Earth. Many terrestrial

volcanic processes seem to have cold analogs: cryocalderas (presumably also formed from

magma chamber collapse) may have been observed on Titan and Pluto, low temperature

hydrothermal vents may be operating under Enceladus’ ocean like those of the terrestrial Lost

City, potential volcanic domes similar in shape to terrestrial volcanic domes have been observed
on Miranda and Ariel, and geysers on Enceladus may form like some terrestrial geysers. More

direct evidence of cryovolcanism would allow us to determine to what extent these processes are

universal for all volcanism. Cryovolcanism is also hugely significant in considerations of

exobiology, as cryovolcanic activity provides an energy source and a way to circulate nutrients

through icy oceans. If hydrothermal vents do exist on Enceladus (or Europa, where they have

also been thought to exist (26)), they could create a warm haven in which life could form, as

some scientists think life formed in a hydrothermal vent on Earth (27), and where life could

currently exist. Clearly further investigation of cryovolcanism is crucial to our understanding of

how volcanoes form and function, and to the investigation of habitability in the solar system.

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