Physical oceanography, MSCI 3001

Oceanographic Processes, MSCI 5004 Stability in the water column

Gravity acts on vertical density gradients in the ocean
Dr. Alex Sen Gupta to either stabilise or destabilise the water column:
a.sengupta@unsw.edu.au

Week 4 Three examples of ocean stability are

Ocean Dynamics

Stable Stratification Neutral Stratification Unstable Stratification

• Imagine a balloon filled with

seawater at rest (equilibrium
Density Density depth) in two different density
gradients
Brunt-Väisälä frequency
• When set in motion the
balloon will oscillate about its The influence of stability is usually expressed by the
Depth equilibrium depth with a
period inversely proportional buoyancy frequency which is also referred to as the
to the density gradient Brunt-Vaisala Frequency :
• NB: The larger the density
d" d" gradient, the higher the
small dz large dz Density
frequency (Brunt-Vaisala or
buoyancy frequency)and g d" Gradient
Time Time
shorter the period N=
! ! • Large density gradient
therefore gives rise to stable
" dz
conditions - with little mixing
• The Brunt-Vaisala Frequency (N) quantifies the
importance of stability
• Larger frequency (N) the more stable the water column
Less energy More energy
required to mix required to mix 3
! http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/Utilities/bvf.html

1
 Buoyancy frequency N=
g d" Buoyancy frequency N=
g d"
" dz " dz

100 ? 100
dρ 1026 − 1024
=
dz (200 − 100)
= 0.02 kgm − 4
200 200
10
! ! N=
1027
(0.02) = 0.014s −1

dρ 1027.5 − 1027
? dz
=
(1000 − 500)
= 0.001kgm− 4

10
N= 0.001 = 0.003s −1
1027

5 6

Buoyancy frequency N=
g d" Buoyancy frequency N=
g d"
" dz " dz
N=0.014s-1 N=0.003s-1 N=0.014s-1 N=0.003s-1
Units: s-1 Units: s-1
T=? T=? T=2(3.14)/0.014 T=2(3.14)/0.003
T=449s
The time taken to T=2093s T=2π/N
make one! oscillation T=2π/N T=7.4 min T=35 min
!

If this is Autumn time, what would

you expect to happen in summer
and winter?

Acts as a barrier for mixing of nutrients up into photic zone Acts as a barrier for mixing of nutrients up into photic zone

2
Convective overturning.
How are properties transferred in water?
• Leads to the formation of winter mixed layers
•  Advection: transfer of properties via the flow of the fluid
• E.g. night time cooling during winter, cold
water overlies warm water… UNSTABLE •  Mixing: Spreading out of properties due to:

•  Molecular diffusivity / Molecular viscosity – momentum

is transferred to lower layers as the result of the
interaction of molecules of water – Laminar flow.
•  Eddy Diffusivity / Eddy viscosity – (Turbulent Diffusion)
momentum is transferred to lower layers as a result of
the interaction of water parcels (turbulence) – Turbulent
flow
•  Eddy viscosity is usually more important.
9 10

Molecular diffusion is much slower than Molecular diffusion is much slower than
turbulent diffusion turbulent diffusion

clear fluid + red dye = pink water Turbulent Diffusion clear fluid + red dye = pink water

"C
! = KD Just like shaking a container will
speed up the mixing rate
Flux of ‘C’ "x
Diffusivity Gradient of ‘C’
depends on temperature and
viscosity (these affect the
speed of particles)

3
 Define
Up Flux = w(S + s)
Vertical eddy viscosity ‘w’
Down Flux = -w(S)
S(z) salinity varying with depth,
Mixing and Flux Gradients ‘s’ small change in S due to eddy motions
Net Flux = w(S + s) -wS
= ws
Total salinity is S(z) + s
• Mixing via molecular diffusion is much
weaker than via turbulent/eddy diffusion
e.g.
• Water can be mixed through convective Formation of
overturn (previous examples…) wind driven
mixed layer

• Can also be mixed through turbulent

diffusion e.g. wind driven mixing

13
Turbulent diffusion of a salinity gradient

But do we really know w ? Salt Transport

•  The mechanism for salt transport is characterised by a flux
Γ = ωs
•  Problem: ω is really known. Lots of different ω’s in turbulent flow

•  But we know that flux is ‘down gradient’ from regions of high concentration
to low concentration.

•  So we can write an approximate diffusion law: dS

Γ = −K
dz
•  Where K is the vertical diffusivity (m2s-1).
•  In the deep Ocean K~ 10-5m2s-1 e.g. near rough bottom bathymetry
•  Near the surface K~ 10-3m2s-1 e.g. through wind mixing.

4
 Diffusion - the flow from higher to lower Diffusion - the flow from higher to lower
concentrations concentrations

E.g. If box 2 contains water containing 1kg of E.g. If box 2 contains water containing 1kg of
salt per square meter and box 2 contains fresh salt per cubic meter and box 2 contains fresh
water. If L =1m and K=10-1m2s-1 what will the water. If L =1m and K=10-1m2s-1 what will the
initial flux be? initial flux be?

dC/dz = (0 - 1)/1 = -1kgm4

Flux=-10-1(-1) = 0.1kgm-2s-1

What happens after a few seconds?

dC Ficks Law of diffusion dC Ficks Law of diffusion

" = #K K is the diffusion constant
(eddy diffusivity)
" = #K K is the diffusion constant
(eddy diffusivity)
dz SI unit m2s-1
dz SI unit m2s-1

! ! Molecular versus
Ocean Mixing by Flux Gradient Law
Flows from high concentrations to low concentrations, I.e.the Turbulent (eddy) Diffusivity
flux is ‘down gradient’, Eddy (turbulent) diffusivities are usually many orders of
dC magnitude larger than their molecular counterparts.
Flux (m2/s) " = #K Concentration gradient
dz (could be salinity, Diffusion in water (molecular) ~ 10-11 – 10-7 m2/sec
temperature, oxygen etc)
Vertical or horizontal Vertical diffusion in the ocean, κz ~ 10-5 - 10-3 m2/sec
diffusivity (m2/s)
Horizontal diffusion in the ocean, κx ~ 1 - 1000 m2/sec
! effects will therefore be strongest in
Diffusion • Deep ocean mixing occurs near rough topography
regions with high concentration gradients • Surface layer turbulence can be caused by wind mixing

This is very important in estuaries More appropriate to consider mixing along

where there is a SALT gradient…. and across isopycnals

5
 Strength of mixing changes with location
Richardson No:
dC
" = #K Predicts the onset of turbulence
dz N2 Remember
N=
g d"
Ri = N2 can be <0 " dz
Diffusion is also much bigger in (du ) 2
regions of strong turbulence (e.g.
dz
where tidal currents interact with Where N is the Buoyancy Freq, u is a horizontal current speed.
topography) – BIG K !
! If Ri < 0 then density variations enhance turbulence (i.e. N2 < 0)
i.e water column is unstable – turbulent convective mixing

If Ri > 0 (i.e. stable stratification) then velocity shear (du/dz)

must be large to generate turbulence.

If Ri > ¼ no turbulence is found

Strong in regions with high
If Ri < ¼ turbulence may be found.
concentration gradients– BIG dC/dx

Determine if turbulence will occur in the Determine if turbulence will occur in the
N2 N2
following examples: Ri = following examples: Ri =
What is du/dz? (du ) 2 What is du/dz? (du ) 2
dz dz

Ri= (2pi/(10x60))2 / (0.5/10)2 Ri= (2pi/(7x60x60))2 / (0.1/1000)2

= 0.04 < ¼ (TURBULENT) = 5.8 > ¼ (STABLE)

23 24
Upper Ocean Deep Ocean Upper Ocean Deep Ocean

6
 Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt
•  It is important to know how much ‘stuff’ is being 1 Sverdrup = 106 m3/s
moved around (transported) by the ocean.
•  This may be by ADVECTION and/or MIXING
1 Sverdrup is huuuge…
•  Transport of water = the volume of water passing
through a given area per second (m3/s). Typically e.g. the Amazon discharge is ~0.2 Sv
expressed in ‘Sv’. Where 1 Sv = 1 million cubic
meters passing a point per second.
•  Can also be expressed in Kg/s
•  Transfer of heat = the number of Joules passing
through a given area per second (J/s or Watts)
•  Transfer of salt= mass of salt passing through a given
area per second (Kg/s)
•  Also referred to as heat, salt or volume fluxes

Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt
• Total amount of salt in the ocean remains
relatively constant, i.e. Salinity is conservative. In most instances the advective flux will dominate, so the diffusive
• The flux of salt into the cube includes an part can be ignored. We are also usually interested in 1D flow
advective contribution and a diffusive (e.g. flow through a channel or across a section)
contribution
• Diffusive flux (turbulent and molecular) of salt
has a negative sign because it is directed in
the opposite direction to the salinity gradient
• The flux of salt out of the volume equals the
flux in, plus the changes of that flux with
respect to x along the distance dx. Diffusive Flux Advective Flux

Hence the net flux per unit volume is given by

But don’t panic...

7
 Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt
In most instances the advective flux will dominate, so the diffusive If we know the heat (or salt) per m3 we can convert
part can be ignored. We are also usually interested in 1D flow volume flux into heat (or salt) flux.
(e.g. flow through a channel or across a section)
Heat per m3 = ρcpT Joules per m3
Volume Flux of an ocean current
with velocity ‘u’ through an area u A
Salt per m3 = ρS Kg (salt) per m3
A is given by: Volume
Volume transport = u . A = u.H.L swept out

Transport of Volume, Heat & Salt Total Heat and Salt Fluxes
If we know the heat (or salt) per m3 we can convert
volume flux into heat (or salt) flux.
VT = u " L " H m3/s
Heat per m3 = ρcpT
QT = #c p uT " L " H J/s
Salt per m3 = ρS
S fT = #uS " L " H Kg/s
Multiply by the volume flux uA
Q=ρcpT(uA)
T, S
Sf=ρuS(uA)
!
ρ is density, cp ~ 4000 J/CKg, salinity is in absolute units, 35kg/1000kg
32
UNITS heat flux – Watts ( 1 Watt = 1 J/s). Salt flux - kg/s

8
 Example (p26):
Calculate the total volume, heat and salt fluxes
a)  Past Tasmania
b)  Through the drake passage.
Assume the ocean currents persist over the upper 1000m only.
c)  Calculate the average heat and freshwater fluxes through these
areas
d)  Why might the volume flux
be different?

34

Volume transport = uHL

= 0.05m/s x 1000m x 2800km
=140 x 106m3/s = 140Sv

Heat Flux Q=ρcpuT x HL

=1028kg/m3 x 4000J/kgoC x 0.05m/s
x 6oC x 1000m x 2800km
=3.454 x 1015 J/S (W)

Salt Flux Sf=ρuS x HL

=1028kg/m3 x 0.05m/s x 34kg/
1000kgx1000mx2800km
=4.893 x 109 kg/s

9
Volume transport = uHL South of Australia Why is the
= 0.4m/s x 1000m x 300km Volume transport = 140Sv Volume flux
=120 x 106m3/s = 120Sv different?
Heat Flux =3.454 x 1015 J/S (W)

Heat Flux Q=ρcpuT x HL Salt Flux =4.893 x 109 kg/s

=1028kg/m3 x 4000J/kgoC x 0.4m/s x 3oC x
1000m x 300km
=1.48 x 1015 J/S (W)
Through Drake Passage
Salt Flux Sf=ρuS x HL Volume transport = 120Sv
=1028kg/m3x 0.4m/s x 33.85kg/ Heat Flux =1.48 x 1015 J/S (W)
1000kgx1000mx300km
Salt Flux = 4.176 x 109 kg/s
=4.176 x 109 kg/s

Summary The Equations of Motion

•  Properties can be transported by Advection or Mixing/Diffusion
•  Molecular diffusion is a result of the random motion of water
particles and is very slow
•  Turbulent or Eddy mixing is much more rapid "C
•  Both types of mixing can be expressed in the form:
!=K
"x
•  But K varies considerably depending on whether its molecular or
turbulent mixing and whether its horizontal or vertical
•  K is also bigger in turbulent areas (near boundaries or rough
topography)
•  Ocean currents also transport volume, heat and salt
•  These are measured in m3/s, J/s and Kg/s respectively
• Much of Ocean, Atmosphere or Climate science deals with dynamics – how
things move – and why things move.
• The fundamental equations describing this motion is Newton’s second law:
1
i.e. F = ma or a= ΣF
m
• In Oceanography the implementation of Newton’s Law are the “Navier
Stokes Equations”. These equations capture the conservation of
momentum and angular momentum (often called vorticity in oceanography)
• In addition to this we also need to consider
- the conservation of mass (called the continuity equation)
- The conservation of energy (usually related to temperature)
- The conservation of salt
- The equation of state (how temperature and salinity affect density)

ρ = ρ0(1-αT+βS)

10
 Forces Forces

Newtons Law: a=F/m Newtons Law: a=F/m

Newton’s Laws of Motion

An object will continue to move in a straight line and at a constant speed

Forces unless acted on by a NET force

The change in the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object (e.g. a bit of
water) is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.
Slope force – component of F =ma
1
a= "F but m = #V
weight acting down the slope ΣF=ma m
1
so, a = "F
#V
Oceanographers will consider force per unit volume.
Friction force – only
acts on moving car du
Acceleration a =
dt
The car will accelerate du/dt>0 until
the ‘slope’ force is balanced by friction. At that point the net force will
du 1
So, = "F
be zero and the car will continue at a steady speed. Just because dt #
the net force is 0 doesn’t mean that the car wont be moving

11
Newton’s Laws of Motion

An object will continue to move in a straight line and at a constant speed Ocean Dynamics
unless acted on by a NET force
What are the forces that drive the Ocean?
The change in the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object (e.g. a bit of
water) is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of •  Gravity (earth, sun and moon)
the object.
•  Pressure force
1
a= "F but m = #V •  Friction – predominantly at boundaries*
m
1 •  Wind – only at surface boundary
so, a = "F
#V •  Seismic Forces – Occasional impulse only
Oceanographers willconsider force per unit volume. •  Coriolis* - due to the earths rotation
du
Acceleration a = •  Buoyancy – due to vertical T,S differences (related to
dt
heat and water fluxes at the ocean surface)
du 1 dv 1 dw 1
So, = "Fx = "Fy = "Fz
dt # dt # dt # * These forces are only experienced by fluid in motion

u,x: west to east v,y: south to north w,z: up to down

!

Equation of motion a=F/m Forces on a Parcel of Water

What forces might cause a parcel of water du 1
= ( Fg + FC + FP + Ff + ...)
to accelerate? dt ρ

Movement of the ocean •  Gravity

•  Coriolis du 1
= wind - friction + rotation + tides = ∑ Fx
•  Pressure dt ρ
buoyancy + pressure differences …. •  Friction
A sum of forces.

12
Newton’s Laws of Motion
What are the forces acting in the up-down direction? Newton’s Laws of Motion
Vertical direction:
Vertical direction
The boxes weight is acting downwards (mg)
dw 1 dp
P The pressure at the top of the box is also trying to =− +g
force the box downwards.
But the pressure at the bottom of the box is trying to
dt ρ dz
force it upwards (the difference in the pressure forces
ρ Δz is just the buoyancy force discussed for Archimedes)
ΔV
P=F/A Vertical acceleration Buoyancy force Weight
Δy
Δx ma = ΣFz
P+ΔP ρVa = mg + PA − ( P + ΔP) A
But we can normally make this even simpler.
ρ (ΔxΔyΔz )a = ρ (ΔxΔyΔz ) g + P(ΔxΔy) − ( P + ΔP)(ΔxΔy) We can us SCALE ANALYSIS to see the size of the terms.
Weight (mg)
1 ΔP
a=g− e.g. Suppose A = B + C
ρ Δz If we know that A=0.00001 and B=10, then to a good approximation
we could simplify this equation to
But acceleration in the z direction is just: dw/dt, so B ≈ −C
dw 1 dp
=− +g
dt ρ dz

Exercise Exercise
•  Note that the equatorial pacific is ~ 10,000km wide and the upwelling •  Note that the equatorial pacific is ~ 10.000km wide and the upwelling
is concentrated in a 50km wide band at the equator. Once the winds is concentrated in a 50km wide band at the equator. Once the winds
start blowing it takes about a day for the upwelling to spin up start blowing it takes about a day for the upwelling to spin up

dw 1 dp dw 1 dp
=− +g =− +g
•  What is dw/dt? dt ρ dz •  What is dw/dt? dt ρ dz
•  How does it compare in size to gravity? •  How does it compare in size to gravity?
Upwelling =100,000,000m3/s. This is coming up through an area of:
A=10,000,000x50,000=5x1011m2. So (remember volume transport):

U= (100,000,000m3/s)/(5x1011m2) = 0.0002m/s (very small!)

13
 Exercise
dw 1 dp
•  What is dw/dt? =− +g
•  How does it compare in size to gravity? dt ρ dz

U= (100,000,000m3/s)/(5x1011m2) = 0.0002m/s (very small!)

If the wind were to stop and then start again it would take about a day to
start upwelling at that rate again i.e. It takes 1 day to reach a velocity of
0.0002m/s.
So we can approximate our acceleration to
30m
dw W 0.0002ms −1
≈ = = 2 ×10 −9 ms −2 << g = 10ms-2
dt T 1× 24 × 60 × 60 s

In general over the ocean vertical acceleration is much smaller than g. This
means that in the vertical equation g and 1 dp must be of similar magnitude
ρ dz

g dw 1 dp
=− +g
<< 9.8 ms-2 dt ρ dz
In general over the ocean vertical acceleration is much smaller than g. This
means that in the vertical equation g and 1 dp must be of similar magnitude
This (dw/dt) is much smaller than gravity, hence, gravity cannot ρ dz
be balanced by dw/dt
Generally most ocean circulation of period > 1day satisfies the dp This is called the
hydrostatic balance. = ρg
dz hydrostatic equation
dp
= ρg We can integrate this equation since density and g are essentially constant.
dz
p h
dp
∫0 dz dz = ∫0 ρgdz Or simply p = hρg
Which you are hopefully
familiar with already!

14
 The Pressure Force The Pressure Force

p = hρg

P1 > P2

Newton’s Laws of Motion Newton’s Laws of Motion

P
Horizontal direction Horizontal direction

Just like vertical pressure gradients can create a ρ Δz

ma = ΣFx
force on the water, so can horizontal gradients
ΔV ρVa = P1 A − P2 A
Δy ρo (ΔxΔyΔz )a = ( p) A − ( p + Δp) A
Δx
Surface
P+ΔP but, A = ΔyΔz
We can now forget the ρ0
ρo (ΔxΔyΔz)a = ( p)ΔyΔz − ( p + Δp)ΔyΔz
vertical – we ve done du
P P+ ΔP but, a = , so
that already. What dt
about forces in the Δz
horizontal du 1 dp
Δy =−
Δx dt ρ 0 dx
Bottom

The pressure on the right of the box will be more than on the left of the box dv 1 dp
So there will be a net force from right to left. Let s zoom in … Or doing the same in the y-direction: =−
dt ρ 0 dy

15
 Barotropic and Baroclinic Motion Barotropic and Baroclinic Motion
du 1 ∂p du 1 ∂p
Remember, p = ρgz , and =− Remember, p = ρgz , and =−
dt ρ ∂x dt ρ ∂x
1 Δp
−
ρ Δx
p1=1027*10*0.01=102.7kg/m/s2 or Pa p1=205.4 Pa -(1/1027)*(205.4-102.7)/0.05 = -2ms-2
p2=1027*10*0.03=308.1Pa p2=410.8Pa -(1/1027)*(410.8-308.1)/0.05 = -2ms-2
5cm 5m p3=513.5Pa p3=616.2Pa = -2ms-2

1cm 2cm
2cm
2cm
2cm 5cm
2cm
2cm
1cm 2cm

ρ0=1027 2cm
ρ1=1026 < ρ2=1028 kgm-3 2cm

ρ0=1027

Barotropic and Baroclinic Motion Barotropic and Baroclinic Motion

du 1 ∂p
Remember, p = ρgz , and =− Remember, p = ρgz , and du = − 1 ∂p
dt ρ ∂x dt ρ ∂x
1 Δp
−
ρ Δx
p1=1026*10*0.02=205.2 Pa p1=205.6 Pa -(1/1027)*(205.6-205.2)/0.05 = -0.0078ms-2
p2=1026*10*0.04=410.4Pa p2=411.2Pa -(1/1027)*(411.2-410.4)/0.05 = -0.0156ms-2 Barotropic –
Baroclinic –
p3=615.6Pa p3=616.8Pa = -0.0234ms-2 Velocity is constant with depth
velocity changes with depth

5m

2cm
2cm ρ0 ρ1 < ρ2
2cm
Motion due to surface slopes Motion due to density differences
ρ1=1026 < ρ2=1028 kgm-3

16
 Barotropic Ocean
For a constant density ocean, we can write the pressure Barotropic Motion
gradient in an easier way.
du 1 ∂p The image cannot be
Remember, p = ρgz , and =− displayed. Your computer For a constant density ocean, the acceleration of
dt ρ ∂x may not have enough
memory to open the
water, just depends on what s happening at the
∂p Δp p2 − p1
image, or the image may
have been corrupted.
surface i.e. the slope of the sea surface
= = Restart your computer,
∂x Δx Δx
The image cannot be

η1 η2 h2 ρg − h1 ρg displayed. Your computer

= may not have enough
Δx memory to open the image,
or the image may have

(d + η 2 ) ρg − (d + η1 ) ρg been corrupted. Restart

your computer, and then
= open the file again. If the

d h1 h2 Δx red x still appears, you may

have to delete the image
(η 2 − η1 ) and then insert it again.

= ρg
Δx 5cm
P1=h1ρg P2=h2ρg ∂p Δη Same answer as we got before (using
= ρg 1cm 2cm pressure)!
Δx h1=d+η1 ∂x Δx 2cm
h1=d+η1
2cm
du ∂η
So we are left with = −g ρ0=1027
dt ∂x

Summary:
• Start with Newton s Law: the acceleration of a parcel of water is related to the
sum of forces acting on that water parcel.
Pressure Gradients
• We can break down the acceleration and forced into those acting in the x,y and z
directions
• In the z-direction, vertical velocities/accelerations are small, which leaves us with
• Water tends to
the hydrostatic equation move from high to
dp This just means that the weight of water is balances by the
low pressure
= ρg vertical pressure gradient (in other word the buoyancy force) (consider puncturing
dz
• In the x-direction du
=−
1 ∂p So the water acceleration is driven by horizontal a car tyre).
dt ρ ∂x differences in pressure (these differences may
be related to horizontal differences in surface
height (barotropic) or in density (baroclinic)
• Horizontal pressure
• For a barotropic (constant density) situation du ∂η
• we can simplify the equation to: = −g differences are
dt ∂x
evident in gradual
• Similarly in the y-direction dv 1 ∂p dv ∂η
dt
=−
ρ ∂y
, or
dt
= −g
∂y
gradients in sea
level over the ocean
• But there are other forces out there …

17
Pressure
The Coriolis Force
Gradients 1
a= ΣF
m
du 1 $p
=" + Coriolis force + ...
dt # $x

The Coriolis Force The Coriolis Force

Object moving frictionlessly over the surface of a

very shallow parabolic dish. The object has been
released in such a way that it follows an ellipse-
shaped trajectory.

Left: the motion as observed from the inertial point of

view. The gravitational force pulling the object
toward the bottom (center) of the dish is proportional
to the distance of the object from the center. This
force causes the elliptical motion.
Right: the motion as seen from a co-rotating point of
view. In this frame, the inward gravitational force is
balanced by the outward centrifugal force. The only
unbalanced force is Coriolis, and the motion is an
inertial circle.

Earth spins counter clockwise looking at it from the north pole

18
The Coriolis Force The Coriolis Force
• The strength of the Coriolis force varies
with latitude
• It is proportional to the Coriolis parameter
f=2Ωsin(Φ), where Φ is latitude
• And Ω is the angular velocity (in radians
per second)
• It is maximum at the poles, zero at the
equator and changes sign from NH to SH f=2Ωsin(Φ)

The acceleration due to the Coriolis force is:

The strength of the Coriolis force varies with latitude
It is proportional to the Coriolis parameter f=2Ωsin(Φ), where Φ is latitude
And Ω is the angular velocity (in radians per second)
It is maximum at the poles, zero at the equator and changes sign from NH to SH
fv – in the x-direction (east-west), and
-fu - in the y-direction (north-south)
What is the value of Ω (the earth rotates 360º every day)?
What is f at the north pole, the equator, 30N and 30S?
What is the acceleration of water flowing at 1m/s at 30S? What pathway will the
water trace out?

The Coriolis Force Summary The Equations of motion

Horizontal Equations:
• Acceleration due to the Coriolis force is Acceleration = Pressure Gradient force + Coriolis
fv (x direction) and -fu (y direction) du 1 dp
=" + fv
dt #o dx or
−g
dη
• acts only if water/air is moving dv 1 dp
dx
=" " fu dη
−g
• acts at right-angles to the direction of motion dt #o dy dy

Vertical Equation:
• causes water/air to move to the right in the
northern hemisphere Pressure Gradient force = Gravitational Force
! dp
• causes water/air to move to the left in the = ρg
southern hemisphere dz
For a Barotropic Ocean we can write the horizontal
equation in a way that’s easier to understand

19
 Coriolis Force
•  What is the value of Ω (the earth rotates 360º every day)?
•  What is f at the north pole, the equator, 30N and 30S?
•  What is the acceleration of water flowing at 1m/s at 30S? What
pathway will the water trace out?
Ω – earth rotates 2π radians in 1 day: 2* π/(24*60*60) =
7.2722x10-5 s-1

f=2 Ω sin (latitude)

At the north pole latitude =90°, sin 90=1, f=2 Ω
At 30N sin(30)=0.5, f= Ω, At 30S sin(-30)=-0.5, f= -Ω

Say motion is in west to east direction, i.e. u=1m/s, v=0m/s, dv/

dt=fu,
du/dt=fv = 0, dv/dt=-fu= -(-Ω) (1) = 7.2x10-5 m/s2
SO Acceleration is in south to north direction (what would it be
if the initial motion was north to south?). If no other forces acting
the water would flow around in a circle with frequency |f|. This is called
inertial motion

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