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X-rays
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3)The Proton
– Rutherford and Moseley quickly discovered the charge of the nucleus
» Electron beams aimed at an element caused X-rays to be emitted
» The square root of the X-ray frequency emitted had a linear
relationship with about half of the atomic mass of the element
» This number was clearly Z, the nuclear charge (or the atomic
number)
1 1 nh = integer > 2
E RH 2 2
RH = Rydberg constant = 1.097 x 107 m-1
2 nh
B.Atomic Spectra
• Balmer described the emission spectrum of H in 1885
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J s
n = frequency of light s-1
–. hc c = speed of light = 2.998 x 108 m/s
E hn hcn
l l = wavelength nm
n = wavenumber cm-1
–.
Hydrogen Atom is Unstable?
• It is known that accelerating charges emit
radiation
Absorption spectrum of
Gas
Emission spectra of
various elements
Balmer’s Formula for Hydrogen
• Notice there are four bright lines in the hydrogen
emission spectrum
where n = 3, 4, 5 and 6
Bohr’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom
(1913)
Ef - Ei = hf Ei - Ef = hf
Energy Levels of Hydrogen
Electron jumping to
a higher energy level
E = 12.08 eV
Spectrum of Hydrogen
Bohr’s formula:
2)Bohr’s Quantum Theory of the Atom (1913)
– Negative electrons move in stable, circular orbits around positive
nuclei
– Electrons absorb or emit light by moving out or moving in to other
orbits
– Bohr replaced Balmer’s equations with better ones
1 1 1
1 1
E RH 2 2
m me mnucleus
nl nh
– Energy levels are far apart at small n, close together at large n
– Only worked for H-atom; not a complete description of atomic
structure
m = reduced mass
2 2 4
2p mZ e e = electron charge
RH Z = nuclear charge
( 4pe o ) 2 h 2
4peo = permittivity of vacuum
Hydrogen is therefore a fussy
absorber / emitter of light
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Properties :
Wavelength, l (nm)
Frequency, n (s-1, Hz)
Amplitude, A
constant speed. c
3.00 x 108 m.s-1
Electromagnetic Radiation
wavelength
Visible light
Amplitude
wavelength Node
Ultaviolet radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation
• All radiation: l • n = c
E = h•n
where h = Planck’s constant = 6.6262 x 10-34 J•s
2s
3s
p (principal) Sublevel
Three of these
m= -l to +l
For :
The n=2 shell has two subshells which are the 2s and 2p subshells.
There are a total of 4 orbitals in these subshells. One in the 2s and
three in the 2p.
Then=3 shell has three subshells which are the 3s, 3p and 3d. There
Are a total of 9 orbitals in these subshells, one in the 3s, three in the
3p and 5 in the 3d.
1 1
2 2
Fitting Quantum Numbers Together
Principal n=1 n=2 n=3
level (shell)
Sublevel
(subshell) s s p s p d
l=0 l=1 l=2
s= -½,+½
Spin
-½ +½
-½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½ -½ +½
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Subshell
designation s s p s p d s p d f
Orbitals in
subshell 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7
Subshell
capacity 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
Principal shell
capacity 2 8 18 32 ...2n2
The Pauli Exclusion Principal