MODELING COVER-CRACKING DUE TO REINFORCEMENT CORROSION IN

RC STRUCTURES
By S. J. Pantazopoulou1 and K. D. Papoulia,2 Members, ASCE

ABSTRACT: Service life of concrete structures is limited by the susceptibility of the reinforcement to corrosion.
Oxidation of iron leads to the formulation of various products (such as ferrous and ferric oxides), some of which
occupy much greater volume than the original iron that gets consumed by the corrosion process. As corrosion
progresses, these products accumulate, thereby generating expansive pressures on the surrounding concrete. The
pressure builds up to levels that cause internal cracking around the bar and eventually leads to through cracking
of the cover and spalling. Loss of cover marks the end of service life for corrosion-affected concrete structures,
because at that stage the reinforcement loses its ability to develop its forces through bond and is no longer
protected against further degradation from corrosion. In this paper, a simple analytical model is formulated to
demonstrate the mechanical consequences of corrosion-product buildup around the bar. Service life is estimated
as the time required for through cracking of the cover, which is identified in the model by a sudden drop of the
internal pressure exerted by the corroding bar eventually relaxing to zero. Cracking time is found to be a function
of cover, material properties of the surrounding concrete, and rust product, and is controlled by the rate of rust
accumulation. In formulating the associated boundary-value problem, the governing equation expressed in terms
of radial displacements is discretized using finite differences, whereas cracked concrete is treated as an ortho-
tropic material. Calculated cracking times are correlated against published experimental data. The parametric
sensitivity of the model is established with reference to published experimental evidence, and the role of the
important design variables in the evolution of this mechanical problem is identified and discussed. Commented [cco1]: La vida de servicio de las estructuras
concretas está limitada por la susceptibilidad del refuerzo a
INTRODUCTION density. Once deposited on the bar surface, red rust iron oxides
la corrosión. La oxidación del hierro conduce a la
are detrimental to the surrounding concrete. (This is the case
The first indication of corrosion activity in reinforced con- formulación de varios productos (como los óxidos ferrosos y
of general corrosion where a large area of the bar is involved
crete is staining of the surface, which is caused by water- férricos), algunos de los cuales ocupan un volumen mucho
in the corrosion activity.) The void left from the consumed
soluble corrosion products as those leach out with water mayor que el hierro original que se consume por el proceso
iron does not suffice to accommodate the accumulating rust
through the capillary pores of the cover concrete. The notion de corrosión. A medida que la corrosión progresa, estos
because of its smaller density (i.e., greater specific volume) as
of a service life for reinforced concrete structures is based on productos se acumulan, generando así presiones expansivas
compared to the parent metal. The internal pressures that are
the protection that the surrounding concrete provides to rein- sobre el concreto circundante. La presión se acumula a
generated as a result of this process build up as corrosion
forcement against contact with corrosion-inducing agents. This niveles que causan grietas internas alrededor de la barra y
proceeds, thereby cracking the cover from the inside outward
process, known as passivation of steel, is caused by the al- eventualmente lleva a través de agrietamiento de la cubierta
until a crack parallel to the bar is visible on the outside surface
kaline nature and the density of concrete, which render it a y almádena. La pérdida de la cubierta marca el fin de la vida
of the concrete. At more advanced stages, the cover may spall
chemical and physical barrier against ingress of chlorides, wa- útil de las estructuras de hormigón afectadas por la
off either locally or over large areas, leaving the reinforcement
ter, and oxygen, some of the essential ingredients that often corrosión, ya que en esa etapa el refuerzo pierde su
unprotected against further damage. Another form of corrosion
induce and sustain corrosion of reinforcement in concrete capacidad de desarrollar sus fuerzas a través del enlace y ya
is local or pitting corrosion, where the compounds produced
structures. End of service life for reinforced concrete is asso- no está protegido contra la degradación de la corrosión. En
do not exhibit the same tendency for volumetric expansion as
ciated with some loss of the protective action of the concrete
red rust; hence, a large proportion of the bar area may be este trabajo, se formula un modelo analítico simple para
cover. Depending upon the severity of the performance re-
wasted away before the cover may crack or spall off. In as- demostrar las consecuencias mecánicas de la acumulación de
quirement for the structure, protection loss may be marked by
sessing the mechanical implications of corrosion, it is neces- corrosión-producto alrededor de la barra. La vida de servicio
(1) initiation of active corrosion of the reinforcement once the
sary to differentiate between the two types. In general corro- se estima como el tiempo requerido para a través de
concentration of chlorides that have propagated to the steel
sion, which is the subject of this paper, the primary design agrietarse de la cubierta, que se identifica en el modelo por
surface through the cover has reached a critical threshold (de-
considerations are loss of concrete area (spalling of the cover), una gota repentina de la presión interna ejercida por la barra
passivation of the reinforcement); (2) cracking of the cover
increased flexibility, and partial or complete loss of bond be- corrosiva que se relaja eventual a cero. El tiempo que se
concrete; (3) complete loss of bond of the corroded reinforce-
cause of cracking. Of concern in pitting corrosion is the em- agrieta se encuentra para ser una función de la cubierta, de
ment; or (4) complete loss of the reinforcement section (pit-
brittlement of reinforcement and loss of bar strength caused las características materiales del concreto circundante, y del
ting).
by diminution of the bar area (FIB 2000). producto del moho, y es controlado por el índice de
Corrosion of iron is a process of oxidation by which iron
The influence of corrosion on reinforcement-to-concrete acumulación del moho. Al formular el problema de valor
dissolves into various oxides, known collectively as rust. The
bond is effected through several mechanisms (Al-Sulaimani et límite asociado, la ecuación de gobierno expresada en
chemical composition of the oxides depends upon the oxygen
al. 1990). Note that the strength of the bond mechanism comes términos de desplazamientos radiales se discreta utilizando
supply and the other circumstantial conditions under which the
partly from the frictional contact forces that develop along the diferencias finitas, mientras que el concreto agrietado se trata
reaction takes place. Generally, once released from the iron
bar-concrete interface and partly from interlocking of the bar
and upon additional contact with oxygen, the less stable oxides como un material Orto-trópico. Los tiempos de craqueo
ribs in concrete. When these bear on concrete, they exert radial
tend to oxidize further. Of all the corrosion products, red rust calculados se correlacionan con los datos experimentales
splitting forces along with the longitudinal shear forces that
is the more stable chemical form and is the one with the least publicados. La sensibilidad paramétrica del modelo se
are recognized macroscopically as bond stress. Thus, bond can
1 be sustained as long as the radial splitting components are establece con referencia a la evidencia experimental
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Demokritus Univ. of Thrace, 67100 publicada, y se identifica y discute el papel de las variables
Xanthi, Greece. E-mail: pantaz@cvil.duth.gr supported either through the tensile capacity of the cover or
2
Asst. Prof., School of Civ. and Envir. Engrg., Cornwell Univ., Ithaca, through transverse reinforcement crossing the crack path. Ev- de diseño importantes en la evolución de este problema
NY 14853. E-mail: k o papoulia@cornell.edu idently, the bond mechanism competes with the process of mecánico.
Note. Associate Editor: Arup Maji. Discussion open until September corrosion product buildup for the tensile strength of the cover
1, 2001. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must concrete, and a loaded corroding bar is likely to crack the
be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript for this
paper was submitted for review and possible publication on January 21,
cover faster than a bar sustaining the same amount of corro-
2000; revised December 27, 2000. This paper is part of the Journal of sion but with no load. Upon formation of an external longi-
Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 127, No. 4, April, 2001. qASCE, ISSN tudinal crack along the bar, the confinement that was provided
0733-9399/01/0004-0342–0351/$8.00 1 $.50 per page. Paper No. 22258. by the cover is released. Loss of the confining pressure elim-

342 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001

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 inates entirely the frictional component of bond, highlighted densities of the two primary oxides with volume ratios (cm3/
by a noticeable stiffness reduction for the overall member. Fur- mol:cm3/mol) listed above are 1:2.09 and 1:2.24 of that of
thermore, the surface conditions of the bar are altered because iron, respectively (iron’s density is 7.85 3 103 kg/m3).
of accumulation of an interstitial layer of soft corrosion prod- The actual volume increase depends upon the fraction by
ucts within the interface zone between bar and concrete, which which the various oxide forms listed above participate in the
further reduces the resistance of the bond-shear mechanism corrosion product. Composition of rust depends largely on cir-
(Al-Sulaimani et al. 1990). Reduction in the height of the ribs cumstantial factors such as the chloride concentration, oxygen
due to corrosion loosens the interlocking with concrete, supply and moisture and therefore cannot be credibly postu-
thereby affecting the intensity of bearing action of the lugs on lated. In modeling the mechanical effects of corrosion, the
concrete. Under these conditions, stressing the bar results in general practice is to represent the density of the rust product
sliding, hence, the development of reinforcement is impaired. rr as a fixed fraction of that of the iron consumed for the
For all these reasons, cracking and spalling of the cover are reaction; i.e., rr = rs /g, where g is usually taken between 2
important milestones toward the end-of-service-life condition and 4 (Andrade et al. 1993; Liu and Weyers 1998).
of structural concrete. The times to cover cracking and cover The mass of iron Ms consumed over time is related to the
spalling are meaningful indices of the intensity of the corrosive amount of current Icorr (A) that flows through the electrochem-
environment to which the structural member is exposed, and ical corrosion cell (comprising anodic and cathodic bar areas
estimating these quantities is a necessary step in assessing the and the pore solution through which ions are conducted). The
residual development capacity of reinforcement anchorages. process is prescribed by Faraday’s law as dMs /dt = Icorr A/
To evaluate the state of stress around the bar in the cover (nF ), where A is the atomic weight of the ion being dissolved
concrete, it is necessary to express in mathematical terms (1) (for Fe, A = 55.85 g/mol), and Faraday’s constant F = 96,500
the process of rust production and buildup of corrosion prod- C/mol. Because little is known on the chemical composition
uct around the bar; and (2) the propagation of cracks through of the corrosion product, the valency of the reaction n is em-
the cover and the attendant consequences on the bond mech- pirically usually taken equal to 2. [A value of n = 2 assumes
anism. that all the corrosion product is Fe(OH)2, which one knows
In this paper a numerical model is formulated to study the from tests is generally not true.] It follows that dMs /dt = 2.89.
mechanical implications of corrosion. The work was motivated
by the observed inability of previous efforts at service-life
modeling for reinforced concrete structures to produce realistic
estimates for the time to cover cracking over corroded rebars.
The possible sources of discrepancy between theory and ob-
servation are explored. These are believed to lie in (1) the
model used to represent the rate of the corrosion process (lin-
ear or nonlinear with time, a parameter that determines the
speed of the process); (2) neglecting the residual strength of
the cover concrete after its tensile capacity is exceeded; or (3)
neglecting that, once formed, a fraction of corrosion products
propagates away from the bar surface through the cracks and
pores of concrete toward the free surface, thereby reducing the
demand for deposition space around the bar. To assess the
validity of the above points and to have a realistic sense of
actual cracking times, experimental evidence obtained from
accelerated corrosion tests on reinforced concrete bars with
different covers has been used for correlation. The components
of the model associated with each of the primary phases men-
tioned are given in sequence in the following paragraphs, with
emphasis on the part prescribing the crack propagation through
the cover concrete. The model is evaluated through its ability
to reproduce familiar experimental trends and is subsequently
used to study the sensitivity of the mechanical problem to the
primary variables of the formulation, with reference to the ex-
perimental literature.

PROBLEM BACKGROUND AND STATE OF THE ART

Rate of Rust Production and Buildup of

mass of iron consumed since initiation of corrosion. The total

mass of rust produced at the anode is Mr = Ms /rm, with rm
ranging between 0.523 and 0.622 (Liu and Weyers 1998; Mar-
tin-Perez 1998; Bazant 1979b). Faraday’s law is the basis for
all published models that assume a constant rate of steel mass
consumption and rust production; i.e., for constant Icorr, Fara-
day’s law implies a linear increase of the mass of rust with
time. Under certain assumptions, two such models are partic-
ular (and equivalent) instances of Faraday’s law.

Models Assuming Constant Rate of Rust Production

To calculate the volume of rust produced at the anode, An-
drade et al. (1993) established an empirical relationship be-
tween current density icorr and the volume of steel consumed
at the anode [icorr is defined as the mean annual corrosion cur-
Downloaded 22 Feb 2010 to 83.212.134.238. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
rent per unit anodic surface area of steel (mA/cm2)]. Thus, the
reduced diameter Drb(t) of a reinforcing steel bar with initial Assuming that Db 2 Drb << Db, the corresponding volume
diameter of Db (mm) and subjected to corrosion for a time and mass of steel consumed per unit length of anodic bar is
period (years) Dt = t 2 t0 (t0 represents corrosion initiation 0.023
time in years) is DVs = pDbicorr Dt (mm 3/mm) (2a)
2
Drb = Db 2 0.023icorr Dt (mm) (1)
Corrosion Product DMs = 0.0902pDbicorr Dt 3 1023 (g/mm) (2b)

Depending on the level of oxidation, iron may expand by which, when converted to consistent units (Db in meters, icorr
as much as six times its original volume (Liu and Weyers in amperes per square meters, and Dt in seconds), leads to
1998; Martin-Perez 1998). Typical oxides formed during oxi-
dation have the following characteristic relative volume ratios DVs = 3.6466 3 10211pD bicorr Dt (m3/m) (3a)
(as compared with the volume of the parent metal, Fe): FeO 27
DMs = 2.862 3 10 pDbicorr Dt (kg/m) (3b)
= 1.7, Fe3O4 = 2, Fe2O3 = 2.1, Fe(OH)2 = 3.6, Fe(OH)3 = 4.0,
and Fe(OH)33H2O = 6.15 (Liu and Weyers 1998). Considering Eq. (3) conforms with Faraday’s law mentioned above with
that 1 mol of Fe is 55.85 g, 1 mol of O2 is 32 g, and 1 mol Icorr = icorrpDbl. Andrade et al. (1993) classified corrosion risk
of H2 is 2 g, it is simple to show that the ratio rm of molecular depending upon the mean annual value of icorr. Negligible risk
weight of iron to that of rust takes on typical values such as corresponds to i corr < 0.1 mA/cm2, low risk to values of 0.1
0.523 [for hydrated red rust, Fe(OH)3] and 0.622 [for ferrous mA/cm2 < i < 0.5 mA/cm2, moderate risk to values of i
corr corr
2 2
hydroxide, Fe(OH)2]. From these values it follows that the up to 1 mA/cm , and high risk to icorr > 1 mA/cm .

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to describe the rate of production of hydrated red rust
Martin-Perez (1998) used earlier results by Bazant (1979a)
[Fe(OH)3] per unit of anodic surface area in the bar, Jr = dMr /
dt [J r (kg/m2-s) = 5.536 3 10 27icorr, where icorr is in amperes
per square meters (Bazant 1979a)]. The mass of hydrated red
rust formed per unit length of rebar DMr is equal to pDb Jr Dt
= 5.536 3 1027pD bDt ? icorr (kg/m), where Dt = t 2 t0 is the
duration of ongoing corrosion since initiation (s). The mass of
steel consumed for the reaction per unit length of rebar DMs
required to produce DMr is DMs = 0.523DMr . The volume of
steel consumed is obtained from the ratio of mass per density.
Thus, conforming again with Faraday’s law and (3)
DMs = 2.895 3 1027pDb Dt ? icorr (kg/m)
211 3 that the time to reach the critical value of Mr for the square-
DVs = 3.68 3 10 pD b Dt ? icorr (m /m)
where icorr is in amperes per square meters, Db is in meters,
and Dt is in seconds. To evaluate the stress intensity in the
perimeter of the hole occupied by the bar, Bazant (1979a) and
Martin-Perez (1998) calculated the volume increase required
by the resulting product
DV = (DMr /rr) 2 (DMs /rs) = DMr((1/rr) 2 (0.523/rs))
= l 3 10210pDb Dt ? icorr (m3/m)
where l = 1.107 if the density of rust is taken as rr = rs /2.09
= 3.75 3 103 kg/m3.
Model Assuming Variable Rate of Rust Production
According to Liu and Weyers (1998), the rate of rust pro-
duction decreases with time because diffusion of iron ions is
inversely proportional to the oxide layer thickness. The gov-
erning equation is
TABLE 1. Reported Data on Degree of Corrosion at Cover Cracking (FIB 2000, Liu and Weyers 1998)
Db
Reference (mm)
(1) (2)
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Jr = (6)
dMr b
dt Mr
where b = function of the corrosion current in consistent units.
By fitting (6) to the data published by Liu and Weyers (1998)
(Table 1) and assuming a linear relationship between b and
corrosion current density, it follows that b = 3.328 3
10210pD i . (Note that i is in amperes per square meters,
b corr corr
observed time to cover cracking tcr is in seconds, Db is in
meters, and Mr , the corresponding mass of rust products per
unit length of anodic bar, is in kilograms per meter.)
1/2
Solution of (6) is Mr = (2bt) , from which, given a critical
value for Mr , the corresponding corrosion time may be eval-
(4a) uated (useful for prediction of time to cracking). It is evident
(4b)
root model will be longer than the time for the linear model,
assuming that the coefficients in the models are determined by
fitting to precritical data. For the data sets referenced above,
one observes ratios of 4 – 6 between the times to criticality.
Note that this analysis assumes a constant value of the critical
mass Mr. The combined rust/damage model proposed later in
the paper derives a nonconstant value of the critical mass that
depends on the crack propagation process.
(5) Note that, in the preceding, models from the open literature
have been used that are not derived from mass conservation
considerations. The coefficients of the models are obtained
from experimental evidence. To establish mass conservation,
the exact chemical composition of the corrosion product as
well as the mass of species that have gone into the reaction is
needed. Although this information could be available in a pure
metal corrosion test, it is still not satisfactorily quantifiable in
corrosion tests of reinforced concrete, particularly when the
anode and cathode belong to the same bar.
fc icorr tcr
(MPa) C/Db (mA/cm 2) Corrosion (year)
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
 Al-Sulaimani (1990) 10 30.0 7.5 2 3 103 0.13a —
14 30.0 5.36 2 3 103 0.11 —
20 30.0 3.75 2 3 103 0.10 —
Rasheeduzzafar et al. (1992) 8 35.4 4.60 3,000 2.75%b 60 h
9.5 35.4 3.35 3,000 1.75%b 35 h
12.7 35.4 2.5 3,000 1.1%b 22.5 h
19 35.4 1.67 3,000 0.5%b 14.5 h
25.4 35.4 1.25 3,000 0.25%b 7h
38.1 35.4 0.632 3,000 0.125%b 5.5 h
12.7 35.4 1.5 10,000 — 123 h
12.7 35.4 1.5 15,000 — 75 h
12.7 35.4 1.5 20,000 — 43 h
12.7 46.7 1.5 10,000 — 159 h
12.7 46.7 1.5 15,000 — 109 h
12.7 46.7 1.5 20,000 — 56 h
12.7 22.5 1.5 10,000 — 60 h
12.7 22.5 1.5 15,000 — 31.5 h
12.7 22.5 1.5 20,000 — 23 h
16 31.5 1.68 3.75 0.0051c 0.72
16 31.5 3.0 2.41 0.0066 1.84
Liu and Weyers (1998) 16 31.5 4.4 1.79 0.0085 3.54
8 — 0.5 0.5 3 103 0.008a —
8 — 1.0 0.5 3 103 0.012 —
Clark and Saifullah (1993, 1994) 8 — 2.0 0.5 3 103 0.026 —
8 — 1.0 2.0 3 103 0.006 —
8 — 1.0 0.5 3 103 0.011 —
16 30.0 1.25–1.87 100 0.0144–0.0213 0.011–0.006
16 30.0 1.25 10 0.0174a,d 0.064
16 — 2.0–4.0 3–100 0.015–0.04a —
Andrade et al. (1993) 12 — 5.0 10 3 103 0.12a —

Rodriguez et al. (1994)

Almusallam et al. (1996)
a
Corrosion penetration depth in steel bar [i.e., reduction in bar radius (mm)].
b
Weight loss of bar due to corrosion at cover cracking (percentage of initial weight).
c
Critical mass of rust to cause cracking of cover (kg/m 2 or mg/mm2).
d
There was initial loss during storage in saline water prior to application of current: 2.16, 14.9, 10.1 mm, respectively.

344 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001

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Propagation of Cracks through Cover Concrete
The closed-form solution of a thick-walled cylinder under
uniform internal pressure derived from plane-strain isotropic
linear elasticity (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970) has been used
to model the internal pressure exerted by the corroding bar on
the surrounding concrete (Bazant 1979a,b). This model has
also been used to calculate the splitting bond strength of re-
inforcing bars, a problem with similar state of stress in the
cover concrete as that induced by rust accumulation (Tepfers
1973). However, in the case of the corroded bar, the times to
cover splitting calculated from the thick cylinder model gen-
erally fall significantly shorter than reported times from field
observation. In what follows this paper explores the possible
sources of discrepancy between theory and observation, which
are (1) the rate of corrosion is modeled as a faster process than
what occurs in actual conditions inside the concrete; (2) the
concrete cover maintains some residual strength after its ten-
sile capacity is exceeded, which degrades as further corrosion
products accumulate, thereby causing an increase of the crack
widths; and (3) a fraction of the corrosion products propagates
away from the bar surface through the cracks and pores of concrete
toward the free surface (reduced demand for depo- sition space
around the bar).
Many different amendments have been attempted in the ef-
fort to increase the estimated time to splitting (Liu and Weyers
1998; Martin-Perez 1998). For example, the assumption of
variable rate of rust production, mentioned previously, was
successful in effecting a slowdown in the predicted rates of
rust accumulation and internal pressure buildup as compared
with the linear model (constant rate of rust production).
A common limitation of published models derived from the
thick-walled cylinder solution is in the representation of the
boundary conditions around the hole that is occupied by the
corroding reinforcing bar. The usual approach is to impose an
internal pressure p that is related to the volumetric expansion
of the rusting reinforcement v = DV/V [here DV is calculated
from (5)] through the material moduli of rust [plane-strain so-
lution (Noghabai 1995; Martin-Perez 1998)]. Cracking of the
cover is assumed to occur instantaneously when the maximum
hoop stress equals the tensile strength of concrete, thus ignor-
ing the residual strength of concrete that may account for
longer times to cracking.
PROPOSED MODEL FOR SPLITTING
CRACK PROPAGATION
Definition of Mechanical Problem
A representation of the internal boundary restraint, which
allows modeling of the postpeak behavior of concrete and
therefore of its residual strength after its tensile capacity is
exceeded, is to displace the internal circular boundary by a
prescribed amount ur ur =R b so as to accommodate the volume
increase of the corroded bar, DVr 2 DVs [(5)]. In this approach,
the evolution of internal pressure is an output of the solution
rather than the controlling parameter. The problem is modeled
with reference to Fig. 1, wherein the reinforcing bar of initial
radius Rb is embedded in concrete with Cc, the cover dimen-
sion, measured from the center of the bar to the nearest free
surface of concrete (i.e., Cc = C 1 Db /2, where C is the clear
cover). Smeared cracking is assumed; therefore, the formula-
tion is written in terms of average stresses and strains. Initially,
the surrounding concrete is assumed to be intact whereas the
area of influence around the bar is assumed to be axially sym-
metric as prescribed by the thick-walled cylinder of internal
radius Rb = Db /2 and external radius Cc. Axisymmetry implies
that, upon formation, radial splitting cracks propagate in all
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FIG. 1. Idealization of Cover Concrete as Thick-Walled Cylin-
der: (a) Cylinder Model; (b) (c) Definition of Terms; (d) Rust De-
posited within Open Cracks
to the point where the cracking strain limit of the material in
tension, fct /E0, has been reached, where fct is the tensile strength
of concrete and E0 is the initial elastic modulus of the material.
The cover is assumed fully cracked when Rc = Cc.
Assuming uniform corrosion on the bar surface, the bar di-
ameter is reduced, because of iron depletion, to Rrb. If the
volume reduction of steel per unit length of bar DVs is known
[measured or estimated from current density by (4) – (6)] then
R rb = (R 2b 2 DVs /p)1/2. The oxide layer thickness that builds
up around the bar is denoted as tr . The effective radius of the
internal boundary (rust front) is Rr = Rrb 1 tr . If the volume
of the oxide generated is DVr = DVsrs /(rrrm), then tr may be
estimated from Fig. 1(b and c)
DVr = p(R r2 2 R rb
2
) = p(t 2r 1 2R rbtr) = ptr (2R rb 1 tr) (7a)
hence
t =
r
Î R2 1
rb
DVr
p
2R
rb
(7b)
Therefore, stress is generated as the inner boundary of the
cover layer is forced to undergo the prescribed radial displace-
ment ur uRb = Rr 2 Rb, with the controlling variable being the
volume of accumulated rust product on the bar perimeter DVr
= aDVs, where a = rs /(rrrm). Note that, of the total amount of
rust product, not all will contribute to the pressure buildup;
from postcorrosion examination of specimens it appears that a
certain amount of rust product may be carried away from the
rust layer and deposited within the open cracks, particularly if
moisture convection occurs because of seasonal variations. Al-
though smeared cracking has been assumed, the total amount
Sw of crack width openings around the perimeter of the rust
front is estimated from Sw = uuR 2pRb, where uuR = ur /Rb is
b b
the smeared tangential strain at the rust front. The total space
available within cracks is approximated as Sw(Rc 2 Rr)/2 [Fig.
1(d)]. The accumulated rust product then is
DVr = ptr(2Rrb 1 tr) 1 puruR (Rc 2 Rr)b
from which, with uruR b = Rr 2 Rb and Rr = Rrb 1 tr , it follows
that
(DVr /p) 2 (Rrb 2 Rb)(Rc 2 Rrb)
tr = (8)
(Rc 1 Rb)
directions to the same distance Rc measured from the center
of the bar. Therefore, Rc defines the crack front. It is the radius
 Thus, for a given corrosion current density icorr, the volume [(4)] or nonlinear rust production [(6)]. The thickness of rust
of dissolved iron DVs and associated volume of rust product layer tr is obtained from either (7) or (8). To calculate the time
DVr are calculated using either constant rate of rust production
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001 / 345

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to a predefined level of damage (e.g., through cracking of the
cover), the stress state generated in the cover due to accu-
mulation of tr must be resolved.

Boundary-Value Problem of Anisotropic Hollow

Thick Cylinder
The equations governing the boundary-value problem of a
hollow cylinder of anisotropic nonlinear elastic material, hav-
ing internal radius Rb and external radius Cc under radially
symmetric conditions, are the following:
Stress equilibrium:
dsr
sr 1 r 2 su = 0 (9)
dr

Strain-displacement equations (radial and hoop strain):

dur ur FIG. 2. Stress-Strain Relationships in Principal Directions of
r= ; =u (10) Anisotropic Material (Cracked Concrete). (a) Principal Compres-
dr r sion; (b) Principal Tension
General anisotropic constitutive relations for elastic material:
pression follows a Hognestad-type parabola, with initial mod-
Er r = sr 2 nr usu 2 nrzsz; Euu = su 2 nur sr 2 nuzsz (11a,b) ulus E0 = 2f 9c /0, where f 9c is the uniaxial compressive strength
and 0 is the corresponding axial compressive strain (usually
Ez z = sz 2 nzr sr 2 nzusu (11c)
around 0.002). At any strain level, stiffness in compression is
from which defined by the secant slope of the stress-strain relationship. In
the principal tensile direction, the relationship between average
1 nr unuz 1 nrz principal tensile stress su and average principal tensile strain
sr = (Er r 1 nr u Euu) 1 sz (12a)
12n n 12n n in concrete is assumed to be linear-elastic prior to cracking,
ru ur ru ur u
with a slope equal to E0. Cracking in concrete is not an in-
1 nurnrz 1 nuz
su = (Euu 1 nur Er r) 1 sz (12b) stantaneous binary event, rather it is modeled as a process of
12n n 12n n
ru ur ru ur softening that begins with exceedance of the tensile strain ca-
where sz = 0 for plane stress and sz = nzr sr 1 nzusu for plane pacity of concrete at hoop strain u > cr = fct /E0 and is con-
strain, or sz may be known from the conditions of loading the cluded at a smeared hoop tensile strain u = u, where u cor-
cylinder by axial forces at the ends. By substitution of the responds to zero residual tensile strength (Fig. 2). Here fct is
(1/2)

constitutive and strain-displacement equations into (9), the taken as 0.33f 9c . The softening modulus Et depends on the

governing equation of the problem is written as a differential fracture energy Gf , which is defined as the energy dissipated
equation for the radial displacement ur because of localized cracking per unit length of fracture and
corresponds to the area under the tensile stress-strain curve.
d 2u 1 du Fracture energy is considered a material property of concrete.
r r
(1 2 n n )E 1 [E (1 2 n 2 n (n 1 n ))

uz zu r
dr 2 r dr
r ur uz zr zu
Based on the Comité Euro-International du Béton-Fédération
International de la Précontrainte (CEB-FIP) model code
ur
1 Eu(nr u 1 nrznzu)] 2 Eu(1 2 nrz nzr) = 0 (1990), Gf is determined from a base value Gf 0 and the mean
r2 (13) compressive strength of concrete fcm according to

subject to either displacement or stress boundary conditions at G = G ( f /f )0.7 (N/mm) (14)

f f0 cm cmo
r = Rb and r = Cc. The stresses are obtained from (12), making
use of the strain-displacement equations [(10)]. Smeared cracks are assumed to form in the radial direction as
The normal concrete stress sz, acting parallel to the longi- hoop stresses exceed the tensile capacity of concrete; thus, the
tudinal axis of the bar, varies between zero and fct (where fct average hoop tensile strain u, integrated over the perimeter,
is the tensile capacity of concrete). Note that sz is the tension- represents the sum of the true, discrete crack openings.
stiffening stress that develops in the concrete cover because The assumed stress-strain relationships for the principal
of bond action when the bar is stressed (sz is zero at crack stress directions are illustrated in Fig. 2. Concrete in com-
locations normal to the bar axis and cannot exceed fct). In
implementing this solution to the model depicted in Fig. 1,
one has ignored tension stiffening (i.e., sz = 0) has been ig-
nored throughout.

Modeling of Material Behavior

Because of the assumed axisymmetry of the problem, hoop
and radial directions are principal directions. The hoop stresses
su typically are tensile and decreasing with increasing radial
coordinate, whereas the radial stresses sr are compressive.
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where fcmo = 10 MPa; and Gf is interpolated depending on the
maximum aggregate size da between the values 0.025, 0.030,
and 0.038 N/mm corresponding to da = 8, 16, and 32 mm,
respectively (Hilsdorf and Brameshuber 1991). In accordance
with CEB-FIB (1990), fcm is 8 MPa higher than the character-
istic value f c9. Thus, for a typical concrete with da in the order
of 20 mm and a range of f c9 between 20 and 35 MPa, Gf is
calculated as ranging between 0.065 and 0.088 N/mm. A bi-
linear softening branch is used to describe the residual strength
normalized with respect to the mean tensile strength of con-
crete, ft /fctm, as a function of the fictitious crack opening w
(CEB-FIB 1990). The coordinates of the point in the softening
branch associated with the abrupt stiffness change are ft /fctm =
346 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001
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0.15 and w1 = 2Gf /fctm 2 0.15w
0 u, where wu is the fictitious
crack opening at zero residual strength, given as kGf /fctm (k =
8, 7, and 5 for da = 8, 16, and 32 mm, respectively). For the
range of concrete strengths considered, fctm is about 50% higher
than the design tensile strength fct = 0.33Ïf 9c . Here, for da =
20 mm, wu is 6.5Gf /fctm and w1 = 1.025Gf /fctm. Substituting for
20 MPa < f c9 < 35 MPa, the corresponding values for w1 and
wu are approximately 0.03 and 0.2 mm, respectively. The cor-
responding smeared values of 1 and u are calculated from
consideration of the characteristic crack-band width hc (to
amend for size effects) so that hc = w. Based on the results
of Bazant and Oh (1983), hc is about 5da and hc is taken as
100 mm; therefore, 1 = 0.0003 and u = 0.002.

Numerical Solution of Boundary-Value Problem

To monitor the pressure buildup resulting from rust accu-
mulation and the ensuing penetration of the crack front further
into the sound cover concrete, the boundary-value problem
described by (13) needs to be solved for the unknown radial
displacement ur (r). Given the complexity of the material con-
stitutive laws, this problem may only be resolved numerically.
For this purpose a finite-difference scheme is established with
the radial direction discretized into N 1 1 equidistant nodes
(i.e., N intervals with length h = C/N, where C is the clear
cover). The first node, i = 0, is located at the inner boundary
of the thick-walled cylinder (i.e., at radius r = Rb), and the last
node i = N is at the external boundary [i.e., at radius r = Cc FIG. 3. Discretization through Cylinder Thickness along Ra-
(Fig. 3)]. dial Direction
To simplify the solution into a state of plane stress, Pois-
son’s effects associated with stress or strain in the z-direction
are neglected. Thus, nuz = nrz = 0, nzu = nuz Ez /Eu = 0, and nzr The boundary conditions are implemented in (18) for i = 0
= nrz Ez /Er = 0, where Er , Eu, and Ez are the secant stiffnesses and i = N. Hence, setting ur,0 = Rr 2 Rb, (18) for i = 1 becomes

of concrete in the radial, hoop, and bar-axis directions, re-

spectively. The remaining nonzero Poisson’s ratios, nr u and ur,1 S 2
2 1
1 Eu,1
2? D
2 ur,2 S 1
2 1
1
D = (Rr 2 Rb) S 1
2 2
1
D
h r 1 Er,1 h 2r1h h 2r1h
nur , are related by virtue of the requirements of anisotropic (19)
elasticity as nur = nr u Eu /Er . By substitution, (13) simplifies to
Furthermore, the discretized form of (16) is
d 2ur 1 du r u r E u
(15) 1 ? 2 ? =0

dr 2 r dr r2 E ur, N11 2 ur, N21 Eu, N ur, N

r
1 n r u, N ? ? =0 (20a)
2h Er, N rN
which holds in both the cracked and the sound regions of
concrete (Er = Eu for sound concrete). Boundary conditions therefore
are ur ur =Rb = Rr 2 Rb at the inner boundary and sr ur =Cc = 0,
which is equivalent to Eu, N ur, N
u = 2n ? ? ? 2h 1 u (20b)
r, N11 r u, N r, N21
Er, N rN
dur Eu ur
1 nr u ? = 0 at r = Cc (16)
dr Er r Substituting this result into (18) for i = N (i.e., rN = Cc), it

simplifies to
as follows from (12a) for plane stress. Using a central-differ-

discrete form 2 ? ur, N21 1 ur, N F 1 ? 1 nr u, N ? ?

ence scheme to express the derivatives at the point r = ri in 2 2 1 Eu, N Eu, N 2h

2 2 2
h h r E E r
N r, N r, N N

dr 2h dr 2
h 2 ? S 2
1 DG =0

du ur, 2 ur,i 21 d u 2
u 2 2u 1 u

r i 11 r
(21)
= ; = r,i 11 r,i r,i 21
(17a,b) 1 1
h 2rN h
and for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N, (15) is written in terms of nodal At time t, given the radius of the rust front R (t), the array
r
displacements of unknown radial displacements, [ur] = [ur,1, ur,2, ur,3, . . . ,

u S 1
2
1
D S 2u
2
1
1 Eu,i
? 1u D S 1
1
1
D =0
ur, N ], is obtained by solution of an N 3 N tridiagonal system

r,i 21
h2 2r h
r,i
h2 r2 E
r,i 11
h2 2r h of equations [K ][ur] = [B] with the matrix of coefficients [K ]
i i r,i i
given by
(18)

S 2 1 2 ? D S 2 2 1 D
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 T

0 0 ??? 0
2 1 Eu,1 1 1
h r 1 Er,1 h 2r1h

2 S 1
2
1
DS 2
2
1 2
?
1 Eu,2
D S
2 2
1
1
1
D 0 ??? 0

2
h 2r2h h r 2 Er,2 h 2r2h

0 ??? ??? ??? ??? 0

F G
K
N3N
=

0 ??? ??? ??? ??? 0

0 0 0 S
2
1
2
1
DS 2
1
1
?
Eu, N21
D 2 S 1
1
1
D
h2 2r h h2 r2 E h2 2r h
N21 N21 r, N21 N21

0 0 0 ??? 2
2
F 2 1 Eu, N 2h 1
1 ? ? ? 1 S 1
DG
2 2 2 2
h h r E r h 2r h
N r, N N N

(22)
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001 / 347

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and the nonhomogeneous term [B] given by

B T
= F (R 2 R ) S 1
2
2r h
1
D 0 0 ... G
0 (23)

F G r b
h 2

N31 1

The moduli Eu and Er = variables, depending on the cor-

responding strains at the points along the radial grid (denoted
by subscript i on the terms of the preceding equations). To
calculate the pressure exerted by the corroding bar on the sur-
rounding concrete cover, (12) is written at r = Rb and subse-
quently discretized with the help of (17)

(1 2 n n )s u =E
dur
U 1n E
ur
U
ru ur r r =Rb r ru u
dr r =Rb r r =Rb

ur,1 2 ur,21 ur,0

=E 1n E
r,0 ru u,0
2h Rb (24)

where the displacement ur,21 is obtained from (18) for i = 0

(i.e., at r = Rb)

S S D
21
1 1 2 1 Eu,0
u = 2 ? u 1 ?

r,21
S h 2
2R h
b
D r,0
h 2
R 2

b
E
r,0

2 ur,1 S 12 1 1
h 2Rb h
DD (25)

For the case study noted above, the bursting pressure ex-
Once the values of ur and the corresponding stresses are erted by the accumulating rust product on the concrete cover
computed, the model is advanced to the next time step. Time was calculated using the proposed model as illustrated in Fig.
stepping involves computing a new boundary condition from 4. It is considered that when a crack forms, Rc is defined
(7) or (8) and computing new values for Er and Eu according by the condition suuRc = fct . Results plotted in Fig. 4 have
to Fig. 2. been obtained using (7) in calculating the thickness of the rust
layer tr (i.e., without considering the space afforded by the
EVALUATION OF MODEL’S PERFORMANCE
Predicted Pressure and Service-Life Pattern of
Corroding Bar
To examine the performance of the proposed model, an ex-
periment taken from the literature was used as an example (Liu
and Weyers 1998). A 16-mm (5/8-in.) diameter steel bar, em-
bedded in concrete with f c9 = 31 MPa, having a nominal clear
cover of 76 mm (3 in.), and subjected to corrosion current
density of 1.8 mA/cm2 (0.018 A/m2) cracked the cover within
approximately 3.5 years. (Note that the method through which
the exact instant of cracking was determined is not uniform
among published experiments. In many cases cracking was
detected by visual inspection, so it is assumed here that the
width of the crack at that point must be the smallest detectable
by the human eye. In comparison with analytical results, re-
ported times are considered by their order of magnitude rather
than the exact value in seconds. A more meaningful criterion
is the amount of steel loss associated with cover cracking,
although the manner by which cover cracking is defined in the
analysis must be consistent with the method of experimental
detection.) Material properties used in the correlation were
taken from the reference paper; i.e., concrete tensile strength
fct = 3.3 MPa, modulus of elasticity E0 = 27 GPa, and Poisson’s
ratio of uncracked concrete (in the principal compressive axis
of orthotropy) nr u = 0.2, whereas the coordinates of the post-
peak softening branch of the stress-strain law of fractured con-
crete in tension were 1 = 0.0003 and u = 0.002, residual
strength at strain 1 was 0.15fct, and molecular mass ratio of
iron to rust rm = 0.622.

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FIG. 4. Computed Pressure, Cracked Front, and Strain Evolu-
tion with Time [Case Study (C/Db 5 4.75, fct 5 3.3, f c9 5 31 MPa, E0
5 27,000 MPa, n 5 0.2, i 5 0.018 A/m2, r 5 0.622); Rust Layer
Thickness tr Calculated according to Eq. (7)]: (a) Pressure and
Crack Front versus Time; (b) Hoop Strain at inside and outside
Boundaries of Thick Cylinder
cracks for deposition of rust product). The plot in Fig. 4(a)
presents two sets of curves, the history of bursting radial pres-
sure exerted by the corroding bar on concrete (with reference
to the y-axis on the left side of the plot), and the radius of
crack front Rc (with reference to the y-axis on the right side
of the plot). Evolution of time (years) from the start of cor-
rosion is given in the horizontal axis of the plots. The plot in
Fig. 4(b) plots the variation of hoop strain u at the bar front (r
= Rb) and at the perimeter of the thick concrete cylinder (r
= Cc). The two sets of curves have been calculated using the
two alternative models for the rate of rust production: the con-
stant-rate model presented by (4) (Faraday’s law) and the non-
linear model represented by (6) (Liu and Weyers 1998). Radial
pressure builds up as the crack depth grows; it reaches a max-
348 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001
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imum value of about 16.8 MPa when the crack front has prop-
agated to about 3/4 of the cover. Beyond that stage, pressure
is maintained up to the point when the crack front penetrates
the cover (Rc =r uCc), which
corr is highlightedm by a sudden release
of the pressure followed by a fast decay to zero. A pressure
plateau is noticeable in Fig. 4(a) when using the rate of de-
pletion model by Liu and Weyers (1998). Note that this model
relaxes to zero at much longer times. At the instant of sudden
pressure release, a sudden increase in the rate of growth of
hoop strain u is observed at the perimeter of the concrete
cylinder [free surface; Fig. 4(b)]. Because of the sudden
change in the rates of pressure and perimeter hoop strain at
the instant when Rc = Cc, this event was used to identify the
time of cracking in the remainder of the paper (in the case
study examined here, time to cracking was calculated using
the nonlinear model for the rate of rust production as 2.3
years). Note that the associated perimeter hoop strain when Rc
reaches Cc is well below the critical value of smeared strain
1 [Fig. 4(b)]; i.e., the corresponding crack with w1 is much
smaller than 0.3 mm. If a strain criterion were used instead
(u = 1 = 0.0003), then the time to cracking would be much
longer [3.5 years based on the nonlinear rate of rust produc-
tion; Fig. 4(b)]. Evidently, the assumption as to the rate of rust
production [i.e., Faraday’s law versus the model by Liu and
Weyers (1998)] affects the estimated time to cracking pro-
foundly. Thus, the time calculated from the constant-rate
model and with the condition Rc = Cc identifying cover crack-
ing was 0.5 years (i.e., about a quarter of that resulting from
the nonlinear model). As was mentioned earlier, using Fara-
day’s law in estimating the rate of rust production over the
anodic surface area tends to produce unrealistically small
cracking times. However, the estimated volume (and therefore
the mass) of steel consumed at cracking was the same for both
models [i.e., 5.2 3 1027 m3/m (or 0.0041 kg/m of bar)]. The
corresponding mass of rust (0.0041/rm) — equal to 0.0062 and
0.0078 kg/m, respectively, for rm = 0.622 and 0.523 — is con-
sistent but somewhat less than the reported experimental value
(0.0085 kg/m).
The same problem was solved again, with tr determined
from (8) (i.e., assuming that the entire width of the cracks that
propagate from the bar surface is occupied by rust products).
Eqs. (7) and (8) represent two limit cases for tr , whereas in
actual response only a fraction of the total space available
between cracks is likely to be filled by rust. Results are plotted
in Fig. 5 using the same nomenclature as in Fig. 4. Note that
curves no longer follow a smooth transition but rather a jagged
variation that results from the redistribution of the rust product
into the widening cracks at each step as the crack front prop-
agates further into the cover. Calculated maximum bursting
pressure is similar to the value calculated in the preceding case
(17.7 MPa), but the volume of associated steel loss is five
times as large (28.59 3 1027 mm3/m) and the resulting crack-
ing time was lengthened accordingly [2.72 years based on the
linear model of rust production (constant rate) and about 13
years based on the nonlinear model]. As in the previous case,
the rate of hoop strain buildup increases dramatically after
penetration of the crack front through the cover [Rc = Cc; Fig.
FIG. 5. Computed Pressure, Crack Front, and Strain Evolution
with Time [Case Study (C/Db 5 4.75, fct 5 3.3, f c9 5 31 MPa, E 0 5
27,000 MPa, n r u 5 0.2, icorr 5 0.018 A/m2, rm 5 0.622); Rust Layer
Thickness tr Calculated according to Eq. (8)]: (a) Pressure and
Crack Front versus Time; (b) Hoop Strain at inside and outside
Boundaries of Thick Cylinder
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5(b)]. The process, however, is much slower in this case than
illustrated in the results of Fig. 4(b). Actual response is ex-
pected to lie between the two limits defined by Figs. 4 and 5.
Rigorous experimental documentation would be needed, how-
ever, to assess the fraction of rust that is likely to propagate
into the cracks or even to reside in the porous zone around
the bar. [Liu and Weyers (1998) accounted for the amount of
rust accommodated in that zone, which was postulated to be
about 12 mm thick.]
Influence of Rate of Rust Production on Estimated
Critical Mass of Rust
From the results of Figs. 4 and 5, it is evident that the choice
of a rate model to describe the evolution of rust production
with time (DMr /Dt) is probably one of the most critical param-
eters in the process of service-life estimation. Experimental
data to guide this selection are scarce and have mostly been
obtained through accelerated corrosion conditioning, with cur-
rent density varying over an enormous range of values (with
attendant implications on the composition of the rust product).
Specimens are often not representative of actual structural
members (in terms of either aggregate gradation or geometry),
and the nonuniformity of the methods used in tests when de-
tecting first cracking has been noted previously. An exhaustive
collection of relevant experimental data reported in the liter-
ature was compiled by FIB (2000). These data along with
more recently published values are summarized in Table 1 for
reference in assessing the ability of the analytical models to
reproduce the experimental trends. For the reported cracking
times, the corresponding mass loss of reinforcement was cal-
culated using the two alternative models for the rate of rust
production [(4) and (6)]. These values, normalized with respect
to corresponding experimental values, were plotted in Fig. 6
against cover thickness (normalized with respect to bar di-
ameter). The ellipse marker represents results obtained using
Faraday’s equation for the rust production rate of (4), whereas
the filled squares mark points obtained using the nonlinear rate
according to Liu and Weyers (1998) [(6)]. [In this section, the
mechanical component of the model was not used — results
were obtained directly from (4) or (6) for t equal to the re-
ported cracking times.] Except for the three square markers
that correspond to the ordinate of 1.0 (i.e., Mcacl /Mexp = 1),
which are not to be considered in assessing the success of the
nonlinear model as they have already been used in its calibra-
tion, all other points fall below the 0.5 ordinate. This implies
that the nonlinear model underestimates by as much as 50%
the total amount of rust associated with cover cracking. On
the other hand, points calculated with Faraday’s law give or-
dinates that are increasing with normalized cover depth; i.e.,
the inaccuracy of the constant-rate model in this application
(overestimating the mass of rust at cracking by >100% in some
cases) grows as a function of the cover to bar diameter ratio.
FIG. 6. Calculated versus Measured Critical Mass of Rust at
Cracking as Function of C/Db
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001 / 349
 Between the two models, the nonlinear one, being insensi-
tive to the C/Db ratio, appears more consistent with current
understanding of embedded bar corrosion, at least as far as
accelerated conditioning goes. Although the C/Db ratio even-
tually controls the problem of service-life estimation through
the process of crack propagation and the resulting state of
stress, it is unlikely to play a role in the physicochemical re-
lationship — (time 3 current density) (rust production) —
despite the upward trend produced by the constant-rate model
in Fig. 6. The effect of current density on time to cracking
may be deduced from the data of Rasheeduzzafar et al. (1992)
(Table 1). For a constant C/Db ratio of 1.5 and three different
concrete strengths, the product time 3 current density was
found to be approximately in a linear relationship with the
value of icorr, the slope being the same for the three groups of
specimens. This result confirms the suggestion by other re-
searchers that the composition of rust products resulting from
accelerated corrosion may depend on the intensity of the im-
posed current. [For constant cover and bar diameter, the burst-
ing pressure at cracking that quantifies the critical mass of rust
and hence the time to cracking should be insensitive to icorr
according to (4) and should only depend on the product of
time and current density.]
Correlation of Reported Experimental Trends
All experimental and analytical studies agree that cracking
occurs well before steel section loss becomes significant in
terms of bar strength. It has been established from experimen-
tation that cracking of the cover is delayed by smaller diameter
bars, increased cover, and higher tensile strength of concrete
(higher splitting resistance of cover and lower bursting forces
from the bar) (Rasheeduzzafar et al. 1992; FIB 2000). Based
on experiments, Rodriguez et al. (1996) proposed a linear re-
lationship between depth of attack penetration (i.e., loss of bar
diameter) at cracking and the two principal parameters of the
mechanical problem, namely, the C/Db ratio and the concrete
tensile strength. To examine the performance of the proposed
model in reproducing the observed experimental trends, a
parametric study of the important variables of the model was
conducted. The example problem analyzed in Fig. 4(a) was
used as a point of reference (Liu and Weyers 1998). Param-
eters were varied from their reference value within the follow-
ing ranges of values (only one parameter varied each time):
(1) cover depth (initial value of 4.75Db) was reduced to 3.2Db,
2Db, 1.5Db, and 1.0Db; (2) Poisson’s ratio nru was reduced from
0.2 to 0.15, 0.1, and 0.0001 (practically zero); (3) concrete
tensile strength fct (3.3 MPa) was given values 3.8, 2.7, and
2.2 MPa; (4) the initial modulus of elasticity E0 from 27,000
MPa was changed to 35,000, 31,000, and 23,000 MPa; (5)
strain 1 (Fig. 2) on the softening branch of the tension stress-
strain relation of concrete, originally taken as 0.0003, was re-
duced to 0.0002 and 0.00013 (i.e., just over the cracking strain
fct /E0); (6) the corresponding ordinate in the softening branch,
representing residual tensile strength, which in the analysis
was assumed as 0.15fct, was varied to 0.1fct, 0.05fct, and 0.001fct
(practically zero — no tail end after the kink point on the soft-
ening branch); (7) similarly, the tension-strain at failure u was
reduced from the initial value of 0.002 to 0.001 and 0.0005
(thereby eliminating again the tail end of the softening curve);
and (8) rm = 0.523 was also considered as an alternative to the
value of 0.622 that had been used in the analysis of Fig. 4.
Current density icorr was also considered as a variable. For this
purpose its value was increased by 10-fold from 0.018 to 0.18
and 1.8 A/m2; however, the volume of steel loss at cracking
remained the same, with the estimated cracking time being
reduced at each step 10 times from its preceding value.
Fig. 7 summarizes the results of the sensitivity study. The
y-axis represents estimated time to cracking (years), which is
350 / JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS / APRIL 2001
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FIG. 7. Parametric Sensitivity of Model to Important Material
and Geometric Variables
related to the associated steel loss through (6). The maximum
bursting radial pressure developed at the bar-concrete contact
surface prior to cracking is plotted in the horizontal axis
(MPa). Each line represents the consequences in terms of
cracking time and bursting pressure that result from variation
of a single parameter from its reference value. The common
point where all lines intersect represents the reference case
study (Fig. 4). Each line is marked by a symbol that represents
the corresponding parameter that has been varied to produce
that line. The arrows next to the symbol (downward or up-
ward) symbolize reduction or increase, respectively, in the
value of the parameter. The arrows on the lines point to the
direction where the line extends when the corresponding pa-
rameter is varied, as illustrated by the symbols.
The sensitivity analysis confirms that the most important
variables of the mechanical problem are the concrete tensile
strength, initial modulus of elasticity, and cover thickness.
Higher tensile strength lengthens the time to cracking and in-
creases the sustained bursting pressure. Decreasing the initial
stiffness of the material also delays cracking, but with the ma-
terial being more compliant, the bursting pressure is reduced.
Both cracking time and pressure sustained decay with decreas-
ing cover. Reducing the Poisson’s ratio accelerates cracking,
which occurs at lower bursting pressures. Of the parameters
that define the softening branch, 1 has the greatest degree of
influence, residual strength affects the results only slightly,
whereas u has a negligible overall effect (not shown in the
figure). Reducing rm from the value of 0.622 to 0.523 did not
affect the bursting pressure magnitude but accelerated the oc-
currence of cracking. These results of the proposed model are
consistent with the experimental trends reviewed in the pre-
ceding as well as with familiar knowledge as to the signifi-
cance of the various design variables of the problem on cover
cracking resistance.
CONCLUSIONS
The stress state in the cover concrete of a corroding rein-
forcing bar was modeled in this paper with the objective of
identifying the conditions limiting the service life of reinforced
concrete due to cover cracking. The buildup of rust around the
bar was estimated from the anodic current density using two
alternative models for calculating iron depletion with time: a
linear model that follows Faraday’s law (constant rate of de-
pletion) and a nonlinear model that considers the barrier pro-
vided by the increasing thickness of the external rust layer
against diffusion of iron ions. The accumulating volume of
rust was used as the driving boundary condition in determining
the state of stress in the cover concrete. To model the cover,
a thick-walled cylinder idealization was used. Concrete was
treated as an anisotropic nonlinear elastic material with post-

cracking softening. Deformation capacity and residual strength
in tension were gauged from the characteristic fracture prop-
erties of the material. The resulting boundary-value problem
was solved in space and time using a finite-difference discret-
ization. Correlation with experimental evidence illustrated that
the model is capable of reproducing successfully the experi-
mental trends and gives reasonable estimates for the time and
critical mass of rust associated with cover cracking. Of the
two alternative options used in representing the rate of rust
production, the nonlinear model proved far more successful in
quantifying service-life conditions. An additional dimension of
the model that dramatically affected service-life estimates was
taking into account the fraction of rust that is accommodated
within open cracks (or, as has been suggested by others, in the
porous zone of contact between bar and concrete). To date
there is little experimental evidence to guide proper quantifi-
cation of this variable as well as the role that accelerated con-
ditioning and seasonal variations may have on the type of rust
products (dissolved or solid) and their possible convection
away from the bar surface. Resolving this point by rigorous
experimental documentation would be a necessary prerequisite
to the use of the proposed model in practical service-life es-
timations.
Note that a loaded corroding reinforcing bar will crack the
cover concrete much faster than an unloaded bar corroded to
the same extent. Both the bond mechanism and the corrosion
mechanism compete for the splitting tensile strength of the
cover concrete, and this is why, in actual circumstances, time
to cover cracking would also be a function of the stress level
in the reinforcement. In modeling this aspect of the problem,
the proposed model would have to be adjusted first so that the
tension stiffening stress sz would be taken as 0 < sz < fct and
the pressure at the internal boundary of the thick cylinder
would have to account for the bursting pressures associated
with development of bond stress.
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