14.

HEAT EXCHANGERS

Energy is transferred between two fluids.

The two fluids are separated by a solid wall

1
Classification of Heat Exchangers
(1) Parallel flow (souproud)
(2) Counter flow (protiproud)
(3) Cross flow (křížový proud)

cold

hot
Parallel Counter Cross

• Two common modes of operation in cross-flow:

(1) Mixed
(2) Unmixed 2
 Mixed Unmixed
hot hot hot

cold cold cold

Hot-cold pairs can be stacked in layers

Classification based on construction
• Tubular heat exchangers:
• Basic construction: Two concentric tubes
The outer tube is called the Shell. Examples:

3
One-shell-pass, two-tube-pass exchanger

Two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass exchanger

Tube bundles: Used in large exchangers

A bundle of four tubes in
a one-shell-pass, four-tube-pass mode

Baffles: Used to enhance heat transfer

by mixing shell fluid 4
• Compact heat exchangers: Used where at least one of
the two fluids is gas (low α). Heat transfer surface area
to volume ratio of at least 700 m2/m3

Types of Heat Exchanger Problems

(1) Performance problems
Objective: Predict outlet temperatures for an existing
exchanger. Unique solution
(2) Design problems
Objective: Design an exchanger to provide specified
outlet temperatures. Solution is not
unique

5
 The Role of the
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U o
(součinitel prostupu tepla k) Q&
To
For the heat transfer rate we write: αo αi
Ti
λS (Two − Twi )
Q = αo S (To − Two ) =
& = αi S (Twi − Ti )
δ

& (To − Two ) (Two − Twi ) (Twi − Ti ) To − Ti To − Ti

Q= = = = =
1 δ 1 Ro + Rλ + Ri ∑R
α
{ oS λ
{ S α
{ iS
Ro Rλ Ri

6
 The total resistance can be written

1 δ 1 1⎛ 1 δ 1 ⎞ 1
∑R = + + = ⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟ =
αo S λS αi S S ⎝ αo λ αi ⎠ kS
Q&
Where k is the overall heat transfer coefficient
To
−1 αo αi
⎛ 1 δ 1⎞ Ti
k = ⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟ [W / m 2 K ]
⎝ αo λ αi ⎠

Then the equation for the heat transfer rate can be re-written:
To − Ti
Q& = ⇒ Q& = kS (To − Ti )
Ro + Rλ + Ri
7
 Heat transfer through the wall of a tube.

Surface area is different for the outer and the inner walls.
So≠Si and also ko≠ki
But if we express a product kS, then ro ri
1 1 1
= = To Ti
kS ki S i ko So αo αi
or kS = ki S i = ko So

1 1 1 1 1 ro 1
= = = + ln +
kS ki S i ko So 2πro Lα o 2πLλ ri 2πri Lα i

8
 Overall heat transfer coefficient can be related to the innner wall

1 1 ⎛ 1 ri ro ri 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ri ro ri 1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ + ln + ⎟⎟ ⇒ = ⎜⎜ + ln + ⎟⎟
ki S i 2πri L ⎝ α i λ ri ro α o ⎠ ki ⎝ α i λ ri ro α o ⎠

or to the outer wall

1 1 ⎛ ro 1 ro ro 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ ro 1 ro ro 1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ + ln + ⎟⎟ ⇒ = ⎜⎜ + ln + ⎟⎟
ko So 2πro L ⎝ ri α i λ ri α o ⎠ ko ⎝ ri α i λ ri α o ⎠

ro ri

To Ti
αo αi

9
 • Fouling resistance:
Added resistance due to surface deposits
of dirt and corrosion. Known as fouling factor R f . Values
are given here.
Approximate fouling factors
Fluid Rf (m2K)/W
Boiler feed water (<50oC) 0.0001
Boiler feed water (>50oC) 0.0002
Steam (non-oil bearing) 0.0001
Industrial air 0.0004

1 1 1 1 ro 1 1 1
= + ln + + R fo + R fi
ko So 2πri L α i 2πLλ ri 2πro Lα o 2πro L 2πri L

1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ro ro ro 1 ro R fi ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.⎜⎜ + ln + + + R fo ⎟⎟
ko So ⎝ 2πro L ⎠ ⎝ ri αi λ ri αo ri ⎠
10
 Axial Temperature Variation
x = distance along exchanger
Tc = temperature of cold fluid at x
Th = temperature of hot fluid at x
ΔT = ( Th − Tc ) = temperature difference at x

Thi • ΔT Thi • Thi • ΔT

• Tho Tco • ΔT Tco • T
• Tco • Tho • ho
Tci • • Tci • Tci
x x x
(a) parallel flow (b) counter flow (c) counter flow

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 Thi = Tho
• • Thi•
ΔT
•T • Tho
co ΔT
Tci • •
Tci = Tco
x x
(d) parallel or counter (e) parallel or counter

Conclusion:

In general, ΔT varies along a heat exchanger.

Therefore, the heat transfer rate also varies

12
Heat Exchanger Analysis: Two Methods
• Objectives of analysis:
(1) Predict outlet temperatures in performance
problems (problém určení výkonnosti výměníku)
(2) Design heat exchangers for specified performance –
(navrhnout výměník pro danou výkonnost)
• Methods of analysis:
(1) The log mean temperature difference (LMTD):
• Suitable for solving design type problems
• Requires iteration to solve performance problems
(2) The effectiveness-number of transfer units (ε - NTU):
• Suitable for solving design and performance
problems 13
The Log Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD) Method
Single Pass Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers
(i) Assumptions:
(1) No axial conduction through the fluids, tube and shell
(2) No heat loss from the shell to the surroundings
(3) No changes in potential and kinetic energy
(4) Constant overall heat transfer coefficient ko
(5) Constant specific heats, c pc and c ph
(6) The temperature of each fluid is uniform at any
section
(7) Negligible pressure drop in both fluids
(8) No phase change
14
(9) Steady state
(ii) Formulation
Consider an element in a parallel flow exchanger.

insulation
cold m&c Tc dq
Three infinitesimal control hot m& h Th
volumes:
insulation
(1) Cold fluid element Thi
• Tho
(2) Hot fluid element •
ΔT1 ΔT ΔT2
•
(3) Heat transfer surface • Tco
Tci
separating the fluids

15
Conservation of energy:

Q& = Heat added to the cold fluid

= Heat removed from the hot fluid
= Heat transferred through the surface

Apply above equation to the cold and hot fluids:

Q& = m& h (ih,in − ih,out )

Q& = m& c (ic ,out − ic ,in )

Neglect pressure drop and assume no phase change:

di = c p dT

then above equations become

16
 Q& = m& hc p,h (Th,in − Th,out )

and Q& = m& c c p,c (Tc ,out − Tc ,in )

Heat transfer through the surface separating the two

fluids
Q& = ko So (Th − Tc )

ko = overall heat transfer coefficient

Major problem: Both temperatures change along the

heat exchanger ⇒ “some” mean temperature difference ΔT
Q& = kS ΔT
17
Define logarithmic mean temperature difference LMTD
ΔT1 − ΔT2
ΔT ln =
ΔT1
ln Thi • ΔT
ΔT2 ΔT1 • Tho ΔT2
• Tco
Tci •
ΔT ln = LMTD
x
(a) parallel flow
For parallel flow exchanger:

ΔT1 = Thi − Tci and ΔT2 = Tho − Tco Thi •

Tco • ΔT
For counter flow exchanger: • Tho
• Tci
ΔT1 = Thi − Tco and ΔT2 = Tho − Tci x
(b) counter flow

Then equation for overall heat transfer rate

Q& = kS ΔT ln
18
• NOTE:

(1) Three equations are available for determining Q& :

Q& = m& hc p,h (Th,in − Th,out )

Q& = m& c c p,c (Tc ,out − Tc ,in )
Q& = kS ΔT ln

(2) To determine ΔT ln , four temperatures Tci , Tco , Thi

and Tho must be known

19
Extension to Multipass and Cross-flow
Exchangers

• LMTD results for single pass parallel flow are

applicable to multi-pass and cross-flow exchangers by
modifying the definition of ΔT ln :

ΔT ln = F ΔT ln,CF
ΔT ln,CF = LMTD for equivalent counterflow exchanger
F = correction factor
• F depends on geometry and 2 temperature parameters
P and R F = f ( P , R, geometry )
20
P and R are defined as
to − ti
P=
Ti − t i

Ti − To
R=
to − t i

t = tube fluid temperature

T = shell fluid temperature
Solutions for F for various exchangers are available in
graphical form. Examples in the following figures

21
F factor for one-shell-pass and any multiple
of two-tube passes

22
F factor for cross-flow with one fluid mixed
and the other unmixed

23
 • NOTE: Taking the ratio of
Q& shell m& c p, shell (Ti − To )shell
= =1
&
Qtube m& c p,tube (to − t i )tube

gives

(Ti − To )shell m& c p,tube

R= =
(to − t i )tube m& c p, shell
⎡ kg J W⎤
R = 0 corresponds to (m& c p ) shell =∞ ⎢ = ⎥
⎣ s kg.K K ⎦

24
Application of the LMTD Method to Heat
Exchanger Problems
Procedure for applying the LMTD:

• Correlation equations: give αi and αo

• overall heat transfer coefficient for instance:
1 ⎛ ro ro ro 1 ro R fi ⎞
= ⎜⎜ + ln + + + R fo ⎟⎟
ko ⎝ ri αi λ ri αo ri ⎠
• Equations for Q&
Q& = m& hc p,h (Th,in − Th,out )
Q& = m& c c p,c (Tc ,out − Tc ,in )
Q& = kS ΔT ln 25
 ΔT1 − ΔT2
• LMTD ΔT ln ΔT ln =
ΔT1
ln
ΔT2
ΔT ln = F ΔT ln,CF

• Charts or equations: give the correction factor F.

• Q& = kS ΔT ln gives the design factor S

NOTE: Properties of the cold and hot fluids are at Tc

and Th :
Tc = (Tci + Tco ) / 2
Th = (Thi + Tho ) / 2
26
 Special Case: Constant Cold or Hot
Fluid Temperature
C h = m& hc p,h
C c = m& c c p,c
Three limiting cases can appear:

C h >> C c C h << C c Ch = Cc
hot
T T hot T hot
cold
cold cold

condenser evaporator, boiler

27
Performance Problems

Objective: Use LMTD method to predict outlet

temperatures

• Need outlet temperatures to determine ΔT ln

• If only two temperatures known (mostly both inlet

temperatures), solution is by iteration or trial and
error
• Alternate approach: Use the effectiveness-number of
transfer units (ε - NTU) method

28
Effectiveness-Number of Transfer Units
(ε-NTU) Method
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness
Define: Heat capacity rate Cc ,h
Cc = c pc , C h = c ph

Define: Effectiveness ε :
actual heat transfer rate Q&
ε= =
maximum po ssible heat transfer rate Q& max

Q& max is achieved when Tho = Tci or when Tco = Thi

29
 Thi = Tco
Q& max = C min (Thi − Tci )
T C max
Tho
where C min is the smaller of C min
Tci
C c and C h x

Then from the definition of effectiveness ε

Q& = ε C min (Thi − Tci )
• Knowing effectiveness ε , Q& can be obtained
without knowing the outlet temperatures

From the definition of effectiveness we can write:

C c Tco − Tci C h Thi − Tho
ε= ε=
C min Thi − Tci C min Thi − Tci
30
(1) Each equation contains a single unknown outlet
temperature

(2) ε can be used in Q& = ε C min (Thi − Tci ) to determine Q&

and from the equations defining effectiveness outlet
temperatures Tho , Tco can be calculated

31
ε - NTU Relations
Let: C h = C min , C c = C max
C max Tco − Tci
Definition of effectiveness ε=
C min Thi − Tci
Thi − Tho
or on the hot side ε=
Thi − Tci
Introduce the definition of the number of transfer units
NTU:
kS
NTU =
C min
For each heat exchanger the effectiveness can be expressed:
⎛ C min ⎞
ε = f ⎜⎜ NTU, ⎟⎟
⎝ C max ⎠ 32
For a single-pass parallel flow heat exchanger the effectiveness
can be determined:

⎡ ⎛ C min ⎞⎤
1 − exp ⎢− NTU ⎜ 1 + ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ C max ⎠⎦
ε=
C min
1+
C max
Similar formulas for other types of heat exchangers.

When designing heat exchanger, the following function is used

⎛ C min ⎞
NTU = f ⎜⎜ ε, ⎟⎟ = f (ε,C r )
⎝ C max ⎠
kS
From NTU = the total surface S is calculated
C min 33
1. Single pass, counterflow exchanger
1 − exp[− NTU (1 − C r )]
ε=
1 − C r exp[− NTU (1 − C r )]

2. One-shell-pass, multiple of two tubes pass

−1
⎡ 1 + exp(− NTU × B ) ⎤
ε = 2 ⎢1 + C r + B
⎣ 1 − exp(− NTU × B ) ⎥⎦

B= ( )
2 12
1 + Cr

3. Cross-flow, C max mixed, C min unmixed

1 1
ε= − exp[− C r {1 − exp(− NTU )}]
Cr Cr
34
Special case: Constant cold or hot fluid temperature.

C max = ∞ and C r = 0. Setting C r = 0

ε = 1 − e − NTU

35