Content of The Great Mahesh Tapas

Various techniques to improve infiltration capacity of black cotton soil to improve crop production
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of the Topic

Agriculture is the key sector & backbone of India’s economy. Any change in agriculture
sector, positive or negative has multifold effects on the entire economy. Raising agricultural
productivity per unit land is the major challenge in this sector to meet the demand of the
increasing population.
Soil plays a crucial role in the sector of agriculture. Black cotton soils, which are also known
as vertisols are important in semi-arid dryland agriculture because in this environment they
are amongst the most productive soils. Their high-water retention capacity in areas of
uncertain and variable rainfall is of great importance. However, some characteristics of these
soils like poor drainage, do pose some problems for the cultivation of crops. Traditional
farming techniques and conventional soil management practices do not help in improving the
crop productivity as they fail to tackle the drainage problems. Therefore, efficient techniques
should be studied and implemented which improve the infiltration rate in vertisols and
enhance the crop productivity on these soils.
Infiltration is the process of movement of water into the soil from the soil surface. Infiltration
process is governed by two major factors viz. Gravity and Capillarity action. Infiltration rate
in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb water from rainfall or
any other means at a given time. The maximum rate at which a given soil at a given time can
absorb water is defined as infiltration capacity. It is expressed in cm/h. Infiltration rate
depends on soil characteristics such as soil texture, hydraulic conductivity, soil structure,
porosity of the soil, vegetation cover etc. When the porosity of the surface soil is too low to
accept rainfall, or subsoil porosity is too low to allow rainwater percolation (i.e. permeability
is too slow), then infiltration will be restricted and rainwater will be lost as runoff. The
infiltration plays an important role in generation of runoff volume, if infiltration rate of given
soil is less than intensity of rainfall then it results in either accumulation of water on soil
surface or in runoff. In dry land agriculture, soil should have good infiltration characteristics
so that rainfall can be best utilized to achieve high crop yields.
Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 1

1.2 Problem Statement

To study various techniques to improve the infiltration capacity of black cotton soil that
also increase crop productivity.
1.3 Objectives
1. To study properties of black cotton soil related to infiltration and its water logging
issues.
2. To study various techniques which improve infiltration.
3. To find out a region in Maharashtra where black cotton soil is majorly found & such
techniques are required and suggest the suitable techniques.
1.4 Scope of the Project Work

1. The study of the properties of black cotton soils help us to understand the behavior of
these soils under initial wetting due to first rainfall and excess rainfall.
2. Suitable techniques are found out which will cause more water to percolate inside the
soil and infiltration rate will be increased. Increased infiltration will lead to more
storage of water inside the soil surface which will be useful during times of scanty
rainfall. Ground water levels will be replenished.
3. The techniques will also be useful for reducing the waterlogging of the land and hence
damage to the crops will be prevented.
4. This study is based on the findings from the literature review and suitable techniques
are suggested to a region where black cotton soils are majorly found., on the basis of
annual rainfall of the region and depth of black cotton soil present there.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
The literature survey includes reviews of all the research papers referred for the seminar
work. The following papers are closely reviewed papers.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 Problems and potentials of vertisols and alfisols: The two important soils of semi
arid tropics- ICRISAT Experience
J S Kanwar
Journal of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics- March 1982 pg
119-138
In this paper two kinds soils alfisols and vertisols found in semi arid zones of
India are studied. The properties of these soils which affect the crop production are described.
Different crops were grown on the lands of these soils and their infiltration rate were
measured. Different plots of vertisols and alfisols were modified with graded broad bed and
furrow system and its effect on the crop production and infiltration rate was studied.
2.2.2 Physical & chemical properties of vertisols and their management
S.M. Virmani , K. L. Sahrawat and J. R. Burford
Journal of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics- March 1982 pg
81-92
In this paper the physical and chemical properties of vertisols were studied as
they are greatly influenced by the clay content in it and the type of clay mineral which causes
the shrinkage & swelling of the soil.
2.2.3 Hydrological behavior of vertisols in semi arid zones : implication for soil
management
P Pathak, S.P. Wani, R Sudi
Journal of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics- October 2012

In this paper, they have discussed the results from long term (from 1976-
2010) hydrological studies conducted on small agricultural watersheds on vertisols. The
hydrological behaviour of soils are characterized in terms of run off volume, peak run off
rate, number of run off events, soil loss, sediment concentration and deep drainage loss under
different rainfall, crop cover and soil moisture conditions to aid in developing effective soil
and water management practices. The effects of annual and monthly rainfall on the
hydrological behaviour these soils in different rainfall regions were provided.
2.2.4 Gypsum as an agricultural amendment
Watts, Dexter B, Warren A Dick
Journal of environmental quality 43.1 pg 246-252 (2014)
The purpose of this management guide is to provide general

information about gypsum, especially FGD gypsum, as a soil amendment in Ohio as well as
other places where FGD gypsum is available as a resource. This information will be useful
for crop producers, soil and crop consultants, horticulturists, environmental consultants,
environmental regulatory agents, and FGD gypsum producers and marketers.

3 Study of black cotton soils

3.1 Distribution of black cotton soils
Vertisols are heavy textured soils which occur in the tropics, semi arid tropics and warm
temperate zones. In India they are extensively found in peninsular India (dry farming
region ) and occupy a region of 73 million ha. In Maharashtra vertisols are derived from
the Deccan trap basalt. Black cotton soil covers about 26.3 % of the areas of the
Maharashtra state (Challa et.al., 1995). Table 1 shows area under vertisols in different
states of India and expressed as percentage of vertisols area in India.
Map 1. Arid and semi arid zones of India Map 2. Soil map of India
iIndiIIndia
Source: FAO, United Nations
Table 1 Vertisols and its distribution in India
State Total area under Area under Vertisols and associated soil
Vertisols & associated expressed as
soils % of gross Vertisols % of total
(m. ha) area in India geographical area in
India
Maharashtra 29.9 35.5 7.9
Madhya Pradesh 16.7 23.0 5.1
Gujarat 8.2 11.9 2.6
Andhra Pradesh 7.2 10.0 2.2
Karnataka 6.9 9.4 2.1
Tamil Nadu 3.2 4.2 1.0
Rajasthan 2.3 3.0 0.7
Orissa 1.3 2.0 0.4
Bihar 0.7 1.0 0.2
Source: ICRISAT

3.2 Classification of black cotton soils

Black cotton soils are classified on the basis of their depth and drainage condition.
1. Depth
(i) deep black soils (>90 cm deep)
(ii) medium deep black soils (50-90 cm deep)
(iii) shallow black soils (< 50 cm deep)
2. Drainage condition
(i) Chromusterts (these occur in better drained conditions)
(ii) Pellusterts (these occur in ill drained conditions)
Both these soils are contiguous. In India, most of the vertisols are pellusterts and majorly
located in peninsular India.
3.3 Properties of black cotton soils

Vertisols are heavy textured soils with clay content exceeding 50%. In vertisols the clay
content throughout the profile does not show much variation, increasing slightly with
depth. Vertisols are generally calcareous, montmorillonitic isohyperthermic soils
Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral which is the reason vertisols undergo
considerable shrinkage on drying and swelling during wetting, which results in large and
deep cracks which close after wetting. They become hard and sticky when wet. During
dry periods, surface cracks that develop can accept high infiltration rates. These cracks
greatly influence the infiltration and run off behavior of soils particularly during the early
periods of the rainy season. Swelling can reduce the effective surface porosity. These soils
have poor drainage condition (pellusterts in India) and have high water holding capacity
due to swelling. The vertisols are rich in lime, calcium, potassium, iron, aluminum and
magnesium and are deficient in nitrogen, sulfur, zinc, phosphorous and organic matter.
They respond to application of fertilizers. Vertisols occurring in India have soil pH
ranging between 7.5 and 8.5 in the soil profile. Factors which contribute to high soil pH
are the presence of CaCO3 and high contents of bases, especially calcium and
magnesium, in the profile. These soils have very low saturated hydraulic conductivity.

Table 2. Infiltration rates of a typical deep Vertisols at ICRISAT Center, Patancheru, near
Hyderabad (India)
Time from start (h) Infiltration Rates (mm/h)

0 - 0.5 76
0.5 - 1.0 34
1.0 - 2.0 4
After 144 h 0.21 ± 0.1
Source : Krantz et al. (1978)

Due to the presence of cracks and rough soil surface at the beginning of the wet season,
vertisols have high infiltration rate initially. Surface gets sealed which decreases infiltration
rate drastically with increased wetting of the soil and runoff increases. It has led to the
problems of water logging & salinity in vertisols which makes it difficult to work. Table 2
shows Infiltration rates of a typical deep Vertisols at ICRISAT Center, Patancheru, near
Hyderabad (India). It can be seen from the table that infiltration rate is very high in the first
half hour and the infiltration rate decreases drastically after a period of 144 hours. Poor
drainage, both surface and internal is one of the main causes of low production from
vertisols. The improvement of surface drainage is essential for increasing crop yields from
these soils.

4. Management practices to improve the infiltration and yield

4.1 Broad bed and furrow systems
The Broad Bed and Furrow system is a modern version of the very old concept of
encouraging controlled surface drainage by forming the soil surface into beds. It consists
of broad beds about 100 cm wide separated by sunken furrows about 50 cm wide. The
preferred slope along the furrow is between 0.4 and 0.8 percent on vertisols. Two, three,
or four rows of crop can be grown on the broad bed, and the bed width and crop geometry
can be varied to suit the cultivation and planting equipment. The BBF system is
particularly suitable for the vertisols. The technique works best on deep black soils in
areas with dependable rainfall averaging 750 mm or more. It has not been as productive
in areas of less dependable rainfall, or on alfisols or shallower black soils (table 3). This
scheme has, in varying proportions, the following objectives:
i. To encourage moisture storage in the soil profile. Deep vertisols may have soil moisture
storage up to 250 mm, which is sufficient to support plants through mid-season or late-
season spells of drought. The large water storage capacity of the soil supports growth
more easily during the subsequent dry but cooler post-rainy season.
ii. To dispose safely of surplus surface run-off without causing erosion.
iii. To provide a better drained and more easily cultivated soil in the beds. There is only a
narrow range of moisture conditions during which the soil can be efficiently tilled or
planted, and timeliness is a key factor. Only about 20 percent of the deep vertisols in
India are cropped during the rains, mainly because of poor workability when wet. If a
crop can be established during the early rains, the profile is usually near saturation only
for short periods during the latter half of the season, water is more efficiently utilized, and
there is less need for run-off collection and storage. The difficulty of preparing a seed bed
during the dry season in these hard clay soils has been greatly improved by the use of
broad beds and animal-drawn equipment.
iv. The possibility of the re-use of run-off stored in small tanks. Small amounts of life-
saving irrigation applications can be very effective in dry spells during the rains,
particularly on soils with lower storage capacity than the deep vertisols.

Fig 1 broad bed and furrow systems Fig 2 formation of beds using iron tool
Table 3: Run off and soil loss under different treatments (source: ICRISAT)
Parameters Deep Black soils Shallow Black soils

Flat BBF Flat BBF
Total runoff (mm/ha) 337 261 83 109
Total soil loss (ton/ha) 5.2 3.3 1.00 1.5
4.2 Vertical Mulching
Vertical mulching is a technique which consists of digging suitable trenches across the
slope and thus making more surface area available for water absorption. It involves the
drilling of holes at regular spacing in the soil throughout the area. Vertical mulching, also
known as “vertimulching” has the following goals:
1. Aeration of the soil

2. Partial decompaction of the soil
3. Fertilization of the soil
4. Inoculation of the Root Zone

Fig 3 vertical much in the soil

The drilled holes have dimensions as follows 10-15 cm diameter, 45- 95 cm depth and a
regular spacing of 0.8 -4 m. Drilling equipment like various earth augers are
commercially available. Most are gasoline powered. Some are mounted on a truck, while
others are hand-held, usually by at least two men. Holes can be filled with a variety of
different mixtures, depending on the intended effect. For simple aeration, holes are often
filled with pea gravel. For fertility, holes can be mixed with fertilizer diluted with soil.
For inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi or rhizosphere bacteria, holes can be mixed with
the appropriate inoculant. Typically, the drill is used to mix the product with the soil by
drilling a shallow hole, scooping the right amount of dry product into the hole, and then
finishing the drilling. The drill effectively mixes the product with the soil while drilling
the hole. This technique is suitable for areas with deep and medium black soils with
average rainfall of 750mm or less.
Graph 1: runoff on control (untreated) and treated plot ( Source:6)

4.3 Application of gypsum

Gypsum is a moderately soluble source of the essential plant nutrients, calcium and sulfur,
and can improve overall plant growth. Gypsum amendments can also improve the physical
and chemical properties of soils, thus reducing erosion losses of soils and nutrient
concentrations (especially phosphorus) in surface water runoff.
Benefits of gypsum include:
 Improving soil structure

 Amend sodium affected soils
 Improve soil infiltration and allows faster drainage
 Decreases the swelling of clays
 Helps curb phosphorus runoff from soils
 Improves quality of several fruit and vegetable crops
 Is an excellent source of plant available calcium and sulfur
 Increases iron uptake by reducing the detrimental effects of bicarbonates
 Useful tool in decreasing the negative effects of high magnesium in soils
 Increases the efficiency of nitrogen applications
 Increases the availability of potassium already present in the soil
 Offsets ill effects of irrigation with poor quality water
 Can serve as a tool to enhance iron, manganese and zinc availability
 Aid to stop soil erosion
 Decreases incidence of some diseases

Graph 2 showing infiltration rate in gypsum treated soil and control (untreated) soil
(Source:9)
Fig 4 Application of gypsum using sprayers
4.4 Graded Bunds
It consists of building earthen embankments across the slope of the land, following the
contour as closely as possible. A series of such bunds divide the area into strips and act as
barriers to t5he flow of water, thus reducing the amount and velocity of the runoff Bunds area
also constructed along field boundaries without reference to contour. These bunds are called
peripheral bunds. They serve as fences, and give protection from water and wind erosion in
low rainfall areas. They are not suitable in heavy rainfall areas.
Therefore, under contour bunds an area of about 5 percent is lost under the bunds and is not
available for cultivation. It maintains soil fertility and increases water infiltration into the soil
considerably,

Contour bunds in deep black soils have been a failure because of the nature of soil, which
cracks during hot weather and cakes during the monsoon. So, they are not stable in black
soils. Further the poor drainage properties of deep black soils give raise to long stagnation of
water against contour bunds and make it unstable. Contour bunds are also not successful in
very shallow soils having a depth loss than 7.5cm. Graded bunds are laid along longitudinal
grade.
 Preferred grade: 0.1 – 0.3%

 Useful for all types of vertisols
 Preferred Annual rainfall: 700 mm or higher
 It controls soil erosion & disposes the excess water to the outlet.
 It is useful for the heavy textured soil type with low infiltration rate of any depth.
 It also improves water quality.
Fig 5 contour bunds
Fig 6 bunds along the longitudinal slope of the plot

4.5 Subsurface drainage
Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the rootzone. It is accomplished by deep
open drains or buried pipe drains.
i. Deep open drains
The excess water from the rootzone flows into the open drains. The disadvantage of this type
of subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult.
ii. Pipe drains
Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The pipes
convey the water to a collector drain. Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They
are usually placed in trenches by machines. In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 cm long
and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage water enters the pipes through the joints. Flexible plastic
drains are much longer (up to 200 m) and the water enters through perforations distributed
over the entire length of the pipe.
iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains
Open drains use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of
machines. They also require a large number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and
access to the fields. Open drains require frequent maintenance (weed control, repairs, etc.).
In contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance
requirements are very limited. The installation costs, however, of pipe drains may be higher
due to the materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower involved.

Fig 7 pipe drains fig 8 deep open ditch
5. Where these techniques should be implemented?

5.1 Selecting a region where such techniques are required
 These techniques should be implemented in a region where black cotton soils are
majorly found and crop productivity is affected due to reduced infiltration.
 According to Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur - In many parts of central
and south India, waterlogging can be problematic due to excess rains.
 Considering Vidarbh region Of Maharashtra - It a continuous stretch of land with
black cotton soils. It is the eastern region of Maharashtra where black cotton soils are
majorly found as it lies on the Deccan plateau. (as per the data by source: nidm.gov.in
national disaster risk reduction portal)
 According to the data in the chapter III by Department of soil conservation and
watershed management (source:mahaagri.gov.in ) Specific problems of Vidarbh:
Intensity of rainfall is moderately high throughout the rainy days. Very high runoff
and soil erosion is observed due to poor drainage even though good plantation cover.
Problems of salinity and waterlogging arises.
 As per the data of Maharashtra Agriculture Contingency Plan (source: Central
Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture) Continuous high rainfall in short span
lead to waterlogging

Following districts of Vidarbh Zone have waterlogging problems

1. Akola
2. Amravati
3. Buldana
4. Chandrapur
5. Gadchiroli
6. Gondia
7. Nagpur
8. Wardha
9. Washim
10. Yavatmal
Map 3: Maharashtra and Vidarbh region Map 4: Districts in Vidarbh region

Source: archaeological survey of india

Table 4. District wise coverage of % black cotton soil and annual rainfall
Sr Districts Cultivable Percentage Of soil Annual Major crops

No covered in area under rainfall grown
Deep Med shallow
the Region black soils (mm)
black black black
(ha)
1 Akola 455 46.5 9.9 43.5 823.3 Cotton,jowar,

soybean , grams
2 Amravati 766 55.9 1.1 42.9 886.4 Soybean, pea,

cotton, sorghum
3 Buldana 740 35.4 8.3 56.3 792.5 Soybean, pea,

cotton, sorghum
4 Chandrapur 451.5 56.6 10.5 25.5 1337 Oilseeds cotton

cereals pulses
5 Gadchiroli 253 72.3 20.2 7.4 1428.5 Paddy, pigeon pea
6 Gondia 182.9 78.9 7.9 13.1 1377.9 Rice, pigeon peas
7 Nagpur 639 43.4 13.8 42.7 1082.1 Cotton, rice,

soybean, jowar,
pulses
8 Wardha 473 35.4 43 20.6 1041 Cotton,wheat

sorghum, pulses ,
gram
9 Washim 386 46.54 9.91 43.55 1124.75 Soybean,jowar,

pulses, cotton
10 Yavatmal 884 34.7 13 52.2 780.4 Soybean,jowar

pulses, cotton,
wheat

5.2 Are these techniques suitable for the region?

Different techniques should be used for different rainfall and different soil for a region.
Factors taken into account:
1. Depth of vertisol
2. Annual rainfall
3. Economic condition (overview)
 For deep vertisols of all 10 districts broad bed furrow system can be used.
 For shallow vertisols of these districts gypsum as an agricultural amendment can
be used.
 For medium vertisols of these districts gypsum can be used and grade bunds can
be used provided the topography is considered.
 Vertical mulching is avoided as it useful only when annual rainfall is less than 750
mm.
 Subsurface drainage is avoided as it can turn out to be expensive for the farmers

6. CONCLUSION
 The study shows how infiltration capacity can be increased in black cotton soils with
the help of few soil management techniques.
 Increased infiltration reduces the runoff and consequently it helps in recharge of
groundwater.
 These techniques will be helpful to lower soil moisture stress conditions during non-
rainy days.
 Problems of waterlogging can also be reduced.

7. FUTURE SCOPE
1. These techniques can be looked into implementing on different lands with

different crops types and infiltration can studied using mathematical models using
equations like Horton, Green Ampt , Philip.
2. Innovations in these techniques can be brought in to enhance the infiltration.
3. Alternative solutions to gypsum mineral can be found out
4. Subsurface drainage should be improvised considering different topography to
make it installation easy.

REFERNCES
1. C.L. Jejurkar Dr M P Rajurkar “Infiltration studies for varying land cover conditions”
/ International Journal of computational engineering research ISSN 2250-3005
2. H.P. Ritzema, T.V. Satyanarayana , S. Raman , J Boonstra “Subsurface drainage to
combat waterlogging and salinity in irrigated land in India: Lessons learned in
farmers’ field” –Agriculture Water Management 95.3 pg 179-189 (November 2007)
3. J S Kanwar “Problems and potentials of vertisols and alfisols – The two Important
Soils Of SAT- ICRISAT Experience” Tropical Agriculture Research Series No 15 pg
119-138 (1982)
4. Jagdale Satyawan Dagadu “Infiltration studies of different soils under different soil
conditions and comparison of infiltration model with field data” / International
Journal of advanced engineering technology E-ISSN 0976-3945
5. P. Pathak , S.P. Wani , R sudi “ Hydrological behavior of vertisols and alfisols in semi
arid zones : implication for soil and water management” Journal of International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics- (November 2012)
6. S. H. R. Sadeghi1, L. Gholami1,*, E. Shariﬁ1, A. Khaledi Darvishan1, and M. Homae
“Scale effect on runoff and soil loss control using rice straw mulch under laboratory
conditions” Solid Earth 6.1 (2015)
7. SM Virmani , KL Sahrawat , J R Burford “Physical and chemical properties of
vertisols” Journal of International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics-
pg 80-93 (1982)
8. Water and soil conservation and management so as to capture and conserve every
drop of water and to produce more crop and income per drop of water and to preserve
soil health in a manner that farm productivity can be enhanced in perpetuity –
www.mahaagri.gov.in
9. Watts, Dexter B , Warren A Dick “Sustainable uses of FGD gypsum in agricultural
system : Introduction” Journal of enivironmenta; quality 43.1 pg 246-252 (2014)
10. Weblinks: www.fao.org

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Various techniques to improve infiltration capacity of black cotton soil to improve crop production

1.1 Introduction of the Topic

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 1

1.2 Problem Statement

1.4 Scope of the Project Work

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 2

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.2 Physical & chemical properties of vertisols and their management

S.M. Virmani , K. L. Sahrawat and J. R. Burford

P Pathak, S.P. Wani, R Sudi

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 3

2.2.4 Gypsum as an agricultural amendment

Watts, Dexter B, Warren A Dick

Journal of environmental quality 43.1 pg 246-252 (2014)

The purpose of this management guide is to provide general

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 4

3 Study of black cotton soils

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 5

3.2 Classification of black cotton soils

3.3 Properties of black cotton soils

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 6

Time from start (h) Infiltration Rates (mm/h)

Source : Krantz et al. (1978)

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 7

4. Management practices to improve the infiltration and yield

ii. To dispose safely of surplus surface run-off without causing erosion.

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 8

Parameters Deep Black soils Shallow Black soils

4.2 Vertical Mulching

1. Aeration of the soil

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 9

Fig 3 vertical much in the soil

Graph 1: runoff on control (untreated) and treated plot ( Source:6)

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 10

4.3 Application of gypsum

Benefits of gypsum include:

 Improving soil structure

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 11

Fig 4 Application of gypsum using sprayers

4.4 Graded Bunds

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 12

 Preferred grade: 0.1 – 0.3%

Fig 5 contour bunds

Fig 6 bunds along the longitudinal slope of the plot

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 13

4.5 Subsurface drainage

i. Deep open drains

ii. Pipe drains

iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 14

Fig 7 pipe drains fig 8 deep open ditch

5. Where these techniques should be implemented?

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 15

Following districts of Vidarbh Zone have waterlogging problems

Map 3: Maharashtra and Vidarbh region Map 4: Districts in Vidarbh region

Department of Civil Engg., PCCoE, Pune (2016-17) Page 16

Sr Districts Cultivable Percentage Of soil Annual Major crops

1 Akola 455 46.5 9.9 43.5 823.3 Cotton,jowar,

2 Amravati 766 55.9 1.1 42.9 886.4 Soybean, pea,

3 Buldana 740 35.4 8.3 56.3 792.5 Soybean, pea,

4 Chandrapur 451.5 56.6 10.5 25.5 1337 Oilseeds cotton

5 Gadchiroli 253 72.3 20.2 7.4 1428.5 Paddy, pigeon pea

6 Gondia 182.9 78.9 7.9 13.1 1377.9 Rice, pigeon peas