Theory of Mechanisms

Theory of Mechanism Lecture Note DEC
Chapter One
Theory of Mechanisms
Introduction
Kinematics of machine deals with the relative motion of machine parts. Kinematic schemes of
a machine can be investigated without considering the forces. Therefore, the course enables
students to know the techniques necessary to study the motion of machines and mechanisms
and then able them to synthesize and analyze mechanisms. Synthesis of mechanisms is in
order to accomplish desired motions on tasks, where as analysis of mechanisms is in order to
determine their rigid body dynamic behavior.
Machine and Mechanism

Mechanism is a system of elements arranged to transmit motion in a predetermined fashion.
Machine is a system of mechanisms arranged to transmit motion and energy in a
predetermined fashion.
One type of Mechanism another type
Motion of motion
One form of Machine another form of
Energy energy
Fig.1
A mechanism is the mechanical portion of a machine that has the function of transferring
motion and forces from a power source to an output. A mechanism can be considered rigid
parts that are arranged and connected so that they produce the desired motion of the machine.
Mechanism Terminology
As stated, mechanism consists of connected parts with the objective of producing desired
motion.
By Riessom Weldegiorigs 1
Linkage is a mechanism where all parts are connected together to form a closed chain.
Frame/Ground is a part that exhibits no motion.
Links are the individual parts of the mechanism. They are considered rigid bodies and are
connected with other links to transmit motion and forces.
Types of link
• Binary link two nodes
• Ternary link Three nodes
• Quaternary link Four nodes
A joint is a connection between two or more links which allows some motion, or potential
motion, between connected links. The two primary joints are the revolute and sliding
(prismatic) joint.
Revolute – pin or hinge joint- it allows pure rotation between the two links that it connects.
Sliding (prismatic) it allows linear sliding between the links that it connects.
Fig.1 Revolute and Prismatic joint

Joint also called as kinematics pairs and can be classified in mainly on two ways
By the type of contact between the elements as Line, point, or surface
By the number of degree of freedom allowed of the joint
Based on the type of contact they are classified as lower and higher pair. The behaviors of the
mechanism lies in the nature of the connections (kinematics pair), and in the type of relative
motions they permit. The contact between two bodies can be maintained either by
geometrically enclosing one body in the other or with the help of an externally applied force.
Kinematics pairs
Lower pair Higher pair
Lower pair
A pair is said to be a lower when the connection between two elements is through the area of
contact. The six commonly used lower pairs are: Revolute, cylindrical, Prismatic, Spherical
Screw pair, and planer pair.
Fig.2 Lower pair joints

Higher pair
A higher pair is defined as one in which the connection between two elements has only a point
or line contact. The common higher pairs are: Cam and follower, Gear and Bearing (ball and
roller).
Fig.3 Cam and gear mechanisms

Degree of freedom of a kinematic pair is given by the number of independent coordinates
required to completely specify the relative movement of the links joined.
Planer – move in parallel planes
Mechanism
Special – don’t move in parallel planes
Kinematic chain is a series of links connected by kinematic pairs. The chain is said to closed
if every link is connected to at least two other links, otherwise it is an open chain. By the
general theory of mechanisms, mechanism is defined more rigorously as a closed kinamatic
chain in which one link is fixed. So to form as simple closed chain we need at least three links
with three kinematic pairs. However, if one of these three links is fixed there can not be any
relative movement, and so the closed chain doesn’t form a mechanism rather it is a structure
which is completely rigid. Structure is an assemblage of resistant bodies which are not
kinematic links because there is no relative motion between the links. Good examples of
structures are roof trusses, bridges, building etc. The simplest mechanism consisting of a
binary links, each connected by a kinematic pair of the revolute type is known as four bar
mechanism.
Fig. 4 Kinematic representation

Kinematic Circuit Diagram
In analyzing the motion of a machine, it is often difficult to visualize the movement of the
components in a full assembly drawing. It is easier to represent the parts in skeleton form so
that only the dimensions that influence the motion of the mechanism are shown. These
stripped down sketches of mechanisms are often referred to as kinematic diagram. The
purpose of these diagrams is similar to electrical circuit’s schematic or piping diagrams in that
they represent variables that affect the primary function of the mechanism. A kinematic
diagram should be drawn to a scale proportional to the actual mechanism. To avoid confusion,
the joints should be lettered. General procedure of drawing kinematic diagram includes the
following steps:
1. Identifying the ground or frame;
2. Identifying the other links;
3. Identifying the joints;
4. Identifying any point of interest;

5. Draw the kinematic diagram;
Fig.5 Kinematic diagram of actual systems

Kinematic Inversion
From the definition of mechanism it is seen that by fixing the links of a closed chain one at a
time, we get as many different mechanisms as the number of links in the chain. This process
of fixing different links of the same kinematic chain to produce distinct mechanism is called
kinematic inversion. In this process the relative motions of the links of the mechanisms
produced remain unchanged. Consider a simplest kinematic chain a consisting of four binary
links and four revolute pairs.
Fig.4 Four bar mechanism inversions

There are four dissimilar mechanisms that can be obtained by the four different inversions of
the chain. Consider a kinematic link (chain) with four binary links of three revolute and a
prismatic pair. An inversion is created by grounding a different link in the kinematic chain.
Thus are as many inversion of a given linkage as the number of links it has. The motion of a
link in a kinematic chain relative to some other links is the property of the chain and not of the
mechanism. Inversion has no effect on the relative motion. Thus it is important to obtain that
relative motion of links is not changed in any manner through the process of inversion. Fixing
links 1, 2 and 3 in turn, we get three different mechanisms
Fig.5 Four bar slider-crank inversions
The motions resulting from each inversion can be quite different, but some inversions of a
linkage may yield motions similarly to each other inversions of the same linkage. In these
cases only some of the inversions may have distinctly different motions. The four bar slider-
crank linkage, all of which have distinct motion.
Inversion 1 with link 1 as ground and its slider block in pure translation is the most
commonly seen and is used for piston engines and piston pumps.
Inversion 2 is obtained by grounding link 2 and gives the whit worth or crank-shaper quick-
return mechanism, in which the slider block has complex motion.
Inversion 3 is obtained by grounding link 3 and gives the slider block pure rotation.
Inversion 4 is obtained by grounding the slider link 4 and is used in hand operated well pump
mechanisms, in which the handle is link 2 (extended) and link I passed down the well pipe to
move at a piston on its bottom.
Mobility (Degree of Freedom)
It must be remembered that an arbitrary number of links connected by a number of kinematic
pairs do not result in a mechanism. Some conditions must be satisfied for a system of
interconnected links to serve as a useful mechanism. The foremost thing which has to be
investigated is the mobility of a mechanism in terms of the number of degree of freedom. An
important property in mechanism analysis is the number of degrees of freedom of the
mechanism. The degree of freedom is the number of independent input required to precisely
position all links of the mechanism with respect to the ground. It can also be defined as the
number of actuators required to operate the mechanism. The number of degrees of freedom of
a mechanism is also called the mobility.
Gruebler’s Equation
Degrees of freedom for planer mechanisms joined with common joints can be calculated
through Gruebler’s equation:
Let F be the degree of freedom or mobility
n total number of links in a mechanism
jl total number of lower pairs (pin or slider)
j h total number of higher order joints
F = 3( n − 1) − 2 j p − j h
Mechanisms with one degree of freedom are termed as constrained mechanisms most
mechanisms used in machines are constrained. Mechanisms with zero, or negative, degree of
freedom are termed locked mechanisms. These mechanisms are unable to move and form a
structure (truss). Mechanisms with more than one degree of freedom are termed as
unconstrained mechanisms.
Example
Determine the mobility of the given four bar linkage.
Solution
This mechanism has four links and only four revolute joints implies n =4, jl =4, and there is no
higher order pairs like gear, cam etc.
The mobility becomes, F = 3( n − 1) − 2 j p − j h
F = 3(4 − 1) − 2 × 4 − 0
= 9−8
=1
Actuators and Drivers

Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to mechanical form. Device that
accomplishes this conversion is call actuator. The input is generally electrical signal /fluid
power and output is linear or rotary motion. Electrical signal can be low power or high power.
In case of low power signal, additional circuitry is required to drive the actuator otherwise it
can be driven directly. Actuators output can be position or rate i.e. linear displacement or
velocity. Actuation can be from few microns to few meters.
Types of actuators
Electromechanical actuators
Fluid power actuators
Active material based actuators
Selection of actuators
Accuracy and resolution
Power required for actuation
Cost of actuation device
Dynamic response
In order to operate a mechanism an actuator of deriver device is required to provide the input
motion and energy. To precisely operate a mechanism, one driver is required for each degree
of freedom exhibited. Many different actuators are used in industrial and commercial
machines and mechanisms. The most common are electric motors, engines, hydraulic and
pneumatic actuators etc.
Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. It Works mainly on electromagnetism
principle. Can work on DC or AC supply
Fig.6 Electrical Motor

AC motor
Electric motors DC motor
Electric motor and Engines generate continuous rotational motion
motor
Electrical Mechanical
Energy kinetic energy (rotational)
It is applicable for high power application

Chemical engine Mechanical
Energy kinetic energy
Fuel (rotational)
Servomotors are motors that are coupled with a controller to produce a programmed motion.
Motor + feedback unit = Servomotor

Servo motors have lower power capacity then non servomotors and are very expensive, but
they can be used for machines requires precisely guided motion.
Physical construction of hydraulic motors is same as pump they produce continuous rotary
motion and are similar to electric motors. They are mostly used in construction equipment like
crane, dozers …etc.
Hydraulic / pneumatic cylinders
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are under fluid power. For hydraulic fluid is typically
liquid like oil or water. For pneumatics the commonly used fluid is air. It requires pressurized
fluid for operation. These actuators are common components used to drive a mechanism with
a limited linear stroke.
Fig.7 Hydraulic System

Manual or hand mechanisms comprise a large number of machines or hand tools. The motions
expected from human ‘actuators’ can be quite complex.
Four bar chain
At least a minimum of four bar kinematics pairs are required to form a mechanism, arranged
in such a way that they transmit motion according to a definite law. The basic four bar
kinematic chain has 4 turning or revolute pairs at each end of the links.
Fig.8 Four bar linkage
Oscillatory Motion (crank lever mechanism)

By properly proportioning the length of the links we can obtain an oscillatory motor. If link 1
rotates link 3 oscillates on particular arc. Complete rotation of the crank and the follower
(double crank)
Fig.9 Crank-rocker
The mechanism is for a drag link quick return motion. The crank moves through an angle β
on the working stroke and through an angle α on the return stroke. Thus time of working
stroke is β times more or the return is β time quicker.
α α
Let the total time be t1 + t 2 = t

The speed of rotation ω from basic kinematics rotations
β
Working time t1 = Return time t 2 = α
ω ω
α
α
The time ratio becomes 2 = ω =
t t2
since β > α then < 1 ⇒ t 2 < t1 therefore, it takes less
t1 β β t1
ω
time to return than to work implies quick return. The necessary condition to satisfy is the
shortest link is always the stationary link sum of the shortest and the longest links of the four
bar are less than the sum of other two.
Coupled wheels of a locomotive
Rotary motion from one wheel to the other wheel can be transmitted by this kinematic scheme.
Fig.10 Coupler wheel
Both the links 2 and 4 work as cranks and 3 is the coupling rod.
Pantograph (double level mechanism)
When it is desired to duplicate some motion exactly but to a reduced or enlarged scale
pantograph is used.
Fig.11 Pantograph
Shown that the points P, Q and R always move parallel and similar to each other over any path
straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distances from the fixed point.
Let O, P, Q and R lie on links CD, DA, AB and BC respectively. ABCD is the initial assumed
position as shown in Fig.
Let the linkage be moved to another position so that A moves to A’, B to B and so on.
In∆ ODP and OCR,
O, P and R lie on a straight line and thus OP and OR coincide.
< DOP = < COR (Common angle)
< ODP = < OCR (Q DP // CR )

Therefore, ∆s are similar and
OD OP DP
= = (i)
OC OR CR
Now, A′B ′ = AB = DC = D ′C ′
and B ′C ′ = BC = AD = A′D ′
Therefore, A′B ′C ′D ′ is again a parallelogram.
In ∆s OD ′P ′ and OC ′R ′,
OD ′ OD DP
= = [ from(i)]
OC ′ OC CR
D ′P ′
=
C ′R ′
and
< D ′OP ′ = < C ′OR ′ ( D ′P ′ // C ′B ′ as A′B ′C ′D ′ is a // gm)
Thus ∆s are similar.
< D ′OP ′ = < C ′OR ′
O, P and R ′ Lie on a straight line.
Show
OP OD
= [ from (i)]
OR OC
OD ′
=
OC ′
OP ′
= (Q ∆s OD ′P ′ and OC ′R ′ are similar )
OR ′
This shows that as the linkage is moved, the ratio of the distances of P and the fixed point
remains same or the two points are displaced proportional to their distances from the fixed
point. This will be true for all the functions of the links. Thus P and R will trace exactly
similar paths. Similarly, it can also be proved that P and Q trace similar paths. Thus P, and R
trace similar paths when the linkage is given motion.
Greshof’s Law
It states that the sum of the shortest and the longest links of a planer four bar linkage cannot be
greater than the sum of the remaining two links if there is to be continuous relative rotation
between two links. Consideration while designing a mechanism to be driven by a motor,
obviously, is to ensure that the input link can make complete revolution. l + S < p + q
Fig.12 Four bar linkage
Double solider crank chain

It is a four bar kinematic chain containing two revolute pairs and two prismatic pairs such that
two pairs of the same kind are adjacent.
First inversion
This inversion is obtained when link 1 is fixed and the two adjacent pairs 2-3 and 3-4 are
turning pairs and the other two pairs 1-2 and 1-4 are sliding pairs.
Application elliptical trammel
Fig.13 Elliptical trammel

The sliders, any point C on the link 3 except the midpoint of AB will trace an ellipse on a
fixed plate. The midpoint of AB will trace a circle. Let at any instant, link 3 makes angle θ
with the x-axis considering the displacements of the sliders from the center of the trammel.
X = BC cos θ and Y = AC sin θ
X Y
⇒ Cosθ = ⇒ Sinθ =
BC AC
2 2
 X   Y 
 +   = sin θ + cos θ =1
2 2
Squaring and adding 
 AB   BC 
This is the equation of an ellipse. Therefore, the path traced by C is an ellipse with the semi-
major and semi-manor axes being equal to AC and AB respectively. When C is the midpoint
of AB, AC = BC .Which is the equation of a circle with AC = BC as the radius of the circle.
X2 Y2
+ = 1 ⇒ X 2 + Y 2 = ( AC ) 2
( AC )2
( AC )2
Second Inversion
If any of the slide blocks of the first inversion is fixed the second inversion of the double slider
crank chain is obtained when link 4 is fixed, end B of crank 3 rotates about A and link 1
reciprocates in the horizontal direction.
Applications scotch yoke
It is used to convert the rotary motion into a sliding motion as crank 3 rotates, the horizontal
portion of link 4 slides or reciprocates in the fixed link 4
Fig.14 Scotch yoke

Third inversion (Oldham’s coupling)
Is a method to transfer torque between two parallel but not collinear shafts. It has three discs,
one coupled to the input, one coupled to the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first
two by tongue and groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue
and groove on the other.
Fig.15 Oldham Coupling

Number Synthesis
The term number synthesis has been coined to mean the determination of the number and
order of links and joints necessary to produce motion of particular DOF.
Order is the number of nodes per link
Binary
Ternary
Quaternary
The value of number synthesis is to allow the exhaustion determination of all possible
combinations of links which will yield any chosen DOF.
Hypothesis
If all joints are full joints, an odd number of DOF requires an even number of links and vice
verse.
Proof
For any positive integers n and m
2m-1 and 2n-1 denotes odd integer
2m and 2n denotes even integer
The number of joints must be a positive integer
Let L = number of links
J = number of joints
F = Degree of freedom
Gruebler’s equation F = 3 (L-1) – 2J
3 F
The numbers of joints become J = ( L − 1) − (*)
2 2
Trial -1
For both DOF and link number be even number
F= 2m and L = 2n
3 2m
J= (2n-1) -
2 2
J = 3n − m − 3 cannot be a positive integer

2
Trial – 2
Both DOF and number of link be an odd number
F = 2m – 1 and L = 2n – 1
3
J= (L − 1) − F
2 2
=
3
(2n − 1 − 1) − 2m − 1
2 2
= 3n − m - 7 can not be positive integer

2
Trial – 3
Odd and Even combination
F = 2m-1 and L= 2n
J= 3
2
(L − 1) − F n
= 3
2
(2n − 1) − (2m − 1)
2
= 3n − m -2 for m ≥1 and n ≥ 2
Trial - 4
F = 2m and L = 2n – 1
J= 3
2
(2n − 1) − 2m
2
= 3n − m − 3 for for m ≥1 and n ≥ 2
Therefore the above hypothesis is true. So for one degree of freedom (Constrained
mechanism) we can have only even number of links.
Minimum number of binary links in a constrained mechanism
Let n2 = number of binary links
n3 = number of ternary links
n4 = number of quaternary links

Then, the total number of links is
n = n 2 + n3 + n 4 + − − − ni (1)
Each simple hinge consists of two elements. Thus the total number of elements in the
mechanism is
e= 2j (2)
Where j is the number of simple joint (hinges) it is seen that a binary link has two elements,
similarly, a ternary link will have three elements, and so on.
Thus, e = 2n 2 + 3n3 + − − − −ini (3)
2j = 2n 2 + 3n 3 +4n4 − − − − − ini (4)

To satisfy Gruebler’s equation
F= 3(n-1) - 2j = 1 for constrained mechanism
2j + 4 – 3n = 0 (5)
On substitution 2n 2 +3n3 + 4n 4 + − − −ini − 3(n 2 + n3 + n 4 + − − −ni ) + 4 = 0
− n 2 + n 4 + 2n5 + 3n6 + − − −(i − 3) ni + 4 = 0

i
n 2 = 4 + n 4 + 2n5 + 3n6 + − − − − (i − 3) ni = 4 + ∑ (i − 3) ni (6)
4
So, the minimum number of binary links is four that is, the four bar linkage is the simplest
mechanism. The next higher order mechanism starts with n = 6 and then 8 etc. Note what is
missing from the above equation. The ternary link has dropped out. This indicated the DOF is
independent of the number of ternary links in the mechanism. But because each ternary link
has three nodes, it can only create or remove 3 joints. So we must add or subtract ternary
2
links in pairs to maintain an integer number of joints. The addition or subtraction of ternary
links in pair will not affect the DOF of the mechanism.
General Degree of freedom

To obtain all compatible combinations of links for 1 degree of freedom (constrained
mechanism) up to 8 links.
For 4 number of links
n = 4 = n 2 + n3 + n 4 + n5 + n 6 (1)
n 2 = 4 + n4 + 2n5 + 3n6 (2)
4 = (4 + n 4 + 2n3 + 3n 6 ) + n3 + n 4 + n5 + n6
0= n3 + 2n 4 + 3n5 + 4n6 = 0 ⇒ n3 = n 4 = n5 = n6 = 0
n 2 = 4 (The simplest 1 DOF linkage)
For 6 number of links

6 = n 2 + n3 + n 4 + n 5 + n6 (1)
n 2 = 4 + n 4 + 2n5 + 3n6 (2)
2 = n3 + 2n3 + 3n5 + 4n6 ⇒ n5 = n 6 = 0
If n4 = 0 then n3 = 2
6 = n 2 + 2n3 ⇒ n2 = 4
If n4 = 1 then n3 = 0
6 = n2 + 1 ⇒ n2 = 5
There are then two possibilities for L = 6. Note that one of them is in fact the simpler four bars
with two ternaries added as was predicted above.
Straight Line Motion
The modern practice is to produce straight line motions with the help of sliders. Most of the
mechanisms that were developed to generate straight line motion without the help of sliders
were popular before the plane surface could be machined accurately. However, some of the
mechanisms are still quite useful. These mechanisms are broadly classified in two parts.
i) Mathematically exact straight line
ii) Approximate straight line
Exact straight line mechanisms
Paucelliar mechanism
It consists of eight links such that
OA = OQ AB = AC BP = PC = CQ = QB and OA is the fixed link and OQ is a
rotating link. It can be proved that as the link OQ moves around O, P moves in a straight line
perpendicular to OA.
All the joints are pin-jointed
Since BPCQ is a rhombus
QP always be sect the angle BQC
CQˆ P ≡ PQˆ B
Also in triangles AQC and AQB
Fig.16 Paucellier mechanism
AC = AB AQ is common
QC = QB
AQˆ B ≡ AQˆ C
Therefore ∆ AQC ≡ ∆ AQB moreover,
PQˆ C + AQˆ C = PQˆ B + AQˆ B = 180 0 Since A, Q, P lie on a straight line

Let PP ′ be the perpendicular on AO produced triangle ∆ AQQ ′ and ∆ APP ′ are similar
∆ AQQ ′ ~ ∆ APP ′
QAˆ Q ′ ≡ PAˆ P ′ Common angle
AQˆ Q ′ ≡ APˆ ′P = 90 0
Therefore ∆ AQQ ′ ~ ∆APP ′ by Angle Angle similarity
If two triangles are similar all the corresponding sides are proportional.
AQ AQ ′
=
AP ′ AP
( AQ ′) ( AP ′) = ( AQ) ( AP)
= (AR-RQ) (AR+PR)
= (AR-RQ) (AR+RQ)
= (AR) 2 – (RQ) 2
= (AC) 2 – (CQ) 2
( AC ) 2 − (CQ ) 2
⇒ AP ′ =
AQ ′
AC , CQ and AQ ′ are always fixed (constant). This means that the projection of P and AQ
produced is constant for all the configurations. Thus PP ′ is always a normal to AO produced
or P moves in a straight line perpendicular to AO.
Hart Mechanism
A hart mechanism consists of six links such that AB = CD, AD = BC and OE = OQ. OE is the
fixed link and OQ the rotating link. The links arranged is such a way that ABDC is a
trapezium (AC parallel to BD) pin E and Q on the links AB and AD respectively, and the
point P in the link CB are located in such a way that.
AE AQ CP
= =
AB AD CB
Fig.17 Hart mechanism

It can be shown that as OQ rotates about O, P moves in a line perpendicular to EO produced.
AE AQ
in ∆ ABD = (given)
AB AD
Therefore, EQ is parallel to BD and thus parallel to AC
AE AP
in ∆ ABC = ( given)
AB CB
Therefore, EP is parallel to AC and thus parallel to BD now, EQ and EP are both parallel to
AC and BD and have a point E in common; therefore, EQP is a straight line
∆ EAQ and ∆ ABD Are similar
EQ AE  AE 
= or EQ = BD ×  
BD AB  AB 
∆ BEP and ∆ BAC Are similar (because EP//AC)
EP BE BE
= or EP = AC ×
AC BA AB
∆ EQQ ′ and EP ′P Are similar, because
QEˆ Q ′ or PEˆ P ′ is common and EQˆ Q ′ = EPˆ ′P = 90 0

EQ EQ ′
= = EQ ′ × EP ′ = EQ × EP
EP ′ EP
 AE   BE 
=  BD ×   AC × 
 AB   AB 
AE × BE AE × BE
EP ′ = = [( BF + FD)( BF − FD)]
( EQ ′)( AB ) 2
( EQ ′)( AB ) 2
AE × BE
= [( BF + FD)( BF − FD)]
( EQ ′)( AB ) 2
AE × BE
=
( EQ ′)( AB ) 2
[{ } {
( BC ) 2 − (CF ) 2 − (CD ) 2 − (CD ) 2 − (CF ) 2 }]
AE × BE
=
( EQ ′)( AB ) 2
[
( BC ) 2 − (CD ) 2 ]
Thus EP ′ is always constant. Therefore, the projection of P on EO produced is always the
same point or P moves in a straight line perpendicular to EO.
Watt Mechanism
It is a very simple mechanism. It has four links OQ, OA QB and AB. OQ is a fixed link OA
and QB can oscillate about centers O and Q respectively.
Fig.18 Watt mechanism
It is seen that is P is a point on the link AB such that PA = QB then for small
PB OA
oscillations of OA and QB, P will trace an approximate straight line. In earlier times, the
mechanism was used by watt to guide the piston, as it was difficult to machine plane surface.
Automobile Steering Gears

When an automobile takes turn on a road, all the wheels should make concentric circle to
ensure that they roll on the road smoothly and there is a line contact between the tyres and the
surface of the path, preventing the excess wear of the tyres. This is achieved by mounting the
two front wheels on two short axles, known as stab axles. The stab axles are pin-jointed with
the main front axle (known as stab axles) which is rigidly attached to the reel axle. Thus the
steering is affected by the use of front wheels only. When the vehicle is making a tarn towards
one side, must swing about the pin through a greater angle than the wheel of the other side.
Fundamental equation of Gearing
The ideal relation between the swings of the two wheels would be if the axis of the stub axles,
when produced, intersects at a point I on the common axis of the two rear wheels. In this case,
all the wheels of the vehicle will move about a vertical axis through I, minimizing the
tendency of the wheels to skid.
Let Q and φ be angles turned by the stub axles
l = wheal base
ω = distance between the pivots of front axles
Fig. 19 Steering mechanism

PT QT
Cot φ = and cot θ =
TJ TJ
PT − QT PQ ω
cot φ − cot θ = = =
TJ TI L
This is known as the fundamental equation of correct gearing mechanisms that fulfill this
fundamental equation are known as steering gears.
Types of steering gears
There are two main types of steering gears namely:
1. The Davis steering Gear
2. The Ackermann steering Gear
A Davis steering gear has sliding pairs which mean friction and easy wearing. The gear fulfils
the fundamental equation of gearing in all the positions. However, due to easy wearing it
becomes inaccurate after some time.
An Ackermann steering gear has only turning pairs and thus is preferred. Its drawback is that
it fulfills the fundamental equation of correct gearing at the middle and the two extreme
positions and not in all positions.
Davis Steering Gear

It consists of two arms PK and QL fixed to stub axles PC and QD to form two similar ball-
crank levers CPK and DQL pivoted at P and Q respectively. A cross link AB, constrained to
slide parallel to PQ, is pin-jointed at its ends to two sliders. The sliders S1 and S 2 are free to
slide on the links PK and QL respectively. During the straight motion of the vehicle, the gear
is in the mid-position with equal inclination of the arms PK and QL with PQ
As the vehicle turns right, the cross arm AB also moves right through a distance X from the
mid-position.
\Fig.21 Davis steering gear

The bell-crank levers assume the positions C ′PK ′ and D ′QL ′
Let h = vertical distance between AB and PQ
y−x
tan ( x − Q ) =
h
tan x − tan Q y−x y
= tan α =
1 + tan α tan θ h h
y − tan θ
h y−x y − h tan θ y−x
= ⇒ =
1 + y tan θ h xh + y tan θ h
h
( y − h tan θ ) h = (h + y tan θ )( y − x)
yh − h 2 tan θ = hy − hx = h 2 tan θ − xy tan θ
hx = ( y 2 − xy + h 2 ) tan θ
hx
tan θ =
y − xy + h 2
2
y+x hx
Also tan(α + ψ ) = and it can be proved that tanψ = 2
h y + xy + h 2
ω
For connect steering action cot ψ − cot θ =
l
y 2 + xy + h 2 y 2 − xy + h 2 ω
− =
hx hx l
2 xy ω y ω ω
= ⇒ = tan α =
hx l h l 2l
Usually value of ω is between 0.4 to 0.5 and that of x from 11 to 14 degrees.

l
Ackermann steering Gear
This steering gear consists of a four bar link mechanism PABQ having four-turning pairs. Two
equal arms PA and QB are fixed to the stub axles PC and QD to form two similar bell-crank
levers CPA and DQB pivoted at P and Q respectively. A cross link AB is pin jointed at the
ends to the two bell-crank levers.
During the straight motion of the vehicle, the gear is in the mid-position with equal inclination
of the arms PA and QB with PQ. The cross link AB is parallel to PQ in this position
Fig.22 Ackerman steering gear
An Ackermann gear does not fulfill the fundamental equation of correct gearing in all the
positions but only in three positions.
If the values of PA, PQ and the angle α are known, the mechanism can be drawn to a noted
for different values of θ . This angle ψ found by drawing the gear may be termed as ψ
(actual). Correct or theoretical values of ψ corresponding to different values of θ , for the
given values of ω and l can be calculated from the relation for correct gearing
ω
cot ψ − cot θ =
l
The angle so obtained may be termed ψ t (theoretical). Comparingψ a and ψ t , following
observations are made:
1. For small values of θ 1 ψ a is marginally higher than ψ t
2. For larger values of θ 1 ψ a is lower than ψ t and the difference is substantial.
This for larger values of θ on when the vehicle is taking a sharp turn, the wear of the tyres can
be more due to slipping. However, to take sharp turns, the vehicle had to be slow down, which
reduces the wear of the tyres. Thus the large difference between ψ a abd ψ t does not affect
much the life of tyres. In an Ackermann gear, the instantaneous center ‘I’ does not lie on the
rear axis but on a line parallel to the rear axis at an approximate distance of 0.3 l above it.
Three positions of the correct gearing are
1. when the vehicle moves straight
2. when the vehicle moves at a correct angle to right, and
3. When the vehicle moves at a correct angle to the left.
In all other positions, pure rolling is not possible due to slipping of the wheel. Graphically, the
two positions of the correct gearing are found by finding ( cot ψ − cot θ ) at different positions.
The values that give the correct values of ω ≈ 0.45 correspond to correct gearing. To
l
determine the angle α , assume that the projections of AB and A′B ′ on PQ are equal.
Therefore, Projection of BB ′ on PQ = projection of AA′ on PQ.
QB [sin(α + θ ) − sin α ] = PA [sin α + sin (ψ − α )]
sin(α + θ ) − sin α + sin (ψ − α )
(sin α cos θ + cos α sin θ ) − sin α + sin ψ cos α − cos ψ sin α
sin α (cos θ + cosψ − 2) = cos α (sinψ − sin θ )

sin α sinψ − sin θ sinψ − sin θ
= ⇒ tan α =
cos α cos θ + cosψ − 2 cos θ + cosψ − 2
When θ and ψ are the values of angles for the correct gearing.
Hooke’s joint
A Hooke’s joint, commonly known as a universal joint, is used to connect two non-parallel
and intersecting shafts. It is also used for shafts with angular misalignment. A common
application of this joint is in automobile where it is used to transmit power from the gear box
to the rear axle. The driving shaft rotates at a uniform angular a speed where as the driven
shaft rotates at a continuously varying angular speed. A complete revolution of the shaft will
cause the other to rotate through a complete revolution in the same time, but with varying
angular speed. Each shaft has a fork are connected by a centre piece, the arms of rests in the
bearings, provided in the fork ends. The centre piece can be in the shape of a cross, square on
sphere. The four arms of the cross are at right angles.
Fig.23 Hooke’s joint
Fig.24 Rotation circles
tan l EC1′ / EO
=
tan θ EC1 / EO
EC1′ ec1′ ec1

= = =
EC1 ec"1 ec"1
1
=
ec"1 / ec1
1
= or
cos α
tan θ = cos α tan ϕ (1.2)
Angular Velocity Ratio
 dθ 
Let ω1 = angular velocity of driving shaft  = 
 dt 
 dϕ 
ω 2 = angular velocity of driven shaft  = 
 dt 
Differentiating Eq. 1.2 with respect to time t,
dθ dϕ
sec 2 θ = cos α sec 2 ϕ
dt dt
dϕ / dt sec θ
2
Or =
dθ / dt cos α sec 2 ϕ
ω2 1
=
ω1 cos θ cos α (1 + tan 2 ϕ )
2
1  tan θ 
= L  tan ϕ = 
 tan θ  
2
cos α 
cos θ cos a 1 +
2

 cos α 
2
1
=
 sin 2 θ 
cos 2 θ cos α 1 + 
 cos θ cos α 
2 2
cos 2θ cos 2 α
=
cos 2 θ cos α (cos 2 θ cos 2 α + sin 2 θ )
cos α
=
cos θ (1 − sin 2 α ) + sin 2 θ
2
cos α
=
cos θ − cos θ sin 2 α + sin 2 θ
2 2
cos α
= (1.2)
1 − sin 2 α cos 2 θ
ω2 cos α
(i) is unity when =1
ω1 1 − sin 2 α cos 2 θ
cos α = 1 − sin 2 α cos 2 θ
or
ω2 cos α cos α 1
= = = (1.3)
ω1 1 − sin α cos α cos α
2 2
1 − cos a
cos 2 θ =
sin 2 a
1 − cos a
=
1 − cos 2 a
1 − cos a
=
(1 + cos a )(1 − cos a )
1
=
1 + cos a
2  sin θ 
2
cos θ 
 + 1 
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ  cos θ
2

= =
1 + cos a 1 + cos a
sin 2 θ
+ 1 = 1 + cos a
cos 2 θ
tan 2 θ = cos a
tan θ = ± cos a (1.4)
Thus ω 2 = ω1 or the velocities of the driven and the driving shafts are equal when the
condition is fulfilled. This is possible once in all the four quadrants the particular values of θ
if α is constant.
ω2
(ii) is minimum when the denominator of Eq. (1.2) is maximum, i.e. (1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ )
ω1
is maximum.
This is so when cos 2 θ is minimum,
Or θ = 90 0 or 270 0
Then,
ω2
= cos a (1.5)
ω1
ω2
(iii) is maximum when the denominator of Eq. (1.2) is minimum,
ω1
i.e. (1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ ) is minimum, or θ = 0 0 or 180 0
Theory of Machines
ω2 cos a cos a 1
And = = =
ω1 1 − sin a cos a cos a
2 2
The variation in the speed of the driven shaft corresponding to the rotation of the driving shaft
can be determined as follows. Points ‘e’ correspond to the angular displacements of the
driving shaft when the angular velocity of the driven shaft is equal to that of the driving shaft.
Points ‘min’ and ‘max’ correspond to the angular displacements of the driving shaft when the
angular speeds of the driven shaft are the minimum and the maximum respectively.
Graphically, the variation of angular velocity of the driven shaft can be represented by an
ellipse whereas that of the driving shaft by a circle. Such a diagram is known as a polar
velocity diagram.
Minimum variation of velocity of the driven shaft of its mean velocity

ω 2 max − ω 2 min
=
ω mean
But ω mean of the driven shaft is equal to the angular velocity ω1 of the driving shaft as both the
shafts complete one revolution in the same period of time.
ω / cosa − ω1 cos a
Maximum variation = 1 (1.6)
ω1
1 − cos 2 α sin 2 α
= =
cos α cos α
= tan α sin α (1.7)
If a is small, i.e. the angle between the axes of the two shafts is small, sin α ≈ tan α ≈ α .
Maximum variation ≈ α 2
Angular Acceleration of Driven Shaft

Differentiating Eq. (6.5) with respect to time (ω1 = cons tan t )
dω 2 d  cos a 
= ω1  
dt dt  1 − sin a cos θ 
2 2
dθ d  cos a 
Or acceleration = ω1 .  
dt dθ  1 − sin a cos θ 
2 2
d
= ω12 cos a (1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ ) −1
dθ
= ω12 cos a (−1)(1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ ) −2
(− sin 2 a )(2 cos θ )(− sin θ )
− ω12 cos a sin 2 a sin 2θ

= (1.8)
(1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ ) 2
d (acc)
This is maximum or minimum when =0. The resulting expression being very
dθ
cumbersome, the result can be approximate to
2 sin 2 a
cos 2θ ≈ (1.9)
2 − sin 2 a
This gives the maximum acceleration of the driven shaft corresponding to values of θ in the
second and the fourth quadrants whereas the minimum acceleration (maximum retardation)
corresponds to θ values in the first and the third quadrants.
Care is to be taken to keep the angle between the two shafts to the minimum possible and not
to attach excessive masses to the driven shaft. Otherwise, very high alternating stresses due to
the angular acceleration and condition will be set up in the parts of the joint, which are
undesirable.
Example 1
The driving shaft of a Hooke’s joint rotates at a uniform speed of 400rmp. If the maximum
variation in speed of the driven shaft is ± 5% of the mean speed, determine the greatest
permissible angle between the axes of the shafts. What are the maximum and the minimum
speeds of the driven that
Solution:
N1 = 400 rpm
Maximum variation in speed = 0.1 K (0.05 + 0.05 = 0.1)
1 − cos 2 a
Or = 0 .1
cos a
1 − cos 2 a − 0.1 cos a = 0
cos 2 a + 0.1 cos a = 1
(cos a + 0.05) 2 = 1 + (0.05) 2 = 1.0025 = (1.001 25) 2

Or
cos a = 1.00125 − 0.05 = 0.95125
a = 17.69 0 or17 0 58′

N1 400
Maximum speed of driven shaft = =
cos a 0.95125
Minimum speed of driven shaft = N1 cos a = 400 × 0.95125
= 380.5 rpm
Double Hooke’s Joint
In a single Hooke’s joint, the speed of the driven shaft is not uniform although the driving
shaft rotates at a uniform speed. To get a uniform velocity ratio, a double Hooke’s joint has to
be used. In a double Hooke’s joint, two universal joints and an intermediate shaft are used. If
the angular misalignment between each shaft and the intermediate shaft is equal, the driving
and the driven shafts remain in exact angular alignment, through the intermediate shaft rotates
with the varying speed. A single Hooke’s joint was analyzed assuming the axes of the two
shafts and the fork of the driving shaft to be horizontal. The results showed that the speed of
the driven shaft is the same after an angular displacement of 1800. Therefore, it is immaterial
whether the driven shaft makes the angle a with the axis of the driving shaft to its lift or its
right. Thus to have a constant velocity ratio: the driving and the driven shafts should make
equal angles with the intermediate shaft and the forks of the intermediate shaft should lie in
the same plane. Let y be the angle turned by the intermediate shaft 3 while the angle turned
by the driving shaft 1 and the driven shaft 2 be θ and ϕ respectively as before (Fig. 6.29)
Then, tan θ = cos a tan y (fork of shaft 1 horizontal)
and tan ϕ = cos a tan y (fork of shaft 2 horizontal)
θ =ϕ
∴ This type of joint can be used for two intersecting shafts a well as for two parallel shafts.
However, if somehow the forks of the intermediate shafts lie in planes perpendicular to each
other, the variation of speed of the driven shaft will be there.
 ω3 
  = cos a (Fork of shaft 1 horizontal)
 ω1  min
 ω2 
  = cos a (Fork of shaft 3 horizontal)
 ω3  min
 ω2 
  = cos 2 a (6.13)
 ω1  min
 ω2  1
Similarly,   = (6.14)
 ω1
2
 min cos a
Fig.25 Double Hooke’s joint
Therefore, the maximum variation (fluctuation) of speed of the driven shaft is from
cos 2 α to 1 / cos 2 α .
Example 3
The driving shaft of a double Hooke’s joint rotates at 400 rpm. The angle of the driving and of
the driven shaft with respect to the intermediate shaft as 200. If somehow the forks of the
intermediate shaft lie in planes perpendicular to each other, determine the maximum and the
minimum velocities of the driven shaft.
Solution:
ω 2 min = ω1 cos 2 α or
N 2 min = N 1 cos 2 α = 400 × cos 2 20 0
= 353.2 rpm
N1 400
N 2 max = =
cos a cos 2 20 0
2
= 453 rpm
Chapter Two
Position and Displacement Analysis
Objective: upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to
Define position and displacement of a point
Graphically and analytically determine the position of all links in a mechanism as the
driver link is displaced.
Graphically and analytically determine the limiting positions of a mechanism
For many mechanisms, the sole purpose of analysis is to determine the location of all links as
the mechanism is moved into position.
Position
The primary purpose of kinematic analysis is to study the motion of a mechanism motion
occurs when the position of the links, and the reference points, that comprise the mechanism
are changed. As the positions of the links are altered, the mechanism is forced into a different
configuration and motion proceeds.
The position of a point on a mechanism is the spatial location of that point. As a mechanism
moves into a new configuration a point attached to the mechanism moves along with it. The
position of the point can be visually seen by drawing the point on the mechanism or on its
kinematic diagram.
A common practice used to identify the position of a point is with coordinates in a reference
coordinate system. An important property of a mechanism is the mobility or number of
degrees of freedom. For linkages with one degree of freedom, the position of one link or point
can precisely determine the position of all other links or points. Likewise, for linkages with
two degrees of freedom, the position of two links can precisely determine the position of all
other links. Therefore, the positions of points and links in a mechanism are not arbitrary and
independent.
The degrees of freedom are the number of independent parameters required to specify the
position of every link in a mechanism. The independent parameters are the position of certain
driver links. Most practical linkages have one degree of freedom. A primary goal of position
analysis is to determine the resulting position of the points on a mechanism as a function of
the position of some driver points.
Displacement
Displacement is the end product of motion it is a vector that represents the distance between
the starting and ending positions of a point. Two types of displacements are considered here:-
Linear displacement
Angular displacement
Linear Displacement: - is the straight line distance between an original position of a point on
a mechanism and some later position. It is not influenced by the path or distance that a point
travels during motion. Linear displacement is simply the straight line distance between the
starting and ending position during a time interval under consideration.
Angular Displacement: - is the angular distance between two positions of a rotating link. Any
rotation of a single point is ignored. The angular displacement is the angle between the starting
and ending orientation of the link. The link may rotate a few degrees on several revolutions.
Of course, a direction is needed to fully define a vector. For linear displacement, the direction
can be identified by an angle from a reference axis to the line that connects the two positions.
The sense of the vector is obtained from the line that connects the initial position and is
directed toward the final position. For angular displacement the direction is stated as
clockwise or counter clockwise.
When graphical displacement analysis is employed on a CAD system, rotating links is not
difficult. The lines that comprise the link can be duplicated and rotated to yield the relocated
entities. Once the driver link is repositioned, the position of all other links must be determined.
To accomplish this, the possible paths of all links that are connected to the frame can be
constructed. For links that are pined to the frame, all points on the link can only rotate relative
to the frame. Thus, the possible paths of those points are circles, centered at the pen
connecting the link to the frame.
Form the rigidity concept, the length of link 3 does not change during motion. Although link 2
has been repositioned the length between points B and C does not change. To summarize the
facts of this position analysis, the following is known
1. Point B has been moved to B ′
2. Point C must always lay on its possible path, and
3. The length between B and C must stay constant.
Fig. 2.1
From these facts, the new position of link 3 can be constructed. The length of link BC should
be measured because B has been moved to B ′ , an arc of length BC is constructed with its
center at B ′ . By sweeping this arc, the feasible path of point C ′ has been determined.
Therefore, point C ′ has been located; the position of links 3 and 4 can be drawn. Thus, the
configuration of the mechanism as the driver link was repositioned has been determined.
Example
For the kinematic diagram of a mechanism that is driven by moving link 2 is shown below.
Graphically reposition the links of mechanism as link 2 is displaced 300 counter clockwise.
Also determine the resulting displacement of point E.
Fig. 2.2
Solution:
1. Mobility calculation
To verity that the mechanism is uniquely positioned by moving one link its mobility can be
calculated six links are labeled. Notice that three of these links are connected at point C. This
arrangement must be counted as two pin joints. Therefore, a total of six pin joints is tallied
one sliding joint connects links 1 and 6, no gear or cam joints exist.
n=6 il = 6 + 1 = 7 jh = 0
F = 3 (n − 1) − 2 j l − j h = 3(6 − 1) − 2(7) − 0 = 15 − 14 = 1
Reposition the driving link graphically rotating 300 counter clockwise, locating the position of
point B ′ .
The remaining part is left as an assignment for the students to do it on them selves.
Rigid Body motion
A rigid body undergoes three different motions:
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. General rigid body motion
Translation: If a rigid body undergoes a translation all points on the body have the same
displacement. As a result the link retains its angular orientation note that the translation need
not be along a straight path. There is no rotation of the link if these paths are parallel.
Rotation: If a rigid body undergoes rotation different points in the body undergoes different
displacements and thus there is a displacement difference between any two points chosen.
General plane motion: It is the sum of translation and rotation components. The resulting
displacement will be the same whether you first rotate and then translate or vice versa.
Total displacement = translation comp + rotation com
Euler’s theorem: The general displacement of a rigid body with one point fixed is a rotation
about some axis
Chasles’ theorem: Any displacement of a rigid body is equivalent to the sum of a translation
of any one point on that body and a rotation of the body about an axis through that point.
Position Analytical Analysis
Generally speaking, analytical methods can be used in position analysis to yield results with a
higher degree of accuracy. This accuracy comes with a price in that the methods often become
numerically intensive. A more straight forward method of position analysis involves using the
laws of trigonometry. In general this method involves inserting reference lines with in a
mechanism and analyzing the triangles. Laws of general and right triangles are then used to
determine the length of the triangle sides and the magnitude of the interior angles. A
substantial benefit of analysis is the ability to alter dimensions and quickly recalculate a
solution/ during the design stages, may machine configurations and dimensions are evaluated.
Example
A toggle clamp used to securely hold parts. Analytically determine the displacement of the
clamp surface as the handle rotates down ward 150.
Fig. 2.3
Solution
1. Draw the kinematic circuit diagram
Fig.
2. Analyze the geometry
Prior to observing the mechanism in a displaced configuration all properties of the original
configuration must be determined the internal angle BCˆ A can be determined from the law of
sines
sin( ABˆ C ) sin( BCˆ A)

=
BC AB
 AB  
BCˆ A = sin −1   sin( BAˆ C )
 BC  
 50  
= sin −1   sin 30 0 
 40  
= 38.68 0
Using the sum of all anterior angles of a triangle
ABˆ C = 180 0 − (30 0 + 38.68 0 ) = 111.32 0
The length side AC represents the original position of the slider and can be determined from
the law of cosines
AC = ( AB )a + (BC )2 − 2( AB)( BC ) cos ( ABˆ C )
= (50) 2 + (40) 2 − 2(50)(40) cos (111.32 0 )
= 74.52 mm
3. Analyze the geometry in the displaced configuration
When the handle is rotated downward 150, Note that this displacement yields an interior angle
at joint A, C ′AB ′ , of 15 0 . The law of sine can be used to find the interior angle at joint C ′
 AB ′   −1  50  0
B ′Cˆ ′A = sin −1   sin C ′Aˆ B ′ = sin   sin 15 
 B ′C ′    40  
= 18.88 0
Then the interior angle ABˆ ′C ′ can be found because the sum of all interior angles in any
triangle must total 1800
ABˆ ′C ′ = 180 0 − (15 0 + 18.88 0 ) = 146.12 0
The length AC ′ represents the displaced position of the slider. As before it can be determined
from the law of cosines
AC ′ = ( AB ′) 2 + ( B ′C ′) 2 − 2( AB ′)( B ′C ′) cos ABˆ ′C ′
= (50) 2 + (40) 2 − 2(50)(40) cos 146.12 0
= 86.14 mm
4. Calculate the desired displacement
The displacement of point C ′ during this motion can be found as the difference of the
triangles sides AC ′ and AC
S = AC ′ − AC
= 86.14 − 745 2
= 11.62 mm
Closed – Form position Analysis Equations for an in line slider Crank
It is termed an in-line slider-crank mechanism because the line of slider motion extends
through the center of the crank rotation.
Fig. 2.4
A typical analysis involves locating the position of the links, given their lengths (L2 and L3)
and the crank angle θ 2 specifically, the position of the slider L4 and the interior joint angles
θ 3 and γ must be determined. The equations used are summarized in terms of
L2 , L3 and θ 2 .
 L2 
θ 3 = sin −1  sin θ 2 
 L3 
r = 180 0 − (θ 2 + θ 3 )
L4 = L22 + L23 − 2( L2 )( L3 ) cos r
These equations can be used to determine the position of the links in any configuration of an
in-line, slider crank mechanism.
Example
A hand pump used for increasing pressure in a hydraulic line. Analytically determine the
displacement of the piston as the handle rotates 150 counter clockwise.
Fig. 2.5
Solution
1. Draw kinematic diagram
Fig.2.6
CE = offset + AD = 1.0.87 = 1.87 in using Pythagorean theorem
2. Analyze the Geometry in the original configuration
AD
cos BAˆ D =
AB
AD = ( AB) cos BAˆ D = 5 cos 80 0 = 0.87 in
BD
sin BAˆ D =
AB
BD = ( AB ) sin BAˆ D = 5 sin 80 0 = 4.92 in
BE = ( BC ) 2 − (CE ) 2
= (4) 2 − (1.87) 2
= 3.54 in
The original position of the piston, point C, can be determined by summing BD and BE
Lc = BD + BE = 4.92 + 3.54
= 8.46 in
The internal angle BCˆ E can be determined through the following trigonometric function.
 CE 
BCˆ E = cos −1  
 BC 
 1.87 
= cos −1   = 62.13
0
 4 
3. Analyze the geometry in the displaced configuration the handle rotated down ward 150.
Note that this displacement yields an angle at joint A of 250, and its complement, 650
AD ′ = ( AB ′) cos B ′Aˆ D ′
= 5 cos (65 0 )
= 2.11 in
B ′D ′ = AB ′ sin B ′AD ′
= 5 sin 65 0
= 4.53 in
C ′E ′ = offset + AD ′
= 1. + 2.11
= 3.11 in
Side B ′E ′ can then be determined
B ′E ′ = (B′E ′)2 − (C ′E ′) 2
= (4) 2 − (3.11) 2
= 2.52 in
The displaced position of the piston can be determined by summing
B ′D ′ and B ′E ′
LC = B ′D ′ + B ′E ′
= 4.53 + 2.52
= 7.05 in
4. Calculate the desired displacement

The displacement of the piston, point C, during this motion can be found by subtracting the
length Lc from Lc′
S c = Lc′ − Lc
= 8.46 − 7.05
= 1.41 in down
Closed Form Position Analysis Equation for an Offset Slider
This mechanism is an offset slider-crank mechanism because the line of slider motion does not
extend through the center of the crank rotation. A typical analysis involves locating the
position of the links given the lengths ( L1 , L2 and L3 ) and a crank angle θ 2 . Specifically, the
position of the slider L4 and the interior joint angles θ 3 and γ must be determined. The
generalized equation are given as
Fig.2.7
 L1 + L2 sin θ 2 
−1
θ 3 = sin  
 L3 
L4 = L2 cos θ 2 + L3 cos θ 3
γ = 180 0 − (θ 2 + θ 3 )
These equations can be used to determine the position of the links in any mechanism
configuration.
Closed- Form Position Equations for a Four Bar Linkage
Four bar mechanism is another very common linkage. A typical analysis involves determining
the interior joint angle θ 3 , θ 4 and γ for known links (L1 , L2 , L3 and L4 ) at a certain crank
angle θ 2 .
Fig.2.8
Specifically, the interior joint angles (θ 3 , θ 4 and γ ) must be determined.
BD = L1 + L22 − 2( L1 )( L2 ) cos θ 2
2
−1  L23 + L24 − ( BD) 2 

γ = cos  
 2 L3 L4 
 L2 − L22 + ( BD ) 2 
−1 −1
 L4 2 − L3 2 + ( BD ) 2 
θ 4 = 180 − cos  1
0
 − cos  
 2 L1 ( BD )   2 L4 ( BD ) 
θ 3 = 180 0 − θ 4 − γ
These equations can be used to determine the position of the links in any mechanism
configuration.
Limiting Positions
The configuration of a mechanism that places one of the follower links in an extreme location
is called a limiting position. Because many mechanisms have links that oscillate between
positions, two limiting positions are common. The limiting position of an offset slider-crank
mechanism is shown below.
Fig. 2.9
The displacement of the follower link from one extreme to position to the other defines the
stroke of the follower. The stroke is a linear displacement. For links that exhibit pure rotation,
the stroke is an angular quantity.
The position of a diver, or input link, which places a follower link in an extreme, or limiting,
position, is often desired. In addition, the motion of a linkage is commonly referenced from a
limiting position. The logic used on solving such a problem is identical to the position analysis
just discussed.
Limiting Positions Analytical Analysis
Analytical determination of the limiting positions for a mechanism is a combination of two
concepts presented earlier.
1. The logic of configuring the mechanism into a limiting configuration. This was
incorporated in the graphical method of determining the limiting positions.
2. The method of breaking a mechanism into convenient triangle and using the laws of
trigonometry to determine all mechanism angles and lengths.
Combining these two concepts to determine the position of all links in a mechanism at a
limiting position is simple.
Example
The conveyor transfer mechanism is used to feed packages to a shipping station at specific
intervals. Analytically determine the extreme positions of the lifting conveyor segment.
Fig. 2.10
Solution
1. kinematic circuit diagram
Fig.2.11
2. Analyze the geometry at one extreme position
The upper limiting position is fully defined by determination of the internal angles. The
internal angle at joint A CAˆ D can be found using the law of cosines.
 ( AD) 2 + AC − (CD ) 2 
CAˆ D = cos −1  
 2( AD)( AC ) 
 (18) 2 + (20) 2 − (8) 2 
= cos −1   = 23.6
0
 2 (18) (12 ) 
The law of sines can be used to find either of the remaining internal angles. However, the law
of sines may present some confusion with angles between 900 and 1800
sin θ = sin (180 0 − θ )
Using the same approach, the internal angle at joint C , ACˆ D is determined using the law of
sines since it is obviously smaller than 900
 AD  
ACˆ D = sin −1   sin CAˆ D 
 DC  
 18  
= sin −1   sin 23.6 0 
 2  
= 64.10
The internal angle at joint D, ADˆ C can be determined
ADˆ C = 180 0 − (CAˆ D + ADˆ C )

= 180 0 − (23.6 0 + 64.10 )
= 92.3 0
2. The geometry at the other extreme position

The links form a general triangle, ∆AC ′D. Notice that the length of AC ′ is 12 in (16-4).
To fully define this configuration, the internal angles are determined through a procedure
identical to the one just described.
 ( AD ) 2 + ( AC ′) 2 − (C ′D) 2 
C ′Aˆ D = cos −1  
 2( AD )( AC ′) 
−1  (18) 2 + (12) 2 − (8) 2 
= cos  
 2(18) (12) 
= 52.8 0
The internal angle at D is in the range of 00 to 900. Therefore, for the internal angle at joint D
ADˆ C ′.
 AD  
ADˆ C ′ = sin −1   sin C ′Aˆ D 
 DC ′  
 18  
= sin −1   sin 20.7 0 
 8  
= 52.8 0
Finally, the internal angle at joint C ′, ACˆ ′D can be determined
ACˆ ′D = 180 0 − (C ′Aˆ D − ADˆ C ′)

= 180 0 − (20.7 0 + 52.8 0 )
= 106.4 0
To summarize, the conveyor segment (internal angle at joint D) cycles between 92.30 and
52.80, as measured upward from the vertical.
52.8 0 < 92.3 0
Stoke ∆θ 4 = 92.30 − 52.8 0 = 39.5 0
Complete cycle Analytical Position Analysis

To generate the configuration of a mechanism through out a cycle, analytical analysis can be
repeated to obtain various phases. This can be an extremely repetitions process. Equations,
generated from triangles in part by the mechanism links can be solved for various values of the
driver position. This can be assisted by excel sheet or any programming language like C etc.
Displacement Diagrams
Once a full-cycle position analysis is completed it is insightful to plot the displacement of one
point corresponding to the displacement of another point it is most common to plot the
displacement of a point on the follower relative to the displacement of a point on the driver.
Typically, the displacement of the driver is plotted on the horizontal. In the case of a crank, the
driver displacement consists of one revolution. The corresponding displacement of the
follower is plotted along the vertical. The displacement plotted on the vertical axis may be
linear or angular depending on the motion obtained from the specific mechanism.
Example
The driving mechanism of a reciprocating compression is shown below. Plot the displacement
diagram of the piston displacement relative to the crankshaft rotation.
Fig. 2.12
Solution
sin θ 2 sin θ 3
=
l3 l2
l 2 
θ 3 = sin −1  sin θ 2 
l3 
r = 180 0 − (θ 2 + θ 3 )
L 4 = l 2 + l 3 − 2 (l 2 )( l 3 ) cos r
2 2
2 2
( (
L 4 = l 2 + l 3 − 2(l 2 )(l 3 ) 180 − θ 2 + sin ( l2
l3 sin θ )))
plot of (θ 2 , L 4 )
Coupler curves
The function of a mechanism is to guide a part along a particular path. The path generated by
points on a connecting rod, or coupler, of a four-bar mechanism can often achieve the complex
motion desired. The trace of a point is the path that the point follows as the mechanism moves
through its cycle. The path traced by any point on the coupler is termed a coupler curve. The
two coupler curves namely those traced by the pin connections of the coupler are simple arcs,
centered at the two fixed pivots. However, other points on the coupler trace complex curves.
The curve formed by joining the position of this point at several phases of the mechanism
forms the trace of that point. If the point resides one floating link, the resulting trace, or
coupler curve, is a complex shape. These traces can be used to determine the spatial
requirements of a mechanism.
Fig. 2.13

Theory of Mechanisms

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Theory of Mechanisms

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Theory of Mechanism Lecture Note DEC

Machine and Mechanism

Fig.1 Revolute and Prismatic joint

Lower pair Higher pair

Fig.2 Lower pair joints

Fig.3 Cam and gear mechanisms

Fig. 4 Kinematic representation

4. Identifying any point of interest;

Fig.5 Kinematic diagram of actual systems

Fig.4 Four bar mechanism inversions

Fig.5 Four bar slider-crank inversions

j h total number of higher order joints

Actuators and Drivers

Fig.6 Electrical Motor

Electric motor and Engines generate continuous rotational motion

It is applicable for high power application

Motor + feedback unit = Servomotor

Fig.7 Hydraulic System

Fig.8 Four bar linkage

Oscillatory Motion (crank lever mechanism)

Let the total time be t1 + t 2 = t

Fig.10 Coupler wheel

< ODP = < OCR (Q DP // CR )

Fig.12 Four bar linkage

Double solider crank chain

Fig.13 Elliptical trammel

Fig.14 Scotch yoke

Fig.15 Oldham Coupling

J = 3n − m − 3 cannot be a positive integer

= 3n − m - 7 can not be positive integer

n4 = number of quaternary links

2j = 2n 2 + 3n 3 +4n4 − − − − − ini (4)

− n 2 + n 4 + 2n5 + 3n6 + − − −(i − 3) ni + 4 = 0

General Degree of freedom

n 2 = 4 + n4 + 2n5 + 3n6 (2)

n 2 = 4 (The simplest 1 DOF linkage)

For 6 number of links

n 2 = 4 + n 4 + 2n5 + 3n6 (2)

2 = n3 + 2n3 + 3n5 + 4n6 ⇒ n5 = n 6 = 0

Fig.16 Paucellier mechanism

PQˆ C + AQˆ C = PQˆ B + AQˆ B = 180 0 Since A, Q, P lie on a straight line

QAˆ Q ′ ≡ PAˆ P ′ Common angle

Fig.17 Hart mechanism

QEˆ Q ′ or PEˆ P ′ is common and EQˆ Q ′ = EPˆ ′P = 90 0

Fig.18 Watt mechanism

Automobile Steering Gears

Fig. 19 Steering mechanism

Davis Steering Gear

\Fig.21 Davis steering gear

yh − h 2 tan θ = hy − hx = h 2 tan θ − xy tan θ

Usually value of ω is between 0.4 to 0.5 and that of x from 11 to 14 degrees.

Fig.22 Ackerman steering gear

2. For larger values of θ 1 ψ a is lower than ψ t and the difference is substantial.

sin α (cos θ + cosψ − 2) = cos α (sinψ − sin θ )

Fig.23 Hooke’s joint

Fig.24 Rotation circles

EC1′ ec1′ ec1

Minimum variation of velocity of the driven shaft of its mean velocity

Angular Acceleration of Driven Shaft

= ω12 cos a (−1)(1 − sin 2 a cos 2 θ ) −2

(− sin 2 a )(2 cos θ )(− sin θ )

− ω12 cos a sin 2 a sin 2θ

1 − cos 2 a − 0.1 cos a = 0

cos 2 a + 0.1 cos a = 1