The Particle Theory

Matter: Everything is made up of matter.

Three forms or states of matter: Solid state, Liquid state, Gaseous state.

Comparing the states of matter:

Mass Shape Volume Flow Compress
Solid Definite Mass Definite Shape Does not change Does not flow Hard to Compress
Liquid Definite Mass No Shape Does not change Flows easily Hard to Compress
Gas Definite Mass No Shape Can vary Flows easily Easy to compress
Liquid & Gas – Takes shape of container holding it.

Particle theory of Matter:

 Matter is made up of particles
 Particles are tiny and cannot be seen with the naked eye.
 Different substances are made from different particles with different sizes.
 These particles are called “Atoms” and “Molecules”.

Particles in Solid:
 Strong force holds the particles together in a three-dimensional structure.
 Particles form an orderly arrangement called a “Lattice”.
 Particles in solids move a little
 Do not change their position but vibrate to and fro about one position.
 Properties
o Strong force of attraction stops the particles from moving around each other, it cannot flow.
o As the particles cannot move, the shape cannot be changed.
o Particles are already close to each other, hence they need to be compressed hard to get them closer.

Particles in Liquid:
 Forces that hold particles are weaker than in solids.
 Can change their position by sliding over each other.
 Properties:
o Weaker force of attraction between the particles allows them to move more, hence the liquid can
flow.
o As the force of attraction is not strong enough to keep definite shape, it gains support from the walls
of its container and takes shape of the container in which it is poured.
o Particles are already close to each other, hence they need to be compressed hard to get them closer.

Particles in gases:
 Force of attraction between the particles are very small.
 The particles move away from each other and travel in all direction.
 When they hit each other or the surface of the container, they bounce and change their direction.
 Properties:
o Weakness of the forces between the particles in a gas lets them move freely so that they can move
far apart or come closer
o Variation in distance explains why the volume of a gas can change.
o Larger distances between the gas particles means that they can be compressed in he plenty of space
available.
o Weak forces allow the gas to flow easily
o When placed in a container, the particles spread out in all directions as they hit against each other
and the container walls. Hence, it occupies the whole space inside the container.

When matter changes state:

 Matter change can be brought about by heating or by cooling
 It is a physical change, reversible reaction.
Melting:
 Solid to Liquid – By Heating
 Melting Point – Temperate at which melting takes place.
 During heating, the temperate of the solid increases. When the temperature remains constant, the melting
point of the solid has been reached.
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o When solid is heated, particle gains more energy.
o With more energy, particle vibrates more strongly and pushes each other a little apart - Solid
expands
o If the solid is heated more, the particle vibrates more strongly so that it slides over each other –
Solid becomes liquid.
Freezing:
 Reverse of melting
 Liquid to solid – By cooling
 Freezing point – The temperate at which freezing takes place. It is same as melting point.
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o If the liquid is cooled sufficiently, it loses more energy so that it cannot slide over each other.
o The only movement possible is the vibration to and fro about one position in the lattice.
o It becomes solid.

Evaporation:
 Liquid to gas - over a range of temperature
 The process by which a liquid changes into a gas over a range of temperature is called “evaporation”.
 The particles escape from the surface of the liquid.
 Factors deciding Rate of Evaporation
o Temperate of the liquid (High Temperate results in more evaporation)
o Humidity – Amount of vapour in air (Low humidity results in more evaporation)
o Exposed surface area (More Area results in more evaporation)
o Wind (High speed result in more evaporation)
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o Particles in the liquid have different amount of energy
o Particles with more energy move faster
o High energy particles near the surface move so fast that they break through the surface and escape
into air, forming gas.
Boiling:
 Liquid to gas – At constant temperature
 When gas reaches certain temperature, gas makes bubbles, which rises to the surface and burst into air.
 The temperature at which it takes place is called “Boiling Point”
 When the temperature stops rising and remains constant, the boiling point of the liquid has been reached.
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o When liquid is heated, all the particles receive more energy and move more quickly.
o The fastest moving particles escape from liquid surface or collect in liquid to form bubbles.
o Bubbles rise to the surface and burst open into the air.

Condensation:
 Gas to Liquid – By cooling
 When water vapour raises high in the air, it cools and condenses on dust particles to form tiny water
droplets.
 Huge number of these forms clouds and when they join together they form raindrops.
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o Particles in gas possess a large amount of energy which they use to move.
o If the particles are cooled, they lose some of their energy and slow down.
o If they lose more energy, they don’t collide with each other when they meet. The particles now slide
over each other and form a liquid.
Sublimation:
 Solid to gas (Without forming liquid) – By Heating
  Solid carbon dioixe, known as DRY ICE
o Sublimes when it is heated to -78⁰C.
o Used to produce mist in the air when it warms up.
 Sulphur is released by volcanoes.
 It cools to form solid sulphur around valcano’s opening or vent.
 This is called flower of sulphur.
 The Force which binds the particles are quickly lost, and they move away from each other completely,
resulting in formation of Gas.
 When gas is cooled, they forms solid as the particles loose energy quickly, held by the forces between them.

Dissolving:
 When something dissolves in a liquid it forms a “solution”
 Liquid is called “Solvent”. The solid that dissolves is called the “solute”.
 Particle Theory Explanation:
o There are small gaps between the particles in a liquid.
o When a substances dissolves in a liquid, its particles spreads out and fills the gap.

Gas Pressure:
 Solid and Liquid generate pressure.
 Gases also generate pressure due to the action of their particles.
 Quickly moving particles, bouncing off the walls of the gas container, generates gas pressure.
 During Heating:
o If the gas is heated, the particle moves faster.
o Fast moving particles bounce off the container surface more frequently and with more force.
o Hence, the gas pressure increases. (During heating gas pressure increases)
 During Cooling:
o The particles move slowly.
o They bounce off the container less frequently, with less force.
o Hence, the gas pressure decreases. (During cooling gas pressure decreases)
 Compression or Gas Squashing:
o When the gas is compressed into to a small volume, with temperature remaining same, the particles
has less space to move.
o They bounce off the container walls more frequently.
o Hence, the gas pressure increases. (During compression pressure increases)

Atmospheric Pressure:
 Atmosphere is 1000km thick and pushes every square centimetre of Earth’s surface.
 Pressure = Force acting on a square centimetre. (N/cm2)
 Standard Pressure = Atmospheric pressure at sea level. = 10N/cm2
 The boiling point of any substance is measured at Standard pressure.
 At very high mountains, the atmospheric pressure is less.

Boiling and Low Pressure:

 Low pressure means presence of lesser air above the liquid.
 The reduced air pressure allows evaporation to take place more quickly and hence lesser heat is needed to
make the liquid boil
 (In mountain where the pressure is low, the water boils at 95 degree or even 90 degree. Boiling point of
water is 100 degree at sealevel)

Boling and High Pressure:

 High pressure means presence of more air above the liquid.
 The increased air pressure stops evaporation, hence more heat is needed to make the liquid boil.
 Inside pressure cooker, the pressure increases. Hence, the water boils at 250 degree or 300 degree.

Difussion:
 The process in which one substance spreads out through another.
 It occurs in liquid and gases.
 Moving particles in the different liquids move around each other.The particles of different gases bounce off
each other.
 The movement eventually spread all the particles one substance in another.
 Liquids are denser than gases, this makes diffusion in liquid much slower than gases.