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Whitney Library of Design

an imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications/New York
.1
 First published in 1987 in New York by Whitney Library of Design
an imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications
a division of Billboard Publications, Inc.
1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publlcatlon Data
Reid, Grant W.
Landscape graphics.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Landscape architectural drawing. 2. Landscape
\ architecture-Designs and plans. I. Title.
\ SB476.4.R4§....1986 712'.022'1 87-18884
ISBN 0-8230-7332-7
ISBN 0-8230-7331-9 (pbk.)

Distributed in the United Kingdom by The Architectural Press

9 Queen Anne's Gate, London SW1H 9BY
Copyright © 1987 by Grant W. Reid
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic,
electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval
systems- without written permission of the publisher.
Manufactured in U.S.A..
First prihting, 198?
13 14 15 16 17 18/05 04 03 02 01 00 99
Special thanks to
EDAW, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado, for professional illustrations on
pages 14, 15, 19, 21, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 69 (right side),
79,119 (lower), 155, 170,177,178,179,180,181,194,195,196,197,
Winston Associates Inc., Boulder, Colorado, for professional
fA"Ut J..n ~
illustrations on pages 25 and 119 (upper). 11.+ 0
1'"
... 't~
ADlIS ABAiIA (J';I\ '"
Scott Milne and Susan Alden, Colorado State University students, L I.~ A JU . i
.----...... .-..~--
for their assistance with illustrations.

... <J" h n~ . v " ,". t

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Contents
Foreword 8
How to Use This Book 9

1 Graphic Language and the Design Process 10

2 Freehand Drawing 36
3 Concept Drawings 46
4 Drafting 54
5 Lettering 70
6 Presentation Plans 78
7 Section-elevations 112
8 Graphic Symbol File 128
9 Quick Perspectives 154
, .
Appendixes 182 'I! ,

I Use of the Vertical Measuring Line on Perspective Charts 183

II Field of Vision Diagrams 186
III Nontraditional Perspective Techniques 189
IV Exercises 198

Bibliography 213
Metric Conversion 214
Index 215
Foreword
Landscape Graphics is an instructional book. The emphasis is on
easy, time-saving techniques. The format is how-to. Although
directed primarily to the person just taking up landscape design, it
also contains techniques and reference material that will be of
value to established professionals who wish to refine their graphic
skills.
The language of landscape graphic communication is too
extensive to cover in one book. For that reason, the focus here is
exclusively on black-and-white techniques. In addition, simplified
techniques are featured instead of complex ones. For example,
there are more technical, and perhaps more accurate, methods of
perspective drawing than those shown here. But the ones
demonstrated in this book have the advantage of simplicity and
comprehensibility.
T~E. very important are& uf computer gmp;-,ics is touched very
li911;ly nere. The computer is now able to perform many graphic
tasks whish vjare formerly dons only i)y nand, including some
manual !ecr,flic,uGs .tescriood :le're. Yet computer graphics is far
toe specialized a SU:Jj3(,t for inclusion in a basic book like this one.
There wif always i)e :=. :le8J for landscape architects who can draw
well and dr,-lVII tast. Graphic instructional aids are, at best, only
twenty percent of tt.e leaf ning process. The rest is confidence and
practice. Improved graphic skills will have a positive effect on your
ability to develop creative design ideas and on your success at
selling those ideas. It is up to you. Accept the challenge; practice
a lot, and have fun doing it.

8
How to Use This Book
If you are a beginning student or a graphics instructor, you will get
the most out of this book if you study each chapter, then follow
through with appropriate exercises from Appendix IV. These
exercises are keyed into each chapter and follow the same
sequence. The first group of exercises (1-14) do not need to be
worked in any specific sequence. In fact, they are best intermixed
with exercises for other chapters as a way to develop the looser,
freehand expressive drawing skills.
To fully exploit the chapter on quick perspectives (Chapter 9), a
different approach is necessary. Here, the exercises should be
done as the text is being studied-not at the end of the chapter.
Each perspective exercise builds on skills developed in previous
exercises. They depend on explanations given in the preceding
portion of text and follow a logical progression of skill development.
The professional or more advanced student may wish to skip over
sections that seem familiar, such as drafting or lettering. Chapters
6, 7, and 8 contain the most graphic examples and may be used
as a reference file. Copy the examples that suit your needs and
adapt them to your own style.
Every technique shown in the book-except drafting and pencil
lettering-is compatible with color rendering techniques. The
reader should practice quick color applications concurrently with
each black-and-white graphic technique presented here.

9
----'=-~-~--=--~-~~--.

~ Graphic Language
and the Design Process

There are five generally recognized stages, or phases. in the

design process. At each of these stages, graphic products are
generated to record. externalize. and communicate ideas or
information.
These graphic products range from the simplest sketches to the
most detailed drawings of construction details. They all have one
quality in common, however. They are all products of graphic
thinking-visualizations of something that Goes not yet exist.
The telationship between tne f:·.'\~ n la;or, dE-:s;gn phases and their
appropriatoqrapbic prcducts.can 'Q8 expressed as follows:
.
• '
. ..
I . _ .. ; , ~ ,

03£i9n Ph~~e·' ..Grl.'lphJc ;Jroduct

rr<\jra;nl,iev£lopIJltmt' W~itten program
lnventoryand analysis' 3:te analysis drawings
Conceotual d0s ign • '' Cm'c~;:::.t plans and sketches
Design devetoprr.ent . Presentation drawings
Final design ' ' Implementation documents
In practice. the design process is often a little disorderly.
Depending on the project, a stage may be repeated or even
skipped. Also, these "discrete" stages sometimes overlap or blend
into one another. There is, however, logic to folloWing this specific
sequence of design phases. In the following pages, we will look
briefly at the purpose of each stage and how the graphic language
appropriately expresses the information that must be
communicated at each stage.

10
,.f
;,

Program Development
Content and Purpose
Program development is a research and information-gathering
phase in which data is collected from property owners,
administrators, and users. The social, political, financial, and

/ personal characteristics of a project are established at this stage.

The focus is on facts, attitudes, needs, constraints, and potentials.

Graphic Character and Media

/ A program is often comprised of notes, completed questionnaires,
/ and other logically organized written material. Drawings are
seldom needed or made.

11
Inventory and Analysis
Content and Purpose
At the inventory and analysis stage, the landscape design
professional gathers and records information on the physical
characteristics of a site, such as lot and building dimensions,
vegetation, soils, climate, drainage, views, and other pertinent
affecting factors.
The purely objective recording of site data is an inventory.
Interpretive manipulation of this data and subjective comments
constitute a site analysis. This information, together with the
written program, are the basic guidelines for design.

Graphic Character and Media

Sometimes the inventory and analysis are separate graphic items;
sometimes they are combined. In all cases, they are accurate,
clear, and comprehensive plan view drawings that explain site-
specific conditions, constraints, and potential.
For small sites, the inventory and analysis may be done with pencil
on vellum or graph paper and may be heavily annotated. Felt tip
pen on marker paper is also appropriate. Large sites may require a
series of maps drawn with a combination of freehand and drafting
techniques. They are usually more refined, are often used as
transparent overlays, and sometimes involve color. Computer-
assisted site analysis techniques are valuable for larger tracts of
land.
The graphic materials are generally for the designer's use only, but
on regional-scale projects, site analysis drawings may be reviewed
by the client. In any case, the graphics are an abstraction of the
landscape features and do not need to be realistic.

GRAPHIC LANGUAGE AND THE DESIGN PROCESS 12

------
-~
Inventories
"<,

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Figure 4-6
us Department of Energy
Western Area Power Administration Vegetation
Blue River·Gore Pass Shrub Typ ••
[!] BiO- SaQ8brush o
For.,t Typ••
Aspen
Oth.r

o n~:~~n~~~Ia&~baceous)
Herb.ceo..1 Typ ••
~ Grassland (meadow)

Transmission Line o Mcu1laln Shrub o Spruce/Fir ~ Urban o AgiCullure

G Douvlas-lir/Forest o
IllllilII
OistU'bed Sourc ••

o Oouolas·III'/Juniper
•
• Threalend or Endangered
Planl SPeCI8S (under consid·
8fation lor federal bSIlng)
• A8fial Photography
- SE 01 lawson Rtdge: USFS color
pholC9aphy. 1'-55(", Sept '81
-NW 0' Lawson Ridge. In-State
~ LodQePOIe Pine color pho1og' aphy; 1'20.000.
<il Plant Associahon 01 about 1979
o

®
1 2 5km Stale Inlerest
=
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Plant Species or Stale Interest
Field Observations
COiofado Nat ....at Heritaoe Inv<:tnU:>ry
Bo-eau 01 land Manaoement

~,",' ['111(' I ~ ~Ir,ll ~r;JC ~~lfI THF flFSIGN PRnCFSS 14

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• Colorado Division 01 Wildlife
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o MuI8 Deer Critical Winter Range "Iptor.

S••• Grou ••

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15
Conceptual Design
Content and Purpose
The conceptual design phase is when early design ideas and
functional relationships are explored. The graphic products at this
stage are sometimes called functional diagrams, concept plans,
or schematic plans. They are sketches or sketch-like drawings.
For small projects, they are usually made only for the designer's
self-communication: a record of ideas that forms the basis for
further idea development. On larger and more complex projects,
the graphic products may be presented to other designers and the
client for early feedback. All are drawings that suggest more
drawings.

Graphic Character and Media

Concept plans and sketches should begin as honest, open, rough
freehand drawings that may be a series of creative scribbles and
jumbled diagrams. Initially, they are loose and approximate and
should look like the decision-making, idea-development, conflict-
resolution drawings they are. Simple plan view diagrams, quick
sections, or thumbnail sketches-and even cartoon-like
drawings-can serve. It is common to see bubble shapes, arrows,
and abstract symbols on concept drawings. These may be refined
as more drawings are produced but should always remain
vigorous, powerful, and direct.
For lower-budget projects, soft pencil or color felt tip pen on buff-
colored sketch paper are appropriate media. Higher-budget
projects may require use of colored markers on marker paper. Both
should be marked by boldness and vigor. Concept graphics are
supposed to be done rapidly, with ideas flowing freely. They should
not be constrained by the desire to impress anyone with one's own
artistry.

,.
!Cn\l'~ I i i ! ~r--I\'III\\'F ANn THF nFSIGN PROCESS 16
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Design Development
Content and Purpose
At the design development stage, specific ideas begin to
formulate, At first, the drawings are quick freehand sketches which
allow the designer to evaluate solutions as they evolve, Many will
be rejected outright; some will be added to, changed, and
improved,
As the ideas are refined to integrate all the functional and aesthetic
criteria, the more developed drawings contain specific information
as to spatial organization, form, color, materials, and user potential.
These more refined drawings are termed presentation drawings
and are used by the designer to commurucate ideas tothe client or
user group, to sell ideas, and to get additional feedback for later
design refinement. Typical titles for such presentation drawings are
Preliminary Plan, Master Plan, and Proposed Development Plan,

Graphic Character and Media

Although the initial drawings are usually very rough and very
preliminary, they do need to show specific shapes, materials, and
spaces for the designer's evaluation, (See pages 21 and 23,)
The refined presentation drawings need to be fairly realistic and
convincing, because they are Usually reviewed by the client. A
combination of plan view, sections, and perspectives with color are
most effective, They need to be self-explanatory, with script limited
to brief labels, Rough models or photographic presentations are
also effective, Presentation drawings require a fairly durable
surface medium, such as marker paper, heavy print paper, or
.board-mounted artwork,
A combination of freehand and mechanical drawing techniques is
necessary, Computer graphics can be very useful, especially in the
rapid production of various perspective views, Computer graphics
can be used as they are or can be enhanced with freehand
additions,

GnL\PHIr I L\NGlIAGE AND THE DESIGN PROCESS 20

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Preliminary Plan
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FRAGRANCE GARDEN
••• • • Denver Botanic Gardens

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Naturallzln
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SAMPlE BULBS
U1ies

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Anemones u. CoAt'
Crocus
Hyacinths erts ·1 -,
Tulips II
Puschkiria I'
Scilla
Galanlhus ii
Fragrant Emphasis
SAMPLE TREES
Linden sp.
Black Locust
Tree Lilac
SAMPLE SHRUBS Section A
Cytisus sc.
Daphne sp.
Viburnum sp,
Mockorange sp,
SAMPLE FORBS
Phlox sp.
Hyacinth sc,
Evening Primrose
Sweet Violet
Ethereal Emphasis
SAMPLE TREES
Fringe Tree
SAMPLE SHRUBS
Sweet Pepperbush
MountainSpray
SAMPLE FORBS
LemonDaylily
Lemon Balm
Borage
GoldenMarguerite

Garden Cente.. BAo.

SHADE STRUCME Section B
It{TERPRET AT10N
DEMoNsTRATIONS
SEATING
FEATURE PLANTS
POTIED i'LANTS "
TRELLIS PLANTS
DRlf'I<lNG FOUNTAIN

Spicy I:mp!lllsil
SAMPlE TREES
Apricot
Hop Tree
SAMPLE SHRUBS
Carolina Alspice
Wintersweet
Ribas sp.
Sweet Pepperbush
---I -r-==I
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Section C

1\ GRAPHIC LANGUAGE AND THE DESIGN PROCESS

24
 Master Plan r
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VIEWPOINT LOC ....TION

SECTION LOCATION

,(

9TH STREET

MASTER PLAN
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25
 \
Final Design
Content and Purpose
The landscape architect's final ideas, once they are approved by
Jhe;c1ient, need to be communicated to the people who will build
tae project. A series of construction implementation documents
that 'contain working drawings must be produced for use by the
various installation contractors. Along with detailed written
instructions, called construction specifications, go a set of
drawings that showexact sizes, shapes, quantities, types, and
locations of all elements. Contractors use these documents initially
to prepare prices and bids. A typical set of landscape working
drawings may contain a site plan, grading plans, layout plans,
irrigation plans, planting plans, and detail sheets.

Graphic Character and Media

Technical drafting is used to produce working drawings, although
some freehand graphics are needed for lettering and organic
symbols. The graphics must be complete, accurate, and very easy
to read. Since multiple copies must be made of each finished
drawing, the media used are pencil on vellum or ink on Mylar.
Precision and good line quality are essential characteristics. Color
is not necessary. For many kinds of projects, the computer
generation of construction documents can save a significant
amount of time.

I·
i

,
r,RAPHIr. I ANGUAGE AND THEDESIGN PROCESS 26
 Grading Plan

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 Preliminary Planting
Design Drawing

Rough freehand drawing that explores

the optimum selection, location, and •
combination of plants
A true planting plan for installation will
be derived from this.
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GRAPHIC LANGUAGE AND THE DESIGN PROCESS 34

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-
Construction Details Usually expanded sections and plans, this kind of working drawing
shows the detailed components of structures, including internal
elements, and how they go together.

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x 35
g Freehand Drawing

The very first graphic ideas in the design process are best
expressed with freehand drawings. Concept drawings, thumbnail
sketches, and preliminary plan ideas are all open, honest, free-
flowing drawings that use few, if any, drafting aids or techniques. A
more accurate label for freehand drawings would be "free arm
drawings," because it is the fluid coordination of all arm joints
(including the elbow and shoulder joints) that come into play more
so than the finger and hand joints.
Exercises 1 through 9 in Appendix IV are useful for getting
loosened up with freehand techniques.

36
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 Tools and Materials
Choose the drawing tools that allow smooth, easy, gliding strokes The flat sketch pencil, or carpenter's pencil, has a rectangular
with expressive line character. These are soft graphite-based tools, cross section in the lead which allows very broad strokes.
felt tip pens, and sketch fountain pens.
Soft graphite smudges easily, but allows a variety of very dark and
very light lines. The ordinary 48 or 68 lead pencil sharpened to a
point gives a fine line and, chiseled down, gives a wide line.
Lead holders are available for large diameter (3 mm) sketch leads,
which are very good for bold preliminary work.

~ =- 7J)
More stable sketching media that will not smear or smudge include
the following:
ii:
·i • Soft color rendering pencil
·,
·' Gr.aphite sticks get a little messy but are excellent for drawing
iii
III fast, wide lines and for toning larger areas. The larger stick has a
=--:J
~====-"
1.35 cm width and the smaller stick has a 7 mm width.
I"Iii
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ill Color art stick
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Harder and more waxy than graphite, this product works well
for sketching on Mylar.
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FREEHAND DRAWING -, j
\ ')'-.. 38
Felt tip pens are available in an almost unlimited variety of shapes Sketching surfaces, such as lightweight tracing paper ("flimsy" or
and sizes It is handy to have a range of point sizes, as shown in "bum wad"), comes in rolls of various widths. The common colors
the small number of examples below are white, yellow, or buff (canary paper,f.-This is used for freehand
design development drawings, refinement overlays, and quick ,
sketches. It is inexpensive and yet transparent enough to print,
Fine liner although it is not recommended for finished drawings because it is
easily ripped. Best results are obtained with a felt tip pen or a soft
pencil. A backing sheet is needed for use with markers.
Sketch paper in many different brands is available in varying
weights, surfaces, finishes, and transparencies. Select a surface
Medium-point pen
which suits the type of sketching tool and the effect desired.
Smooth, dense surfaces are good for detailed, fine line drawings.
Coarser papers provide textured interest for pencil toning. Special
dense, smooth papers are available for ink sketching. For
reproducible work, use the more stable transparent sketch papers
Bullet-pointed marker
Bleed-proof marker papers are specially treated to prevent
. marker fluid from bleeding through. Some lateral bleeding should
be expected, but this varies significantly from one brand to
another For some drawings, lateral bleeding and blending is
desirable; for others, crisper lines and detail are needed.
Some marker papers have high-contrast, dense white surfaces and
are not meant for reproduction. Others have a degree of
transparency that allows for printing. Select the brand to suit the
purpose.
\ Butcher paper or freezer paper can be bought in large rolls and is
excellent for outsized conceptual or preliminary drawings done
with markers, though not for reproduction.
Ink fountain sketch pens give strong black lines. Pressure
variation yields interesting changes in line weight. A smooth Drafting film, such as Mylar, is traditionally used with ink for
surface is needed for good results technical drawings, but it is also a versatile surface for pencil
sketching A wide range of tone densities can be easily and
quickly drawn on the finely toothed surface The best sketch tools
for Mylar are the sharp 2B pencil, the flat sketch pencil, the
graphite block, or the more waxy art sticks

.c r-» ."'., .. . .-
x· 39
Techniques
Keep the pencil or pen at a low angle and hold with a relaxed grip.
Practice sketching. Coordinate all of the arm and hand joints
together. Note how different joints come into play when sketching
the five types of lines discussed here.
Free-flowing lines
In drawing curved, interconnected lines over a relatively large
surface area or sheet. the forearm is not supported and the wrist is
held rigid. All movement comes from the elbow and shoulder with
the small fingers gliding across the surface for stability. There is no
finger or wrist movement.

Elbow
pivots Hand
glides

40
FRFFHAND DRAWING
Freeform shapes with one line should have a clean connection, or When joining two points with a straight line, start at one point, look
match, with a slight gap Multiple lines are also quick and effective. at the other, then draw the pencil quickly toward it.

Right Right Right Wrong

Long Straight Lines

These are easier to control by resting the elbow and using it as a
pivot, keeping the wrist and fingers immobile. Horizontal lines are
easiest. Stop and start if necessary, readjusting the elbow to draw
very long lines.
-c Small gap acceptable.
Shorter Straight Lines
These are done the same way as long straight lines, again with-no
wrist movement.
Draw each line with confidence and speed. Make definite endings
by using a pressure start and a pressure stop. Let the line in
between develop a tonal character.

For diagonal or vertical lines, adjust body position or the paper to

maintain the elbow as a pivot. Go fast in middle
to give character to the line.

- •." •• -._",-"._.~" ...?,.-.

~--,..--,~.",

' \ Hit at start of stroke. Hit at end of stroke.

-
l'

41
 Detail Lines
Very short hatch lines or smaller curved lines are drawn with the
wrist and fingers working in harmony. The hand should rest on the

I r side.

Correct: Fast, confident lines, with strong ends and positive

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t7 ~\Il~/I\I\\\~~\\\II$~
connections from slight crossing.

~
l 1 Hatching or Toning Lines
Keep lines parallel and try to connect each line to the outline.
A slight overlap is acceptable.
Wrong: Slow, deliberate, heavy pressure lines with weak corners

Fineliner Pencil

Right Right Wrong

Wrong Hesitant hatch lines and scratch lines. Lack confidence

and character
I
r
f~-

FREEHAND DRAWING 42
 Marker Lettering

Wide-tipped color markers are versatile tools for quick, functional

diagrams, freehand title lettering, and color rendering. It is
appropriate at this point to learn how to use them properly Before
beginning, put a backing sheet of tracing paper under the drawing
surface. Markers will bleed through many papers and can
permanently stain the drafting table surface. Keep markers tightly
capped when not in use.

Marker Grip
A light touch is all that is needed. Even moderate pressure will
destroy the tip Wide-tip markers with a rectangular end need to be
held so that this end touches the paper along the entire edge.

Side view
Top view

Horizontal stroke
provides a Wid

4
~ :ertical stroke
~rOduces a thin line.

Wrong Wrong Right

Only the toe Only the heel Entire edge
is touching. is touching. is touching.

The marker is held tipped from

vertical to put one edge in
contact with the paper. "
~(

Freehand Lettering

Freehand titles and subtitles requiring larger letters can be

accomplished with markers and felt tip pens. This technique is
good for schematic and preliminary drawings on marker paper, but
the freehand outlining techniques shown can be adapted to other
media.
Begin with guidelines about 1112 inches apart.
Hold the marker gently. Make some letters, checking these
pointers as you go:
• The entire tip edge touches the paper.
• The edge is aligned vertically all the time for vertical. diagonal,
and circular strokes.
• The marker is not rotated with the fingers, which would tip the
marking surface onto its point or the heel.
• Neither arm nor body are rotated
• The letters are made with a light touch, letting the edge of the

~/1_
marker create line width changes
• The toe and heel do not extend over horizontal guidelines.
• Vertical strokes are consistently vertical. Use light vertical
guidelines if necessary.
I:.
t,:
• Smaller letters use the small edge at the tip of the marker.

~nT~
~

Ptan m~~ l
rr
l
Try exercises 15 and 16 But first check Chapter 5 for correct letter
shapes.

FREEHAND DRAWING 44
I
~
i
t
Outlining
,
~ ,
~
Marker letters by themselves are weak and need the crispness
obtained by outlining. One can either outline the colored shapes
directly on the marker paper, or overlay the presentation sheet on t·
bft·
the shapes for outline tracing.
I ~
Start with a bold outline Do all the verticals, then all the ::4
horizontals, then the curved shapes. Allow the lines to form definite
corners, even overlapping slightly.

Follow up with a fine line outside the bold line, keeping an even
white space between
,
Move the paper or your arm
to permit comfortable,
confident strokes.
'1' .

Other dots and lines may

be added for character and
interest.

45
'I

~ Concept Drawings

Conceptual drawings are loose and free in character. There are no

conventional symbols that are right or wrong. However, most of the
graphics at this beginning design stage are very abstract and are
not meant to convey exact shapes, textures, or forms. They
primarily express functions, activities, spaces, and their
relationships. For example, use areas may be shown simply as
bubbles or blobs, and movement corridors as arrows, At this stage,
there is no attempt to show exact forms or edges of materials.

4
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Some Symbols for Practice
Concept diagrams can be done with any freeflowing media, such
as a 68 pencil, felt tip pens, or colored markers. Using the marker
suggestions given in the previous chapter, try reproducing these
various graphic symbols. Remember to put down a backing sheet.

For toning areas, first define with a narrower felt tip pen, then fill in
with even, parallel strokes of a wide-tip marker. You may need to
trim out the edges if a precise infill is desired.

For directional signatures, start with wide, broken strokes of a

colored marker, then outline with thick and thin felt tip pens using a
technique similar to that for title lettering (see page 43).

For narrower lines, change the marker grip to place the narrow
edge on the paper.

.
Try vertical and horizontal strokes joined in a continuous
movement-with no change of grip. You may need to change your

"
~",f
body position to get a smooth curving symbol. .....

Parallel or radiating strokes of consistent width are effective

symbols for landscape barriers.

On the following pages are just a few of the many abstract graphic
language elements which have meaning for conceptual design.
! kinn "mv of these svmbols, try exercise 17.
Non-lineal Symbols Static Lineal Symbols

~\\\\\'UI",,~
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Activity areas, use zones, functional spaces

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IIIm\\\\\\\~ . ~hl/llllli
• Dn~\\\\\\\10041~§Dll\\~\\U[1U{J
I

Buildings and structures

Functional edges:
Barriers, screens, walls

*~
Focal areas, points of interest, conflict zones
Noise zones

Activitv DC
circulation nodes
~o'\:f
G D Ecological edges:

~O
Forested areas
Cliff area

41
Active Lineal Symbols
-.--":....-_....--,. l
I:
!

Automobile circulation
Pedestrian circulation
Access points
View direction
Wind direction
Ecological processes
c;:1k·7~ ~
~O ~~r-fJ
Movement of anything

000 00 DOo o[)

50
CONCEPT DRAWINGS
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I'f Horse barns

Warm-up
I
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t
arena
Livestock
t barn

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Staging
area
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I == :::..':11
Indoor
arena """" Outdoor
arena

Pedestrian
movement
Exhibition
building

Centennial Community
village park

t 83
~ Drafting
The production of precisely drafted construction documents comes
near the end of the design process, as dlscussed in Chapter 1.
However, drafting is introduced here because all phases of
landscape graphics require some knowledge of qrafting
equipment and media. Also, many of the basic drafting skills are
used in the very early stages of design, such as lettering, and in
the refinement of preliminary freehand drawings. The two most
common manual drafting media are pencil on vellum and ink on
drafting film or Mylar.

1-
••
Pencil Drafting
Pencil is still a favorite medium for many designers and drafters
because it is easy to manipulate its line width and density. It is also
easy to erase and modify. The major disadvantage-compared to
ink on Mylar-is that pencil drawings are less permanent and less
durable. They have a tendency to smudge, and they produce a
weaker blueprint.

Equipment and Materials

Mechanical pencil or lead holder

This is the main tool for pencil drafting. There are many different ~ p
brands available.

Leads
Available in a variety of hardnesses, the most common leads used
are:
HB soft. For wider, dark infill lines or texturing. Smucjges easily ,--"----,------
but also erases easily.
H medium Good all-purpose drafting lead Ideal for lettering on
vellum. Prints well.
2H medium to hard. Good for layout lines and precision work.
More difficult to erase but will not smudge as easily.
4H hard. For guidelines and light layout lines. Use with a very
sharp point and a light touch. Will not print well.
Softer leads, ranging from the extremely soft 7B to soft B, are
available but are more suited to sketching than to drafting. Harder
leads, up to the extremely hard 9H, are also available but are
seldom used.
Nonphoto blue is used for drawing guidelines because it does not
reproduce when photocopied.

Pencil Pointer
A pointer is for sharpening lead Empty the bowl before putting it
away

DRAFTING
'Y
 ------------_._--- ~
-c
T Square and Parallel Rule
These are for drawing parallel lines and gUlcjlrlg other drafting
tools, such as triangles The recommended length for a T square IS J III m
24 inches ~. ~ I
For larger work, use a parallel rule, which attaches to the table with
wires and brackets It rolls over the drafting surface, maintaining a
precise parallel relationship. Recommended lengths are 36, 42,
and 48 inches
A drafting arm is q, more expensive, adjustable straightedge

~
Triangle
Combined with parallel rules, triangles are used to draft straight
lines in a variety of directions. Adjustable triangles save time and
allow precise angles to be drawn. If made of plastic, do not use as
a cutting edge Also, do not use them with markers, and avoid
damage to edges

Compass
For drawing larger circles a compass is necessary. Buy a good
one. The cheaper ones tend to be inaccurate and difficult to use.
For very large arcs, a beam compass 'IS used
. I
e:W=
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..L--

..

r:
Template
The template most commonly used by landscape architects is the 000
~. simple circle template Get one with very large circles and another 0000 0
~' 0 0 0 o •••.
with medium to small oircles. Many other template shapes are
l:
~,
available as well.
r ..

~
_

"'~" ~'.," .
Dry Cleaning Pad . .,'
....
. ,.'
Filled with powdered rubber, it is used to prepare a surface for ,
...
. ~ .
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• • .' I,
drafting and to reduce smudging. Use sparingly
~

~'-
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Eraser
Everyone makes changes The kneaded eraser IS good for initially
removing graphite with no smudging Follow-up erasing can be ?
done with any of the softer pencil erasers

x "
Erasing Shield c:: . ~.- )
For use with erasers to mask areas that should remain, a shield is ~ c:- 4JC:::d
very necessary when using an electric eraser. ClOOb 0000

= c> c::::J
Drafting Brush
Available in various sizes, it is used to sweep drafting surfaces ~~

,
clean. ~
tt;:'
Flexible Curve
Many brands are available. An excellent aid for drafting freeform,
~D t·
f,
flowing lines and better than French curves for landscape work.
Get one which can be used with both pencil and ink.

Scales
Architect's scales and engineer's scales are more used in the
,
,.

United States than elsewhere. Metric scales of various types are

used by landscape architects in most other countries. Do not use
scales as a straight edge.

Sandpaper Block
For putting a wedge or chisel point on the lead, a block is used
when lettering and for sharpening the compass lead. Store the
block in a sealed envelope with one end slit open.

:
Drafting Tape
Supplied in rolls or as strips of "dots," it is used to secure the
paper to the drafting surface. The best brands hold well, yet peel
off easily without ripping the paper.
:",......
..
[ .~ '.
.. . .
~.::.:.:::
-.'
:. ',: " :,
""[:::V0......' ..
: : :,:•.' .1 ',: :'. ~;
Drafting Paper I·
Vellum is a fairly stable paper suitable for pencil drafting. Some
brands include Clearprint 1000-H and K & E Albanene. These are
16 to 20 pound, 100 percent rag papers. Not recommended for ink
work.

Drawing Board Cover

A vinyl covering is recommended because it is durable and resists
small holes. Attach to the board with double-sided tape along the
top and bottom, To avoid buckling, keep out of direct sunlight and
avoid close proximity to hot objects.

y
Pencil drafting is mainly used on finished working drawings or Hold the pencil firmly (but not too tightly), so that you roll it slowly
base maps, where accuracy and precision are important. The as you pull it along the straightedge.
advantages of pencil over ink are that there is no w8 itinO period
(ink needs to dry), erasing is easier, and pencil is generally faster.
Ink has several advantages over pencil. (See Ink Drafting on
page 64.)
Tip the. pehGlI TClO much ~Iope.
ore"",
Line Quality
The three important line characteristics of pencil drafting are: (1) i
,
I ththe..
n
.,f
de:ar~
eo ar«tion
WII! caut.e +h~
lead +0 p~ Ie-

the density or value of the line, (2) the width of the line, and (3) the stroke.
consistency of the lines. The ideal line is dense, has sharp edges
and ends, and maintains a consistent width along its entire length. I
I
-:---}

The density or darkness of a line depends on the lead and the

paper used (rougher paper needs harder leads) and the pressure
applied to the pencil. I
Set up the sheet of vellum by lining up the top edge with the upper
side of your T square or parallel rule. Apply a light sprinkling of dry
cleaning powder.
Select the appropriate lead and sharpen to a point in the pencil
pointer. ~
..-Z_gf J~ __ 1=b'wfl\..c1rd
pre:!.E.ure
~
Now pop the very end off by tapping gently on a scrap piece of
paper.

1 CJ__
Next, round the corners of the lead by quickly doodling on the
scrap sheet The end should still be fairly sharp but not needle-like

~ fl[ J ~

'I, 59
Use of Straightedge Tools
With your non-drawing hand, make sure the head of the T square is
firmly against the edge of the board and hold the triangle firmly
against the top edge.
Arcs and Circles
When using the compass, sharpen the lead to a steep angle with
the sandpaper block. Test the point on a piece of scrap paper,
then scribe the circle, always keeping an even pressure throughout
the arc .,

~ +h 6 p~n::..ll 0+
ctoO 12:::> th~ ~ur~
Corn~C':>~
~hCJr~n +0
of the. T ~uar~ or ~ C:P-he.ep
C1 rrn -.--->i
+rlcmgle. ~:wl<Jl~ .
~O.
2' Ie.Qd~,

~ , I

For the next line, slide the triangle with very light pressure or lift and
then move it to avoid smudging. If you use felt tip pens, be sure to
clean the straightedge with cleaner or rubbing alcohol Connections
Make sure that all corners nave positive connections

1)R::lW
-from~ ~ld
-----------. ~\v'eQk..
cornet'
A ~1'&e.Jfl • ~ 11"' firmlC:j
Q\\oOCO
I hc..orrc:=c..+

~, -- I
I
Ir
Too mUGh
ftrml:}
overlap
InCCrrec.t

The parallel rule is used in much the same manner, except that it is
held in a parallel position with wires and is not meant to be
removed from the table. Adjust the wires to put a little tension on
the spring.
----lor correc..1-
~ LJ n~~ ~uc..h
have
bl'caht overlap
Q

"./
DRAFTING
Pencil Drafting Sequence
1. Lightly dust your drafting surface.
2. Layout shapes with very light, sharp lines drawn with needle-
pointed 2H or 4H leads. (If tracing a preliminary drawing, this
step may be omitted.)
.: ~
~
3. Draw arcs.

4. Draft all major lines with F, H, or 2H leads. Work from top to

bottom and from left to right.

I I
5. Add thinner dimension lines,
6, Md lettering. ,I
7 Last, add textural or tonal shading with H!3 or H leads to work
around lettering and avoid smudgi.ng II \)
8 When finished, check the back side of the sheet and remove
any graphite that may have been picked up from the work
surface or from tracing.
W 1
-cj

..==...=_=_-_....;:;11&

J ~'-~ c:l
'"t-e

'X et
Conventional Symbols and Llne Weights
for Landscape Working Drawings .
Line Symbols (construction plans)

Existing contours _-, /' " --- '" --

-,5\.
<, 0 Object lines.
material edges. I I~_
and level changes
Proposed contours

---~--I

,
Pattern lines

CIIitTI
Property line
(joints. decking. others)
I
I

Center line
--~
~--
~
I Extension lines

Dimension lines ~ &1-0" .

~, '-0" ~~I-, 71

Easement ----------- - - - -
____ e e e--
Fence line Point SymbolS (site plans)

Utility line ---\v 6-

water gas
Utility pole
-+-
Light
-+-
Buildings
DO Hydrant

Manhole
A
•
Catch basin

--
DRAFTING
Material Symbols (construction details) Check your pencil drafting quality against these criteria.

1. Blackness. All lines should be dense and black enough to

produce a high-quality print when submitted to the printing
Concrete ~··:·~·~;·'~6~~:~.~· process.
2. Consistent line weight. Each line should have an even
Sand ~~~::: :.~\:~:.::~:~.~:~t?~~~ thickness, or weight, throughout its length with no narrowing or
widening and no fuzzy edges.
Gravel or crushed stone DP~ ~ 3. Accuracy Lines should meet, line up with precision, and have
Rocks and stones 00 o definite ends.
4. Hierarchy of lines. The various descriptive lines must be easy
Wood mulch ~ to distinguish from their width or pattern.

Wood timbers mJ1J rzt ~

5. Tonal quality. Infill toning and texturing is used only to clarify
the message. No unnecessary toning should clutter the work.
Soli 1llIlJI!IIlllII,1\ 6. Sheet appearance, Overall, the sheet 18 clean and free of
~III1IS1IIl1U smudges, stains, and tears.

Note: These are mostly freehand.

Stone, brick
~ ~~
Bituminous paving trntnrrmmrnrnll
Filter mat

Steel
B'ZZ',
Re-bar -""--- ...
Bolts and rod ~~~ .---_.~
Note: These are mostly drafted,

\'),,;' .....
 F

Ink Drafting
Ink on film has several advantages over pencil on vellum. Ink
drafting makes precise, consistent line widths possible, with lines
that are denser and that produce much clearer prints. Film is more
resistant to damage than paper and is more stable. It will not shrink
or stretch with variations in humidity.
Equipment and Materials
Technical Pens
These are precision drafting tools designed to be used on film.
~ ]
~':
J~
Do not take the pen apart any more than shown here. The wire
needle inside the tip assembly is delicate and easily damaged if
removed.
Pen Care
Handle carefully and avoid shocks or jarring.
Keep caps on and store with points up or secured in their own set
containers.
Empty and rinse with warm water periodically throughout the year
and always before storing when they are not going to be in use for
a month or so.
Stubborn, "frozen" pens should be soaked in warm soapwater or
immersed in a special sonic bath for technical pens.

Inking Triangles and Templates

c=:e:::i11=tlJIP fir ~~embllj If working with both ink and pencil, purchase inking triangles and
templates. These have a recessed or beveled edge to prevent Ink

[][);tJ -lip from running beneath the guide.

l
s.
hous.,n':]

~e.rvOl r ~ ,1 I ~
J
jiJiJ.:

~~ W(@WQ~

~I m c:.olor coded II
u"m c.ollar Ink Eraser

b<»-rd [ I These are impregnated with erasing fluid especially designed for
erasing ink lines from drafting films.

Pens come in a variety of set sizes and brands. The best sets have
jewel tips, but these are expensive. Tungsten tips are less
expensive and quite durable. Stainless steel tips are the least
expensive. A good starting set would have a mix of four point sizes.
2 x 0 or 0.2 mm-fine
1 or 0.4 mm-medium
2 or 0.6 mm-medium broad
4 or 1.0 mm-broad
Point sizes as fine as 5 x 0 and as broad as 6 are available. To fill,
remove only the barrel, the color-coded collar, and the reservoir
Add ink (Y4 to Y2 inch), then reassemble.
'nk
Usually ink comes with a set of pens, but it can be bought
separately. Look for brands which give true, intense blackness, are
free-flowing, fast-drying, and have good adhesion to drafting film.
Drafting Film
Use polyester film which is 3 to 4 mil thick. The most common film
is Mylar, which has a roughened surface, called matt, on one or
both sides. Do not draft on the smooth side. Look for film that has a
high degree of transparency.
Other tools are similar to those shown under pencil drafting
materials (pages 57, 58).
 Tape the film down, but before starting, clean the surface with
r1~ rubbing alcohol to remove possible fingerprints or stains. Gently
shake the pen in a vertical position to activate the flow of ink. Test
on a scrap piece of vellum. Unlike the pencil, the pen must be held
vertical to the drafting surface in all directions. Do not tilt the pen in
the direction of movement or point it into the straiqhtedqe.
Use a very light touch; do not press down. Move slowly and evenly
across the film. (Fast strokes will disrupt the even line quality.) Wait
until the ink dries before moving tools across the film. Lifting
templates between strokes may be necessary. Erase with ink
eraser or moistened eraser soon after the ink has dried. Old inked
drawings can be erased with rubbing alcohol.
To obtain sharp corners on large areas of solid black, begin by
outlining with a narrow pen size, such as a 0, and then infill with a
wider pen size, such as a 3 or a 4.
North Indication and Scale
Both north indication and scale must be drawn onto all landscape North indicators
plans. Often they are integrated into a combined graphic element.
North indications should:
1. Be simple, unobtrusive, yet easy to find.
2. Have a prominent, straight shaft portion.
3. Point straight up, if possible, and always at some angle above
horizontal.
4. Never point down.

~
The north indication is usually placed close to the scale and
sometimes integrated with a graphic scale. It is usually placed
near the bottom or the right side of the sheet and often in the title
block area.

Graphic scales
The value of a graphic scale is that it retains its true relationship to
the drawing in the event the drawings are reduced or enlarged.

_. .--
o 20 40 60 100 05~
UI
w
I
~~
I

o 5 10 15

IIlI II~ III . 11111111IIImlllII ONE

ACRE

o 20 40 60 80

o 100 200 300

 The left side of the written scale equation tells the size of a unit on
the plan, whereas the right side tells the size of this same unit on
the actual site
For example, %" = 1'-0" would mean that one quarter of an inch on
the drawing equals one foot on the site,
Architects' scales are written with fractions of an inch on the left
side and a unit of one foot on the right side
" For example, 1" = l' -0", 3/4" = 1', and W' =1' -0" are used for
~,
s- expanded details such as those for deck construction or steps.
Smaller units, such as %" = 1'-0", Ya" = 1'-0", and Y1s" = 1'-0", are
used for detailed slte work such as the landscaping close to a
building. ... ,1

Engineer's scales are written with a unit of one inch on the left side
and increments of ten feet or one hundred feet on the right side.
Thus one inch on the scale equals ten or twenty feet on the actual
site. For overall site plans, it is common to use scales of 1" = 10',
1" = 20', 1" = 30', and 1" = 50', For large urban or regional
projects, it is common to use scales of 1" = 100',1" = 200', and
1" = 500'
Do not mix the architect's scale convention with the engineer's
scale convention It is incorrect to use 1" = 4'·0", or W' = 20',
The metric system of measurement uses the metric scale and a
simple ratio to show the scale relationship 150,1:100,1200,1500,
and 11000

67
" ,/
Reading Scales
Architect's Scale

c: stdrt bJ Ilnln<a up
reaq Inc.he~ L- I~e;l__
the \1 vrth the CJ"'E:e.~t
thl~ end ~ ~ - ~
foot mark.
,. lliiill iii i
nurnbe.rs, for
I o e; I the.~ 't:CQ I~
~. -f-
8
.. ,
4-" 4+ 42 ~nu~be("s> fur th~Jf
- .. ~Ie ~1orl1ng from
,.
. .. . , , ,
.. ,. , ~

,. , ,. ..
, _'
+h~ other E.f\d
"

k 1,,1 -011 ~
. ....
(.. ,

,
1 ,

Engineer's Scale
k 2'" -0" , J
1 2- ~ f-lndlC.Qte~ multlpl~
of ten feet

DRAFTING
 Title Blocks
~
Conceptual Site Plan
Wind
Map 10
Creek Bay (south)

All plan view working drawings must have a well-organized title

Legend
block, usually along the lower edge or right-hand side of the sheet.
~ Existing Tre ••
They include several essential elements
~ '0'~~ New Tr•• Planting.
Elements Examples a: Open Ar••
ct
Title of sheet content Planting Plan 0. ... -,.,
r"'.
'",'
St.ep Slope
lI)
Name of project Shores East Townhomes lI) Cliff,
Address of project or 618 Front Street w c.i ~
Z !: - - - , _ .... Trail
developer's name in ...
Sheet number 4 of 6 :::l
al
® Campllt.

Design company (with logo and Gordon Associates WWO

address)
"z.
0 0
-
> .......- ...........
on.roped Play'leid

Rail Fence
a:w cII
Spaces for check' signatures Checked Date lI)'" ~ - o ( _... , Wire Fenee
~ct'E
Revisions and dates Revised Date :!:I: II \ \~- ,." One Way Trlfflc

Scale vo.Ji
North indication I Not.,: 2' Contour Interval

Many companies have standard pre-printed Mylar base sheets

with the gaps and company logo laid out to save redrafting time for dH
C'i
these repetitive elements. ::;Ii
;al!,.

~ I"'
.!
'I
I,
l!

I
~
5
0-
~,. ,(t_.
Keyhole
State Park
J Maater
Plan
(~;,~
- .•. 'tf=~7&" ~
aomml"IO"~
j

-__ ...,-- ~~(T)'''WI~

....-""" .. - 1_
....- ........,,-
11_ _
",,_,00 _ _ ""'"
~

" J
81
@ Lettering

Lettering on a drawing fulfills an important requirement Information

that cannot be revealed by graphic shapes and lines alone must
be included in the form of notes, titles, labels, dimensions, and
identification. The lettering can either enhance the drawing by
making it easy to interpret and pleasant to look at, or it can ruin an
otherwise good drawing by making it difficult to read and unsiqhtly
to look at. Legible lettering should be planned as part of the overall
graphic composition of the drawings on which they appear.
 .......

3
> N
~ .»
\-- x
V)
'J) >
>
Ul
() -\-
(La
( .........

zC)
'-J

r~
,_ I'----
.L r:
L~ E
_J .l!)

~+
J__ N1
IN

llll~ C \J)
G -+:-- - \J
'V
() \J)
'.<,\.1
,,) )-
co. x
-<{)
Ol
C
°C
Q)
::::Q)
..J
Pencil Lettering
Shape and Spacing ..../00
I ~IA RR)\'d
i)""\1 " ,.
I
-r~o'-
.I /
~
) \,/',
\\.~ I'~) ~.~,.
I .............
1'"
\--.,
lo-_we_'

, ,--.-\
/\\,. ~'~ ,/_') I • ~" ~..... , --,0' .;J' :-'''--'1 I
Most letters should fit within a slightly narrowed square. Spacing t'-,.p._·'v·.-. ,
between words should be the equivalent of the letter N.

Size
i Center row of evenly spaced holes

Always use guidelines to obtain correct size and uniformity. The

-
Ames Lettering Guide, shown here, will help. It has a rotating disc
o
which allows quick set-up of guidelines of any size. o

Running through the center of the disc is a row of evenly spaced •"
holes. At the end of this row is the number ten. Rotate the disc so
•
that the ten lines up with the frame index mark near the base of the •
frame. Insert a needle-sharp 4H pencil into the top hole. Move the o
pencil lightly across the paper, keepinq a slight pressure toward
the straightedge. Shift the pencil down to the next hole and repeat "
the back-and-forth motion until there are enough lines for the Index mark
purpose. If you want closer lines, rotate the disc to a lower number.

~ }
.4.,:::'~"" 0 / t::::- ~'r- t:-~
~
P··-l / - ! Q /'''1\ , I
""'_, 1,1 1'--1 I ' - .._ I . I _I·... i"\l.../\Y

~\\IE::~ '_\H~6 \vITH E::QUAl....

r0\ j

5PAc..IN6 AT THI:> :>IZ.E::.

The rows at holes on either side of the center row produce sets of
three lines (between the brackets) which have the middle guideline
slightly above center. A middle guideline is helptul to obtain LefT OF THE C-E~-1T~~ F<)\/
consistency at shape tor upper case letters such as S, E, F, H, and
P. This is particularly true tor larger letters (3.A6-inch or more).
( 1-::) 1-r-lE: ~~ ~O\y \vHICH 6iV'S/
A
r-"
itC.., I/- H"n1-.y t;;?'
....,., ...... (,;:11
I A C ro,
I V'·~I_ ..... V
M!Ii ..,--
r~)r '
i ... - 1,(
Several ditterent lettering sizes and their applications are shown on
I I r", ~
the next page.
/ \
,:.;:.t W I ~ ...- L.. -, "J
I
, i
 ,r-:.:::::
.... If"..
I~
H.. :. . ~-:e:rn::· R- 6t UI PE:.. t::..XA H FL t=:.
ben1N6t

(~'-,7~-? '~ .. :,,' !~,""~ S.~1A:"-~. Pf::"~- ~~!~ ~ei·i~·e..r(_q·IC%

''?
,_:~ ~;;-.r"! i.,~~1

C-ENTE:I<. ~w' ~OD Fbr~ 6HALL LA~1:.L.S ¢' r:>LOc...~ OF t...e.ITegj N6r,
~F::.rrIN~ (P C,AN '-v'f_1 re-
A L..OT iN A ~HALL.. SPA.GS-
AL.\vAYt> LEAVlE!-- A 6!Af" ~T'v'ee.N LI~·Je:.~ Of L..e TTSP-.IN6

/~ C- t::.-HT e f2.. r<.o \v' A ve.~ y COM ft?ra.TA~1...-.e- "6>1z.e ft?~ ~~T
6ellll'-i6f 8 LA ~eL...L...IH c:r
I'
~~ ~ ~O\v 6rCOD FOR SUB TITL-E5 . USe: A
S~rrIN6 ~ t-EHTf:R C"1UIDe L-INB.
. )/+11
0/5 RO\V UrFeR- LIMIT FOR FE:HL:\ L
StTTIN618 L-ETTE:R.I H6t.
K'

73
Technique
After setting up guidelines and lightly dusting the surface with the Right: Pencil held at a low angle.
dry cleaning pad, begin with a small triangle on the lower side of
the parallel rule

---
A 0.5 mm pencil with H or HB lead is ideal because you never have
to sharpen it. Regular lead holders are better for large letters (3;'6- Flatten the end of the lead on a scrap sheet or with a sandpaper
inch) but the lead must be periodically sharpened. For Mylar, use a block.
harder lead (2H) or plastic leads.
.~

The Lettering Grip

Wrong: Pencil too vertical.

Rotate the pencil slightly, so that the flattened edge is against the

~_..... _.
vertical guide.

- -_. --
,.....
,?~..,:::~~'~~,::::....-~~.~-~.~,-_ ~.- ~~.~
r '" .....
 Draw verticals as thin lines with strong, dark ends. 00 not move the fingers. Pivot on the palm or forearm muscle and
let the fingers slide and steady the hand.

i+:M' II IemPha~I':::.
h go -thin hh~
hit e.mphabl~

III I III I I Ilill II II I 1IIIIll sb) PI'vO'f- on palm or {t,l'earty\

with ft~8er5 mu~e~

Watch the guidelines, keeping the verticals a consistent size.

A small wrist movement may be necessary for horizontals.

Remember: Make thin verticals with strong ends and thick, dark
The horizontals should be drawn as thicker, darker lines. Maintain a horizontals. As the lead wears down, simply rotate the pencil
firm pressure throughout. Avoid brushing off the ends. A slight slightly to place the new chiseled side against the vertical guide
upward slope is acceptable and thus maintain the narrow verticals.

EE:E E ~~O~T E:F-HIL-T

<:k 1NGORJ(J:::C..r
~(

E E ~
1 E
I E Diagonal strokes and circular strokes are done with an even
pressure. Some variations of line width will occur as a result of
-r
~lzonhl~
direction change. Do not move wrist or arm position. Move the
hoc IzJt'llnb hor 1Z000bis vertical guide away and use quick, confident strokes with adequate
not too flat not pressure.
p:lrQlle.1 et'\'lpha~~a:f
~d~ pru~ed
out
exc.e~lve....

~larlt AK MN V\vXYZ
BCDOPQ RR=SS

\ 75
More Hints for Better Lettering
o Letter a drawing last to avoid smudges and overlapping with
other areas of the drawing. This will enable you to space out your
lettering and to avoid lettering through important details.
o Don't try to develop speed at first. Make each stroke quickly, but
take your time between letters and between strokes until you
have mastered each letter. Then gradually increase your speed.
You will soon be able to letter almost as fast as you can write
script.
o Organize lettering in logical blocks. Wherever possible, align
notes down a vertical guideline. Place notes where they will not
obscure other messages.
o Relate the size of the lettering to the importance of the labeling.
o Choose a style of lettering that is compatible with the character of
the presentation and maintain that style consistently.
o Make letters bold and distinctive. Avoid a delicate, fine touch. Try
emphasizing the beginnings and ends of strokes.
o Form the habit of lettering whenever possible-as you take notes,
address envelopes, write letters, and compose memos,
Lettering Evaluation Guidelines
Check your pencil lettering against these criteria:
o All letters are dark with no fuzzy gray lines. (Test by running a
blueline print.)
o The shapes are similar to the example alphabet and are
consistent throughout.
o There is a uniformity of size, with all letters meeting the
guidelines.
o The verticals are thin, dark lines with strong ends,
o The horizontals have a slight upward slant and are thick, dark,
and parallel
o The sheet has a neat, clean appearance with no smudges.
A variety of prepared lettering systems is available. These are
usually used instead of freehand lettering when a more finished Sticky Back Transfers
appearance is required. When large blocks of notes or plant lists are required on a drawing,
it is faster to use the typewriter and an adhesive-backed clear
sheet. Simply type or copy the notes onto the transfer sheet.
Dry Transfer Letters Remove the protective backing, and apply the sheet adhesive to
the drawings.
Also called rub down letters, these are available in many different
Advantages
font styles. Helvetica medium is a neutral style favored by many
landscape architects. Dry transfer letters come in a variety of • The method permits fast and uniform letters.
brand names, such as Chartpak and Letraset.
Disadvantages
Advantages
• When printed, a ghosting effect sometimes appears due to the
• A wide variety of font styles is available. extra thickness and the adhesive material.
• Many point sizes are available. • It cannot substitute for the character of handlettering.
• Dry transfer letters give a professional, finished appearance.
Try exercises 26, 27, and 28.
Disadvantages
• They are expensive, especially in the larger sizes
• They are time-consuming, especially when working with smaller
sizes
It is a good practice to cover dry transfer letters with clear tape to
prevent their being dislodged during printing or filing. Burnish well
to remove air bubbles.
A quick touch with clear tape is a good way to remove transfer
letters

Kroy Lettering System

Kroy is a brand name for a mechanical process whereby letters are
punched out onto an adhesive strip. After removing the backing,
the strip is applied to the drawing.
Advantages
• Gives fast, uniform, and professional-looking titles.
• A variety of styles is available.
Disadvantages
• The equipment and discs are expensive.
• Current machines have size limits.

\ 77
 ® Presentation Plans
Presentation plans need to combine both straightedge and
freehand techniques. They should be looser in style than working
drawings, but more realistic than concept plans.
The most commonly used projection in the landscape design
process at the design development stage is the plan view. There
are some good reasons for this. In a plan view, it is easy to
manipulate and show the horizontal relationships between objects
and spaces. Furthermore, these elements can be accurately drawn
to scale.
Picture the plan view as a diagram of the site as seen looking
straight down from a hot air balloon. The graphic symbols
represent the real objects and materials which are to be part of the
design. Of course, this is an abstraction of reality and the symbols
chosen can create a fairly realistic message or a rather abstract
message. Abstract symbols are simple and fast to create but are
not as convincing as the more realistic drawing. The graphic artist
must choose the correct balance between time and realism to suit
the message, the budget. and the time available.
The symbols and signatures shown in this chapter have been
developed to produce the most convincing message of reality with
economy of time in mind. Only black-and-white techniques are
shown here. After mastering these methods, adapt them to color
media and replace some with faster, more vivtd color rendering
techniques. Keep in mind that a black-and-white rendering is less
expensive to reproduce than is a color rendering.
Understand the objects you are representing. Know something
about their shape, texture, and reflective qualities. Choose line tone
and textural symbols that match these qualities. Practice plan
graphics by copying ideas from the following pages, developing
your own symbols and style along with proficiency.

I
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30% of actual size

Medium: Pencil on Mylar 79
 Quick Trees

Very fast template and freehand outline symbols

Trees should be drawn at about two-thirds to three-fourths of their Simple single circle
mature, ultimate spread. This gives a fair representation of the template outline
impactof the planting design in the near future, rather than in
twenty or thirty years.
Always use a light guideline and show the center of the tree.

Double circle
template. outline,
offset

Freehand double outline

around a light guideline
circle

Angular outline with

Angular outline half«desat the
corners

T-hlck ami thin double

outllna with quick
branching
- .. - (
Double wavy tine ctr.cular outline with
small Ws removed

Bites out of1he cookie

Irregular puffy edge

PRESENTATION PLANS
80
 Thick outside line

Good for showing detail

on the ground plane
underneath.

Note: This size is good for

ten scale plans.

0
o
0•
o·
(>~io
Open branching with
small circles or triangles
suggests leaves. . -.
• 0-.1::>0
·• 0···
• 0
•

Note: This size is good for one-eighth or one-quarter

scale plans.

81
 Trees with Foliage Texture

A simple shape is repeated around the edge and piled

up on the shaded side to give an appearance of
roundness. *if~,.,;J~ ~*
!It ...
~t ~* Star doodles

~~ 11~~ '* tt.{i/

'*
'f 1:
~Jt.
li::t-

~
,I
Leave a large area of l~!«WfI'
. ....•
each tree symbol
~J. 7f. uncluttered by detaiJ. I'
• • •
• •• • •
~~f~f .• .:'.'
~. Linked Us
•
• • e.

Flower doodles

Square-shaped doodles Dots or stipple marks

~\\,.
~\\h ~.
#!}j.~~
tiflfA~ ~~~:slines to show palm

(I \l~ Circle doodles

Loose squiggles with
thick and thin lines

PRESENTATION PLANS 82
....... -- ------

Good for showing winter effects or layering other symbols

underneath, this kind of symbol is also easy to color.
Five main branch spokes looks most natural. Make sure
that any thickened center becomes gradually thinner Smooth curved lines
toward the edge.

Simple straight lines

Many lines toward the

outside defines the edge.

Angular lines

When only a few branches are

shown the outside of the symbol
Irregular bumpy lines may need some edge definition.

Lightning bolts

83
Sequence for Drawing Branched Trees
1. Start with a light guideline
circle and locate the center.
nn~C"r~ITATII"\~1 01 AIl...C
2. Draw in the main branch
structure. Solid branches
should taper from thick near
the center to thin near the
outside.
7"
.I -:.
3. Add a few more secondary 4. Add many small branches to
branches. each one emphasize the edge.
touching the outer circle
guideline.
J,
..~
....
."t1'

Coniferous Trees
Drafted lines

Thick and thin lines

~
Sequence for Radial Line Symbols
1. Set up guide circle.
2. Place a larger circle template around it.
3. For drafted symbols, draw lines with the
triangle on top of the circle template.
4. For freehand symbols, place the smaller
template over the larger one and draw lines
from one side to the other.
5. Make sure that all lines cross in the center.

J Freehand lines

The addition of more

All lines the same lines on one side gives
an added depth.

Deep and shaUow

U shapes

85
 Plant Groups

c
The symbols shown here and on the
next three pages can be used to ') . r:
.
,
I

represent forests and groves of trees

at larger scales or groups of shrubs
at smaller scales.
,
"--_/
,
t~
,
crcA
-- ~/)t )
If '
CJ
~\
M~
,~)
Begin with a serles of A simple, heavy outline is
circles as light guidelines. the fastest method.
Vary their size a little:
:1
-I

'.
:1'.·,·.·.'

j
,
J

Angular lines, like a stop Centers may or may not be

sign, areusedforoutline~ Loose-wavylines j double or
located. single; are used for outlines.

PRESENTATION PLANS
86 .
-,.
r Tropical Plants

Dots are for textural

interest.
Thin lines may represent
leaf ribs.

Always use a circle

template guideline for outer
edges.

Combine thick and thin

lines to provide interest.
Some symbols also have
an inner guide circle.

Overlapping gives an
appearance of depth.

87
More Deciduous Shrubs or
Tree Groups
Scalloped edges

i
Quick radial "match-
stick" lines to suggest
branching

r"py-1)
·~~rLn
Angular~ges '->-V V 4J
j

Double outline

Daublestop sign, thick

and thin

o Irregular outline-with
some dots

Puffy outline wtthsome

pencil hatching on .one
sfdeto show roundness

PRESENTATION PLANS B8
~,,,,

~,-

Fine-textured Shrubs

o Repeated U-shaped
strokes
Varied U shapes

Jagged strokes Good for shrubs with Two or three rows on

penetrating the circle needle-like or pointed one side for showing
foliage, such as conifers roundness
and other sharp-leaved
evergreens.

'\\Ili/~
~'~~
*~
~\\\\l/l~
~
Conifers

§ ~~ ~\ll/II~
~"%'lI\t.~~
~ If: Double circle
guidelines
~~'l/t ~\lIJII~~~
\~UII~ ...~\~ ~ s
~\ ~~'" AjI'Ul\\~ ~ ~
Grass-like plants -~~Ii/tl\~~
~
%
-g'
~~~
"'"'l//lll\\\'

~/"J\\\
89
 t
Hedges or Rows
1
i
.~
~

t
~
"

/-

Informal hedge
Quick outline, with small
chunks added and
removed Tropical or large-leafed
plants

Rounded, smooth edges

Box shapes for a that show two pen sizes
trimmed hedge and to overJapping
define space

PRESENTATION PLANS
Ground Covers

Large areas of gras? may be left

untextured or shown with a stipple pattern
of dots near the edges. For smaller areas
where a denser tone is desired, the
IU IJ 1I II 1111 lllJ ~1I11(11
"~l\\~~\ II~I I! ~JI~~ ~/I \ I
patterns shown here may work.
A fast method to obtain consistent rows is

4'1#
to tape two triangles together, leaving a
small gap of Va-inch to %-inch. Choose a
doodle and quickly stroke between the
H /JJ/J/jJJjj/$
triangles.
Best results are obtained by keeping rows
horizontal and parallel. Make sure that
successive rows touch or overlap slightly.

WJW UUWvWJ

(j))) LIJAIjjjJ

CS]]) (()'Qill@)
d_
~ ~~pu

91
 More Ground Covers
The basic line shape shown on the left is

~
repeated to form a build-up of pattern as
shown on the right. ~
These shapes can be drawn freehand with
no horizontal guides. Connected squares

Downward arches
~
~

~
~
Upward arches

~
~
Connected loops

~
~
Diagonal Ws

i
Ij

~
Snake loops
~
PRESENTATION PLANS
....
Tone Contrast
and Balance
These techniques are time-
consuming and should only be
used when the plan must read well
without color.

Large area of untextured surface

may be needed to balance areas
of dense tone.

Trees in planting beds-can be

When ground covers are heavily
toned, the shrub groups can ·be
left white for contrast....'
:" .'
drawn with a simple, bold
outline to show layering Qf
plants underneath.

•
•
93
 Layering

Tree too close to j Pines of similar

edge size interweave Larger pine
at edges overlaps smaller
pine

« INCORRECT
Buffer of white
space

Branched tree
symbol contrasts
J
with shrubs
""'"-~ 'f-- Edge of plant underneath
symbol lies on
top of edging line
Definite overlap,
with no
confusion of
ci
~j
edges );j
<f;
j
.'-;,:
;;~-~

PRESENTATION PLANS
Landform
Irregularly spaced fine lines run
perpendicular to contour lines or
contour dots. This Is a fast technique
and therefore good for larger areas of
sloping landform.

~
~y~ . r." '.....
j>V·. •:"
~
.~
~f. • • •
~ ~.,. '.'

- .
..
~~...
. ",1'..
,.......
1;: ••
1:.. . .
. .~':".~~:.. .::"4 :
. ..,)zt to ' . .ff.·.. . ,:~~: ..
•. ......... ".:~...r " : ' . :t~1:: . ,i"; ~ : ~
.~:r''/'':' .. ·." . """ .' -:.,.""... ...-.,:

". . ""'f...?<~.~f~:,,··~::·:: '.: : -:",,<;~~:~~:r.'::: :.,.((:.".If;:.

'. . .t". .
': ': ", :~: "'~'~~~';:?~"'~~~~'
"""'lo~'. • •' , . .t-. • .
"., . ",,:" . .,....:\':"!~:.•;.•:{o'~'. : . : . . . "::,,,,::,; 0.'
,.,.,,;:..
.~"'\ .
:.'.. ~~~: <:. ~:f.~~:~ ::.:....~:·I"fl\>'
;:;;'~'., ',' : t\::,· . Small stipples or dots. Use contour
\~; ..~" ~:: ~.'., guidelines and place dots along
\:::;: : ~':.' the uphill side of the guideline.
'~::::
~
... ," t:.·· Gradually widen the spacing
betwee h d Th' .
,.
l:':.'.
•
f.. . :
:.-0.. ,
n t e ots. IS pattern IS
:.• .-. !.~~.. also very tlme-consuming.
:,:':' : i(
,', ~

95
 Rocks

.
.
..
1
'
• ' ••• t

. .... , Rounded boulders. Draw with smooth

/ ......
.' . thick and thin lines. Offset the loops . '1
'~

.. '
.. ~

.
::,~

';~

Angular rocks. Vary the sIzes.

....... .. • • 00 0 · " .......
~~

.... ';,~
.~
Use thick and thin lines.

................................................... ~ " ..
" ......
. "' '" .., . . - .
. ...
.. '

.. ..
'
'
Flat, layered rocks. Show overlapping.
' .. . . . . to.
Pile up lines along the edges. Keep
.... lines directional to show stratification.

.. .....
'. ."

...... ~

PRESENTATION PLANS
GR
~,)",

,"
Water

~::'~'>.~': ;.... d-
Natural waterways, such
as ponds, lakes, and
streams can be left
white. The addition of
smooth, flowing lines
near the edges give a
hint of motion.

Waterfalls and rapids should

be left white or be indicated
with a few dots.

r,
~

If a toned surface is desired

for contrast, use closely
spaced, thin parallel lines.
Leave some breaks.
'-.---".-.
' .

97
Pools and Fountains

: I !
;

Reflecting pool. Lightly

Straightedge. Uniform distance between Freehand lines. Some variation in ruled cross lines. Allow
lines. spacing. pen to skip.

/.
~
/ ~..

Concentric circles drawn

with template. Shadow Quick streak lines. Gives
Concentric ripples from a a hint of surface
fountain. Layout light pencil lines added. Fast.
reflections.
guidelines. Freehand circles.
Implies movement. Time-
consuming.

PRESENTATION PLANS 98
I
Water Surface Texture
Place a textured material such as plywood,
pressboard, or sandpaper, under drawing.
The same techniques can be used with
colored art sticks. .., - /J

"' .- . .,
/
I, /-.":;./'"
Rub surface with a graphite stick. This
;;.~..( ,... ,r;
technique produces a rippled effect.
- / ,"

.
~.... ;.f

-, " /r . '.
. "
- '/:"-"
...... .
...,;., ..;.

'J-/'

. .-. / "
---,'"
" .... .
.
~

. . -- ,,'-"',,: ?

/
./ ~\/

,......
,.., , f~

.,'

-r,-:
~- ... - ,,,-._--

.,

99
 Paving

. .". It:··: .. .
. ".. '
. ...

. . . >.11;· ". '. .'. :';'·.11.'...:. . . . :.11>.',,,.

Cobbles

All paving types on this page are freehand examples.

PRESENTATION PLANS
100 ..~'

j
Prepared Hardscape Patterns
Many pattern shapes are
available with adhesive
backing. They are trimmed
to fit the desired form.
They are expensive, but
fast and precise and are
useful if fine detail is
needed.

101
Buildings

Single outline gives

basic shape of building.

[ ~,
I- .~

Thinner lines
show roof shape.

Thick-thin double outline

adds power to the
structure.

Positive connections are

important. I I

PRESENTATION PLANS 102

~'

~..
Freehand Buildings

Quicker than drafted buildings, freehand

structures are permissible if accuracy is
not critical.

Roof shading is effective on larger-scale

plans where ground details are less
important. Leave buildings simple on
small-scale plans. Use guidelines or graph II
paper.
Avoid roof patterns if large overhangs exist.

Roof shading adds a three-

dimensional quality and L I J I r.
indicates light direction.

1r. 11 .,
•

103
 , "

Roads and Sidewalks Cars and Trucks

Cars and people show activity and

function.

on
A help in showing scale and function,
cars and trucks are best done freehand.
Keep shapes simple.
" j
j
~
<~
1
~

an
rrn It

rn:1'
l1Il
OIJ
8J ~
Freehand EI::' )
on ITlJ
"

People
D Drafted

q). e
Oval with a black ~ ~ ~
dot for the head ~ I '6
:;nm §:
Abstract shadow #

PRESENTATION PLANS
\ Hint of feet possible
on larger people

104
Shadows
Shadows bring depth to a plan by indicating relative
heights of objects.
If the north arrow points up on the plan, the most Sun ~ N
direction .;;:!J
realistic direction for shadows in the northern
hemisphere is above the symbols. When the shadow
pattern is critical (e.g., solar studies), use this
direction.

A more powerful three-dimensional effect is obtained

by placing shadows on the lower side to the left or
right. This is because our eyes are used to having
light come from above.

ShrUb shadows will be

proportionately smaller than tree
shadows.

When the larger tree shadow falls

onto the top of shrubs, it should be
shortened and made with an irregUlar
edge.

105
 '1
,~
i·!Z
Sequence for Drawing Shade Tree
Shadows ~~

1. Start with the circular 2. Move the template in 3. Fill the void.
tree symbol. Assume a the sun direction and
sun direction. draw a light guideline.

Black shadows are best, but a

toned shadow can be made by
drawing a series of parallel lines
which follow the sun direction.

For complex outlines, repeat the

symbol shape around the
shadow guide circle.
Leave a thin white space to
define the edge of the symbol.

PRESENTATION PLANS 106

Sequence for Drawing Coniferous
Tree Shadows

1. Start with the circular 2. Offset circle guideline. 3. Fill the space.
tree symbol and
assume a sun direction.

Parallel strokes with a thick

pen give a textured edge.
Leave white space.

Draw a loose shadow

To show pyramidal tree edge.
form, draw a cone-like
guideline.
The centerline follows the
sun direction.

107
.:;;u.:..llRfJj;¥,·ii..".;, .~
-~ .""'-." ~_."- .. '.-"',.': ~;". ~ ...--,
..,-\,..;.~
,
Sequence for Drawing Building
Shadows
1. Start with basic outline and assume a sun angle. 2. Draw parallel lines from each corner. For peaked
roofs, the line should be longer. Connect the
corners.

{
Ii /
/
/

/
'0(/
/

3. Add any additional details. Note how the shadow 4. Add texture to the shaded side of the roof to help
is longer on the shaded side of the roof due to the accentuate the feeling of depth.
roof slope.

PRESENTATION PLANS 108

Shadow Proportions
Once the initial shadow length of an object has been Building with planting
selected, all other shadows must be proportionately
longer or shorter, depending on the relative heights of
the objects.

Shorter bUilding

Building shadow does not cut

through trees. Lower plants
are covered by more
Taller bUilding (four shadows.
times as high)

Shadows can be toned. but do

not mix black and toned
shadows on the same sheet.

Shadows also indicate slopes and level changes on the

ground plane. Swimming pool

Ramp with wall

Shallow end
Ramp Level walk

Steps with wall

~I
I
Steps

109
 Fast Shadows ,
:1
~
,,';

~ tr 1
Light
direction ;;if
Keep the edge of
the marker
parallel to the
light direction.
The edge of a
regular marker can
also be used to
quickly add
shadow.

Follow back edge

of symbol.

Light

~ion

When symbols
are textured to
show the shaded
A gray marker side of the
can be used to object, the
reveal lines shadow must
under the correspond to
shadow. the same light
direction.

PRESENTATION PLANS 110

,;:- ,..--
-',', ~-
Mt,-

Composite Shadows
~ht
~ ~:~ction

••1

.' Edge of
shadow
reflects edge
of symbol., .

Larger tree has

larger shadow.

-.'
~ .
. .
", / ...
:

I'r 'I . " ' .......

~ ".

Small trees in Shadow gets longer

raised planter cast as steps descend.
longer shadows.

.11 1
 · -· ·> / ·
,'.".";/'

.71 Section-elevations
r··
!

It is usually necessary to communicate more about a design idea

than can be shown on plans. Despite the use of shadowing and
layering in plan views, it is not possible to show the detail of vertical
elements and how they relate to the horizontal shapes. Section-
elevations are an excellent tool for this.

112

_._----'-
....
M
 Section-elevations
The relationship of a section-elevation to a landscape plan is
demonstrated here by slicing a landform vertically with a large
cleaver. When the pieces are pulled apart, a cross section is
revealed.

SECTION-ELEVATIONS
114
If'"
n
F

c.:< ---- ;-- -.

The vertical surface made by the knife cut is a true section. The elements beyond the section, when drawn to scale, form an
Nothing in front of or behind this surface is shown. elevation. No cut line is shown on an elevation.

"ttl
PLAN ~oU1'lC Ji.l..e.VATION \Va6T1iLIiVATIOH

Elevations are more common on architectural drawings than

landscape architectural drawings. They are an effective way to
show surface detail on the facades of buildings. Often they relate to
a plan view of the same set of drawings.

For landscape architects, the combined section-elevation is the

most useful tool. These usually have the shorter title of "sections". In
practice, the terms are interchangeable.

115
Section-elevation Characteristics
The section-elevation shows the cut surface and/or the profile line
plus true-to-scale elements a selected distance beyond the profile
line. It is up to the graphic artist to decide how much to show
beyond, but normally the closer objects have bolder lines with
ample detail and distant objects, if shown at all, rendered as lighter
outline shapes. This can be accomplished by using ink for closer ,;;:
<,"
elements and pencil for middleground and distant elements,
especially if making diazo prints from the finished drawing. '. ~':" , .
The two essential characteristics of a landscape section are:
I
,',

1. A bold, prominent profile line.

2. All vertical features drawn at the same scale, no matter how far
,~ .~

they are from this profile line. "~

This makes the section very easy to draw. It can be related to a j
corresponding plan view by labeling on the section (e.g., section
through fishing pier) or a cut line showing view direction on the
plan.

SECTION-ELEVATIONS 116
r'
E:'"
.....
-

.c'<
-. -. . . ,-~

Drawing a Section from a Plan

--------,
- -- \ ,/
1. On an overlay, draw a cut line (AA)
/
through the area to be shown in section. -...., \ /
,-
Using known vertical information, place
--- / ) /
marks on the line corresponding to (
-- --/.,-

-- --
/
each vertical elevation. In this case, '-- ..... ,.,., I
./
each contour line represents five more
feet above the pond level.

o 10 to!>O

! -

I - - - - _ ..•. ,_.
~'3' .' -- , f1T , ~ - •
2. Remove the overlay and construct a aO ;" , / }o
series of horizontal lines above (and 25 ' ' ' ' ' ' ~
20 V ----- .: V' w
below) to represent even increments of 115 I V 'I' 1'-. ,.,
./ --......' , I, '"
vertical change. You may use the same '~ .A r-, ' : i .'~
scale or one which multiplies the 0"'" ---- I ..... V 1/ l" I "I
-s <, T 'S
horizontal scale by 1.5 or 2 for -/0 " " " , , , Itl
-IS , , ' / IS"
exaggeration. At each mark on the --,.p, <, / 10
base line, draw a vertical guideline and
mark with a dot where it intersects the
correct elevation. Join the dots.

3. On another overlay, sketch the

appropriate landscape features at their
correct heights. Make the section line
bold.

117
Uses of Landscape Sections
The examples shown on this and the following nine pages give
some of the main purposes for and values in drawing landscape
section-elevations.

1. To emphasize the importance of vertical elements

as they relate to activities and use.
,
For sections showing people, activities, uses, and the built
environment, it is best to keep the vertical scale and the horizontal
scale the same to avoid unrealistic distortions.
J
"
t.,

SECTION-ELEVATIONS 118
p
.....'-
f
Section Sketch

Autv ~~~ PJ,UW~ tUttii .~

atMt:tte4 7a1l; ~ r~aVJ : ; !ldt;/vlm ~VIIj fbx~~ A$
2tt1h P{aur ~
~ ~tJtie:l
~AA~ ~
CN~ Pdfttr
~

Section Drawing Artificial rock made of I

gunite/can be washed down.

Provide. plant holes for shrubs.
Anchored poles - --,
to support netting

Interpretive
signage

Visitor
barrier
fence I

Interpretive
signage I

Section/Elevation
WOLF AND SMALL MAMMAL EXHIBITS
NTS

119
2. To communicate hidden elements in plan view.
Caves. overhangs, depths of water, and underground features are
some of the elements that are impossible to show in plan view.

T~L..tf
?ONt:>
1\ 60 6.
6
• '"
~L.A~~

~
;,

d
.. ". (I •
~
1

UND~R.Ow..lD
VI~"I~ ~

120
SECTION-ELEVATIONS
F
" '~'
,:;l~.::~'
.' ,
I"'··>
.. ,.. <
_

3. To analyze screening and views from specific vantage points.

These are called sightline studies.

so LA fZ.. Aa:..et:b
z.c;He::
8u,..r~
PL.ANTIN6

/
-=-OI.A rz- ~e.\"~ TO
p,,~, N e I- /flI>..N e.L ~ ~~'­

~ ~m,AY \VAW:.VAY
D~e

121
 4. To study landform.
On larger-scale landscapes with subtle landforms, it is sometimes
helpful to exaggerate the landform by enlarging the vertical scale
by a factor one and a half or two times the horizontal scale.

~AN AL-L..UVIAL. sauTHE!~H G,.LAGlA L- L.AIC-e.~ lH,..a~lOR..

~~ PAN& AL-P; VAL-L-e.'(~ Jt.~lot-J H1L,...!.-'=>
.J...-

1 1 1
Horizontal scale: 1:100,000
Vertical scale: 1:50,000

Horizontal and vertical scale: 1:100,000

SECTION-ELEVATIONS 122
f'

5. To illustrate landscape processes.

c~
U ~ DHeavy
n
n n Il
seasona1
rains
n
U

Nearby agriculture
~ ~ 1n ~
depends on water D 1
Evaporation I
from aquifer;
~ 1
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Well
protects soil and
slows surface
n
n Percolation
recharges
I
runoff. _ 1tA. groundwater I
c:::::.r Jtquifer. I
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Underground aquifer

Sediment build-up
in streams, 1akes,
and ponds

123
6. To demonstrate the importance of climate and microclimate.

\YIN~

I
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1,
j
~

SECTION-ELEVATIONS 124
~ I;

fzfl
 8. To show ecological relationships.

c,..,..m~ Cobk.. R:>~Pne.- t..:.mt>vPone.- e>r,-..tIC.~~ptna.

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of 9

SECTION-ELEVATIONS 126
~.
i:

~) .
i:\. r .t-M;.-.~
1 •.

i : ) \ .
9. To show the internal structure of a built element.
These kinds of drawings are called construction sections or
details. They usually form part of the working drawings and show in
detail the components of a structure and how they fit together.

VALL ~ \vATt=R. ·FeATU~E. DETAIl::- r-UMPOUT~

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127
@ Graphic Symbol File

The file of drawings In this chapter show examples of graphic

symbols commonly used in sections and perspectives.
1
~~

• Trees
• Shrubs
• Foreground plants
• Foreground trees, rocks, and ground covers
• Water
• Vertical plane elements
• Ground plane elements
• Automobiles
• People
Most of these examples emphasize economy of time-using
simple, fast techniques. Some can be applied to both sections and
perspectives (vegetation, rocks, people). Others are applicable to
perspeotive drawings only (water, vertical and ground plane
elements, automobiles). See Chapter 9 for discussion of
perspectives.
First try to copy the ideas, altering the size and shapes as
necessary. If that proves too difficult, then trace them first to get the
feel of their essential character. Very quickly, it should be possible
to copy without tracing and also to inject a personal style.
When copying the symbols, be aware of their appropriate context.
Select the correct graphic for the message and intent of the
drawing. Also give thought to their combination and composition
within the drawing. Some hints to guide selection and composition
are included.
Be sure to explore the exciting realm of color with these examples.
Not only can color be applied to prints of these symbols, but these
black-and-white speed techniques can be adapted for direct color
rendering.

128
 Development Sketch

~
Il1O:"

Medium: Felt tip pen on tracing paper

 tI
Outline Trees
With this veryfast line technique. less than
30 seconds are needed.
Vary the line weight for interest; add some
"why not?" dots.
Capture form and size only. not detail. Be
abstract rather than realistio.
These outline trees are good for quick
preliminary sketches or sections and for ~
use as middleground elements. \
I'I
,
•

,J;'

/v~
~: .

Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE 130

 ...
...
ft

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t
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oe
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or
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r=
m

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Outline Trees with Branching
t:>
Also quick, this sketch technique takes one to two minutes
per tree.
Use it to capture form and an abstraction of branches.
Place in middleground of preliminary sketches.
Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

~~

..-
--.........,'~
133
 "1
~
Branched Trees
Branched trees take more time than outline trees, 1,
but still less than two minutes. Capture the
branching character: angular, knarled, drooping,
upright, horizontal.
No outline should be visible, but a guideline is
helpful.
Let the branching define the form. Lines are more
numerous near the edges.
Branches give a sense of realism and can
represent a winter effect.
They are good for revealing architectural features
behind them.
Use as middleground elements.
Medium: Pencil on Mylar

~.~

.:c~;::.:: . . :- ~_ 134
GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
[{lr '
~

Foliage Texture Trees

Follow this sequence showing texture
build-up, Do the strokes rapidly, Takes a
little more time than other techniques-
,......-7" "_
~
It k
w:
two to three minutes depending on size.
~
...~
Very realistic at capturing the textural
expression of the foliage as well as the I
~~A ~ ~
three-dimensional light qualities, these
are suited to more refined sketches
where other details are shown. Use in
\
"
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--'! .>
A '1'~ ~
;
\
~
,
I~ .>
. I" ~
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middleground or closer. ~ "'; l/ AJb; .;er
Medium: 2B pencil on smooth J'"
.'\ '.' "'- -# A

. .~~
n ~~~\"W~
sketch paper .:

_ w

1. Lightly outline the form

__
~
-i-:
-·li - ±.:;;: ... -

2, Select a doodle and begin 3. Build up a heavier pattern

and assume a light to shape the tree. on the bottom and shaded
direction. side.
-. ... ~ ,
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135
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Toned Trees
Use a fast shading and hatching technique to
capture the form, the light quality, and an
abstraction of the texture. These are quite fast-
one to two minutes--and very versatile. They
Arching strokes
.
Radiating strokes

~~
v
can be adapted to foreground, middleground,
and background vegetation. Be sure to have 'lr
some solid black and leave some open white.
-it
Medium: 3B wide-tip sketch pencil on Mylar - l·
,~

,/ ./'"',"'- ',. ~~
, .~~

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f· ....
,t·
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Diagonal strokes

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p

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137
Toned Evergreen Trees
The emphasis here is on form and light quality. Larger sketches
can be drawn rapidly with a wider sketching tool. Try to abstract
the overall foliage character without drawing individual leaves.
Medium: Graphite stick on Mylar

~\

~~'
Ii "

I ~
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lIP'--
------
oJ
t'

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.~
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138
GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
....
Tree RUbbings

Overlay the lightly outlined tree form on an

embossed surface. Using a graphite stick and
quick strokes, vary the pressure to show the
light direction. Let the surface underneath ..r .
, ...
express the texture. A very fast way to get
textural interest: less than one minute. ..
.". -; ~ ..

There are many suitable surfaces. Those shown '" "\

... :::

here are briefcase, suitcase, sandpaper, emery • '5 ...

mesh.
....... . ',,!I .
~·• • · ! III ..
~ . . . Ir·P-''' .,... ..._
Medium: Graphite stick on Mylar •

... ~ «; "
.. ' .'

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f ' _ ..
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......., ...... - . .
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• ~'---..",,- 139
 rrtJ
~
Shrubs

Use similar techniques as shown for trees: quick

outline, branched forms, and textured shapes to
show foliage or berries. The more detailed
elements should be placed in the foreground,
the simpler shapes in the middleground.
Medium: Felt tip pen on smooth paper

i;j

:ii: ~
.~.

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"(
ll;

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:rll
ilfj
k
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GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
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j
-
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"
~'"
~'
(

Toned Shrubs

High-contrast toning emphasizes shape

and overlapping and also distinguishes
between different groups of plants. Use
in foreground or middleground.
~ . ". '
...
Medium: 28 pencil on Mylar

r / 'f" . -,~&\\~,(\Uii'1fi'
~\\.,~~ ~,.yW~r iU~~'_'
" ,. 11;/1 .' ~
f~'(tIt~' .r'....•.\ • :..'
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.,,'.""'" •.•. ..
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, ,~;~:~:.,~~\lM_"~
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.. .- /

Tropical plants and grass-like foliage

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.---. "
e:
--
141
 ~.~
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142
GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
~.~,

~;,:..:

These elements help to frame the composition

as well as keeping the eye from wandering off
the page, Only the lower portion of foreground
trees needs to be shown.
Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

143
.More Foreground Trees, Rocks, and
Ground Covers

A fast way to end the overhead

plane is to use an abstract bold
outline of the lower foliage.

'1
~
.•
j
~
.~

Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

144
GRAPHIC SYMBOLFILE
\ ..-,

,
I

145
 .Water
Architectural Context
Water can be toned with a series of textured horizontal lines to
express a rough surface (left pool) or kept white with perhaps a
reflection to show a calm, still surface (right pool). The center pools
have a hint of ripple to define the surface. Hatching techniques can
be used to show the bottom of a pool and light quality.
Fountains with air-filled water are best left white with a few splash
dots and dashes.
Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

,~~

)
,~

"\

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J;,#·~te.
>_

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~-=------
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GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE 146

Natural Context
Still water can be left white to indicate reflected
light, with the edges defined by shoreline
toning. If the land edges are lighter in tone, a
contrasting water surface tone can be
appropriate.

Medium: HB pencil on Mylar

..----------

ii
I
I, ,dl
hi

)r·~,
( , -. - t

-:I
\.
11// ~
.....
~
....... :-: .... ;'
--
\.,llo-_._. '- . .....,.:,.....
. . . . ., .:-:.:..ft

Moving water should be predominantly white. A

few toned strokes can effectively show flow
pattern.

.;-..- <>: .,;

147
 Vertical Plane Elements

Lines express edges, cracks, joints, indentations, and light quality. Brick
1.·
,
,. .

.~
Examples shown here are more appropriate for foregrounds. For
middleground and background planes, the patterns should be
simplified and abstracted.
Medium: HB pencil on Mylar

~"

t .'\,
-, \
• v , - ~ '--"':. .--'

~
L", \
\.'

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---
rf
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--
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Concrete ~'- _1__ _
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148
GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
"...

Ground Plane Elements c.

'"-

') ~-:-
.-....
Make sure that shapes and lines become smaller, foreshortened,
and compressed as they move into the background of the sketch.
Asphalt or concrete
-- )
This creates textural perspective.
Medium: HB pencil on Mylar

-- -.~~~~~.,-
~~=~ .
--
---- .~.
'\

r:---,!'::-o _~-c:~ ,...

~-~C' ->
Stone .G~~Ji=
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r ''"- .r.: ~
,...-- - .v. ... .

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/' '.
,.. . ?-._~~
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Wood deck
~· _ _ o __ .~._

.,.....
.. _....- ..
,_ ~

-. <,/-"
/
Concrete . '" ...;_.... '-.' .... / ,

-7 -.- ',~ . - ~/L ..

7~;~,·.:' -·-

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149
Automobiles ,
One very good way to d raw automobiles is to trace
~
~~ Of" \VINDO\.V!:> ~
~
them. Build up a file clipped from magazines and
newspapers. Be sure to get various sizes and
orientations. There are some disadvantages in this
approach: You may not always have the correct auto
perspective alignment in your file or you may be short
of rear-angle views.
Here is a way to fit cars to any view. It uses the
perspective charts as a base. (See Chapter 9 for an
5' ~
explanation of their use.) For a compact car, begin by
css: \vIOTH
blocking out the lower body of the car five feet wide, _ _ _~flL- +-IOP OF CAl<..
fifteen feet long, and three feet high. Put a one-foot COHNE:G-T CORWE::.l2.";>-tJ
high line for the bottom of the doors. 1V ~AI'E. CAe>! N .... 4'-"

"a_
Now add a central cabin box four feet wide, six feet It. tJcoD =fOP cr \~a:L veu,

~. '\__---1-'j--"'17T1! ~
long, and four feet-six inches high six feet back from
the front of the lower body. Add boxes for the grille
zone and the wheel wells. Connect the corners of the
OF ........,
central cabin box to the bases of the front and rear
windows. Do the same with the grille zone box to
form an overall streamlined shape. Add the finishing
touches and shaping by sketching in doors,
r a:.t--lT~L cAbiN
~ )( 1)"1 »: <j-I-l."
~x.
I4IGiH
windows, lights. grille, wheels, interior, and other
details.

Compact car

150
GRAPHIC SYMBOL FILE
...
...
1ft
 Fast People

A very simple method of drawing people is to begin with the

head (1); add the angular trunk (2), leaving a gap for the
J.. :3
neck. Then make quick strokes for the arms and legs (3).
Some other fast people are shown to the right of the -0 o --() -------,,. ---(\----

o
sequence. A diagonal shading technique with stick legs

ff n
gives a dark shape that is good for light backgrounds. Heads
may be solid or open. Legs can be tapered or made as long
rectangles.
These figures are ideal for quick preliminary sketches or for
the back of the middleground in any style of sketch.

,
For more finished sketches, the middleground figures need to
have a little more detail, as shown below. All adult eyes align
on the horizon line-no matter how large the people are
drawn.
Build up a file of people cut from magazines and trace them
-0 )
-0
into your perspective drawings.

II;

"1
Horizon line
,
o
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1i,'
I'
~
1
/
I
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--

~
r,~APHIr. SYMBOL FILE 152
~-

People
Placement and Composition
People bring a drawing to life and express the functional values of
the space. In perspectives, they also emphasize depth, level
change, and the scale of the environment. Foreground figures may obscure
Use these hints to guide the placement and choice of figure types. important landscapeelements,
so avoid them or use them
sparingly near the edge.

Most standing adults will have Background figures

Figures their eyes-on-the eye line. should be simplified.
standing
above the Indicate actiVity and
ground plane interaction between

1
have their eyes figures by artiCUlating
Putmore than just onesotitary
above the arms and legs.
figure in a drawing.Use figures
in groups, with overJapping. horizon line.
Avoid locating people at the

~
exact center or where they will [)
......' compete with the focus.
--L
fi-a~)D
:' ~)

'\

,
\
Sitting figures andcehlldren have \.--:-

/
-: their-eyes below the horizon
line.

Relate figures to their context. Showthem leaning, sitting, climbing, or otherwise posed.
'"'"
153
® Quick Perspectives
A perspective drawing is a fairly realistic view of space and objects The second use of perspectives is as a sales tool. Sales
that shows some of their three-dimensional qualities. The plan and perspectives are persuasive drawings done when the design is
section drawings described in Chapters 6 and 7 are excellent for substantially complete. For smaller-scale, lower-budget design
showing horizontal and vertical relationships which can be projects, the techniques shown in this chapter are very applicable.
measured and evaluated in a quantitative manner. They do not, For larger-budget landscape architectural projects with corporate
however, give a good feeling for the depth of space, and they are of or public agency clients, you will need to develop accurate,
limited value in describing the experience of moving toward, polished, and colorful renderings. The techniques required for
through, or around a space. these renderings demand more time investment, but they are worth
the effort.
Perspectives, as perspective drawings are often called, do convey
this feeling of depth. They can communicate qualities of enclosure,
privacy, and openness; they can show relationships between
space, time, and light. They can predict much of the visual interest
available in a space, such as shadows, reflections, textures, tones,
colors, and forms which are difficultto show on plans or sections.
Thus they rarely need supporting labels, notes, or abstract
symbols.
There are two main uses for perspectives. The first is as a design
tool, where they may take the form of fairly fast, rough, and
indefinite doodles and sketches. Designers who understand
perspectives and use them as representative drawings in their own
design process usually produce the best designs. The most
valuable drawings for the design process are those that suggest
more drawings, suggest improvements, or show where changes
should be made.
The methods shown here for both one-point and two-point
perspective focus on quick, easy techniques to give confidence
and to encourage the use of perspective to externalize three-
dimensional ideas early and frequently in the design process. Do
not worry if initial perspectives look rough, bare, inaccurate, and
are not what you had in mind. Accept them; then revise, change,
and enhance them. The more you try these techniques the more
comfortable it will feel. Before long, your perspective drawings will
communicate more realism.

154
 ~--

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~
One-point Perspective
, ,:1
:.'il-
The Basics ~
To understand the basic elements of perspective and what each
represents, follow the steps shown on these two pages.
1. Start by doing exercise 39 in Appendix IV.
2. On a sheet of tracing paper draw a long horizontal line
freehand. Label this the horizon line or eye line.
Now draw fast people of different sizes-all with their eyes on
the eye line. Assuming that all the people are in reality the same
size, the people drawn smaller appear farther away. This
demonstrates the fundamental principle of perspective: "The
apparent size of an object varies inversely with its distance from
the viewer."
In this drawing, person number 2 is twice as far away as person
number 1,and four times as far away as person number 3.
Translated into actual distances, this means that an object forty
feet from the viewer will appear half the size of an object twenty
feet from the viewer because it is twice the distance away.
3. On another sheet. draw a horizon line and place a dot VP ~L.
somewhere on it labeled VP, for vanishing point.

VP ~L.
4. Now draw a large rectangle surrounding the vanishing point..
Keep all lines horizontal and vertical as shown. t

QUICK PERSPECTIVES
x 156
.,--
~"

5_ Connect the four corners of the rectangle to the vanishing point

(VP)_ These vanishing lines, or converging lines, will form the ~L.
edges of the space.

6_ Place a smaller rectangle with vertical and horizontal sides

inside the larger one so that the corners intersect with the ~1-
vanishing lines. This shows the basic lines of a one-point
perspective.

"

7. Add a large person with eyes on the horizon line at the

vanishing point Note the lines that represent ground lines on
the ground plane.

- 9 round "n~
V W,2I ~~c~p"Ound lrne.,
<;fOU~ plon~

p of ~c.e"
A side view, or section, of this one-point perspective set-up would line ofs.1caht
look like this. The line of sight is an imaginary line between the -------~-----..-- --'7
eyes of the viewer and the vanishing point on the horizon.
cme~ Potbm of ~ ~
f/'Ont bac.k.,
of of
-- ~c.e.... ~~

x 157
-~

Note these key aspects of a one-point perspective:

1. All lines parallel to the line of site converge to one vanishing

point on the horizon line.

iiI-
2. All horizontal lines that are perpendicular to the line of site are
drawn parallel to the horizon line.

3. All vertical lines in the space are drawn vertical in the

perspective.

Now do exercise 40. Appendix IV.

'f

QUICK PERSPECTIVES 158

Proportion Method for One-point
Perspective

A perspective space is composed of the three dimensions: width,

height, and depth (or distance from viewer). Each of these
dimensions can be quickly estimated using multiples of a human
figure to establish correct perspective proportions. For
convenience, assume that the distance from ground to eyes is
five feet.
To find width
Place people lying down feet to eyes in multiples of five feet to get
desired width.

To find height
Stack people up-feet to eyes-in multiples of five feet to get
desired height.
--o ~
t\. tolL-

-~
~ ~
~.

To find depth J'c.j- ~I.ze th~~r~

Assume that the first figure you draw is located twenty feet away
/!)OI fi'om VI~\Ve.'"
from the viewer. Then draw smaller figures that are a known fraction
(e.g., one half) of that first figure. A horizontal line through their feet D <1-, ~. tiL
will give you known ground line distances.

onqtnQl ~
o-J C:rL80
f1~l1r~ I~ -1-~ - --qL1"'O
:Jt:; 1
Vle\\f~r.
frt::>m
~ "OI~ thc!r~fo~
-C td
feLt 0 reo 0" from VI(!\~er
bL. 2.0 ---.... - - - - ---GrL2.o

/ 159
Set-up Sequence
Using proportional techniques, follow the thirteen steps on these
two pages to draw an outdoor courtyard that is twenty feet wide.
twenty feet deep, and surrounded on three sides by ten-foot-high
walls. Do it all freehand with a soft pencil or a felt tip pen on tracing A I~
paper.
1. Draw a person.
)
Make his or her size appropriate for both the size of the space
and the size of your sheet. Place the person near the left side
of your page with feet near the bottom of the page.
5. Draw verticals.
Vertical guidelines define the left and right edge of the space
F~
I <!!<l5"" of! or the width.

-+

6. Calculate height of space.

2. Draw the ground line (GL) 20. Place one person on top of another in five-foot increments to
This horizontal line going through the feet assumes that the get1he desired height. Mark the verticals on both sides.
figure is twenty feet from the viewer.
7. Adjust size if necessary.
If the resulting height and width are too large or too small for
~ ~~ your paper, go back to step 1 and redraw your person ata
different size.
Redo steps 1 through 6.

-t- ....

a=:'(--=------
3. Draw the horizon line (HL).
Show a horizontal line going through the head.

lolL. vP
e.
~ \~--:=Y~
I ~\..
(l)
.- !J
4. Calculate width of space.
Lie the-person down, adding increments of five feet until you 8. Select a vanishing point.
have the correct width; e.g., four people lying down equals Locate a dot on the horizon line slightly to the left or right of
twenty feet wide. center.

QUICK PERSPECTIVES
~ 160
 ;, ~ I WI-
9. Draw vanishing lines.
Draw four lines which connect the vanishing point to the top
and bottom of the left and right verticals.
it A ~ I HL.
10. Find depth or distance lines.
Draw another person at the correct fraction (one-half, one-
fourth, one-fifth) of the original person to simulate the back of
the space. In this case, the back of the space is two times the
distance from the viewer as the front of the space. Draw the
person one-half the original size, keeping the head on the
horizon line.
1:,. ~ 1 HI...
".. =' tGa Lo,w
11. Put in the ground line at the back of the space by drawing a
horizontal line at the feet of the person in back.
This is GL 40.
y :>.I6l.20
12. Draw the remaining back of the space.
Where the back ground line intersects with the vanishing lines,
draw two more verticals to represent the back corners of the
space.
13. Redraw the space.
On an overlay, draw the essential edges of the space-
omitting hidden lines and construction lines.
Once you have completed a very simple space like this, you can
add complexities and entourage. Use fractions of a person to get
smaller objects, such as benches, low walls and shrubs. Add to
this space two fifteen-foot-high trees anywhere. Now add a box
two-and-a-half feet high, five-feet wide, and any length, anywhere.
Place these elements within the space by first visualizing a five-foot
person standing at that location. The element will be a multiple or a
fraction of that person. Redo exercise 39 and compare it with your
first try.
x 161
 .. --,.-.,
~-,,¥

Scale Method for One-point

Perspective
,
~,

j
.~

Using proportional estimates to get depth is very approximate. A

more accurate, and also fast, method is to use a scale.
Vle.\'Ier [thl!!. p~"~p&.+IVe. be.st n~
~ at 1
2..0 from the. VIE.WU'
Here is a section view of a space showing objects at various
distances from the viewer.
~--} g R 8 g P
o 2J' so 40 '" &:J
Section

To find GL 30, GL 40, and any others, follow these steps:

1. Draw in the nearest ground line (here GL 20) near the base of
the sheet.
~~ HL
2. Add the horizon line at a selected distance above GL 20.
3. Select one of the engineer's scales which seems to fit (see step
4) and place the zero on the horizon line.
4. Keeping the-zero as a pivot, rotate the scale so that the desired os 4L4:fO
ground line (e.g., number 30) lies on the GL 20. If it does not fit,
select another scale. ~c: v: - 6:rl.~
5. Make a short horizontal mark next to the 20 on the scale.
6. Remove the scale and extend the mark to make the new
horizontal depth ground line.
@
7. Rotate the scale, keeping the zero as a pivot, and set the new
desired GL number right on the GL 20.
8. Repeat for any ground line depth, always marking the 20. For
heights and widths, use the proportional method described on
the previous pages.
9. Do exercise 41.

QUICK PERSPECTIVES <: 162

Diagonal Method for One-point
Perspective

Another fast technique for obtaining depth lines uses a geometric

principle of diagonals.
1. Begin with the GL 20 horizon line.
2. Draw a five-foot square which connects both (A BCD).
3. Place a diagonal line from top left corner to bottom right corner
(A C).
4. Draw the first opposing diagonal between opposite corners
(B D).
5. Where it intersects with A C, draw a horizontal line, which will
be GL40.
6. GL 40 will intersect A D at E
7. Dr2l'.tV the second opposing diagonal B E. Where it intersects
with A C. draw a horizontal line for GL 60.
8. It will intersect A D at F.
9. Connect B F. Where it intersects A C, draw a horizontal line for k s· J<=..
GL 80.
10. Continue this process to locate ground lines of twenty-foot
increments.

~ 163
 Perspective Charts for One-point ~u:;e
Perspective \V~:;

One of the best aids for doing perspectives is the prepared

perspective chart. These are made by a number of companies and
~TE!-~
are available as packaged sets in places that sell other drafting
materials and equipment. For purposes of discussion in this book,
we refer to Lawson perspective charts, a package that offers a \'IIAL.L-$
particularly wide range of options. Most of the discussion
pertaining to Lawson charts is applicable to other brands as well.
The Lawson charts are identified by number. For example, chart
number 8 is a one-point, or parallel, perspective chart with a five-
foot horizon line.

HOR.IZON LINE: J.

YJ:.R.i1CA\""
Ml:A~IUN6 l-INE:;

I
1:;

~:
1.1

!f
1,
Perspective Chart

On the ground plane of this parallel perspective is a grid pattern

which represents one-foot increments in both directions. This is
what the square grid pattern of a plan view looks like when
foreshortened into a perspective view. The lines get closer together
as they get further away. Every tenth line is heavier and there is an
extra thick horizontal ground line at the zero point of the vertical
measuring line (VML) in the center. This line also intersects the
horizon line at the vanishing point. Direction of view I Landscape plan

'. /
/X
.\ QUICK PERSPECTIVES 164
Suppose you have a preliminary plan idea for an entryway, as 3. Transfer the gridded plan data onto the perspective grid, using
shown on the previous page, and you wish to test it out on the one- the heavy ground line as a locational guide. Note from the
point perspective chart. Follow these steps. sequence of perspective grids shown how the gridded lines
become very compressed as you move from looking directly
1. Place a ten-foot grid on the plan with the grid lines parallel or
down on a space to standing on the ground plane looking into
perpendicular to the majority of the architectural lines.
that space. This makes the plan view lines look foreshortened.
2. Select the viewing direction and location. Draw one of the grid
lines heavier to represent the horizontal ground line at the zero
on the chart. The closer this line is to the point of view, the larger
the final perspective sketch will be. Move the view point left or
right on your plan to achieve the desired composition of the
perspective view. '

""'NISHIH6 ~Hr -zj- ~ZON 1-11"""2

~UILDIH6 ..... Al-L2 -

-,
~__________ Z",~7
- 7· -
7 J ""
_________

~//
- T......... rAYl!J"1eNT"

-""~
/

)/
/ .......
165
--
~-*;;:--';"~-~:~~"-

4. Once the foreshortened lines are on the perspective grid, draw 5. Add some fast people and then redraw on an overlay, omitting
vertical lines from the corners of raised objects. Calculate their all hidden and construction lines.
height by using the proportional method of the vertical
measuring line (Appendix I). Finish the outlines of built objects
1
by obeying the rules of one-point perspective.

......."
..-

IS

6. Using these principles. try exercise 42.

-,

QUICKPERSPECTIVES 166
Quick One-Point Perspective to Study a Plaza Space

)
~

(0
J
\

.t?f
..
..
VAH1~IH($r

Fl:>IHT "1

,
..j
~-.~ . ~ --
-

===--

Medium: Felt tip pen on smooth paper

I 167
Two-point Perspective
One-point perspectives are good for streetscape views and other
lineal spaces, but they tend to be static and very specialized. More
dynamic representative views are obtained with two-point l':f
.::.
perspectives.
Instead of one, there are now two vanishing points, the left
vanishing point (LVP) and the right vanishing point (RVP). Assume
that you are drawing some simple boxes with square corners.
There will be only three types of lines.

Lines which ronvergeto the left

vanishing point

-------t 1
L.Y? fl..vP

--- .... -
1<1 =~s
T *-
... ...
.... ...
.....

Unes which converge to the -=:== --

right vanishing point

Unlike one-point perspectives, there are no horizontal lines except

at the horizon line. An important fact to remember is that all parallel
lines on the same plane or object surface vanish to the same
vanishing point.
Try exercise 43.

.:

QUICK PERSPECTIVES
/ 168
 Perspective Charts for Two-point
Perspectives
One of the fastest ways to draw reasonably accurate two-point
perspectives is to use a prepared chart. You must select the position of these heavy lines on the plan.
Where you put them will determine the point of view for the
Sketching on an overlay, the designer can develop three- perspective. So you need to adjust them to provide the most
dimensional ideas by following ground plane grid lines, just as with effective message.
the one-point charts.
Some quick trial-and-error preliminary sketches will give you a clue
Similarly, when transferring plan view data to perspective charts, it to the most desirable view point. (Appendix /I contains useful field
is necessary to make a scaled grid on the plan first. of vision plan overlays and instructions for their use with selected
Lawson charts. They can be used to quickly determine the
The next step is to make two intersecting lines on the plan. These appropriate point of view.)
are heavier than the other lines.
Do exercise 44.
The two heavy intersecting grid lines on the plan are then used as
a reference by matching them to the two heavyqrtd lines that pass
through the zero an the chart.

H~"'(
lN~Tl...,Gt
Gt1t-ll:>
L.IHe& Perspective views

\/ 169
 ~

Once the ground plane data is transferred to the chart, the height
of objects must be determined. The fastest way is to use the
proportional method (see pages 159-161). Any point on the ground
-D----
plane to the horizon line will be the same height. On Lawson chart
5, it is five feet. Simply use multiples or fractions of this distance to
get heights of objects.

--

-D----
If more accuracy is required on heights, use the vertical measuring
line. See Appendix I, pages 183-185 for instructions.
Do exercise 45.
Practice form manipulation by adding for overhangs, ledges, and
other like elements and by removing for notches, indentations, and
the like. Constantly obey the two-point perspective rules of
convergence to one or the other of the vanishing points.
Do exercises 46 and 47.

./
~.

QUICK PERSPECTIVES /' 170

Composition
Composition is a key factor in communicating the spatial message.
The following five pages demonstrate some important principles of
how to arrange elements, highlight focal areas, and achieve a ,..
balanced and interesting composition.
Consider:
1. Foreground, middleground, and background.
2. Overhead plane, ground plane, and vertical plane.
3. Overlapping and foreshortening.
4. Contrast and tonal balance.
5. Light quality, shade, and shadow.
After studying these ideas, try exercises 48.and 49.

171
:*l!:~"'r.*"'*4:...; .~t" ~'c,I' .~
"'!t'
:~

A mix of all three will create a greater sense

Foreground, Middleground, of depth or distance.
and Background

A bold line or cutting edge on

foreground detail is often a good
way to finish the sketch.

Capture the overall character but

omit small elements.

Middleground objects show a

distinctive shape with some
textural interest.

Background is_drawn as groups

and masses with outline or tone
Infill.No detail.

-"''''-";?

~ -- 2~~
----s~c~-s;:;::: ~
'\~l~
~
_
..
~- _.-.._--_.. ----
--....:~

Foreground shows textural

interest with lots of detail, such
-'-'---~
as individual leaves, cracks in
rocks, and bark texture. Medium: Felt tip pen on smooth paper

QUICK PERSPECTIVES 172

 Overhead Plane, Ground Plane, and
Vertical Plane o~
A balance of all three planes conveys a uO~ ..
greater sense of spatial organization. ~ If .• ~.~ Overhead planes are usually in
.-.~ the foreground or middleground
and create a sense of enclosure.

Verticat planes can be defined

loosely by vegetation or more
solidly with structures.

-----....;;;;---._.----.~

~"':'::';.?:'~~~-:'::~::-'~:::-....
~~~~::~>,::'. '
'....
., " "',
--, <,

Ground planes can be defined

by directional patterns which
show textures, ground shapes
and edges. Make these patterns
contiguous. Avoid isolated
doodles.
Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

173
. Overlapping and Foreshortening

:__..\ 'kt... ~
4r
e.V{j;)~~
..
~
It t

Background emerges from

behind middleground.

Closer rocks
block most of
the rocks
behind.
~ ._-"" .--
"

Foreground flowers cover some

of rocks. Ground plane cobbles show only the tops, and
they appear compressed as they get further away.

Medium: Felt tip pen on marker paper

174
QUICK PERSPECTIVES
 Contrast and Tonal Balance
Strive for a balance between black
areas, white areas, and grays or
toned areas. ~ --,
rJ'"

... -\ ~
, ~

•.
n
.

• '-.~.~

\, ..\
\ r '~i/I
, .~J I'" ". '
t .' f
, . .
• 4
...
." !.;
Ir· I
.. , f· ,\ ¥ Tone shading varies across each
'J:\ .A
. t.
surface.

, ,:t "

I. .
(

'\ ...
.;.>/
III

I
!
J i
t _,_Il"
Sf •. . . . . , .

I ' .-~~,> ,~ l'~~

c' 1/" ~ 1.. '. L_.:J
. ...-.~ji"... ,.~...,:... . Une overlap emphasizes comer.
1

»,...."""'
~, .
~--

.
J
, , ' r,
/'"
I i i ' ' '

Foc;al-zone needs high

contrast. ./
~
tl' ")
~:< .:
.>,'
I
.:
.•.•.
-. .
'X'~'c
-"·/><·'i"

. - ' .....
! .
<~

~"'"'"("':','~;l"""t''"''ro''I',,...!,..
.~
.~""'If~"";+'-"':.Z'
,
~ll •;.
I
I

, ...f: -'~V~f·t,;
-..-l\( oj ~h:..:
'~'~V/.t.~
,.: '/~j
{ t:
~"7q",· -- ;';4~'''''i~
I' • -_.-

...: ' 7 '-

,..- . . . . : .: .,.. .:' ~ . ~..,~: ..( \
.4 - ._;'. '. /1.. ,~, \J'

_4;,.;r ~ :'/ .'y' ...-J 2),

J • ./

I /
~ . / / . . .: '.>

- _.f/' . ,; (h.6./' / J/ '. .' Leave white space.

L U..". C I U 8 t e r e d , ' - ' - - -

Medium: 28 pencil on smooth paper ".

Light Quality, Shade, and Shadow

/~l..~N.
,

{~
\

r;;"'"';. \. ill

Building surfaces facing away ,. J

r'r.~;' i~

1\
--""---~ .' •
• ,;/ • 1""\"
from sun need darker tones. ~ - ('J, ". ,~ .~' ...
"..\ ',t .
., .;' \ > I'

~.J J..-:,
.',,'
p,i
~
, .. t'\
.,.,.
..... \
+-\
Shadows should express the ~ _. ",'I'V'~

they fall. t"'); 'k.

,.v ;Y;> ·'L.1... _ .
~ ~""','"
11 1:>, '
"
• II ''''
-l k
e: , t\
I,
I ."I
il

~'.,'~,,~
I ,'l
~ { ,

Jf\\:,t'iL- 1
" \

~ ~ !-..:.-.
. .'J~ ,. '1' \
,

,' '" ~,;l '.{. l

-r

~:.;i:I:"·- .. -I,..j
'"i",t- " , .r
•• d;!' H
'.l ' ~
' ,.• ,"
.!t;': ' 'i ' "

w ....

Shadow length on ground m'~st -1' iijIol"

beinl)ropomon,to.height of the . - / --.
,~-~$, c:rr..i-=-:'r.":~~-='''1,'
s ·.
object. ".. " ,
.... "':"":!""", ---..:;:".:~,
~ , '~'7Ji~\~~l,Y,-.', '
""',e...:.-
~ II -"

m.k.1ree:~~dowsSOlid. .:~~rt(cal surlaces<!~h.slzed

! f' .. t i.i.. .j..:

Don't by
Allow white space to suggest shadow direction change.
infiltrated light.

176
QUICK PERSPECTIVES
Perspective and Composition
Examples
Overview <,
An overview can be a realistic viewpoint in mountainous areas. It -'-"'-,
allows the designer to show most of the plan elements.
The darker tones near the center of the sketch emphasize the zone
I'
of interest. These transist to white space near the edges.

''.-;j.j / '."-
-', (-"

~ \ /1/'
«» J
\'.1 .'.', .' '"
'.

"
/~. '~1:t
~. , I . r', ~~
l" '(,.' ~t'·
/
--",'

<,

,/

177
 "'";"2;
_. __ .~ _~~:~_::"~~_~~3~li~tA( _._._---------.-
.-- .-+-_ .....;,.,;.;.

:~=-~:- ~~>~~~
Eye-level View
A natural eye-level view of the same space shows good use of
foreground, middleground, and background elements.
People emphasize the functional qualities.

I" 4,

.
~> ~ ~

..I.,

.. .
" ~ .

~-1~"
• <
'.'.' -(

~J'\ ii

\0.

iTS
 Refined Pencil Sketch

Cliffs and trees balance the left

side of the composition.

Foreground trees block some~,

middleground and frame the .".. •
sketch~~
~~, . ....- ~

;:r'

Simplified background
elements.

"'_>.if<-'~':""~'.,t~#{'A"""'-"<-'~~"~("~."e,
" :t II ti, rta'.-0
' .i?"'id«,,~jgti:r'0;t'<:;:.-r~
-., --.

Foreground shadows across the White space shows 1he reflective

road keep the eyewithintbe quaJitiesof the water.
sketch.

QUICK PERSPECTIVES
 ~'"'""~._--

Marker Sketch

The thick marker

strokes abstract
the foliage and
emphasize
light quality.

Darker background
trees give form to the
very light
middleground
vegetation.

Horizontal shadows
follow the landform
variations.
Note the cluster of
ground plane lines,
leaving some white
areas.

181
 f::s
-.
a.
=
en

..
CD
I\)
~ Use of the Vertical Measuring Line
on Perspective Charts

One-point Perspective YIiLrq"ICAL-

Hl!AbUJJN~
1. Draw base of object on ground plane. l-INt!!
2. Select an edge that vanishes to the VP and erect
object vertical lines at each of the two corners. 7
3. Follow the base edge back to the horizontal ground
line which intersects the zero.
4. Erect a vertical guideline at that intersection. ~ ./
6UID=. ./"
5. Select the desired height on the VML and draw a L.I....,e..~ /
horizontal line across to intersect the vertical 2 8
guideline.
6. Join this intersection with the vanishing point and
_.!.~y/ O~~T
Y~CAJ,.::>
extend (if necessary) to intersect the object verticals. . ;x' I
7. Draw a horizontal line from the front intersection to
form the, top of the object.
> /4
HL
8. Erect the remaining verticals that are going to be
visible.

r ~
00 ,~:1l L

'" -, ./. /
>c'
"

p; ''-. /-
Two-point Perspective
~
V~TICAL-
1. Draw shape on ground plane.
H e.t>b U12..1 t-J6l
2. Draw verticals from the two corners of L.U....j~ (v 1'11-)
one base edge.
to
2

3. Extend this base edge back or forward

i
to intersect one of the base lines i
i
through the zero of the VML.
4. Draw a key vertical from this vt'1L-
.
I

intersection with the zero base line. 14

10
t~eY
I~I~

I
I HI-
a.r-'"

o ___ <;- 3_ -6-1======'- - --_.

APPENDIX I 184
5. Determine which VP this zero base line
goes to.

j
k . '-.H. _
6. Connect this VP with the desired height, Pes.&R.e.P 1N~10l-J
mark on VML, and extend (if necessary) HeJc. Hi ~ y.&\oy
to intersect the key vertical. 6 la ,;; V"~ICAl- C4::>t'lJec...r CtJ""l~ V p
7. Connect this intersection with the --4-- - - - - - - - - .--..-.-~-_ ('0· 'Jo.J TIiIt. CA'bI!!.) wITH
opposite vanishing point and extend (if !O- vr- 10 P~"'IOU'b
necessary) to intersect the verticals
c.ot-IHec.,-ep .. .-> ~ I~
"f\it ~Gtwr 7 - ----..
from the original base edge.
~ I:;~rAL. I I ... ~-~

-
- * ••
5 THr~ zeJtO ~e. uNa
VAt--l1 ~~ 1b THeL !lO- v P
-Eo-

:r
8. Construct the remaining verticals from
the other corners. . ~t.L~.VP_~ ,_"",,--- ---I'fl-~~
9. Draw in the remaining top lines of the
structure (a and b). making sure that the 98 ~.. UNa. Of f'1tOt-lr I '-../- "-'~.~.~
1!:llJ~ HU~r I 9b eoTt't ~
top and bottom lines of the same
surface follow the same vanishing point. C:ONN~ "'ITH
1l5IC.AU~
5O·VI- t ~H Of'
t. 8 AI ~oe. w~

201'Jt*1 UNe. Of" ~i- I ~~T 10

~ ~NNec.~ I I bo°YP
~rt'1"I ~. vp r-, I ;~,.,
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I ~ "'IIOM -;O"·vp·lr- ....... \.
-
185
 .

~~ Field of Vision Diagrams , .

The following diagrams are plan view representations of selected

Lawson perspective charts. They show:
FIe,.t...D OF" YI~lON OVeJ2. LA'(......~ .
• The ground plane with a five-foot or teo-foot grid pattern.
rl
• The station point (SP) with direction of view. I
• The two heavy ground lines which intersect at the vertical
measuring line (VML) on the perspective drafts. :I
• The field of vision contained within the edges of the chart
(dashed line).
/!<VI"'l- I
\", 1/
.'.~
These diagrams are very helpful in setting up the perspective point
I
1

n
of view from a completed plan. Follow these steps: }

1. Select an appropriate chart. Base this on the angle of view (45°, -I ~

~

-
30°/60°, 60°/30°) and the desired eye line (five feet or twelve- >of'
. . >-
.- I / { ~
"
and-a-half feet.)
-
. " ~'
v.""-\
§g" u: ~ ~ I....•• ~
2. Run a print of your plan and draft a grid onto it in red. Use a ten- . "" ..
foot grid for charts 6 and 7. Use a five-foot grid for charts 2 and 3. r---.., \ -~ .
On large-scale plans, you may need to draw a one hundred-foot ,. ,.
,
..
. ~.
..

. r:--i v.
'-"'
.~
1'·· " 1-._--:::::"
'.
.-
.
or fifty-foot grid (the eye lines will then be at fifty feet and one-
hundred-twenty-five feet, respectively.)
" ~ ...
..
.
.. . .
10
3. Select the field of vision diagram (see following pages) which '
~
~
. . 'f. .
"""
~ or ~,..,.,
~
" ... .... . .. .. ~
,
matches the chart selected. On a sheet of tracing paper or
Mylar, redraw the diagram at the same scale as your plan.
.

./- l .... -.&. . \

. .
' .... ....~
/ .
: "., '.
I~ . .,.. J
4. Overlay this field of vision diagram onto your plan, keeping the
. /-:
grid lines on both sheets parallel and matching. Move it around ~.

until you have the important plan elements located and

composed where you want them within the perspective field of ~-- 1--:...... h\ . . ,

I
vision. - . . .
5. Mark where the two heavy intersection ground lines occur on .&f?
your plan and redraft them as heavy cross lines on the plan. . . ...
Locate the station point. ~ .. ... . . , " ..
UNP~eAIH)
6. Transferthe "footprints" of your plan elements onto an overlay of
a perspective chart. Use the two heavy lines to guide location of
these elements within the ground plane perspective grid.
PLAN
7. Once you have the "footprints" located, use the vertical
measuring line (Appendix I) or the proportional method (pages
159-161) to get heights of all elements.

APPENDIX II 186
'il
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~~~ Nontraditional Perspective Techniques
Perspectives from Slides of a Site
This technique allows you to very quickly trace complex site
details. The obvious disadvantage is that it is of no use when the
buildings or major elements to be drawn are not already existing on
the site.
2. Project the slides onto a one-point perspective chart with a five-
foot horizon line. Keeping the five-foot HL and the five-foot
building element aligned, move the projector closer or further
away to get the desired size. Now adjust the chart left or right to
position the building where you want it.

One-point Photograph with Charts

1. Take several photographs, keeping the line of site perpendicular
to the main architectural facade. The ground between you and
the building should be level. Try to keep the camera about five
l-be12.ONTAl-
f4,.eH e:.Nr
~v';~N~I-";l.
po 1~it ~~
:
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=

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=f~_
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feet off the ground. Before leaving the site, identify a horizontal
element on the building which is about five feet off the ground.

I
J
. rrl

(f--------~-
, < )

I /~ -

~--
Plan view

3. (Not shown) On a piece of tracing paper attached over the

chart. trace the essential outlines of the building. Before
removing it from the wall, add the HL and the vanishing point.
4. (Not shown) Place the chart and your traced overlay on your

I
------~--- drawing table. Add landscape improvements using the chart as
a guide.
s •t Similar steps can be used to draw a quick one-point perspective
from an architectural elevation. You may first have to redraw the
elevation at a smaller or larger size to fit the chart in the desired
Elevation location.

189
 Two-point Photograph with Charts

1. Take several photographs with the line of site at about 45° and
30°/60° from major architectural facades. As with one-point
photographs. keep the camera at the same level as the five-foot
elements identified on the building. To give greater choice of
view, move around the building and take pictures at various
distances from it.
2. Project the two-point slide directly onto the appropriate two-
point chart. Always keep the known five-foot building element
lined up with the horizon line on the chart.
Adjust the image in order to get vanishing lines of the projected
image to match those of the chart. Use these hints.

Enlarge the image size if:

both sets of image vanishing lines vanish at steeper angles than
the chart lines.

L~ ~

Pl-AN Yl~

1
~

"

.]

APPENDIX "' 190

Reduce the image size if:
both sets of image vanishing lines vanish at flatter angles than
the chart lines.
Move the image to the left if:
the lines of the image vanishing to the left vanish at a steeper
angle than the chart lines and if those vanishing to the right do
so at a flatter angle than the chart lines.
Move the image to the right if:
the lines of the image vanishing to the right vanish at a steeper
angle than the chart lines and if those vanishing to the left do so
at a flatter angle than the chart lines.
3. (Not shown) When the lines match, place tracing paper over the
chart and trace the essential building outlines. Add the horizon
line and a mark where the vertical measuring line crosses it.
4. (Not shown) Place the tracing paper and chart on your drawing
table. Add landscape improvements, using the chart as a guide.
 Perspectives from Slides of a Plan

----./
1. Take several photographs at various angles to simulate a bird's-
eye view of your plan. Frame the plan to fill the viewfinder.

---- -------- /
r
--.----- /
/
"'T
....

... ~

2. Project the slide onto a sheet of tracing paper and adjust the
image size for tracing. This will be much easier if you can set up
a reverse projection where the slide is in the projector
backwards and is projected onto the back side of a clear
glass surface.

APPENDIX III
192
3. Trace the essential edges and objects. Throughout the space,
draw in some scale figures with heights in correct proportion to
the width of the plan elements they are standing next to.

/
a //
/

4. Project vertical lines from all important corners and use the
proportional method to get correct heights of all objects in the
space.

/
/
f:) /
/
<, 1/
<,

83
r
.' """,,,

j
Computer-aided Perspective
Medium: Pencil on tracing paper
Preliminary Plan 30% of actual size
Starting with a preliminary design, you can follow the simplified
steps on the next three pages to see the potential of the computer
in perspective graphics.

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( 194
APPENDIX III
Gridded Overlay on Preliminary Plan
If the plan data is not already programmed
into the computer, this is the first step. Start
by laying a grid over the plan data, then
select a viewpoint (V). The viewing height,
topographic data, plus the heights of the
fountain, walls, and other structures are
now entered into the computer.

Medium: Computer printout

30% of actual size
195
"0
~.
::J
s
S.
 Finished Perspective
The perspective printout may need to be enhanced by the graphic
artist. The example shown here was sketched using a vellum
overlay on the printout grid shown on the previous page.
More sophisticated programs are available in which realistic
shapes are printed out directly from the computer. For some
purposes, very little or no manual enhancement would be needed.
These capabilities, once relatively expensive, are becoming less so
and are being used in some landscape architectural offices,

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Medium: Pencil on vellum

30% of actual size
197
 {

~~ Exercises
Whether you are working in a structured classroom situation or just
wanting to pick up some ideas on your own time, it is a good idea
to have some sequenced organization to your efforts in learning
about landscape graphics. For the most part, these exercises
follow the text sequence. But you should feel free to alter that
sequence to suit your individual needs and skill level. The
exercises have been designed with the assumption that the reader
may have no previous formal graphics training. Skip ahead to the
more challenging exercises if you have had drawing experience.
Some landscape graphics are expressed through free, open-
ended techniques such as sketching. Others, such as drafting, are
quite the opposite-demanding precision and exacting control.
Most landscape graphics require a combination of these "loose"
and "tight" approaches. So that you don't get stuck in one or the
other of these grooves, it is recommended that you practice
different types of exercises simultaneously. For example, it could
be a good idea to keep up regular additions to a sketchbook,
picking from exercises 1-14 while at the same time following a
sequence of drafting, lettering, plan symbol, and perspective
exercises.
Chapter 9, on perspective, refers to exercises 39 through 49,
suggesting when to try specific exercises. It is important to follow
the recommended sequence by matching the text with the
exercises. They progress from simple to more complex, with each
exercise depending on skills learned in the previous one.
Be creative and invent your own exercises. Those shown here
barely scratch the surface, but they will get you started and can
reveal new possibilities.

APPENDIX IV 198
Freehand Drawing 4. Boxes and angular objects
Trace or invent a composition of straight-sided shapes which could
Exercises 1 through 14 represent buildings, plazas, walls, and other architectural
A free hand that is willing to sketch makes for a freer mind that is elements. Make positive connections at all corners and draw with
able to evaluate design ideas. It matters less what or even how you confidence. Allow some shapes to penetrate others. Pencil or felt
draw than whether you draw with frequency and confidence. Keep tip pen on tracing paper.'
a sketch tool and small pad handy and make drawing a habit.
There are many opportunities every day to indulge in creative
doodling. Use the times when you happen to be sedentary but not
in a situation demanding your undivided attention: on hold on the
telephone, waiting for an appointment, commuting as a passenger,
during television commercials. Some people become so at ease
with doodling that they can continue sketching automatically while
attending to some other important matters.
•
Use the following exercises as a way to get started in this exciting
habit. You will quickly progress beyond them, developing your own
style and favorite SUbject material. Refer to Chapter 2 for
descriptions of the appropriate materials and techniques.

1. Freeform shapes 5. Simple line drawings

On an 18 x 24-inch sheet of tracing paper, draw a series of
freehand circles and blobs of different sizes and shapes. Make
some single-line and some multiple-line. Felt tip pen.
2. Long straight lines
Place a series of dots on either side of an 18 x 24-inch sheet of
tracing paper. Connect them horizontally and diagonally, keeping
the lines as straight as possible. Felt tip pen.
Use a series of free-flowing yet confidently drawn lines to show
essential edges and shapes. Loose line sketches can be effective
design development drawings. Choose one organic object (fruit,
flower, leaf) and one simple mechanical object and create a line
drawing. Do not use shading or toning. Felt tip pen on 9 x 12-inch
marker paper.

3. Short straight lines

Using several different kinds of smooth sketching tools (soft
pencils, felt tip pens, sketch pens), create an interesting freehand
composition of straight lines. All lines should be drawn with speed
and have strong endings. Do not move finger joints. 9 x 12-inch
sketch or marker paper.
 - - - --~------------

~,'-~:I'J'-' ''';'""""",~

6. Continuous line drawings of man-made objects b. On the same sheet draw ata larger size (about 2 inches) the
A free-flowing appearance is obtained by shaping an object with a four geometric objects shown below. Note the light direction with
continuous line using body joints in harmony. Keep the pen or an arrow and try to capture the shape by using the smooth tone
pencil in constant contact with the paper. Lift and shift position change on two objects and crosshatch toning on the others. Pencil
only to avoid excessive doubling up of lines. or felt tip pen on 9 x 12-inch sketch or marker paper.
Find several simple manufactured objects and fill the page with
continuous line sketches. Suggested objects: pencil pointer, set of \\. / / 1
keys, scissors, shoe, and hat. Use lines to represent edges, \ii- • -1
indentations, protrusions, and contours. Felt tip pen or soft pencil
on 9 x 12-inch sketch or marker paper. ~:.
<r" '" ...... .
- .t...••>
>'I

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~~
7. Tone and light quality
a. Draw the outline of two long rectangles 1 inch wide and 6 inches
long. In one box, use a soft graphite pencil or stick to create an
~
"%;;'
~
'"
(
I
w
"
even gradation of tone from shiny black on the left to white on the I"~

right. In the other box, use a felt tip pen or a sharp pencil to create
a tone of crosshatch lines which are very close and dense on the
left and open white on the right.
I
",
f \,~. ..•/
1

8. Pure tone drawings with no outline

a. Choose a simple solid object or a glass object and make a tone-
only draWing with no outlines. Use change of tone to suggest
edges, shape, and light quality. 68 pencil or graphite stick on
9 x 12-inch sketch paper. Try another object with a flat-tip sketch
pencil.
b. Find a black-and-white photograph. Turn it upside down and
copy the tone variations using a build-up of crosshatching. Do not
outline the shapes or edges. Felt tip pen or fountain pen on 9 x
12-inch sketch paper.

APPENDIX IV 200

9. Line expression
Using a 6B pencil, felt tip pen, or sketch fountain pen, draw a
series of lines across the page-deliberately trying to vary the
width and the darkness of the line.
-----
------_.---
68 lead holder
Fountain pen
~.......... . ....
Felt tip pen
This is accomplished by varying the pressure and/or rotating the
pencil as you draw to move it from a wide edge to a narrow edge.
a. Now draw a representation of ground plane landform in
perspective view composed of a series of continuous lines. Exploit
your sketching tool to get the full range of line weight and to
provide interesting zones of emphasis ..
~-- ----
...
- 11. Fast trees
- ~2---
~
b. Draw a series of rock groupings or outcrops in perspective view
(see Chapter 8). 9 x 12-inch sketch or marker paper.
,':;~-~J<',~M-,.,>/~~~;l'
10. Textural perspective
Copy six of the line doodles shown in Chapter 6 page 92 or
Chapter 8 page 149. Draw a single short doodle then next to it
show a build-up of the doodle to make a texture. Expand the
textural zone, but allow white non-textured areas to remain
intermixed with the tone of texture. Let the textures evolve into a
specific material on the ground plane (grass, cobbles, flagstone)
or a vertical object (tree trunk). Try to capture the principle of
textural perspective. Felt tip pen or fountain pen on 9 x 12-inch
marker paper.
~
~
--~
- ...
Practice drawing mid-ground trees copied from Chapter 8.
a. Rve-second trees. Fill a 9 x 12-inch sheet with trees and shrubs
showing form only. Be very loose and quick. Relate them all to the
ground in some way. Felt tip pen.
b. Thirty-second trees. Fill a 9 x 12-inch sheet with trees that have
a hint of texture or light quality in addition to portraying form. Make
some with easy doodles and others with quick-stroke technique.
Spend no more than thirty seconds per tree. Felt tip pen.
201
c. One-minute trees with shading. Fill two sheets of 8% x 11-inch 16. Do a second sheet with the same set-up but with different
Mylar with deciduous and evergreen trees. Use three different words and styles copied from Chapter 2 page 44. Set up the
tools: a 6B pencil, a graphite stick, and a flat-tip sketch pencil. marker words, but do not outline. Overlay with a 9 x 12-inch sheet
Copy from Chapter 8. Establish an imaginary sun direction first; of marker paper and outline with felt tip pens. You may use a
then quickly apply graphite strokes to capture shaded areas and straightedge for the verticals. Other lines must be freehand.
overall form. Each tree should take less than one minute. Keep
them about 3 inches tall with a ground connection.
d. Two- to three-minute trees with texture. Using felt tip pen or
fountain pen in 9 x 12-inch paper, draw a number of trees and
Concept Drawings
shrubs which have more textural or shading detail than do the
Exercise 17
thirty-second trees. Do some with only branching texture. Spend no
17. On 12 x 18-inch or larger marker paper, use felt tip pens and
more than two to three minutes on each tree. Capture light quality.
colored markers to prepare a hypothetical concept diagram. Use
Strive for a loose edge with white space penetrating, a contrast of
many different functional symbols and organize them in a cohesive
clustered lines and open white spaces, and a dlrectionat meaning
composition. See Chapter 3 for symbol ideas.
or consistency to the lines.
Choose one of these activity areas and transform the ideas listed
12. Perspective arrows into abstract graphic symbols.
Invent a series of arrows which have different shapes, direction
change, and a three-dimensional quality. Assume a light direction. Park Urban mall
Be creative. 9 x 12-inch material, any medium. Public road Shops
Main entry Seating areas
13. Fast people Automobile circulation Barriers
Draw two rows of fast people copied from Chapter 8. Keep all eyes Parking areas (several) Information kiosk
on the eye lines. Vary size and character. 9 x 12-inch surface, any Information center Bus drop-off zone
medium. Play equipment area Parking areas
Picnic areas Fountain area
14. Automobiles Beach/swimming zone Performance/entertainment area
Using the techniques in Chapter 8, draw a car or truck in Concession building Pedestrian access from parking
perspective view. 9 x 12-inch surface, any medium. Change rooms Automobile access
Open play area Conflict areas
15. For marker lettering, set up light pencil guidelines for four rows Nature center Clock tower
of n~-inch high lettering and two rows of 3!4-inch-high lettering. Pedestrian trail system
Leave a %-inch gap between rows. Choose a light-colored marker Forested areas
and fill the rows with words. Outline with double outline method
shown in Chapter 2. All must be freehand. 9 x 12-inch marker
paper.

APPENDIX IV 202
 division points by 45° diagonal lines. Draw a third square by
Pencil Drafting connecting the intersecting points of the last set of diagonal lines
and the first diagonal lines drawn. Set up the sheet as shown.
Exercises 18 through 21
All pencil drafting exercises are to be done on 8Y2 x 11-inch
vellum. See Chapter 4 for materials and methods.

18. Draft a set of five horizontal lines for each of the leads HB, H,
and 2H. Make the lines 5 inches long, 114 inch apart with 1 inch
between each set. Make all these lines very dark and even. Draft a
fourth set of five lines, very lightly, with a sharp 4H. On the
remainder of the sheet, use the compass to scribe four circles of
different sizes, using H lead. Set up the sheet as shown.

H&O 20. First, construct a hexagon. On the left side of a sheet, draft
cross lines A Band C D, using very light 4H pencil Jines. With this
H

211 0 0
intersection as the center, scribe a very light circle guideline with a
1Y2-inch radius. Again with light 4H lines, draft the six lines
_ touching the outside of the circle using the 30°/60° triangle. Draft
the finished hexagon with a dark, sharp H lead.

~O
Onthe right side of the sheet, draw a 3-inch square with vertical
and horizontal center lines. Draw 45° diagonals to these center
lines Y2 inch apart, as shown. Then draw two concentric
semicircles on each side of the vertical center line with 1Y2-inch
and 1-inch radii. Intertwine the diagonals and semicircles. Set up
the sheet as shown.
For exercises 19, 20, and 21, draft most of the lines first with a very
.Iight 4H lead; then go over them firmly with an H lead.
c:.

19. On the left side draw a 3-inch square. Divide the top and the
left side into six Y2-inch divisions. Draw three lines parallel to the
base at the Y2-inch divisions on the left side. Then draw 45°
diagonal lines through the remaining Y2-inch marks. A,.-- ~

On the right side draw a 3-inch square. Draw two 45° diagonals.
Divide each side in half and connect these points with 45°
diagonal lines. Draw a second square by connecting the
intersecting points of the two sets of diagonals. Again, divide the p
sides of the second square into equal parts and connect the

~-~-~-~-~-~-~-~--------"-'-=-
=i
21. Expand the landscape plan features shown below to fill an 8% 23. Reading the scale
x 11-inch sheet. Copy approximate shapes and relative sizes. Do On a sheet of 8Y2 x 11-inch vellum, draft in pencil four 9-inch long
not measure dimensions. Draft straight lines with the T square and lines about 2 inches apart. Place a small vertical line at the left end
triangles. Draft the trees and walk curves with a circle template. of each line. Use the following scales:
Draft the freeform curve with the flexible curve. Draw the dashed
contours, shrubs, and evergreen trees freehand.
JBIA =.11-011
III • 10'
. . 1" :. 1
v II ,
-0
.,

I" =2,0 I

~ff
On each line, draft small vertical lines at each of these
measurements from the left end of the line:
3',10'-6",18'-6",25',39',53',68'
Place a sheet of Mylar over the top and use four different pen sizes
_."\ to redraw each horizontal line. Then use a 0 or 00 tip to trace the
I // .....'"I I vertical lines.
II ""\ , I
11/"1
II I I J \ 24. Scale Change
J ,I
' '\I ,
' .... Redraw this house plan at a scale of Ya" = 1'-0". Draw the walls 6
III \\ _ \ inches thick. Indicate doors as a single outside line and windows
\ \\ . . --',1
1\ '"'--..,,
'\ ""...
\ \
--
"....' ..._..-... / /
,'-_ ...
I
/
./
,/
I
as a double inside and outside line as shown. Ink on Mylar.

Ink Drafting and Use of Scale

Exercises 22 through 25 ~L..e
;r
All ink exercises should be finalized on Mylar. You may set up the I 111 = 2.0 '
shapes with pencil on vellum for tracing with ink on Mylar.

22. Trace the construction section in Chapter 7, page 127. Omit 25. North indicators and graphic scales
labels and leaders. Try to reproduce the variety of line widths Fill a sheet with north indications and graphic scales copied (not
shown. traced) from Chapter 4. Ink on Mylar, 8% x 11 inches.

APPENDIX IV 204
 Lettering
Exercises 26 through 28
All pencil lettering is to be done on a vertically aligned 8Y2X 11-
inch sheet of vellum, using 1%-inch margins with 4H to set up
guidelines and 0.5 mm pencil with HB or H lead to make the
letters. Dust lightly with the dry cleaning pad before starting.
26. Set up 3AG-inch spaced guidelines. Use alternate rows. Letter
two rows each of Is, Es, as, As, and Bs.
Study the shapes shown in Chapter 5. Letter the alphabet in upper
case (capitals), then in lower case, then copy the numerals.
27. Set up three 2-inch by 5%-inch blocks of guidelines. Leave an
inch between each block. The top block should have guidelines of
3AG-inch (setting 6, 3fs row).
The center block should have Va-inch guidelines (setting 8, center
row). Letter every second row. Medium size.
The bottom block should have %2-inch guidelines (setting 6, center
row). Letter every second row. Smallest size.
Fill the blocks with full sentences copied from a book.
28. For practicing with prepared letters on 8% x tt-inch vellum or
Mylar set up four or five widely spaced light lines to be used as
base guides. Invent different titles for each line, using transfer
letters and Kroy lettering (if available). Cover transfer letters with
clear tape.
____________________________________________~(.rtI
Presentation Plans and Symbols
Exercises 29 through 35
29. Fill a page with eight to ten different deciduous trees. Choose
the fast outline symbols. Pencil on vellum, 8Y2 x 11 inches.
30. Repeat exercise 29, choosing some trees with foliage texture
and some trees with branching patterns. Felt tip pen on 9 x 12-
inch marker paper.
31. Do exercise 29 again, choosing evergreen trees and shrubs.
Ink on 8% x 11-inch Mylar.
32. Create a cohesive composition of ground plane materials to
include bermed landform, grass area, three ground covers, three
paving patterns, two types of rock groupings, and some water. Ink
on Mylar, 8% x 11 inches, with 1%-inch margins.
33. Create a composition of three buildings, a road, two vehicles,
several evergreen trees, and several groups of shrubs. Add
shadows and roof texture. Pencil on vellum, 8Y2 x 11 inches, with 1-
inch margins.
34. Create a composition of deciduoustrees, evergreen trees,
shrub groups, an architectural pool or fountain, and two different
paving patterns. Show overlapping and layering. Add shadows and
a graphic scale. Felt tip pen on 9 x 12-inch marker paper.
-'
35. Create a plan of a naturalistic area which has deciduous tree
groups, evergreen tree groups, shrub groupings, a simple structure
(deck, shelter, bridge), paving for pedestrian use, water (both quiet
and moving), rocks, and a ground plane texture to tie it together.
Integrate a title, north indication, and scale. Include shadows. Ink
on Mylar. Suggested sizes: 12 x 18 inches using a 1" = 10' scale
and 18 x 24 inches using a scale of Va" = 1'-0".
Sections
Exercises 36 through 38
36. Copy one of the sections from Chapter 7.
Pencil on 8% x 11-inch Mylar. fOS:l:> £T~ ~lC­
~UL
u,.
=1 v~
fooL,..Op~
37. Draw a section through the plan on the right. The thick arrow ",,&~~

~:Jr\V~:
through the bridge and plaza indicates the cut line. Enlarge it from
1" = 10' to W' = 1'-0" for both horizontal and vertical scales.
Include people to show function. Felt tip pen on 9 x 12-inch
marker or butcher paper. Use drafting tools to set it up, but final
copy should be freehand.

38. Invent a section of your own imaginary landscape. Include

structures, water, trees, shrubs, rocks, and people. Suggested
environments: play area, urban plaza, fishing pier, botanical
gardens, zoo. Felt tip pen on 12 x 8-inch marker paper or butcher
paper.

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206
APPENDIX IV
Perspectives
Exercises 39 through 49
39. Using a 68 pencil on tracing paper (any size), draw what you
perceive to be a realistic view of things.
a. You are standing, looking down the middle of a set of railway
tracks which go straight across an endless, flat desert as far as the
eye can see. No trains are coming.
r
b. You are standing about 20 feet away from the front of a courtyard
space looking into it. The three walls are all 20 feet long and 10 feet
high.
r
40. Cubes in one-point perspective
Drawing freehand, use soft pencil or felt tip pen on 18 x 24-inch
tracing paper. Draw a horizon line with a vanishing point. Place
squares of various sizes allover the sheet, keeping all sides
horizontal and vertical. With light lines, connect corners to the
vanishing point. Estimate where the back side of the cube will be in
order to retain the cube-like appearance. Draw in the back side;
then draw heavy lines for the visible edges.
Don't make these lines too long. In perspective, the cube will look
foreshortened.
207
41. Draw a one-point perspective of the courtyard shown below 42. Using Lawson perspective chart number 8, or its equivalent,
using the proportional method and the scale method described in draw a one-point perspective of this plan view pool space. Keep it
Chapter 9. An 18 x 24-inch sheet of tracing paper or vellum will be to simple outline forms but add people and some fast trees. 19 x
suitable. Follow steps 1 through 9 on pages 160, 161. Begin by 24-inch marker paper.
placing the horizon line exactly 2Y2 inches above the GL 20 line. "-HAJ2.T & V M L-
~v <, (y ~
The walls will be one-and-a-half people high. At step 8, the
vanishing point must be placed 10 feet to the right of the left side of
the space. After placing 10-feet markers along the GL 20, join them I ~!l ' r 5'1 \'II" .b.
to the VP. Find the ground lines using the scale method. Now
transfer the plan data to your perspective ground plane grid. Find ~ -),q -j) ~
heights at corners of objects with the proportional method. Add -11~'1 -- h--1 "
entourage, such as plants, people, and a fountain. Trace all this VA\..L.j !:lGUL.PT'U~"))'" C~L) )
r
O' ~)~ l/ ~ ~-t-/
onto a sheet of marker paper or butcher paper omitting all hidden
lines.
I ,
~ 10 L 10 10'
~
'I ..
sHe.ul¥=>~
'1'" IS' HI6H
~~
------~!-..,..,,: r1-1,-<.01 HIC:rH Fjt...YIN6 ) l!

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208
APPENDIX IV
43. Freehand boxes in two-point perspective
Use 18 x 24-inch tracing paper. Draw a horizon line with a dot
near the left side of the paper for the left vanishing point (LVP) and
another dot near the right side of the paper for the right vanishing
point (RVP). With a T square and a pencil. quickly draw a series of
straight lines which radiate across the paper from both vanishing
points.

With a felt tip pen draw a number of solid boxes which follow the
principles of two-point perspective.
Objective: To understand the three types of lines of simple two-
point perspective.

209
.......
44. Ground plane patterns
Transpose these plan view patterns onto the ground plane of
Lawson chart 3 or its equivalent. For the circle, first draw a 10-foot
square on the ground plane and mark the midpoint (5 feet) on
each side. Then draw diagonals from corner to corner. Place a
mark a little less than a third the distance from the corner to the
center on each diagonal. Connect the marks in a smooth ellipse.
Objective: To understand the relationship between a plan grid and
a compressed ground plane in a two-point perspective chart.
1::> ~·VP.
45. Flag poles
Using an overlay of tracing paper on Lawson chart 6, or one like it,
locate flag poles on the ground plane. Find their heights by using
the vertical measuring line. Since all poles stand directly on one of
the heavy base lines, use a simple one-step process. First draw a
light vertical line from the pole base. Now determine to which
vanishing point the base line vanishes. Connect that vanishing
point to the desired height on the VML and extend (if necessary) to
intersect the flag pole vertical. Mark the height and draw in the
pole. Before removing your overlay, add to-toot ground plane grid
lines.
Objective: To show simple one-step use of the vertical measuring
line to find heights in two-point perspective.

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~~
APPENDIX IV '-'in
46. Geometric forms
Use an overlay of tracing paper on Lawson chart 6 (or a .
comparable one). Follow the nine steps described in Appendix ~
pages 184, 185 to draw the boxes at their correct height. Start with
the 15-foot high box. To draw the round pool, first draw the ellipse
on the ground plane as described in exercise 44. Now project an
increment of 1 foot down from the zero of the VML. Use this to
construct a 20-foot square 1 foot below the ground plane pool. Add
the new ellipse and erase the hidden lines.
Objective: To practice using the vertical measuring line to find
heights of simple 3D objects.
47. Walls
Draw a perspective view of the three walls shown on this plan. Use
Lawson chart 2, or another similar one. Block out the shapes and
several people then trace onto 9 x 12-inch marker paper adding
textural symbols to show wall material and some ground plane grid
lines.
Objectives: To practice the use of the VML with curved and angled
objects. To show an indication of materials. To draw people in a
12.5 feet eyeline sketch.
"l?~·vp

51~C
jO~~V~

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12 \vIDI=:

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211
~

48. Rural landscape 49. Waterfront

On an overlay of Lawson chart 5, or one like it, invent a rural
landscape composition to include trees, shrubs, ground cover,
pavement or walkway, a small built element (wall, bridge, seat,
deck) and people. Incorporate the principles of composition
described on pages 171-181. Sketch size 12 x 18 inches; felt tip
pen on marker paper or pencil on Mylar.
Objectives: To practice drawing vegetation and landform. To study
the principles of composition.
Using Lawson chart 6, or a comparable one, draw a quick
perspective of the plan shown here. Include people. Choose
simple symbols for trees and shrubs. Add quick indications of
doors and windows. Block it out in pencil on any medium, then
trace it freehand onto a sheet of tracing paper with felt tip markers,
omitting all hidden lines. Sketch size: 18 x 24 inches.
Objectives: To integrate all aspects of two-point perspective. To
practice simplicity and speed.

1
12 H16H- .
2JUIL.oPIH (:r "Z..AfL-i''"''.4--..' 11'==1 I I
~e..
1t> L..vP f---(ij"\6r:-~I-fe-t--+-----t----t--..".-"'--;-1O I <:tF-lD

~I tH6H
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1
2 HI6IH
r~
~>c.eb

~"

APPENDIX IV 212
Bibliography
Ching, Frank. Architectural Graphics. 2d ed. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.
Doyle, Michael E. Color Drawing. A Marker/Colored-Pencil
Approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.
Evans, Larry. Illustration Guide for Architects, Designers and
Students. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
Hanks, Kurt, and Larry Belliston. Draw! A Visual Approach to
Thinking, Learning and Communicating. Los Altos, California:
William Kaufmann, 1977.
Laseau, Paul. Graphic Thinking for Architects and Designers. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.
Lin, Mike W. Architectural Rendering Techniques. A Color
Reference. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.
Oliver, Robert S. The Sketch. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1979.
Szabo, Marc. Drawing File for Architects, Illustrators and
Designers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976.
Walker, Theodor D. Perspective Sketches. 3d ed. Mesa, Arizona:
PDA Publishers Corporation, 1975.
Walker, Theodor D. Plan Graphics. West Lafayette, Indiana: PDA
Publishers, 1975.
Wang, Thomas C. Plan and Section Drawing. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1979.
Wang, Thomas C. Pencil Sketching. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold,1977.
Wang, Thomas C. Projection Drawing. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1984.
Wang, Thomas C. Sketching with Markers. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1981.

213
Metric Conversions
Inches em feet meters
Yl6 0.16 1 0.3048
Va 0.32 2 0.6096
:y,6 0.48 3 0.9144
% 0.64 4 1.219
5/16 0.79' 5 1.524
% 0.95 6 1.828
~6 1.11 7 2.133
"'h 1.27 8 2.438
9/16 1.43 9 2.743
% 1.59 10 3.048
lYl6 1.75
% 1.91
13;'6 2.06
% 2.22
15/16 2.38

1 2.54
2 5.08
3 7.62
4 10.16
5 12.70
6 15.24
7 17.78
8 20.32
9 22.86
10 25.40
11 27.94
12 30.48

To convert feet to meters,

multiply number of feet by 0.3048.
For example, to convert 25 feet to
meters, multiply 25 by 0.3048 = 7.62 meters

214
Index

Ames Lettering Guide, 72 Dry cleaning pad, 57, 74 title blocks, 69 Paving
Art stick, 38 tools and materials, 64 freehand, 100
Automobiles, 104, 150, 151 Ecological relationships, 126 Inventory, 12, 14, 15 prepared patterns, 101
Equipment. See Tools and Irrigation plan, 26, 29 textural perspective, 149
Background, 172 materials Pen
Bird's-eye view, 178 Eraser, 57, 64, 65 Kroy lettering system, 77 sketch,39
Buildings Erasing shield, 58 technical, 64
freehand, 103 Eye-level view, 179 Landform See also Felt tip (marker) pen
outline, 102 section-elevation, 122 Pencil
shadows with, 108 Felt tip (marker) pen, 38 symbols on, 97 mechanical, 56, 59
lettering with, 43-45 Landscape design, stages in, rendering, 38
Climate/microclimate, in section- paper for, 39 10-35 sketching, 38
elevation, 124 sketch with, 181 Lawson perspective charts, Pencil drafting, 56-63
Compass, 57, 60 Field of vision diagrams, 186-88 186-88,211-12 criteria of quality, 63
Composition, 171-81 Film, drafting, 39, 64 Layout plan, 26, 28 exercises, 203-4
Computer graphics, 20, 26, 194-97 Flexible curve, 58 Lead, 56 sequence, 61
Concept drawings, 46-53 Foreground, 142-45, 172, 180 Lead holder, 38, 58, 74 symbols and line weights, 62-63
character and media of, 16 Foreshortening, 174 Lettering, 70-76 techniques, 59-60
concept plan, 17, 19, 22, 52 Freehand drawing, 12, 16, 20, marker, 43-45 tools and materials, 56-58
exercises, 202 36-45 pencil, 72-76, 205 Pencil lettering, 72-76,205
functional diagrams, 18, 47, 51, exercises, 199-201 prepared systems, 77 Pencil pointer, 56
53 lettering, 43-45 Lighting studies, 125 Pencil sketch, 180
symbols, 48-50 techniques, 40-42 Light quality, 176 People, 104, 152-53
Concept plan, 16, 17, 19, 22, 52 tools and materials, 38 Line symbols, 49, 50, 62 Perspective, 154-81
Conceptual diagram. See Functional diagrams, 16, 18, 47, 51, and composition, 171-81
Functional diagram 53 Marker pens. See Felt tip pens computer-aided, 194-97
Coniferous trees Material symbols, 63 exercises, 207-12
radial line symbols, 85 Grading plan, 26, 27 Media. See Tools and materials one-point, 156-67
shadows, 107 Graphite-based tools, 38 Middleground, 172, 174, 180 basics, 156-58
textured, 136 Ground covers Mylar, 39, 64, 74 diagonal method, 163
toned,138 foreground, 142-45 perspective charts, 164-66,
Construction details, 26, 35 patterns for, 91-92 Non-lineal symbols, 49 183
section-elevation, 127 textural perspective and, 149 North indication, 66 proportion method, 162
symbols on, 62, 63 Ground plane, 149, 173 scale method, 162
Construction specifications, 26 One-point perspective. See from slides of plan, 192-193
Contrast and tonal balance, 93, 175 Hedges, 90 Perspective, one-point from slides of site, 189-191
Overhead plane, 173 textural, 149, 201
Detail sheet. See Construction Implementation documents. See Overlapping, 174 two-point, 168-70, 184-85
details Working drawings Overview, 177 uses of, 154
Drafting. See Ink drafting; Pencil Ink,64 Perspective charts
drafting Ink drafting, 63-69 Paper field of vision on, 186-88
Drafting brush, 58 exercises, 204 marker, 39 for one-point perspective,
Drafting film, 39, 64 north indicators, 66 pencil drafting, 58, 59 164-66,183
Drafting tape, 58 scale, 66-68 sketching, 39 for two-point perspective, 169-70
Drawing board cover, 58 techniques, 65 Parallel rule, 57, 60, 74 vertical measuring line on, 183-85

215

Planting plans, 26, 30~-34, 79
Plants
hedges or rows, 90
layer"lng, 94
in plant groups, 8G
on planting plan, 30-34
shadows witn, 105, 110, 111
(one, contrast, and balance of,
G3, 175
tropical plants, 87, 141
See also Ground covers; Shrubs;
Trees
Plan '.;iew, 78
Poir,t symbols, 62
Presentation orawinqs, 78-1 i 1
character ana media of, 20
development ptans, 20, 21 :23
129, 155
exercises, 205
master plans, 25, 79
p~erjnlir,ary plan, 24
symbols on, 78, 80-111
Program development, 11
RoadS, 104
Hocks. 96, 142-45
iNDEX
n
Sandpaper block, 58. 60 Site plan, 26, 62 with branching, 133
Scale, graphic, 66--67, 204 Symbols rubbings, 139
Scales, architect's and engineer's, concept diagrams, 48-51, 202 shadows, 105,106,107,111
58, 67, 61'3 graphic file of, 128-53 toned, 136-37
Schematic. pian 16 presentation drawings, 78, evergreen, 138
Section-elevations 112-27 80-111,205 See also Plants
characteristics of, 116 working drawinqs, 62-63 Triangle, 57, 60, 64 ••
drawing from pian, 117 Tropical plants, 87, 141··..
exercises, 206 Template, 57, 64 Trucks, 104, 151
uses of, 118-27 Textural perspective, 149, 201 T square, 57, 60
Shadows, 105-11 Title blocks, 69 Two-point perspective, 168-70,.
building, 108 Tone drawing, 137, 138, 141, 146, 184--8.5
composite, 111 200
and composition. 176 Tools and materials, 12, 16,20, 26,
Vertical plane, 148, 173
direction of, 105 48, 54
fast, 110 freehand drawinp, 38-39
proportions oL 109 ink drafting, 63-64 Water
treG,105, 106, 107 pencil drafting 56-58 in landscape processes, 123
ShiUbs Transfer letters. dry and sticky natural waterways, 97, 147
deciduous, 88 back, 77 pools and fountains, 98
tine-textured 89 Trees surface texture, 99, 146
outline. 140 branched, 83-84, 94, 134 Working drawings, 26-35
toned, 1~1 coniferous, 85, 107, 136, 138 character and media of, 26, 59
Sidewalks, 104 foliage texture, 82, 135 construction details, 26, 35, 62,
See also Paving foreground, 142-45, 172, 180 63, 127
Sight!ine studies, 121 groups, 88 symbols and line weights on,
Site analysis, 12,13 outline, 80-81, 130-32 62-63
Senior Editor: Julia Moore
Associate Editor: Victoria Craven-Cohn
Designer: Jay Anning
Production Manager: Hector Campbell
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