CCP 07

Chapter 4: Temperature Measurement
1. Introduction
2. Expansion Methods for Measuring Temperatures
3. Resistance thermometers
4. Thermocouples
5. Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors
6. Pyrometry
90 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

1. Introduction
Temperature, unlike quantities such as length, time or mass is an abstract

quantity that must be defined in terms of the behavior of materials as the
temperature changes.
• Examples of change in Behavior:

Change in volume of liquid,
Change in length of a bar,
Change in electrical resistance of a wire,
Change in pressure of a gas at constant volume,
Change in color of a lamp filament, etc.
Several temperature scales have been developed over time to

provide a suitable reference for the level of thermodynamic
activity associated with temperature changes.

1. Introduction
Several temperature scales have been developed over time to provide a
suitable reference for the level of thermodynamic activity associated with
temperature changes.
The Fahrenheit scale (introduced in 1715)

With 180 divisions between the freezing point (+32°F) and the boiling point of
water (212°F).
The Celsius scale (introduced in 1742 by Anders Celsius)

Divides the interval between freezing point and boiling point of water into 100
divisions.
The zero value of this scale corresponds to the freezing point of water
(according to Linnaeus).
Two other scales are used to describe absolute temperatures :

(absolute zero is equivalent to thermodynamic minimum):
The Rankine Scale: TR = θF + 465,79
The Kelvin Scale: TK = θc + 273,15

1. Introduction
The ideal gas law using the absolute temperatures
PV=RT
P = is the absolute pressure
V = is the specific volume
R = is the universal gas constant
T = is the absolute temperature
The international temperature scale has been defined in terms of the

behavior of a number of materials at thermodynamic fixed points.
The international temperature scale is based on 17 fixed points which cover

the temperature range from -270.15°C to 1084.62°C.
Most of these 17 points correspond to an equilibrium state during a phase

transformation of a particular material.

1. Introduction
The fixed points associated with either melting or freezing of a material are
determined at pressure of one standard atmosphere (1 atm).
Fixed PointN° Material State Temperature
1 He Vapor -270.15--268.15
2 e – H a2 Triple Point -259.3467
3 e-H 2 Vapor -256.16
4 e-H 2 Vapor -252.85
5 Ne Vapor -248.5939
6 O2 Triple Point -218.7916
7 Ar Triple Point -189.3442
8 Hg Triple Point -38.8344
9 H 2O Triple Point 0.01
10 Ga Triple Point 27.7646
11 In Melting 156.5985
12 Sn Freezing 231.928
13 Zn Freezing 419.527
14 Al Freezing 660.327
15 Ag Freezing 961.78
16 Au Freezing 1064.18
17 Cu Freezing 1084.62
Triple point is the temperature at which the solid, liquid and

vapor phases are in equilibrium.
1. Introduction
Between the triple point of e-H2 (-259.3467°C = 13.8033K) and the freezing
point of Ag (961.78°C = 1234.94K), the temperature is defined with a
platinum resistance thermometer.
Above the freezing point of Ag, the temperature is defined using an optical
pyrometer

2. Expansion Methods For Measuring
Temperatures
When materials are subjected to temperature changes (∆T = T-To), they
expend or contract according to :
∆l = α l0 ∆T
∆l = the change in length

α = the temperature coefficient of expansion for the material
l0 = the length at the reference temperature T0
The temperature coefficient of expansion α is very small for most

material (α is of order of 20.10-6 /°C).
Thus the temperature change can not be known directly from the
length change ∆l measurements

Temperatures
2.1 The liquid-in-glass thermometers
A glass capillary tube with a bulb containing a volume of liquid (the most
used is Hg).
When the temperature changes, the liquid volume expands much more
then the glass capillary and bulb because of the difference in α between
the fluid and the glass.
A scale etched on the glass is used to convert the extension of the fluid in
the capillary to the temperature of the thermometer.
Advantages: High precision ± 0,2°C to ± 2°C
Disadvantages: Direct reading, high time response

Temperatures
2.2 The Bi-Metallic-Strip-Thermometers
Metal 1; α1
h1 T
Thickness Ratio : h2 h
h2 Metal 2; α2 Switch contact
rh =
h1
Tw
Modulus of α1 > α2
elasticity Ratio :
ρ Switch
E2
re =
E1
Temperature 2 1
3 1 + r h + 1 + rhre re2 – h
Difference : r hre
ρ=
∆T = Tw – T 6 α 1 – α 2 1 + rh ∆T

3. Resistance Thermometers
∆T Resistance Sensor ∆R
Resistance Temperature
TWO Kinds of Resistance Detectors (RTD’s)
Thermometers
Thermistors
Resistance temperature detectors are simply resistive elements formed of

such material as platinum, nickel or a nickel-copper alloy known
commercially as Balco.
These materials exhibit a positive coefficient of resistivity and are used in
RTD’s because they are stable and provide a reproducible response to
temperature over a long period of time.

3.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s)
A typical RTD consists of a wire coil sensor with a framework for support, a
sheath for protection, a linearizing circuit, a wheatstone bridge, and a
voltage display instrument.
The sensor is a resistive element that exhibits a resistance-temperature

relationship given by the expression :
R = R0 (1+γ1T+γ2T2+…+γnTn)
γ1,γ2…γn : Temperature coefficients of resistivity

R0 : The resistance of the sensor at a reference temperatureT0.
The reference temperature is usually specified as T0 = 0°C

The number of terms retained for any application depends on the material
used in the sensor, the range of temperature, and the accuracy required in
the measurement.
8
Nickel
Copper
6
2
Platinium
Resistance Ration R/R0

1 1
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature (°C)
Resistance-Temperature curves
for Nickel, Copper and Platinum
The most common RTD is composed of high purity (99.99 %) platinum wire
wound about a ceramic core and hermetically sealed in a ceramic capsule.
Platinum is the superior material for precision thermometry:
It resists contamination and corrosion
its mechanical and electrical properties are stable over long period
of time.
The platinum wire coils are stress relieved after winding, immobilized
against strain, and artificiality aged after fabrication to provide for
long-term stability.
Drift is usually less then 0.1°C when such sensor i s used at its upper
temperature limit.
Platinum RTD’s are also constructed using either thick or thin-film
technologies.
With both of these approaches, a film of platinum is placed on a thin flat
ceramic substrate and encapsulated with a glass or ceramic coating.
75
Platinium (thick 1mm)

50 on a 1 mm thick
ceramic flat
25 Platinium (wire)
woung on a 3 mm
diameter core
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time after immersion (s)
3.1.1 RTDs and the Wheatstone Bridge :
Wire 1
Null
RTD Indicator R
Sensor Wire 2
vs
Wire 3
Decade R
resistor box
Matched pair of
Lead-wire-
precision resistors
system
1000 W maximum in 0.01 W steps
C wire 1
R1
C
R1
R3
wire 2 R3
Rc
A B
id wire 3 A B
vm
R2 R4
R2 R4
D
D
Equilibrium
R1.R4 = R2.R3 (R1+r1).R4 = R2.(R3+r3)

r1 = r3
Sel heating of the sensor : pT = RT.i2
The power pT is dissipated by an RTD placed in a Wheatstone bridge with

equal resistances RT in each of the four arms and supplied with a voltage
2
Vs
pT =
4 RT
The increase in temperature from self heating DTsh required to dissipate pT is:
∆Tsh = FshpT
Fsh: the self heating factor (°C/mW)

The magnitude of Fsh is provided by the manufacturer of the sensing element
Example : Sensor : RT= 100 Ω ; W.B : 1V DC supply voltage,
Fsh = 0.5°C/mW. p T= 2.5 mW, ∆Tsh = 1,25°C
Another circuit that can be employed for automatic readout is the constant-
current potentiometer circuit :
i
Wire 1
Wire 2
Constant
RTD Mead wire system DVM current
Sensor power
Wire 3 supply
Wire 4
i
Constant-current potentiometer circuit with lead-wire compensation and

automatic reading of the output from an RTD sensor.
The output voltage is V0=RT. I It can be monitored with a digital voltmeter
3.1.2. Common Errors:
Another circuit that can be employed for automatic readout is the constant-current
potentiometer circuit :
lead-wires effects
Can be minimized by making the lead wires as short as possible.
The total resistance of the leads should be always less than 1% of the sensor
resistance
Stability
Stability of the sensor is usually assured by aging. The elements during the
manufacturing process. Stability may become a source of error if the temperature
limit of a sensor is exceeded either by design or by accident.
Self-heating
Self heating errors are produced when excitation voltages or currents are used in the
signal conditioning circuit. Usually there is no need for large excitation signals since
an RTD is a high-output sensor. Self heating can be reduced by limiting the power
dissipation in the RTD to less then 2 mW.
sensitivity of the RTD to strain
Bounded RTD sensors resemble to strain gages and in fact, they respond to strain
3.2. Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors fabricated from semi-

conducting materials, such oxides of nickel, cobalt or manganese and sulfides
of iron, aluminum or copper.
Thermistors with improved stability are obtained when oxide systems of

manganese-nickel, manganese-nickel-cobalt, or manganese-nickel-iron are
obtained.
Conduction is controlled by the concentration of oxygen in the oxide

semiconductors.
An excess or deficiency of oxygen from exact stoechiometric requirements

results in lattice imperfections known as Schottky defects and Frankel defects.
3.2. Thermistors
The resistance-temperature relationships for thermistor can be expressed as :
R 1 1
Ln =β – β 1– 1
R0 T T0 R= R0e T T0
Where :
R: the resistance of the thermistor at the temperature T
R0: the resistance of the thermistor at the reference temperature T0
β: a material constant that ranges from 3000 to 5000K
T and T0 are absolute temperatures in K
The Sensitivity
∆R – β
S= = 2 R
∆T T
3.2. Thermistors
A thermistor with R0 = 2000 Ω and S = -0.04/K exhibits a response
∆R/∆T = 80Ω/K
This large resistance change can be converted to a voltage with a simple two-wire
potentiometric circuit.
The voltage change associated with a temperature change as small as 0.0005K
can be easily and accurately monitored.
Thermistors are produced in the form of disks, wafers, flakes, rods, washers and
beads to provide sensor of the size and shape required for a wide variety of
applications.
The most common are Beads, their diameter range from 0.125 to 1.5 mm.
Thermistors can be used to measure temperatures from a few degrees above
absolute zero to about 315°C. They can be used at h igher temperatures, however
stability begins to decrease significantly above this limit.
The range of a thermistor is usually limited to about 100°C, particularly when it
is connected to a readout device that has been compensated to provide nearly
linear output.
3.2. Thermistors
The accuracy of a thermistor depends on the techniques employed to measure
∆R/R and to calibrate the sensor.
With proper techniques and glass-encapsulated thermistors, temperature of
125°C can be measured with an accuracy of 0.01°C.
Since the change in resistance is so large (∆R/R = 80 Ω/K), a common multi-
meter (4 or 4 1/2 digits) can be employed to measure R within ± 1Ω , No bridge or
potentiometer circuits are required mainly if readings of resistance are processed
in a data acquisition system with a computing microprocessor.
In such case the temperature can be approximated by the equation :
1 3
= A + B.Ln RT + C Ln RT
T
T = is the absolute temperature in K

A, B, C are coefficients determined from calibration curves
3.2. Thermistors : Common Errors
lead-wires effects
- are usually small enough to be neglected for relatively long lead-wires.
- The sensitivity of a thermistor is high; therefore, the change in resistance DRT
resulting from a temperature change is much grater then the small change in
resistance of the lead wires resulting from the temperature variation.
- Also, the resistance of the thermistor is large relatively to the resistance of the
lead wires (RT/RL 1000); consequently, any reduction in sensitivity of the
sensor because of lead-wire resistance is negligible.
self heating
- since the power (pT=RT.i2 ) dissipated in the thermistor will heat it above its
ambient temperature.
- It is recommended to use a limited current flow through the thermistor, that the
temperature rise resulting from the power dissipation is smaller then the
recision to which the temperature is to be measured.
4. Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar materials in thermal contact.
The thermal contact is called Junction.
It can be made by twisting wires together or by welding, soldering or brazing two
materials together.
Material A Material A
T T1 J1 J2 T2
Material B
V0 Material B
Material B M N
V0 = C1 T1 –T2 + C 2 T12 –T22
C1 and C2 are thermoelectric constants that depend on the materials

used to form the junction
4.1. SEEBECK EFFECT
e- e-
T2 e - T1
T1 > T 2
The Ohm law can be modified :
1
J = grad µ + S* grad T
qρ
J = the current density q = the electrical charge of one electron.

ρ = the resistivity of the material S* = is the entropy of transport by
µ = the electro-chemical potential which electrons. It depends of the type of
is related to the emf by the expression: conductor and it's temperature. S* is
positive
grad µ = – q grad V
4. Thermocouples
4.2. PELTIER EFFECT:
The Peltier effect occurs when a current flows in the thermocouple circuit.
The Peltier heat transfer is in addition to the Joule heating effect.
qp = ΠAB i
(qp)out Material A
qp = is the heat transfer due to the (qp)in
Peltier effect in watts. i
T1 J1 J2 T2
ΠAB= is the Peltier coefficient for the v0
A to B couple.
Material B Material B
It should be noted that: Applied
Voltage
ΠAB=- ΠBA
The Peltier coefficient depends on the direction of current flow through the
Junction.
This fact implies that heat will transfer from the junction to the environment
at junction J1 and from the environment to the junction at J2
4. Thermocouples
4.3. THOMPSON EFFECT:
The Thompson effect is another thermoelectric interaction that effects the
behaviour of a thermocouple circuit.
This effect involves the generation or absorption of heat qT whenever a
temperature gradient and a current exist in a conductor.
The quantity of heat qT being transferred is given by :
qT = σ i T1 – T2
qT
q
T1 T2
σ: the Thompson coefficient
v1 v2
that depends on the conductor i
material. V1 –V2
i=
R
4. Thermocouples
4.4 Thermocouples : Principles of Behaviour
The practical use of thermocouples is based on the following six operating
principles:
A thermocouple circuit must contain at least two dissimilar materials and at

1
least two junctions.
Material A
i
V0 = eB/A T1 + eA/ B T2 T1 J1 J2 T2
Material B v0 Material B
eB/A = – eA/ B V0 = eB/A T1 – T2
4. Thermocouples
eB/A: The junction potential per unit temperature at a junction as the current
1
flows from material B to material A.
eA/B : The junction potential per unit temperature at a junction as the current
flows from material A to material B.
The relationship between V0 and (T1-T2) is non-linear since eB/A is not a
constant with respect to temperature
4. Thermocouples
The output voltage V0 of a thermocouple circuit depends only on the

2
difference between junction temperatures (T1-T2) and is independent from the
temperatures elsewhere in the circuit if no current flows in the circuit.
Material A
T4 T5
i T6
T1 T3 T2
T7
T10 T9 T8
Material B v0 Material B
V0 is independent from the lead wires and the temperature distribution

along their length.
4. Thermocouples
If a third metal C is inserted into either leg (A or B) of a thermocouple circuit,
3
the output voltage V0 is not effected, provided that the two junctions (A/C and
C/A) are maintained at the same temperature, for example : Tj=T1=T3
Material C
Material A Material A
Ti Tj
T1 i T2
Material B Material B
v0
V0 = eB/A T1 + eA/C Ti + eC/A Tj + eA/B T2

Since eB/A = – eA/B and eA/C = – eC/A We can Write
The effect of the A/C junction is
V0 = eB/A T1 – T2 + eA/C Ti – Tj
eliminated if Ti = Tj.
4. Thermocouples
The insertion of an intermediate metal C into junction 1 does not effect the
4
output voltage V0 provided that the two junctions formed by insertion of the
intermediate metal (A/C and C/B) are maintained at the same temperature T1
V0 = eB/C T1 + eC / A Ti + eC/B T2
Since eC/A = e C/B + eB/A Material A Material A

and eB/C + eC/A= eB/A T1 i
T3 Material C T2
V0 = eB/A T1 – T2
T1 Material B
v0
Material B
Such situation occurs when junctions are formed by twisting the two
thermocouple materials A and B together and soldering or brazing the
connection with an intermediate metal C.
4. Thermocouples
A thermocouple circuit with temperature T1 and T2 produces an output
5
voltage (V0)1-2 = f (T1-T2) and one exposed to temperature T2 and T3
produces an output (V0)2-3=f(T2-T3) ).
If the same circuit is exposed to temperatures T1 and T3 the output voltage
(V0)1-3 = f(T1 - T3) = (V0)1-2 + (V0)2-3
Material A Material A Material A
i i i T3
T1 T2 = T1 T2 + T2
(v0)1-3 (v0)1-2 (v0)2-3
Material B Material B Material B Material B Material B Material B
4. Thermocouples
A thermocouple circuit fabricated from material A and C generates an output
6
voltage (V0)A-C when exposed to temperatures T1 and T2 and a similar
circuit fabricated from material C and B generates an output voltage (V0)C-B
Furthermore, a thermocouple fabricated from materials A and B generates an
output voltage
(V0)A/B = (V0)A/C + (V0)C/B
Material A Material A Material C
T1 i T2 = T1 i T2 + T1 i T2
(v0)A/B (v0)A/C (v0)C/B
Material B Material B Material C Material C Material B Material B
4. Thermocouples
by employing this principle, calibration tables can be developed for any pair
of materials if the calibration of individual materials are paired with a standard
thermocouple material, such as platinum.
4. Thermocouples
4.5 Thermoelectric Material
The thermoelectric effect occurs whenever a thermocouple circuit is
fabricated from any two dissimilar materials; in most instances materials are
selected to :
1- Provide long-term stability at upper temperature level.
2- Ensure compatibility with available instrumentation.
3- Minimize cost.
4- Maximize sensitivity over the range of operation.
The sensitivities of several materials is given in combination with platinum

at 0°C.
Example:
The sensitivity of a chromel-Alumel thermocouple is given by :
Schromel/Alumel = S chromel/PT - S Alumel/PT
Schromel/Alumel = 25.8 - (-13.6) = 39.4 µV/°C
4. Thermocouples
The sensitivity of a thermocouple is not constant, it's output voltage is non
linear of the difference in junctions temperatures.
The most commonly used thermocouples are designated by the American
National Standard Institute (ANSI) as follows:
Type Positive Material Negative Material

E Chromel Constantan
J Iron Constantan
K Chromel Alumel
N Nicrosil Nisil
R Platinum 13% Rhodium Platinum
S Platinum 10% Rhodium Platinum
T Copper Constantan
4. Thermocouples
80
Type E (Chromel-constantan)
Type K (Chromel-Alumel)
60
Type N (Nickel-Nisil)
Type G (tungsten-
40 tungsten 26%
rhenium)
20 Type S (Platinum-
Platinum 10%
rhodium)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
The output voltage V0 versus temperature T1 when the reference

junction temperature is T2 = 0°C for several types of thermocouples
4. Thermocouples
4.6 Reference Temperature Junction
A thermocouple circuit It is essential that the reference

responds to a temperature junction be maintained at a constant
difference (T1-T2) accurately known temperature T2
Four common methods are used to maintain the reference temperature :
4. Thermocouples
Method 1: The ice and water bath:
Thermos bottle and cap
MATERIAL A Copper
Measuring
junction Copper
MATERIAL B
4. Thermocouples
Method 2: Thermoelectric refrigeration:
The cold junction of the thermocouple is placed in a container filled of

distilled deionized water maintained at precisely 0°C.
The outer walls of the container are cooled by thermoelectric refrigeration
elements (Peltier cooling effect).
The increase in volume of water as it begins to freeze on the walls of the
container expands a bellows (un soufflet), which contacts a micro switch
and deactivates the refrigeration elements.
The cyclic freezing and thawing of the ice on the walls of the container
accurately maintains the temperature of the container at 0°C.
4. Thermocouples
Method 3: The electrical bridge method:
Material A R2
R1 (RTD)
Measuring
junction T1
R4 R3
Material B
Reference block at
ambient temperature
vs
Temperature recorder
4. Thermocouples
Method 4: The double-oven method:
Chromel Alumel Copper

T1
Alumel Chromel Copper

Measuring
junction
Readout
Oven at Oven at
65.5°C 130°C
Each of the two junctions (chromel-Alumel) in the first oven produces a voltage of
2.66 mV at an oven temperature of 65.5°C;
The total voltage of 5.32 mV is cancelled by the double junction of Alumel-
Copper and Copper-Chromel in the second oven at a temperature of 130°C.
The net effect of the four junctions is to obtain the thermoelectric equivalent of a
single reference junction at a temperature of 0°C.
5. Dynamic Response of Temperature
Sensors
All the introduced sensors (bi-metallic strip, RTD'S, thermistors,

thermocouples ...) are intended to measure temperature over a relatively
small region of a much large body.
They have different operating principle but exhibit several common

characteristics which include dynamic response and sources of error.
Temperature sensors are classified as first-order systems, since their

dynamic response is controlled by a first-order differential equation that
describes the rate of heat transfer between the sensor and the surrounding
medium.
Sensors
dT
q = h A Tm – T = m C
dt
Surface T∞
Where : Area
q
• q = the rate of heat transfer to the sensor
• h = the convection heat transfer coefficient Sensor
m, T, C
• A = the surface area through which heat passes
• m = the mass of the sensor
• C = the specific heat capacity of the sensor.
dT h A h A
+ = T
dt m C m C m
Solving the equation for the homogeneous part yields to : –t β
Where : T = C1 e
C1 = a constant of integration
mC
β = time constant of the sensor given by: β =
hA
Sensors
5.1 Step Function Input
The response of a temperature sensor to a step-function input corresponds to

the response of a sensor suddenly immersed in a fluid medium maintained at
constant temperature Tm
In this example, the particular solution is: T = Tm.
Therefore, the general solution is T = C1.e-t/β + Tm
For the initial condition T(0)=0, the integration constant C1 = -Tm
The final expression for temperature T as a function of time t, for the step-
function input is: T = Tm (1- e-t/β)
Sensors
5.1 Step Function Input
t t
−
β
 − 
T = C1e + Tm T = Tm  1 − e β 
 
 
1.0
0.5
ratio T/Tm
Temperature
0
0 1 2 3 4
Normalized time t/β
Sensors
5.2. Ramp Function input
The sensor and the surrounding medium are at the same temperature.
Thereafter, the temperature of the medium increases linearly with time so that :
Tm = k . t
The particular solution gives :
T = b (t - β)
b is the slope of the temperature-time ramp function the general solution for
the ramp-function input is :
T = C1 e-t/β + b (t - β)
for t = 0,
* T(0) = Tm (0) = 0
* C1 = b . β T = b . t - b. β . (1 - e-t/β )
Sensors
5.2. Ramp Function input
The initial response of the
sensor is sluggish
Ramp - function input b
1 b After a short initial interval,
1 the sensor tracks the rise in
β temperature of the medium
Time lag surrounding the sensor with
Temperature
Sensor Response T the correct slope but with a
0 time lag equal to β
0 Time
The exponential term is important during the initial response and the
linear term dominates the long-term response (t>3β)
Accurate temperature measurement can be made for times

greater than 3β
6. Pyrometry
6.1 Introduction
As the temperature of a body increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to

measure it’s temperature with resistance temperature detectors, thermistors
or thermocouples
Problems:
Lack of stability, break down of insulation, security of the
operator
Developments of pyrometry
Principles:
By employing the principles of radiation, methods have been
developed to measure surface temperature without contacting
the body
6. Pyrometry
6.1 Introduction
Two different radiation methods are widely employed
Optical Pyrometry:
Compare the brightness of the light radiating from a body with a known
standard
Photon detector:
Use of photon detector to measure the photon flux density that varies with
the temperature of the surface
6. Pyrometry
6.2 Principles of radiation
Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a

result of its temperature
6.2.1 Physical Mechanism
• Many kinds of radiation
• Thermal radiation is only one kind
• Propagation at the speed of light (c = 3.108 m/s)
Frequency (Hz, s-1)

Speed of light
c = λ×ν
(m/s) Wavelength (m)
6. Pyrometry
The propagation of thermal radiation takes place in the form of

discrete quanta, each quantum having an energy of:
E = h× ν
h : Plank’s constant,
h = 6.625 10-34 J.s
Assumption:
quantum = particle having energy, mass and momentum (molecule of gas)
6. Pyrometry
By considering the radiation as such a gas, the principles of quantum-

statistical thermodynamics can be applied to derive an expression for the
energy density of radiation per unit volume and unit wavelength as:
2 −5 2 −5
0 2 πhc λ 2 πhc λ
Mλ = hc/ λKT = c / λT
e −1 e 2 −1
K: The Boltzman’s constant, K= 1.38066 10-23 J/mol/K
C2: Constant, C2 = 1,44 10-2 m.K
6. Pyrometry
Spectral power emission from a black body at different temperatures
6. Pyrometry
The Stephan Boltzman law:
E0 = ∫0∞ M0λ dλ = σT 4
E0: energy radiated per unit time per unit surface by the ideal radiator
(black body)
σ : the Stephan-Boltzmann constant = 5.669 10-8 W/m2/K4
The spectral radiation intensity:
M0λ : amount of power emitted by radiation of the wavelength λ from a flat

surface at temperature T.
6. Pyrometry
6.3. The Optical Pyrometer
• Used in the range [700◦C – 4000◦C]
• The radiant energy emitted by the body is collected with an objective lens and
focused onto a calibrated pyrometer lamp.
• An absorption filter is inserted in the optical system between the objective lens and
the pyrometer lamp when the temperature of the body exceeds 1300◦C
• The radiant energy from both the hot body and the filament of the pyrometer lamp
is then passed through a red filter with a sharp cut-off below λ = 0.63 µm.
• The light transmitted through this filter is collected by an objective lens and
focused for viewing with an ocular lens.
• The image observed through the eyepiece of the pyrometer is that of the lamp
filament superimposed on a background intensity owing to the hot body.
6. Pyrometry
• The current to the filament of the pyrometer lamp is adjusted until the
brightness of the filament matches that of the background
• The current to produce brightness match is measured and used to establish

the temperature of the hot body
• Pyrometers are calibrated by visually comparing the brightness of the

tungsten filament with a black body source of known temperature (ε=1)
6. Pyrometry
(a)
(b)
Schematic illustration of the optical pyrometer system (a) and pyrometer

lamp with filament brightness adjustment in an optical pyrometer (b)
6. Pyrometry
The brightness of the background The emitted energy M for the two
and the filament are matched. bodies is the same
2πhc 2λr−5 2πhc 2λr−5

ε= c 2 / λr Tf
= c 2 / λr T
e −1 e −1
λr= the wavelength of the red filter (=0.63 mm) depending upon the
apparatus,
ε = the emissivity of the surface of the hot body,
Tf = temperature of the filament,
T= the unknown surface temperature.
6. Pyrometry
When θ< 4000 ◦C, the term

c 2 / λr Tf
e >> 1 and reduces to:
1 1 λ
= + Ln ( ε )
T Tf C2
6. Pyrometry
Table for the emissivity of a number of materials
6. Pyrometry
Change of Temperature as a function of change of emissivity:
dT λ T dε
=−
T C2 ε
• For relatively low to intermediate temperature a portion of the surface
can be coated with either a black paint or a black ceramic layer to
provide an emissivity ε approaching one for very high temperatures,
• A hole can be drilled in the body, with a depth-to-diameter ratio to six or

more. Such hole acts as a black body with e ~1, and the temperature
measured by focusing the optical pyrometer on the hole represents the
correct temperatures of the object.
• The disappearing filament optical pyrometer is an accurate instrument.
• If the emissivity of the hot body is accurately known, the error in a

temperature measurement is usually less than 1%.
6. Pyrometry
6.4. Infrared Pyrometers
In many applications, regardless of the temperature, the measurement

must be made without contacting the body.
The optical pyrometer is effective for a temperature above 700◦C, where

a significant amount of radiant power is emitted in the visible-light region
of the spectrum.
At lower temperatures, the radiation emissions are concentrated in the

infrared regions and are not visible to the human eye.
Infrared pyrometers employ the infrared portion of the spectrum by using

a thermal detector to measure the temperature of the body emitting the
infrared waves.
6. Pyrometry
The Figure of schematic illustration of radiometer
6. Pyrometry
• The lens collects the infrared radiation emitted from the included in the
focused spot and collimates the radiation as indicated.
• The radiation is reflected from the end mirror and focused on a temperature
sensor.
• Thermocouples or thermistors are used as temperature sensors.
• The equilibrium temperature of the sensor is a direct measurement of the

magnitude of the radiation absorbed by the sensor
• The magnitude of the radiation gives the temperature of the emitting surface.
• Target size and distance from the lens to the object are critical in the
operation of infrared pyrometers.
• The field of view of an infrared pyrometers depends on the focal length and
diameter of the collecting lens
6. Pyrometry
• The optical system of the instrument collects all the radiation from the objects in
the fields of view
• The reading represents an average of these temperatures.
Infrared Object
Object
Pyrometer - A- - B-
Wall
6. Pyrometry
• Most infrared pyrometers have a fixed-focal-length collecting lens that

defines the field of view
• Field of view expressed in terms of d/D

- d: distance from the lens to the object
- D: diameter of the field position d
- diameter of the field D = diameter of the collecting lens when
d = 2 × focal length of the lens
• General purpose infrared pyrometers use lenses with focal length

between 500 and 1500 nm,
• Close focus instruments use lenses with 10 m focal length.
• Possibility of using fiber optics to transmit the radiation from the source to
the sensor
6. Pyrometry
• Emissivity affects the readings from an infrared pyrometer just as it affects the
reading from an optical pyrometer,
• When the emissivity is less than one, the radiation power actually emitted from
the surface of the body is less than expected and the instrument gives a reading
lower than the true surface temperature,
• The manufacturers of infrared pyrometers accommodate the emissivity error by

installing an emissivity compensator on the instrument,
• The emissivity compensator is a calibrated gain adjustment that increases the

amplification of the sensor signal to compensate for the power lost owing to an
emissivity less than one,
• This gain adjustment can also be used to correct for transmission losses that
occur when viewing the object though glass or plastic portholes, smoke, dust, or
vapors,
• Accuracy of infrared pyrometer can go up to ±0.3% of the full scale reading

6. Pyrometry
6.5. Photon Detectors
• A second approach that uses radiation to measure temperature employs

a photon detector
• The instruments equipped with photon detectors differ from those with
temperature detectors in two ways:
1. - The response time of the photon detector is several orders of

magnitude faster than that of the thermal detector.
- This advantage is used to develop instruments capable of
scanning a field of producing images depicting the temperature
distribution over an area of a surface.
2. The photon detector must be maintained at a very low temperature

during operation and it is necessary to have a source of liquid
nitrogen.
6. Pyrometry
A photon detector is a sensor that responds by generating a voltage that

is proportional to the photon flux density Φ impinging on the sensor
6. Pyrometry
• The photon emitted from a small area A, of a surface (not necessary hot) are
collected by a lens and are focused on a photon detector of area Ad.
• The photon flux density Φ at the detector, when optical system is focused:
kD2ε
Φ= 2
g(T)
4f
k : transmission coefficient of the lens and the filter
D: diameter of the lens
f : focal length of the lens
g(T) : known function of the temperature of the surface
ε: emissivity of the surface

6. Pyrometry
The output voltage V0 from detector, as a result of the flux density Φ :
D2
V0 = k t 2 ε g(T)
4f
kt: system sensitivity (transmission coefficient of the lens, the amplifier

voltage gain, detectors sensitivity)
it is essentially a constant however a zoom lens is employed in a
typical instrument to provide for different fields of view where the solid
angle may range from 3.5 to 40◦.
ε.g(T) depends only on the temperature of the surface and the emissivity
6. Pyrometry
Typical Response curve
6. Pyrometry
The equation giving the output voltage V0 can be simplified to:
V0 = K.ε.T 3
K: calibration constant for the instrument
In practice K is determined by calibrating the instrument with a

blackbody source (ε=1) over an appropriate range of temperatures.
When the temperature is used for temperature measurements, the

emissivity ε of the surface must be considered.
6. Pyrometry
• Any correction required is easily made by substituting the correct value

of the emissivity into the simplified equation giving the output voltage
V0.
V0 3
T=
K.ε
• Errors in Temperature owing to inaccuracies in emissivity are mitigated

by one-third, since differentiation of temperature equation gives:
dT 1 dε
=−
T 3 ε
6. Pyrometry
• Many Different commercial instruments employ the photon detector, therefore, it
is difficult to list specifications that cover the full range of products.
• Typical specifications for scanners indicate that they are used to measure
temperature in the range from -20◦C to 1600◦C with a sensitivity of 0.1◦C at 30◦C
• A recent innovation with this type of instrument permits determination of

temperature distribution over extended region of a body
• This improved capability is accomplished by inserting two mechanically driven

cylindrical lenses into the optical path.
• As the two lenses are oscillated, a region of the surface of the body is scanned.
• At any instant a relatively small target area is determined
• To reduce the scanning time, several photon detectors (4 to 6) are incorporated

in the instrument.
6. Pyrometry
• Since the entire surface of the body is scanned in a short period of time, a full-
fields photograph of the temperature distribution representing an x-y array of the
many small target areas can be obtained.
• A single frame typically contains 28000 individual temperature (280 lines with 100
elements per line)
• The voltage output can be displayed on a TV monitor in either grey scale of color
• Photon-detector-type instruments can complete a scan of a field in about 40 ms.
• If a video recorder is used to store the images, the system can be used to study
full-field dynamic temperature distributions.
Thank you for your
Attention

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Chapter 4: Temperature Measurement

90 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

Temperature, unlike quantities such as length, time or mass is an abstract

• Examples of change in Behavior:

Several temperature scales have been developed over time to

91 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

The Fahrenheit scale (introduced in 1715)

The Celsius scale (introduced in 1742 by Anders Celsius)

Two other scales are used to describe absolute temperatures :

92 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

The international temperature scale has been defined in terms of the

The international temperature scale is based on 17 fixed points which cover

Most of these 17 points correspond to an equilibrium state during a phase

93 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

Triple point is the temperature at which the solid, liquid and

95 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

∆l = the change in length

The temperature coefficient of expansion α is very small for most

96 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

Advantages: High precision ± 0,2°C to ± 2°C

Disadvantages: Direct reading, high time response

97 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

98 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

Resistance temperature detectors are simply resistive elements formed of

99 Dr. Karim Bourouni, ENIT 1A GM, Course of Measurement and Instrumentation

The sensor is a resistive element that exhibits a resistance-temperature

γ1,γ2…γn : Temperature coefficients of resistivity

The reference temperature is usually specified as T0 = 0°C

Resistance Ration R/R0

-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Platinium (thick 1mm)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Time after immersion (s)

1000 W maximum in 0.01 W steps

R1.R4 = R2.R3 (R1+r1).R4 = R2.(R3+r3)

Sel heating of the sensor : pT = RT.i2

The power pT is dissipated by an RTD placed in a Wheatstone bridge with

Fsh: the self heating factor (°C/mW)

Constant-current potentiometer circuit with lead-wire compensation and

Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors fabricated from semi-

Thermistors with improved stability are obtained when oxide systems of

Conduction is controlled by the concentration of oxygen in the oxide

An excess or deficiency of oxygen from exact stoechiometric requirements

The resistance-temperature relationships for thermistor can be expressed as :

T = is the absolute temperature in K

V0 = C1 T1 –T2 + C 2 T12 –T22

C1 and C2 are thermoelectric constants that depend on the materials

The Ohm law can be modified :

J = the current density q = the electrical charge of one electron.

The quantity of heat qT being transferred is given by :

A thermocouple circuit must contain at least two dissimilar materials and at

eB/A = – eA/ B V0 = eB/A T1 – T2

4.4 Thermocouples : Principles of Behaviour

4.4 Thermocouples : Principles of Behaviour

The output voltage V0 of a thermocouple circuit depends only on the

V0 is independent from the lead wires and the temperature distribution

V0 = eB/A T1 + eA/C Ti + eC/A Tj + eA/B T2

Since eC/A = e C/B + eB/A Material A Material A

(V0)1-3 = f(T1 - T3) = (V0)1-2 + (V0)2-3

Material A Material A Material A

Material A Material A Material C

The sensitivities of several materials is given in combination with platinum

Type Positive Material Negative Material