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Destructive Test
Compressive test
Tensile test
Flexural test
Non-Destructive Test
Rebound hammer test
Pull out test
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
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Short
Video
Cylindrical sample
Cube sample
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Flexural Test is normally done
as a representative for tensile
test. As it is difficult to run
uniaxial tensile on concrete
sample.
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It is the interface
between cement paste
and aggregate
Paste close to the
aggregate surface is
substantially different to
that of bulk paste.
transition or interface
zone is significantly more
porous and therefore
weaker than the rest of
the paste.
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As load applied, cracking
starts in this zone and
propagate into paste and
form crack path through
concrete
The ITZ is a region with a
higher w/c, and thus a
higher porosity, than the
bulk paste.
The wall effect
whereby the cement
grains cannot pack as
efficiently next to the
aggregate surface as
they can in the bulk
paste
Relative movement of Complete breakdown/failure when the
aggregate and cement
paste causes mix crack sufficiently extensive and
water separation at continuous
interface
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Strength of cement paste is
dependent on porosity and
thus the water/cement ratio
and degree of hydration.
At low w/c ratio:
Workability of concrete
decreases & difficult to
compact
Porosity/ air content
increases causing reduction
in strength (dashed lines)
Strength can be moved u
further by more efficient
compaction / improvement
in workability without
increasing w/c ratio.
high w/c ratio, cause porous
structure and decrease
strength
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Degree of hydration
increase with age, leading
to strength increment
3-day strength is 40 – 65%
of 28-day strength
7-day strength is 60 – 80%
of 28-day strength
Strength gain continues
after 28 days. Hydration
reaction are never
complete and continue to
gain strength for many
years in presence of
moisture
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High temperature result in short-term strengths but
lower long-term strengths
At early age heating-cooling cycle from heat of hydration
effect can lead to lower long-term strength, but the effect
can be reduced/eliminated by incorporation of fly ash or
slag.
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concrete stored in water
will achieve a higher
strength than if cured in
air for some or all of its
life
Water is needed for
continuous hydration
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The aggregate strength itself is
generally significant only in very-
high-strength concrete or with the
relatively weaker lightweight
aggregates.
Using the same mix proportion:
crushed aggregates
(angular, rougher surface)
generally produce higher
strength than uncrushed
aggregates (due to increased
mechanical interlocking)
15-20% stronger than
uncrushed gravels
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Using the same mix proportion:
Use of larger maximum aggregate size reduces
strength (overall lower surface area with weak
transition zone)
Increasing volumetric proportion of aggregates
increase strength (requires higher energy to produce
secondary crack, valid when paste content remains
high enough to fill voids
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Ability of a material to remain serviceable for at least the
required lifetime of the structure
Rate of degradation is controlled by
Rate of moisture, air or other aggressive agents
penetrate the concrete (penetrability)
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Hardened cement paste and concrete
contain pores of varying types and size
The transport of medium through
concrete can be considered as flow
through a porous medium
Rate of flow will not depend simply on
porosity, but also degree of continuity
of the pores and their size
The term permeability is often used
to describe this general property.
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Concrete structure will normally remain durable if:
Cement paste structure is dense and of low workability
Under exposed conditions, it has entrained air to resist
freeze-thaw cycles
Made of graded aggregates that are strong and inert
Ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities
such as alkalis, chlorides, sulfates and salt
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2 groups:
chemical reaction
Sulphates attack
Acid attack
Alkali-silica reaction
Directly lead to physical effects
Frost attack (freeze-thaw damage)
Fire attack
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Source of sulphates – ground water from
clay soils, fertilizers, industrial effluent
Usually occur in concrete contact with
ground – foundations, floor slabs,
retaining walls
Sulphates react with C3A in hardened
paste to form ettringite
The reaction are expansive, causing
expansive force and disruption
Concrete contacts with
ground water
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Sodium sulphates
also form ettringite by reaction with C3A.
Also react with Ca(OH)2 in the cement paste (similar to acid attack)
Ca(OH)2 is possibly be leached out
Magnesium sulphate
also form ettringite by reaction with C3A.
Form relatively insoluble and poorly alkaline which reduces the stability
of CSH
Since CSH gives the strength to concrete, attack by MgSO4 is more
severe
Attack only occurs when amount of suphate exceed a certain threshold
Rate of attack increases with increasing sulphate concentration and
reduction of rate occurs above 1% concentration
Attack will be faster if the sulphate is replenished (flowing groundwater)
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Concrete attack by sulphate has
whitish appearance
Usually starts from edge and
corner followed by cracking and
spalling and finally complete
breakdown
Cracking & Spalling
Sulphates attack reduced by:
Using sulphate-resisting
Portland cement (low C3A
content)
Higher cement content &
low w/c ratio, higher quality
concrete is less vulnerable
due to lower permeability
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CSH gel can also be attack by
acid
To reduce acid attack:
Quality of concrete is
important (low permeability)
Concretes with additions
(lower Ca(OH)2) has greater
resistance to acid)
Surface treated with diluted
waterglass (react with
Ca(OH)2 forming calcium
silicates, blocking the pores)
Separate acid and concrete
(coating of epoxy resin or
suitable paint)
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Silica (from aggregates) react
with alkaline hydroxide (from
sodium and potassium oxides
in cement)
The product is a gel that
destroy the bond between
cement paste and aggregate
The gel will absorbs water and
swells , causing cracking and
disruption of concrete
Only small proportion of
reactive material in aggregate
(as low as 0.5%) is necessary to
cause disruption
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Occur firstly at the transition zone of aggregate and
cement paste
Continued availability of water causes enlargement and
extension of cracks, finally reach outer surface of
concrete, forming ‘pop-outs’ if the affected aggregate is
close to surface
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To reduce ASR:
Eliminate water and ensure concrete remains dry throughout
(impractical)
Avoid use of reactive aggregates
Testing aggregates for their potential reactivity
Limit amount of alkali (<0.6%)
Addition of additives (slag, microsilica, fly ash)
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When free water in the larger pores within the cement paste freezes,
it expands by about 9%
If there is insufficient space within the concrete to accommodate
this, disruptive internal pressure happened
Successive cycles of freezing and thawing can cause progressive and
cumulative damages
Damage is in the form of cracking and spalling
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Water in larger capillary pores and entrapped air voids has critical
effect
Osmosis pressure increase the disruption.
The magnitude of disruptive pressure depend on the capillary
porosity, degree of saturation of concrete & pressure relief provided
by a nearby free surface or escape boundary (within 0.1mm of
escaped boundary).
Precautions:
Reduce w/c ratio
Proper curing and hydration
Minimize bleeding (bleeding leads to high porosity)
Using air-entraining admixtures
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Concrete is incombustible & does not emit any
toxic fumes when exposed to high temperatures
It is favorable materials when structural safety is
considered
It can retain some strength for reasonable time at
high temperatures
The strength degradation depends on maximum
temperature reached , period of exposure,
concrete’s constituents, moisture content and size
of the sample.
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3 main degradation:
Evaporation of water within concrete (100°C)
High strength concrete with low porosity increase the
spalling and cracking (because water vapour cannot disperse
quickly and induces high pressure inside the pores)
Differential expansion between cement paste and aggregate
resulting in thermal stress and cracking initiated in the transition
zone (severe strength loss >500°C)
Breakdown of hydrates in cement paste (approach 1000°C), lead
to total loss of strength
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To increase fire resistance:
Inclusion of polypropylene fibres, rapidly melt and provide
pressure-relief channels
Use of limestone (has coefficient of thermal expansion closer to
cement paste)
Use of lightweight aggregate concretes (less stiff and hence
thermal stresses are lower, decreasing thermal conductivity
delaying temperature rise in the interior structural member)
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