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SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

(BASED ON THE RURAL SIDE)

INTRODUCTION:

Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a


country in South Asia. Latitude of Bangladesh is 24º00´ north of the
Equator and longitude of Bangladesh is 90º00´ east of Greenwich. It is
bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to
the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. Bangladesh
has a tropical monsoon-type climate, with a hot and rainy summer and a
dry winter. January is the coolest month with temperatures averaging
near 26 deg C (78 d F) and April the warmest with temperatures from
33 to 36 deg C (91 to 96 deg F). The climate is one of the wettest in
the world. Most places receive more than 1,525 mm of rain a year, and
areas near the hills receive 5,080 mm). Most rains occur during the
monsoon (June-September) and little in winter (November-February).

Bangladesh is subjected to devastating cyclones, originating over the


Bay of Bengal, in the periods of April to May and September to
November. Often accompanied by surging waves, these storms can
cause great damage and loss of life. The cyclone of November 1970, in
which about 500,000 lives were lost in Bangladesh, was one of the
worst natural disasters of the country in the 20th century.

Bangladesh has warm temperatures throughout the year, with


relatively little variation from month to month. January tends to be
the coolest month and May the warmest. In Dhaka the average January
temperature is about 19°C (about 66°F), and the average May
temperature is about 29°C (about 84°F).

Required clothing: Lightweight cottons and linens throughout the year.


Warmer clothes are needed in the evenings during the cool season.
Waterproofs are necessary during the monsoon season.

Together with the Indian state of West Bengal, it makes up the ethno-
linguistic region of Bengal. The name Bangladesh means "Country of
Bengal" in the official Bengali language.

The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the


partition of Bengal and India in 1947, when the region became the
eastern wing of the newly-formed Pakistan. However, it was separated
from the western wing by 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) across India.
Political and linguistic discrimination as well as economic neglect led to
popular agitations against West Pakistan, whose campaign of
suppression led to the war for independence in 1971 and the
establishment of Bangladesh after the Freedom Fighters of Bengal and
Indian Army Jointly defeated Pakistani forces. However, the new state
had to endure famines, natural disasters and widespread poverty, as
well as political turmoil and military coups. The restoration of
democracy in 1991 has been followed by relative stability and economic
progress.

Bangladesh is among the most densely populated countries in the world


and has a high poverty rate. Geographically the country straddles the
fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta and is subject to annual monsoon
floods and cyclones. The government is a parliamentary democracy.
Bangladesh is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, SAARC,
BIMSTEC, the OIC, and the D-8. As the World Bank notes in its July
2005 Country Brief, the country has made significant progress in
human development in the areas of literacy, gender parity in schooling
and reduction of population growth.

History:

Remnants of civilisation in the greater Bengal region date back four


thousand years, when the region was settled by Dravidian, Tibeto-
Burman, and Austro-Asiatic peoples. The exact origin of the word
"Bangla" or "Bengal" is unknown, though it is believed to be derived
from Bang, the Dravidian-speaking tribe that settled in the area
around the year 1000 BC.

After the arrival of Indo-Aryans, the kingdom of Gangaridai was


formed from at least the seventh century BC, which later united with
Bihar under the Magadha and Maurya Empires. Bengal was later part of
the Gupta Empire from the third to the sixth centuries CE. Following
its collapse, a dynamic Bengali named Shashanka founded an impressive
yet short-lived kingdom. Shashanka is considered as the first
independent king in the history of Bangladesh. After a period of
anarchy, the Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred
years, followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty. Islam
was introduced to Bengal in the twelfth century by Sufi missionaries,
and subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the
region. Bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkish general, defeated Lakshman Sen of
the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. The region was
ruled by dynasties of Sultans and feudal lords for the next few
hundred years. By the 16th century, the Mughal Empire controlled
Bengal, and Dhaka became an important provincial centre of Mughal
administration.

European traders arrived late in the 15th century, and their influence
grew until the British East India Company gained control of Bengal
following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The bloody rebellion of 1857,
known as the Sepoy Mutiny, resulted in transfer of authority to the
crown, with a British viceroy running the administration. During colonial
rule, famine racked the Indian subcontinent many times, including the
Great Bengal famine of 1943 that claimed 3 million lives.

Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the
province of Bengal into two zones, with Dhaka being the capital of the
eastern zone. When India was partitioned in 1947, Bengal was
partitioned along religious lines, with the western part going to India
and the eastern part joining Pakistan as a province called East Bengal
(later renamed East Pakistan), with its capital at Dhaka.

In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal with the


abolishment of the feudal zamindari system. However, despite the
economic and demographic weight of the east, Pakistan's government
and military were largely dominated by the upper classes from the
west. The Bengali Language Movement of 1952 was the first sign of
friction between the two wings of Pakistan. Dissatisfaction with the
central government over economic and cultural issues continued to rise
through the next decade, during which the Awami League emerged as
the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population. It agitated for
autonomy in the 1960s, and in 1966, its president Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman was jailed; he was released in 1969 after an unprecedented
popular uprising. In 1970, a massive cyclone devastated the coast of
East Pakistan, and the central government responded poorly. The
Bengali population's anger was compounded when Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman, whose Awami League won a majority in Parliament in the 1970
elections, was blocked from taking office. After staging compromise
talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him on the early hours
of March 26, 1971, and launched Operation Searchlight, a sustained
military assault on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely
bloody, and the violence of the war resulted in many civilian deaths.
Chief targets included intellectuals and Hindus, and about ten million
refugees fled to neighbouring India (LaPorte, p. 103). Estimates of
those massacred throughout the war range from three hundred
thousand to 3 million.

Most of the Awami League leaders fled and set up a government-in-


exile in Calcutta, India. The Bangladesh Liberation War lasted for nine
months. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually
received support from the Indian Armed Forces in December 1971. The
Indian army, under the command of Lt. General J.S. Aurora, achieved a
decisive victory over Pakistan on 16 December, 1971, taking over
90,000 prisoners of war in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

In 11 January of 2007, following widespread violence, a caretaker


government was appointed to administer the next general election. The
country had suffered from extensive corruption, disorder and political
violence. The new caretaker government has made it a priority to root
out corruption from all levels of government. To this end, many notable
politicians and officials, along with large numbers of lesser officials
and party members, have been arrested on corruption charges. The
caretaker government claims to be paving the way for free and fair
elections to be held before the end of 2008.
A BRIEF SCAN ON BANGLADESH:

Geography Bangladesh

Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay


of Bengal, between Burma and
India

Geographic coordinates: 24 00 N, 90 00 E

Area: total: 144,000 sq km


land: 133,910 sq km
water: 10,090 sq km

Land boundaries: total: 4,246 km


border countries: Burma 193 km,
India 4,053 km

Climate: tropical; mild winter (October to


March); hot, humid summer (March
to June); humid, warm rainy
monsoon (June to October)

Terrain: mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in


southeast

Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m


highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m

Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber,


coal

Land use: arable land: 55.39%


permanent crops: 3.08%
other: 41.53% (2005)

Irrigated land: 47,250 sq km (2003)

Total renewable water 1,210.6 cu km (1999)


resources:

Natural hazards: droughts, cyclones; much of the


country routinely inundated during
the summer monsoon season

Environment - current many people are landless and


issues: forced to live on and cultivate
flood-prone land; water-borne
diseases prevalent in surface
water; water pollution, especially
of fishing areas, results from the
use of commercial pesticides;
ground water contaminated by
naturally occurring arsenic;
intermittent water shortages
because of falling water tables in
the northern and central parts of
the country; soil degradation and
erosion; deforestation; severe
overpopulation

People Bangladesh

Population: 153,546,901 (July 2008 est.)

Age 0-14 years: 33.4% (male 26,364,370/female


structure: 24,859,792)
15-64 years: 63.1% (male 49,412,903/female
47,468,013)
65 years and over: 3.5% (male 2,912,321/female
2,529,502) (2008 est.)

Population 2.022% (2008 est.)


growth
rate:

Birth rate: 28.86 births/1,000 population (2008 est.)

Death 8 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)


rate:

Net -0.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.)


migration

Sex ratio: At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female


under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.15 male(s)/female
total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2008 est.)
Infant Total: 57.45 deaths/1,000 live births
mortality male: 58.44 deaths/1,000 live births
rate: female: 56.41 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.)

Life Total population: 63.21 years


expectancy male: 63.14 years
at birth: female: 63.28 years (2008 est.)

Total 3.08 children born/woman (2008 est.)


fertility
rate:

HIV/AIDS Less than 0.1% (2001 est.)


-

HIV/AIDS 650 (2001 est.)


- deaths:

Ethnic Bengali 98%, other 2% (includes tribal groups, non-


groups: Bengali Muslims) (1998)

Religions: Muslim 83%, Hindu 16%, other 1% (1998)

Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write


total population: 43.1%
male: 53.9%, female: 31.8%

Government Bangladesh
Country conventional long form: People's Republic of
name: Bangladesh
conventional short form: Bangladesh
local long form: Gana Prajatantri Bangladesh
local short form: Bangladesh
former: East Bengal, East Pakistan

Government parliamentary democracy


type:

Capital: name: Dhaka


geographic coordinates: 23 43 N, 90 24 E
time difference: UTC+6 (11 hours ahead of
Washington, DC during Standard Time)

Administrativ 6 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna,


e divisions: Rajshahi, Sylhet

Flag green field with a large red disk shifted


description: slightly to the hoist side of center; the red
disk represents the rising sun and the sacrifice
to achieve independence; the green field
symbolizes the lush vegetation of Bangladesh

ECONOMY: Village people, in general, earn their living from


agriculture. Although rice and jute are the primary crops, wheat is
assuming greater importance. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of
Bangladesh's fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be
grown and harvested three times a year in many areas. Due to a number
of factors, Bangladesh's labor-intensive agriculture has achieved
steady increases in food grain production despite the often
unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and
irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the
establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks. With
2000000.2 million metric tons produced in 1999, rice is Bangladesh's
principal crop. National sales of the classes of insecticide used on rice,
including granular carbofuran, synthetic pyrethroids, and Malathion
exceeded 13,000 tons of formulated products in 2003. The
insecticides not only represent an environmental threat, but are a
significant expenditure to poor rice farmers. The Bangladesh Rice
Research Institute is working with various NGOs and international
organizations to reduce insecticide use in rice. In comparison to rice,
wheat output in 1999 was 1.9 million metric tons. Population pressure
continues to place a severe burden on productive capacity, creating a
food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and commercial
imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a serious problem, and a
growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector will be its ability
to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of
employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future
governments, particularly with the increasing numbers of landless
peasants who already account for about half the rural labor force.

Occupation in the rural side was in fact based upon agriculture


although influence of technology helped the people in villages to come
into contact with modernization at present. Villages now-a-days are
much developed than the villages ten years ago. The reason behind it is
simply technology. Communication is much easier and as a result people
have more options. Roads have developed, transportation is at much
ease and thus business in the rural side has flourished. People are now
concentrating on new businesses apart from agriculture. For example
there are lot of call centers, departmental stores, boutique shops and
many more. The fishing sector has also developed as people could catch
fishes and supply them easily to markets. It has also helped Bangladesh
to earn more foreign currencies through fish export.

EDUCATION: People in villages did not concentrate on studies before.


There was no family planning and as a result families were large. To
feed such a big family, money played an important part. So, people used
every possible help they could get. Their children were forced to join
the labour market. They could help their fathers on the field or work
in a different field and thus bringing home the money they would earn
each day which were used to fulfill their basic needs. As rural sector
developed people started to understand the need of education and sent
their children to schools. Government played an important role by
making education until primary level compulsory. Although education
rate increased people still stops sending their children to school after
their primary level .Financially unsuccessful people cannot dream about
having their children educated. However, this step let Bangladesh
achieve some positive result. At present women education rate has
increased and even people in the rural side are sending their daughters
to school. There are lots of primary schools, madrasa etc established in
rural Bangladesh. But the most vivid development came when
Government took the step of making sex education compulsory. In
1995, the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee set up an
Adolescent Reproductive Health Education (ARHE) program to provide
information about reproductive health to adolescents in rural areas.
They explored the impact of the ARHE on adolescent girls and boys,
their parents, and community members among rural areas in
Bangladesh. Drawing on data from the field research conducted among
the target audience, it is noted that ARHE has mobilized the
community. It helped break the silence and shame about sensitive
topics, such as menstruation, family planning methods, sexually
transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS. Subsequently, these
developments have affected relationships between adolescents and
their parents, and among adolescents themselves. Moreover, the
diffusion of knowledge as a result of the ARHE is occurring in the
context of a wider process affecting rural areas of Bangladesh,
involving the media, books, exposure to urban and nontraditional ways
of life, and schooling. It is assumed that with a strict and systematic
observation towards education, the rural areas would be more cautious
towards having their children achieve the highest level of education
available.

Women And Education in Bangladesh

According to the UN 2003 data for Bangladesh, the ratio of male and
female literacy rate in Bangladesh is 100:62 (age group: 15 years and
above). School enrollment rates at the primary and secondary levels
are almost equal with girls doing slightly better. However, this rate
dramatically drops for girl students at the high-school (11 and 12
grades) and university levels as indicated in the table below.

School enrollment Male and female


ratio (in %)

Primary school enrolment 100:104

Secondary (middle-school level) enrolment 100:111

Tertiary enrolment (High School i.e. 11 and 12 100:50


grades and college/university level)

Why girls are falling behind at the higher levels of education? There
are many reasons but there are two major ones especially in the
context of remote areas in Bangladesh. First reason is socio-
economic. Parents with limited income can’t always bear the cost of
their children’s education. Spending money on daughter’s education is
not considered to be a good investment. The general notion is, if the
son gets educated, he would support the parents when they get
older. But the daughter would get married and leave the family. The
second reason is tied with the first reason, finding a husband for the
daughter would relief the parents from further responsibilities, and
also gives them the assurance of her good future. In most of the cases
girls cannot afford to go for higher education on their own even if they
want to without the monitory support from their families.

Marriage does not always bring happiness in a poverty-stricken family.


If the woman does not have any educational or formal training, she
can’t help the family with her income. This makes her dependent on her
husband and a burden in the limited-income family. She also loses her
self-esteem. Educated women besides generating income to support
the family, also become good mothers who raise their children as
educated members of the society. A project, Empowering Women
through Education is trying to collect funds to help these women. With
a minimal monitory support, these girls can get to the next level of
their lives. Here are some interesting numbers!

• Only $100 can support one high school student in a remote area
for 8 months!
• Only $150 would help a women start up a small business in a rural
area
• Only $200 would buy her a sewing machine that can solve the
monitory need of the family forever!
• About $1200 can make one university graduate from a 4 yr
program!

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: Social Stratification in Bangladesh


has its roots in the past. Although the dynamics of religion largely
shaped the context of its development, the relevance of economic and
political factors is no less significant. The Hindu society in Bengal was
built along the caste lines although the widely known four-fold
classification BRAHMAN, KSATRIYA, VAISYA and SUDRA did not emerge in the
classical manner. The two middle castes, Ksatriya and Vaisya, were not
visible in the way they were in other parts of India. In Bengal the main
caste division was between the Brahmans and the non-Brahmans. The
latter category was the admixture of different sub-castes that
emerged through unregulated interactions of different castes. The
Brahmans occupied the highest position of the social ladder. As there
were geographical divisions among the Brahmans (RADHA and Barendra
Brahman), there was another category called Kaibarta Brahman. Some
proverb says that the local Brahmans were not skilled in VEDAS and that
vacuum was filled in by the Brahmans who migrated from northern
India and became known as Kaibarta Brahman.

The non-Brahman sub-castes were broadly divided into three


hierarchical categories: superior admixture, medium admixture and
inferior admixture. The first category included twenty sub-castes,
including karan or kayastha (writer), ambastha or baidya (traditional
physician), TANTI (weavers), ugra (warrior) and others. The second
category included twelve sub-castes like SWARNAKAR (goldsmith), dhibor
(fishermen) etc. And the last category included nine sub-castes like
CHANDAL (persons cremating corpses), chamar (cobblers) and others.

Members of the last category were the untouchables.

Some British colonial administrators first pointed out that the Muslim
social stratification in India was patterned after the Hindu Caste
System. However, it remained a matter of debate how far the basic
principles of caste system (purity/pollution, commensality, endogamy,
or hereditary occupation) had determined the Muslim stratification
pattern. James Wise identified eighty castes among the Muslims as
early as the nineteenth century, while Gait found only three. The latter
noticed the clustering of social strata. The three broad clusters
included Ashraf or higher class Muslims, Ajlaf or lower class Muslims,
and Arzal or the degraded classes. The first cluster consisted of
Sayed, Sheikh, Pathan and Mughal, while the next two incorporated as
many as fifty occupational castes.

It was noted that endogamy or intra-caste MARRIAGE was followed among


Muslims. The presence of higher caste Muslims in Bengal was much less
significant than what it was in the upper part of India. Social hierarchy
among Muslims of Bengal was less pronounced. Some believed that the
majority of the Bengal Muslims were the converts from the lower
caste Hindus; hence steep hierarchy could not emerge among them.
One important consequence of the less rigidity of Muslim stratification
pattern was the opportunity for mobility among the castes. It was
possible for a lower caste Muslim to move into the higher position.
Such mobility was largely propelled by the accumulation of wealth.

The flexibility of Muslim social stratification derived its dynamics


from a different ideological pattern known as sharafati. It alluded to
the noble background of a person. It was more to do with one's
pedigree than any deep religious ideology like Hindu caste system.
According to Hindu religious myth, the four castes originated from the
four different parts of Brahman, the supreme lord. It was also
predicted that the Brahman caste emanated from the head, while the
Sudra, the lowest caste from the feet. On the contrary, ISLAM did not
offer any such interpretation on the origin of caste. As a result,
mobility in Muslim stratification could have been possible particularly
owing to the fact that one could manouvre the history of pedigree.

Agrarian structure played the most important role from an earlier


period in the making of social stratification what gradually assumed the
present shape. The largest bulk of the population lived in the
countryside with a small urban counterpart. Those living in the
countryside primarily derived subsistence from AGRICULTURE, and
therefore, one cannot ignore the social relationship grown out of
agrarian structure. ZAMINDARs or the revenue collectors were the most
powerful class in the agrarian structure since the pre-colonial time in
Bengal and the new colonial land policy of 1793 did not disturb the
basic equilibrium. There was change of hands in land ownership but the
class did not disappear. Below the class of zamindar there was a vast
peasant cultivator class. Subsequent land policy in the colonial period,
particularly the sub-infeudation (MADHYASVATVAS or pattanidari) created
intermediate rent collecting interests resulting in the emergence of
numerous agrarian layers, known as Jotedar, Gantidar, Howladar, or
Talukdar, or Bhuiyan, etc. The aggregate effect of introducing
different land tenure measures was the emergence of a highly
stratified society based on land interests.

Agrarian society during the colonial time also witnessed the emergence
of a rich peasant class who happened to occupy an important position in
social stratification. At least one specific development created the
pre-condition for the emergence of rich/proto-capitalist peasants: the
market integration of Bengal agriculture with the global economy
particularly with the onset of INDIGO and JUTE cultivation. The rich
peasant class enjoyed economic wealth and power in rural society. On
the other hand, agrarian society during colonial time also went through
the process of proletarianisation/pauperisation with the consequent
emergence of landless class. While different land tenure measures
influenced the class composition of the agrarian structure and in turn
social stratification, the growing capitalisation facilitated the
emergence of agricultural wage workers. The social stratification
pattern that emerged during the colonial time comprised the superior
landed class, landed intermediaries with several layers, rich
peasants/proto-capitalists, poor peasants/sharecroppers, and
agricultural working class coming from the landless and marginal
peasants.

With the introduction of British rule in the urban areas important


changes took place at the level of urban social stratification. A pristine
BHADRALOK or gentlemen class consisted of educated professionals
(lawyers, teachers, doctors, engineers, service holders and others)
emerged in urban Bengal reaping the benefits from the new educational
and occupational opportunities. On the other hand, the size of the
newly emerged business class was small and characteristically not
comparable with the bourgeois counterpart of the West. Earlier, the
social status enjoyed by the traders or BANIANs was lesser than the
higher caste like the Brahmans and it changed during the colonial time.
Business class also became educated and the vice versa. Landed
aristocracy became the frontrunners among the bhadralok. In terms of
lifestyle and values they presented novel characteristics. In the arenas
of art, culture and politics their novelties were prominent.

One of the significant developments immediately after the partition of


the subcontinent was the abolition of zamindari land system in
Bangladesh. Since historically most zamindars came from the Hindu
community, their migration to India after partition created a sort of
vacuum in social structure. The Muslim traditional wealthy class linked
to agriculture came to occupy that vacuum, although it was a fact that
their size was minuscule. The same period also witnessed the
strengthening of the process of emergence of a rich
peasant/agraricultural capitalist class owing to the introduction of
agricultural modernisation in the early 1950s and they became strong
contenders for the upper echelon of social stratification. Another
important class that emerged was the educated Muslim middle class
who also mastered sufficient status in society and came to be known as
Muslim bhadralok just before and following the partition.

Traditional institutions like lineage or gushti continued to function


during Bangladesh period. One cannot, however, ignore the difference
between rural and urban stratification pattern in this regard. Rural
social stratification has been fashioned after the status of the
economic classes. Wealth is the important determinant of social status.
Land ownership is an important variable for wealth. There are other
manifestations of social status. For example, service holders, teachers
and professionals in many areas enjoy higher social status as the
member of the educated class. Nevertheless, material wealth overrides
other elements in determining social status. A person may hold a
reputed lineage but if he is not wealthy he cannot command sufficient
status in rural society.

The following agrarian classes and groups are found to constitute rural
society with hierarchical status and prestige: capitalist farmers, rich
peasants, middle peasants, marginal peasants and the landless. The
capitalist farmers are wealthy, own land and technology, hire outside
labour and carry out cultivation for the market. Rich peasants are also
wealthy and hire outside labour but they are still engaged in cultivation.
Middle peasants are primarily subsistence cultivators with occasional
market participation and primarily depending on household labour.
Marginal peasants combine cultivation and labour sale to ensure
subsistence. The landless people are the wage workers primarily
engaged in agriculture. About three-fourths of rural households belong
to the categories of marginal peasants and landless.

The effect of 'pauperisation', the process that results in the


emergence of landless households without adequate employment, is
found quite significant in rural Bangladesh. In rural stratification there
are other traditional groups such as KAMARs (blacksmiths), SWARNAKARs
(goldsmiths), sweepers, TANTIs (weavers), KALUs (oil pressers, and others
who enjoy minimum status. The roles of some of these groups are now
taken over by the professional producers. For example, edible oil comes
from the mill.

Economic status of a rural household is found to be subject to mobility


when examined over a long span of time. There are different forces
what result in the changes of the economic condition of rural
households. Many surplus producing rural households gradually turned
into subsistence and later deficit households. On the other hand, many
deficit households gradually became surplus ones. Market forces,
demographic forces, inheritance laws, household splitting are some of
the important factors causing such mobility.

The rural social stratification in Bangladesh has not always been


reflected in the differences of lifestyles, customs, norms and
languages of different classes. Common features in dresses or
languages sometimes blur the differences manifested in social status.
For example, lungi and shirt are the dresses worn by the rural people
irrespective of economic differentiation, though the very poor often
do not use shirts simply because they cannot buy them. Social festivals
and ceremonies like EID-UL FITR and EID-UL AZHA are marked by the spirit
of community. The notion of samaj or community spirit in the
countryside reduces the effect of social division. Patron-client
relationship also to some extent establishes the relationship between
the rich and the poor. Khandan or lineage status is also taken into
account. For example, Chowdhury, Khandakar, Syed, etc. are known as
aristocratic or khandani gushti. At the time of establishment of
matrimonial relationship, the rich prefer the rich. The differences in
social stratification are interpreted by the differences in material
prosperity. Lavish living and extravagant expenses indicate one's
wealth accompanied by status and power. However, upper strata are
gradually becoming educated, and a social difference between the
educated and non-educated is emerging. Gradually, a bhadralok class
may also appear in the countryside with a distinct lifestyle based on
modern education, etiquette and culture.

To some extent the underlying norm of a community comes to play a


role in determining to whom they will assign more social status. It
should not be ignored that wealth does not always ensure social status.
For example, if a person is involved in some kind of activities
stigmatised in the eyes of the society, his wealth matters a little in
the determination of his social status. Recently, mastans (hooligans)
emerged as a social category in both urban and rural areas. They
command wealth and power but are looked down upon by the society.

RELIGION: Bangladesh is one of the largest Muslim countries in


the world. About 80 percent of Bangladeshis are Muslims. Most
Bangladeshi Muslims are Sunnis, but there is also a small Shia
community. Hinduism constitutes about 12 percent of the
population. Hindus in Bangladesh in the 1990s were almost
evenly distributed in all regions, with concentrations in Khulna,
Jessore, Dinajpur, Faridpur, and Barisal.
1There are significant numbers of Buddhists and Christians in
Bangladesh. In the Chittagong Hills, Buddhist tribes formed the
majority of the population and their religion appeared to be a
mixture of tribal cults and Buddhist doctrines. According to the
1981 census, there were approximately 600,000 Buddhists in
Bangladesh, representing less than 1 percent of the population.
In the 1990s, Christianity had about 600,000 adherents, mainly
Roman Catholic, and their numbers were growing rapidly.
Bangladesh also has a very small number of tribal communities
that obey a different type of religious beliefs.

Tribal race constitutes less than 1 percent of the total


population. They live in the Chittagong Hills and in the regions of
Mymensingh, Sylhet, and Rajshahi. The majority of the tribal
population lives in rural areas. They differ in their social
organization, marriage customs, birth and death rites, food, and
other social customs from the people of the rest of the country.
They speak Tibeto-Burman languages. In the mid-1980s, the
percentage distribution of tribal population by religion was Hindu
24, Buddhist 44, Christian 13, and others 19.

Major tribes are the Chakmas, Maghs (or Marmas), Tipras,


Murangs, Kukis and Santals. The tribes tend to intermingle and
could be distinguished from one another more by differences in
their dialect, dress, and customs than by tribal cohesion. Only the
Chakmas and Marmas display formal tribal organization. They are
of mixed origin but reflect more Bengali influence than any other
tribe. Unlike the other tribes, the Chakmas and Marmas generally
live in the highland valleys. Most Chakmas are Buddhists, but
some practice Hinduism or Animism.
The Santals live in the northwestern part of Bangladesh. They
obey a set of religious beliefs closely similar to Hinduism. The
Khashias live in Sylhet in the Khashia Hills near the border with
Assam, and the Garo and Hajang in the northeastern part of the
country.

VILLAGE POLITICS: Politics in village does not entirely base upon


authorized leadership. People with more land, economic resources and
power also play the role of leaders. They take active part in Shalish
and general people are needed to call them in every social function.
They are generally known as informal leaders which constitutes of
matobbor, murubbies etc. Although there are formal leaders who get
elected through general election. They, along with the informal leaders,
actively take part in village justice and look after the well being of the
village. The main aim of this sort of politics is to achieve some goals.
Specific targets of rural development in today's Bangladesh include
the rural poor, especially the more disadvantaged groups of women and
children. Rural development aims at building the capacity of these
target groups to control their surrounding environment accompanied by
wider distribution of benefits resulting from such control. The key
elements of rural development in Bangladesh are: (a) poverty alleviation
and raising the living standards of the rural poor; (b) equitable
distribution of income and wealth; (c) wider employment opportunities;
(d) participation of the local people in planning, decision-making,
implementation process, benefit sharing, evaluation of rural
development programmes, and (e) 'empowerment' or more economic and
political power to the rural masses to control the use and distribution
of scarce resources.

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