SUSTAINABLE OPERATION ABSTRACT

Pond structures as cost-effective source-control drainage techniques

OF A SMALL-SCALE can be applied in order to reduce the downstream risk of flooding. In the
UK, there are no widek accepted performance data on pond structures,
FLOOD-ATTENUATION yet there is a need for detailed design and operation guidelines, coupled
with data on urban biodiversity enhancement, mai~~enance, re~iabil;~
WETLAND AND economics and social accepfance. The purpose of this study was to
investigate (a) cost-effectiveness and self-sustainability of storm water
DRY POND SYSTEM pond systems, and (b) compatibility with the primary needs of water
removal and storage to wildlife and amenity enhancement. A case study
was used, based upon a combined attenuation wetland and dry pond
M. Scholz. Kand.-lng., BEng, MSc. PhD. ILTM, CEng (Member)*
construction for roof-water runoff.

Key words: Attenuation wetland; dry pond; roof wafer runoft

SustainabiIiN wetland.

This paper was presented at the CIWEM Rivers and Coastal Group Spring Meeting, held in
Leamington Spa on 9 May 2002;and at the Geoff Greaves Paper Competition, held in

Brighton on 9 October 2002.

*Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute for Infrastructure and

Environment, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK

INTRODUCTION
Sustainable Roof Runoff Water Drainage
Conventional stormwater and urban drainage systems are designed to
dispose of rainfall-runoff water as quickly as possible. This results in
'end-of-pipe' solutions which often involve the provision of large
interceptorhelief sewers, huge storage tanks in downstream locations,
and centralised sewage-treatment facilities. In contrast, wet and dry
ponds (as a cost-effective end-of-pipe drainage solution) can be
applied for local source control, e.g. the collection or diversion of roof
drainage. It is often possible to divert all roof drainage for infiltration or
storage and subsequent recycling; also, because the runoff from roofs
roof of a double garage. In the original (1972) layout, rainwater drained
into the public sewer; however, in May 2001, this layout was altered in
order to feed a semi-natural attenuation (retention) wetland structure
(Fig. 2). The storage water was predominantly used for watering garden
plants in summer. If the attenuation wetland structure overflows, the
water is transferred to a dry pond structure which is designed to hold up
to 1.9 m3
Front Garden
Property
Iinr der

is a major contributor to the quantity of surface water requiring

disposal, this is a particularly beneficial approach where suitable House
ground conditions prevail. Roof
The purpose of this paper is not only to investigate a case study
of a sustainable urban drainage system, designed according to
best management practice"', but also to address the following
key objectives: House -
Roof
(i) To suggest water-quality monitoring strategies;
(ii) To identify difficulties and constraints associated with their design
and operation;
(iii) To investigate the cost-effectiveness and self-sustainability of pond
systems; and
Pipework
L
Roof Drain
Pond
(iv) To investigate the compatibility of the primary needs of water System
Back Garden
removal and storage with amenity and wildlife enhancement.

CASE STUDY
Description of Site
A domestic property (in Sandy Lane, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK) was
selected, comprising a wetland and dry pond for the storage, treatment, W
recycling and drainage of surface-water runoff (Fig. 1). The most
significant proportion of surface water came from a house roof and the Fig. 1. Diagramatic representation of case-study site

THE JOURNAL^ vi? ~3 AUGUST zoo3 171

 at approximately 06:OO hours and/or 18:OO hours. Important (but easy to
measure) and cost-effective water-quality parameters, including DO, pH
and conductivity were also sampled on a 0.4 x 0.4 m grid. Infiltration
rates were determined fortnightly or monthly by estimating the
infiltration time of 200 ml tap water through a 240 mm long drainage
pipe (dia. 64.5 mm) which was buried in the ground at a depth of
about 200 mm.

Fig, 2. Private ornamental attenuation wetland (let?) and dry pond (right) Table 2. Water quality of attenuation wetland (main sampling points
construction (winter 2002) Me Figs. 3 - 5) and infiltration rates for dty pond (April 2001 to
February 2002)
The system is based on a combined attenuation wetland and dry pond
Variable and time of Unit h e r a l l sample Overall Summer” Autumnb
design. The area of enhanced ecological value (6.5 x 8.5 m) comprises
measurement number mean mean Mean
the pond structure as well as areas dominated by lawn and shrubs.
Air temperature (06:OO) 30 9.8 13.3 9.1
The distances between the garage and the attenuation wetland and dry
Air temperature (18.00) 198 12.0 16.9 8.9
pond are 1.5 and 5.0 m respectively, and further details of the site are Water temperature (06:OO) 29 9.0 14.1 8.4
given in Table 1. Water temperature (18:OO ) 178 11.0 15.4 8.6
BOD (06:OO) 37 4.2 4.2 3.1
Table 1. Details of site Suspended solids (06:OO) 27 69 132 51
Total solids (06:OO) 26 276 239 294
Characteristic Unit Conductivity (06:OO) 41 93.2 154.3 72.7
Conductivity (18:OO) 134 45.5 75.1 37.5
Surface area of house roof (m’) 29
Turbidity (06:OO) 26 2.9 4.3 2.7
Angle between roof and house P) 23O
Dissolved oxygen (06:OO) 47 5.2 4.4 5.3
Theoretical horizontal area of the house roof (m2) 53
Dissolved oxygen (18:OO) 172 7.9 11 5 4.8
Roof area of double garage (m’) 33 pH (06.00) 43 6.9 70 6.8
Total horizontal area drained (m’) 86 pH (18:OO) 114 7.2 8.4 1.3
Length of plastic pipework (mean angle of 21 (m) 19.6 Redox potential (06:OO) 29 224 208 231
Inner pipe diameter (mm) 64.5 Algal cover (18:OO) 146 51 61 50
Maximum horizontal dimensions of top pond (m) 0.3 x 0.4 Infiltration rate (Station 1) 12 13 3 23

Maximum horizontal dimensions of middle pond (m) 0.7 x 0.4 Infiltration rate (Station 2) 12 1827 4270 95
Maximum horizontal dimensions of bottom pond (attenuation wetland) (m) 3.2 x 1.7 Infiltration rate (Station 3) 12 5810 8152 4778

Area of attenuation wetland (if completely filled with water) (m’) 5.5
Maximum horizontal dimensions of dry pond (m) 3.7 x 2.5
Dry pond slope ratio towards each side (north and south) 1 : 1.9
Dry pond slope ratio towards lower garden (east) 1 : 2.4
Dry pond slope ratio towards the attenuation wetland (west) 1 : 1.6
Maximum depth of attenuation wetland (mm) 395
Maximum depth of dry pond (mm) 400
In order to determine the maximum water level of the semi-natural
attenuation wetland during dry weather, the water depth was measured
from the attenuation wetland centre (greatest depth) to the top-water
surface (outflow structure level) after artificial filling up with tap water
until the attenuation wetland began to overflow. All water-level
measurements were taken daily.
The pond was constructed with a strong plastic liner, and the
attenuation wetland system was filled with stones and gravel (average
depth 40 mm). Most aquatic plants and animals were introduced in May
and June 2001. The dominant macrophyte species were the common reed
(Phragmites australis), reed-mace (Typha latifolia) and yellow iris (Iris
pseudochorus). Canadian pondweed (Elodea canadensis) was the
dominating floating plant. Two koi were introduced during construction
of the pond, and twenty-three sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
were added in September 2001 followed by eighteen adult common grass
frogs (Rana temporaria).
Water samples were analysed for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
suspended solids (SS), total solids (TS), conductivity, turbidity, dissolved
oxygen (DO) and pH (Table 2). Temporal (hourly, daily or weekly) and
spatial sampling schemes were applied, and daily sampling took place
’ Summer 21/06-21/09/01
Autumn: 22/09-20/12/01
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water Quality
During the autumn of 2001, the BOD, SS, conductivity and turbidity were
low because of dilution by rainwater runoff (Table 2). Large temperature
datasets can be used to predict sparsely sampled variables such as
DO and redox potential, and this would result in a reduction of sampling
costs and effort. For example, correlations between air (water)
temperature and DO and redox potential were 0.63 (-0.65) and 0.62
(0.521, respectively.
Figs. 3, 4 and 5 summarise spatial and temporal water-quality
findings with respect to the variable pH. Spatially, the pH was most
stable at low water depths, i.e. less than about 200 mm (Fig. 3). In
contrast, conductivity and DO were only stable in areas which were
subject to shading by nearby buildings and trees. For example, pH and
turbidity need to be sampled at least on a 1x 1 m sampling grid, in order
to stabilise the associated sample variances; however, this would
increase sampling costs by a factor of approximately five. In contrast,
conductivity and DO are spatially stable variables if both sunshine
intensity and temperature variations are low; therefore, these variables
require less dense sampling, e.g. on a 2 x 2 m grid.
Temporally, the pH and DO of the attenuation wetland were generally
high during the day and low during the night, as a result of algal
photosynthesis (Figs. 4 and 5). High pH values during summer
afternoons are not unusual because algal photosynthetic processes peak
during the day? In contrast, conductivity was low during the afternoon
and high in the morning.

THE JOURNAL1 V17 N3 /AUGUST 2003 172

 contrast to the remaining sampling points; therefore the pH at the
centre is frequently above the mean pH value for the attenuation
wetland. The main sampling point of the attenuation wetland
represents the mean trend (Fig. 5).
The International Water Association Specialist Group on Use of
Macrophytes in Water Pollution Control recommends weekly or
monthly water-quality sampling for treatment wetlands'21. However,
Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show that this would not result in a realistic
estimation of the actual water quality for pH, for example. It follows
that the pH value should be determined daily in the morning and
weekly in the afternoon - assuming that its trend-line is known or
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 can be reasonably well estimated. Moreover, the location of the most
Transformed eastings (m) representative sampling point has to be determined in advance by
spatial test sampling.
Fig. 3. Attenuation wetland: spatial distribution of mean standard In order to remove seasonal trends, linear and second-order
deviation for pH in autumn 2001 (17 samples). (The arrow indicates polynomial de-trending functions were applied to example datasets
geographical North, IN + inlet; OUT = outlet; CP= centre sampling point; including pH, conductivity and DO. After the removal of outliers,
MP = main sampling point for temporal sampling.) trends were quantified and then subtracted from the corresponding
sample series. However, no statistically significant (level of
y = 0 0 0 0 2 ~13x -
~ + 242300 significance P = 0.05; 5%) increase of the coefficient of
R2 = 0 36
determination R2 was achieved if trend functions were fitted to the
n
de-trended data. It follows that most temporal variation for pH and
.,1 - 0
' MMornina
DO is random for large datasets. Therefore, frequent sampling is
DARernwn
required in order to interpret data with high confidence.
An algal bloom (predominantly Microspora spp. >50
00002x* - x + 22000
I R' = 0.07 organisms/ml) was a problem due to low nutrient and trace mineral
18Jun 07-Aug 26-Sep 15-Nov 04Jan levels. Algae are efficient in taking up nutrients from the water
Time (day) column; however, the presence of small oat and barley straw bales (a
commercial product called Forgmat) reduced this problem.
Fig. 4. Attenuation wetland: temporal distribution, morning and Furthermore, algae were mechanically removed when the algal cover
afternoon, for pH between summer 2001 and winter 2002. (pH data are exceeded about 60%.
associated with main samplimg point (MP).) It is well known that the presence of fish is associated with a
decrease in zooplankton and consequently with an increase in
9.5 - algae@). It follows that the observed algal bloom is probably
associated with the introduction of koi and sticklebacks. However,
9.0 - normally the dominance of unicellular (green) algae (in contrast to
8.5 - Microspora-like algae) is reported in textbook^'^'. The author felt that
the presence of koi was important in order to increase public
5
8.0 - acceptance of ornamental pond systems, and that sticklebacks help
to provide an ecological equilibrium in the long term.
7.5 -
- ~

Capacity of System
7.04,, , , ,,,, I , , , ,, , , , ,, , , , , I ,

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 18 21 23
Time (h)
Fig. 5. Attenuation wetland: temporal distribution (24 h) for pH on 15
March 2002. (pH data are associated with main sampling point IMP) for
temporal sampling, retention wetland centre sampling point (CP) and
mean value of six randomly selected detention wetland sampling points
including MP and GI?)
Fig. 5 is a random example for the daily temporal distribution of
pH on 15 March 2002. pH values are associated with (a) the main
sampling point for temporal sampling, (b) the attenuation wetland
centre sampling point, and (c) the mean value of six attenuation
wetland sampling points. The pH increases during the day and
decreases during the night. The attenuation wetland centre (Fig. 3)
contains a small amount of submerged and floating vegetation
(virtually no shading of submerged and floating green algae) in
The roof, pipeline system and overflow structures can hold back a
maximum of about 50 I rainwater during dry weather and about 300
I during a heavy storm. The semi-natural pond structure comprises
three ponds having a total effective volume of about 1720 I during dry
periods and 1900 I during storm events. The top pond (maximum 20
I) has only ornamental value, and rainwater drains into the middle
pond (60 I maximum capacity). Suspended solids (e.g. decayed
leaves and bird droppings) from the roof and pipework settle in this
part of the structure which acts as a silt trap. Water from the middle
pond drains and/or overflows into the bottom pond (volume 1670 I)
which is designed as both an attenuation wetland and storage pond.
Not more than 500 I of storage water can be used for irrigation
without harming the aquatic-plant ecosystem at any time. During
heavy storm events, the bottom pond (Fig. 2) can hold another 150 I.
The dry pond can accommodate a maximum of 1870 I during heavy
storm events before it overflows; however, at the onset of heavy rain,
the overall system should have an additional capacity of no more

THE JOURNAL1 V17 N3 /AUGUST 2003 173

than 480 I. Therefore the overall system cannot cope with more than Furthermore, the ratio of 60 mins to 48 hours’ rainfall of a five-year
about 2500 I at any time. Indirect system capacity data are presented return period for Bradford falls between 25 and 30% (25% considered).
in Fig. 6. The effective area of the dry pond is at least 8 m2. The estimated mean
annual infiltration rate is approximately m/s and a safety factor of
500
A50 1 X X
1.5 is used. Considering that the maximum depth is 400 mm, the
structure has a high theoretical spare height of 270 mm. However,
observations have shown that a depth of 400 mm is justified
considering that several rainfall-runoff events led to a maximum water
depth of almost 260 mm (spare height of only 140 mm) in February
2002. Therefore, traditional design g~idelines‘~’ might be inappropriate
for such specific case studies.
Fig. 6 summarises the daily water levels of the wet and dry pond in
3Jun 23Jul 11-Sep 31-Oct 2ooec 8+eb addition to daily rainfall data, and the attenuation wetland is capable of
buffering the impact of storm-water runoff during the summer and
Time (day)
autumn. In contrast, the attenuation wetland is frequently full in winter,
Fig. 6. Daily water levels of wet pond (main sampling point; WP MP) and so that the dry pond receives excess water which has to infiltrate into the
dry pond (mean of five stations; DP mean) as well as scaled-up dajk ground. However, a system failure (e.g. flooding and structural damage)
rainfall data expressed in mm x 10 (rain). (High levels of rainfall on has not yet been recorded.
following dates have been omitted from this graph: 84.4 mm on
27/09/01 and 532 mm on 09/02/02.) Infiltration into Unsaturated Soil
Table 2 summarises the mean infiltration rates which were calculated
Economics for the soil layers located 200 mm below the bottom of the dry pond
Yorkshire Water gives domestic customers who are not connected to centre (Station 11,the middle of the slope of the dry pond (Station 21, and
sewer a rebate of €25. Therefore, an application to the local water utility the lawn (Station 3). The undisturbed unsaturated soil layer below the dry
to pay ‘a lower sewerage charge for a domestic property where no surface pond (>200 mm) has a hydraulic conductivity* of 13 x l O ~ ’ m/s;
water or groundwater drains to a public sewer‘ was made s~ccessf~lly”.~).therefore, the seepage loss during storms is small. The recently disturbed
The four occupants (two adults and two children under four years of man-made soil covering the slope and base of the dry pond has a
age) of the detached house use a bath, shower, toilet, and washing hydraulic conductivity of 2 x m/s, and the man-made lawn soil has
machine; no water is use for a dishwasher, water hose or sprinkler. a hydraulic conductivityof approximately 6 x m/s. Both soil layers are
The average annual water-consumption is 150-230 m3, and the capable of draining roof runoff water which is produced during small
associated bill is €226-385. moderate storms (Fig. 6).
Assuming that half an hour‘s use of a hose pipe or sprinkler would
consume 270-810 I, the cost would be €0.41-1.22. Furthermore, assuming Sustainable Water Industry Asset Resource Decisions
that the domestic property user recycled about 300 I of pond water 33 Analysis (SWARD)
times a year in order to water plants during summer, he/she could save an The SWARD support system was applied in order to assess the
additional €15. It follows that the property owner would have a reduced cost-effectiveness and sustainability of pond structures(*), and the
water bill of up to €40/annum. Further savings of up to €30 are possible, relevant primary criteria for the assessment of economic, environmental,
e.g. if rainwater is recycled for toilet flushing; these savings have to be social and technical categories are as follows:
contrasted to capital and maintenance expenditure. The capital and labour
costs (€800 and €1330, respectively) for the pond structure were Environmental:Resource utilisation; environmental impact. The resource
approximately €2130. The capital costs of €500 for the construction of the utilisation (in terms of land and material use) could be substantial, but
attenuation wetland are the largest single item. Expenditure for the new is sustainable and cost effective compared with traditional systems.
pipeline layout (€120) and aquatic plants (€100) is also significant; The pond structure was designed to promote biodiversity by avoiding
however, the gain in property and amenityvalue is difficult to assess, and deep-water zones (>1 m), maximising shallow water zones (<0.2 m:
a discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of this paper. 45-55% of the total surface area), and avoiding steep slopes. Natural
Cost figures are simplistic and are only based on the case study. colonisation of vegetation was encouraged; however, planting was
A comparison with sites elsewhere in the UK and abroad would depend necessary in urban Sandy Lane. All dominant species were native, and
upon other variables including building and drainage regulations, preference was given to aquatic plants of local provenance which are
water-consumption costs, water-metering service availability, cost of suited to local conditions in terms of water depth and quality.
conventional systems, option to obtain a rebate for retrofitted systems,
climatic conditions such as precipitation, soil-infiltration properties, and Social: Impact on human health; acceptability to stakeholders and
material and labour costs. Therefore, a brief cost comparison is public; local public participation and responsibility. The recreational and
impossible to undertake and could be misleading. amenity value of pond structures is high, but provision needs to be made
to make the pond structure safe for children and pets.
Risk of Flooding
By using the Wallingford Procedure‘61and associated maps, the Technicat Performance of the system; flexibility. Flooding of gardens is the
rainfall data for Bradford can be determined on the maps M5-60min main potential problem of an unreliable and insufficiently designed system;
and M5-2DI7’.Accordingly, the rainfall depth of a five-year return period however, permanent damage to property is unlikely with failing pond
with a duration of 60 mins (M5-60 mins) is 20 mm for Bradford. structures. Pond structures lack flexibility in terms of easy system removal.

*Hydraulic conductivity is the rate of flow of water through a unit cross-sectional area of a porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient. I
THE JOURNAL V17 N 3 IAUGUST 2003 174
CONCLUSIONS
1. The case study describes the successful design, operation and
maintenance of a novel pond structure during the first ten months of
operation. The water quality of the attenuation wetland was
acceptable for disposal and recycling (e.g. irrigation).
2. Frequent spatial and temporal water-quality monitoring for pollution
control has been suggested because data-series components are
predominantly random and periodic.
3. pH value and DO concentration show significant diurnal variations
due to the photosynthetic activity of algae.
4. The pond structure is reasonably cheap if labour costs are low. In the
long term, a reduction of the sewerage charge and water recycling
for irrigation helps to recover some capital costs.
5. A SWARD analysis identified low economic and technical risks as
well as high environmental and social benefits. The risk of flooding
was low if high safety factors for traditional design formulae
were applied.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges support from his Final Year Project students
(Mr. A. Onyeador, Mr. A. 0. De Burlet, Mr. N. Giannaousopoulos, Ms. A.
Roussi and Mr. R. 0. Draycott), and the technical assistance of Mr. A. J.
F. Daron is appreciated. The University of Bradford predominantly
sponsored the project, and Forgmat International Holdings Ltd provided
barley straw bales for the control of algae.
1
THE JOURNAL/ V17 N3 AUGUST 2003 175
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