Safety Factors Until now we�ve discussed only the strength of columns in
compression, leaving untouched the issue of how much of a margin there
should be between working stress and strength for allowable stress design. The factors of safety used in the three regimes are shown in Figure 5.19 and contrasted with those used for steel. From Figure 5.19, we see that the factor of safety for aluminum columns in the compressive yield regime is the factor of safety on yield (ny # 1.65) since this is the mode of failure. The factor of safety on inelastic and elastic buckling is higher: the factor of safety on ultimate (nu # 1.95) is used. The most noticeable difference between steel and aluminum column factors of safety is in the realm of inelastic buckling slenderness ratios. The AISC Steel Specification uses a sliding scale for steel column safety factors, varying the factor from 1.67 (# 5/3) for the shortest columns to 1.92 (# 23/12) for columns at the upper limit of inelastic buckling. The reason is that initial imperfections are judged to affect the strength of short columns less significantly when the shapes are compact, as they are for hot-rolled steel. Aluminum shapes (profiles) may not necessarily be compact; they may also be composed of thin-gauge elements that are deemed to be connected less rigidly and more eccentrically at their ends. Thus, the Aluminum Specification, while using a factor of safety of 1.65 for the shortest columns, uses the higher factor of safety (1.95) throughout the whole range of buckling (inelastic and elastic). If this rationale seems rather nebulous, you may find solace by considering the relatively arbitrary nature of safety factors in the first place and that load and resistance factor design smooths out the rough spots. (See Chapter 11 for more on LRFD.) Different Kinds of Overall Buckling and Their Slenderness Ratios So far, we�ve taken the slenderness ratio, (kL/r), for granted. This probably hasn�t been too disturbing because kL/r is familiar to most structural engineers, as well as the designation: # # kL/r (5.11) where: k # effective length factor (more on this below) L # length of the column between points of restraint against buckling (unbraced length) r # radius of gyration of the column about the axis of buckling. But what is ��the axis of buckling�� referred to in the definition of r? Here�s a hint: It�s a function of the kind of overall buckling. Up to this point, we�ve described only one kind of overall buckling, the kind called flexural buckling, demonstrated by the ruler discussed above. Use of the term ��flexural�� when we�re talking about columns can be confusing, so let�s clarify this. Flexural buckling refers to the lateral bowing of the ruler as it buckles, taking a shape as if it were being bent, even though only an axial force is applied to the member. This kind of buckling is covered in Aluminum Specification Section 3.4.7.1. The axis of buckling is the crosssectional bending axis about which the flexure occurs, which will be the axis with the greater slenderness ratio. Because the effective length factor (k) and the radius of gyration may be different for the two principal axes, designers must calculate the slenderness ratio for each axis to determine which is greater. Many engineers are familiar only with this kind of overall buckling, which is sufficient for typical closed shapes (i.e., round and rectangular tube). How else can columns buckle? Another kind of overall buckling is torsional buckling, which is a twisting or corkscrewing of the column. Equal leg cruciform sections, which are point symmetric, tend to buckle this way. No lateral displacement takes place along the member length during buckling, only twisting. The axis of buckling is the longitudinal axis of the member for torsional buckling. Last, shapes that are not doubly symmetric may buckle in the overall buckling mode called torsional-flexural buckling, a combination of twisting and lateral deflection. A way to treat these buckling modes involving torsion is to replace kL/r with an ��effective�� kL/r. A method for determining the effective slenderness ratio (kL/r)e for both torsional or torsional-flexural buckling for doubly or singly symmetric sections is given in Aluminum Specification Section 3.4.7.2. However, the Specification doesn�t provide a method for determining the effective radius of gyration for unsymmetric shapes. Also, designers must already know if a shape is subject to torsional or torsional-flexural buckling in order to choose which Aluminum Specification Section (3.4.7.1 or 3.4.7.2) applies. To clear these hurdles, consult Table 5.2, it shows which shapes are subject to which modes of overall buckling. pag140
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