AMERICAN

CINEMATOGRAPHER
MANUAL

SEVENTH
EDmON

EDITED BY
DR. ROD RYAN

THE ASC PRESS

HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA

American Cinematographer Manual
Seventh Edition
Copyright© 1993 by The ASC Press
Hollywood, California, USA
All Rights Reserved ,-J
library of Congress Catalog Card o. 79-93439
ISBN 0-935578-11-0
Cover Design and Artwork by George E. Turner
Copy edited by David Heuring, Stephen PizzeUo and Marji Rhea
Production by Martha Winterhalter
Printed in the United States of America by Sinclair Printing Company
ii
Acknowledgements
This edition, like all of the previous editions, was a joint effort. We
have called on ASC members, associate members and manufacturers' rep-
resentatives to discuss the state of the art in the areas of their exper-
tise. I would like to thank each of the more than 50 contributors for tak-
ing time from their busy schedules to help in the preparation of this
manual. Mehrdad Azarmi, Ph.D. ; Ed Blasko, Eastman Kodak; Paul
Bourque, Agfa Photo Division; James K. Branch; Steven C. Chamberlain,
Arriflex Corp.; Ed Clare, Matthews Studio Equipment Group; Chris J.
Condon, StereoVision International, Inc.; Anthony Coogan, StereoMedia,
Inc.; Jack Cooperman, ASC; Ed DiGiulio, Cinema Products Corp.; Fred
Detmers; linwood G. Dunn, ASC; Richard Edlund, ASC; Jonathan Erland;
Marianne Exbrayat, Aaton Des Autres, Inc.; Doug Fries, Fries Engineer-
ing; Tom Fraser; Richard Glickman, Gliconen Corp.; William Hansard, Sr.,
Hansard Enterprises; Frieider Hochheim, Killoflo Inc.; Michael Hofstein;
Bill Hogan, Sprocket Digital; Robert C. Hummel III, Theme Park Produc-
tions, Inc.; Masaru Jibiki, Fuji Photo Film USA; John Jurgens, Cinema Prod-
ucts Corp.; Frank M. Kay, Panavision; Conrad Kiel, Photo-Sonics, Inc.; Jon
Kranhouse; Bern Levy, Bern Levy Associates; Frank Leonetti, Leonetti Co.;
Grant Loucks, Alan Gordon Enterprises; Harry Mathias; Rami Mina, Don
Miskowich, Eastman Kodak; John Mosely, CAS; Martin Mueller, MSM
Design, Inc.; Dennis Muren, ASC; Ryan O'Hara, Chapman Leonard; Marty
Ollstein; Allan Peach, DemoGraFX; Steven Poster, ASC; David L. Quaid, ASC;
Pete Romano, HydroImage; Gavin Schutz, Image Transform; Daniel L.
Symmes, Spatial Technologies, Inc.; Bill Taylor, ASC; Ira Tiffen, Tiffen
Manufacturing Corp.; Bill Turner, Century Precision Optics; Petro Vlahos,
Vlahos Motion Pictures, Inc.; Paul Westerfer, AMPIP; Michael Whitney,
DemoGraFX; Geoffrey H. Williamson, Wilcam Photo Research; Irwin W.
Young, DuArt Laboratories.
Special thanks to David Heuring, Martha Winterhalter, Steven
Pizzello, Marji Rhea, and the American Cinematographer staff for their
suggestions and assistance.
-Rod Ryan
Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director ofEastman Kodak
MP&A V Division after 40 years service with that company. He is a graduate of
the University of Southern California BA, Ma, PhD, an Honorary Member of
ASC, a Life Fellaw of SMPTE, Retired Fellow BKSTS, a member of the Acad-
) emy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the Academy of Telroision Arts and
Sciences and the Motion Picture Pioneers. His awards include the Herbert T.
Kalmus Gold Medal, three SMPTE Special Commendations, the AMPAS Sci-
entific & Engineering Award and the AMPAS Medal OfCommendation. Dur-
ing World War II, he was a USN photographer, and after the war one ofthe pho-
tographers of the Atomic Bomb Tests at Bikini Atoll. He is the author of "A His-
tory of Motion Picture Color Technology, " editor and contributing author of
"Color Sensitometry," "Sixtieth Anniversary Issue SMPTE Journal, " "Fiftieth
Anniversary Issue American Cinematographer," contributing author of "Con-
trol Techniques in Film Processing," "Technologies in the Laboratory Handling
ofMotion Picture and Other Lang Films," "The Book ofFilm Care," and several
articles in the SMPTE Journal and other trad_ publications.
iii
 CONTENTS
CINEMATOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
35mm Systems 3
16mm Systems 9
Special Purpose Systems 10
Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35
and Super 35 Film Formats 13
CAMERAS
65mm
Arriflex 765 31
Cinema Products CP-65 33
Fries 865 34
Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO 36
MSM8870 37
Panavision AC/SPC 39
Film
Panavision System-65 39
.16 mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white Panavision Panaflex System-65 43
• Video dailies, wet or dry, with time-code or key code
• Answer prints, intermediates, volume release 35mm
• Screening and editing rooms Aaton35mm 45
Audio Aaton35-ll 46
• Most film/video formats including R-DAT
Arriflex 535 47
• Rerecording, sweetening, transfers
Arriflex 535B 50
• Film-to-tape ~
Video - N C/pAL wet gate Arriflex 35-3 52
• Standard onversions Arriflex35BL-4s 54
NTSC/P~L/SECAM
• Duplication all formats Arriflex 35-3C 56
• Tape-to-film transfers Arriflex 35-2C 57
• Satellite Services
Cinema Products FX35 59
• Syndication
Cinema Products XR35 61
Feathercam CM35 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,
BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm) 64
xvii
..<:::f<'
 35mm continued 16mm continued
Mitchell S35R (Mark II) 66 Eclair NPR 109
Mitchell Standard and High Speed 67 Mitchell Professional HS, HSC 111
Moviecam Super 35mm 69 Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16 113
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 70 Panavision Panaflex 16mm 114
Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex 74
FILM
Panavision Panaflex-X 74
Color 119
Panaflex Panastar High-Speed 74
Black & White 120
Panavision Super R-200° 76
Color Reversal Film 121
Photo-Sonies 4B/ 4C 79
Edge Numbers 121
Photo-Sonies 4ER 79
Film Perforations 123
Ultracam 35mm 80
Film Handling and Storage 125
VistaVision
Charts: 122,127-141
MSM8812 81
Wilcam W-7 82
LENSES
Wilcam W-9 Selection of Lenses 142
83
Wilcam W-11 85 Understanding an MTF Chart 145
16mm Modem Telephoto Lenses 148
Aaton XTRplus Zoom Lenses 153
86
Arriflex 16SR-2 Lens Formulas 160
88
Arriflex 16SR-3 93 Extreme Close-up 165
Arriflex 16BL Special Purpose Lenses 170
95
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B 97 Charts: 146, 174-199
Bolex 16mm FILTERS
Bell & Howell Filmo 70. ~1 Filters for Both Color
and Black & White 201
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A 102 Special Effect Filters 208
Cinema Products CP-16R, CP-16R/A 102 Filters for Black & White 216
Cinema Products GSMO 105 Filters for Color 217
Eclair ACL 107 Charts: 226-232
Eclair CM-3 (16/35mm) 108

xviii xix
ACCESSORIES Travelling-Matte Composite Photography 430
Exposure Meters 233 The Future for Travelling-Matte
Crystal-Controlled Cordless Composite Photography 445
Camera Drive Systems 242 Digital Effects Cinematography 460
Camera Supports 246 High-Resolution Electronic
Camera Stabilizing Systems 253 Intermediate System for Film 462
Preparation of Motion Computer Graphics 467
Picture Equipment 258 Cinemagic of the Optical Printer 475
PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM Aerial Image Cinematography 481
Exposure 270 Charts: 413,419,423,443
The Cinematographer and the Laboratory 280 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Photographic Testing and Evaluation 288
Aerial Cinematography 487
Emulsion Testing 294
Underwater Cinematography 495
Charts: 272-279,300-312
Safety Guidelines for Insert Camera Cars 503
LIGHTING Arctic Cinematography 504
Light Sources and Lighting Filters 313 Tropical Cinemato~aphy 511
Characteristics of Light Sources 313 Day-for-Night Cinematography 518
Photographic Light Sources 328 Infrared Cinematography 521
Light Source Filters 352 Ultraviolet Photography 523
Commercial/ Industrial Light Sources 354 Shooting 16mm Color Negative
Fluorescent Lighting for Motion Pictures 359 for Blowup to 35mm 527
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem 376 Stereoscopic Motion Picture Technology 534
Luminaires 380 3-D Cinematography 538
Light Control Accessories 390 Synchronizing Methods for Picture
and Sound Systems 540
Charts: 314-315, 319, 323, 328,339,345, 366-375
Filming Television Screens 555
SPECIAL VISUAL EFFECTS Television Film Cinematography 561
Shooting Background Plates 394 Shooting Videotape for Transfer to Film 566
Front-Projection Process 399
REFERENCES 577
Compositing 415
Photographing Miniatures 420 INDEX 579

Motion-Control Cinematography 424

xx xxi
 CHARTS AND TABLES Film Stock Tables continued
Fuji FC 71112 141
FILM Fuji RP 72161 141
Comparison of Film Speeds 122
LENSES
Film Data Chart 127
Typical MTF of 3:1 Zooms for 16mm 146
Film Stock Tables
Depth of Field Charts
AgfaXT-100 128
35mmCamera
AgfaXT-320 128
9.8mm 174
Agfa XTS-4OO 129
15mm 175
Agfa PAN-250 129
20mm 176
Eastman EXR 5245/7245 130
25mm 177
Eastman EXR 5248/7248 130
35mm 178
Eastman EXR 5293/7293 131
40mm 179
Eastman EXR 5296/7296 131
50mm 180
Eastman 5297/7297 132
85mm 181
Eastman Ektachrome 5239/7239 132
100mm 182
Eastman Ektachrome 7240 133
150mm 183
Eastman Ektachrome 7251 133
200mm 184
Eastman Ektachrome 7250 134
400mm 185
Eastman Plus-X 5231/7231 135
16mmCamera
Eastman Double-X 5222/7222 135
8mm 186
Eastman Plus-X 7276 136
9.5mm 187
Eastman Tri-X 7278 136
12mm 188
Eastman Kodachrome 7267 137
16mm 189
Eastman Kodachrome 7268 137
25mm 190
Fuji F-64 8510/8610 138
35mm 191
Fuji F-64 8520/8620 138
50mm 192
Fuji F-125 8530/8630 139
85mm 193
Fuji F-250 8550/8650 139 "-
100mm 194
Fuji F-250 8560/8660 140
Fuji F-5oo 8570/8670 140
135mm
VistaVision
195
196
(
xxii xxiii
r
LENSES continued Footage Tables continued
Vertical Angle vs. 16mm (29.97 fps) 302
Effective Focal Length 196a-b 35mm (24 fps) 303
Extreme Close-up 35mm (25 fps) 304
35mm Depth of Field 35mm (29.97 fps) 305
and Exposure Factor 197
65/70mm (24 fps) 306
16mm Depth of Field
198 Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds
and Exposure Factor
199 16mm 307
Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion
35mm (+ frames) 308
FILTERS
65mm (+ frames) 309
Filter Compensation 226 "

ND Filter Selector 227

LIGHTING
228
Commercial/Industrial Light Source
Color Filters for B & W Daylight Exteriors
Characteristics 314
Color Filters for Altering
229 Comparison of Photographic Light Sources 315
B & W Contrast
Conversion Filters for Color Film 230 Correlated Color Temperature 319
MIRED Shift Value Effects 323
Kodak Light Balancing Filters 230
Tangent Function 328
Kodak Color Compensating Filters
Nomograph for Light Source Conversion
231
232 1 National Carbons for Studio Lighting 339
HMITM Lamp Characteristics 345
EXPOSURE
Lighting Filters: Color Adjusting 366-367
Incident Keylight/ T-stop 272
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescents 368-373
T-stop Compensation for Camera Speed 274
Color Balancing of AC Arc
Shutter Angle / fps/T-stop Change 276 Discharge Lighting 374
Color Balancing Existing
Fluorescent Lighting 277
SPECIAL EFFECTS
278 Minimum Object-Distance 413
Balancing Daylight Windows in Interiors
Balancing to Match Existing Background Projection 419
Interior Lighting 279 Miniatures: Speed/Scale/ Exposure 423
Recommended Panning Speeds 310-312 Alternative Methods for Travelling Mattes 443
Footage Tables
16mm (24 fps) 300
16mm (25 fps) 301

xxiv xxv
 Cinematographic Systems
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
photographed in one of the systems intended for projection
in an aspect ratio greater than 1.33:1. These are loosely cat-
egorized as "wide screen" systems. All films produced for
use in television systems and most of those produced for
industrial and educational use are photographed in an as-
pect ratio of 1.33:1.
Following are the photographic systems currently
employed in the preparation of motion picture negatives
or reversal originals from which the various projection sys-
tems can be supplied with the proper prints.
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
later used for television. It is desirable that the cinematog-
rapher allow for this in composing. The accompanying
drawings will show dimensions of finder markings to aid
the transition. Certain other enlarged or reduced copy di-
mensions are also shown. The dimensions shown are those
of primary interest to the cinematographer; for detailed
specifications, refer to the following Standards and Recom-
mended Practices, published by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Society of Motion Pic-
ture and Television Engineers (SMPTE).

Image Areas, Camera

16mm SMPTE 7 -1988
16mm Type W (Super 16) SMPTE 201M -1992
35mm SMPTE 59 -1991
65mm sMPtE 215 -1990
Image Areas, Projector
16mm SMPTE 233-1987
35mm PH22.195 -1984
70mm SMPTE 152 -1989

Copy Dimensions
35mmto16mm RP65 -1991
16mm to35mm RP66-1991
Super 16 to 35mm SMPTE 201M-1992
35mmto70mm None

Television:
Safe Action and Title Area RP27.3 -1989

1
 35mm Systems
35mll CAMERA SPHERICAL LENS
1. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) pho-
tography for theatrical presentation (Sound area blocked).
(See Figure 1.)
NO. 1 THEATRICAL The ANSI standard calls for cameras for nonana-
RELEASE morphic photography to be equipped with an aperture of
o 0
0.864" by 0.630" minimum. Many cameras, however, are
o lSI r-_-_-_-_-_-_-_,'O equipped with apertures which will cover the area required
o 0
for anamorphic images as well, and it is occasional prac-
o 0
tice to use a "hard matte" to limit the area in the vertical
011 L - - - - - --
---lIO dimension to the wide screen format desired by the direc-
tor. It should be understood, of course, that while the use
o .1 J9 of a hard matte ensures correct framing in the theater, it also
FINDER MARKING & limits the future use of the image for television releases in
PROJECTOR APERTURES 1.33:1 aspect ratio. In addition to the necessity for (and the
NO. 1&2 .825" x .602" FOR 1.37/1
NON·SQUEEZEO .825" x .497" FOR 1.66/1
expense of) a special duplicate negative for television, it
NEGATIVE .825" x .471" FOR 1.75/1 should also be noted that the side lines for 1.33:1 within a
.825" x .446" FOR 1.85/1 hard matted wide screen frame may have to be respected
0 , o
o .--------,'0 by the cinematographer to protect for such later use. When
theatrical subjects are photographed without the hard
matte, it is wise to protect the height of the image for later
television release by excluding extraneous objects, such as
NO.2 TELEVISION APERTURES
AND SAFE AREAS microphones or goboes, from the areas above and below
the 1.85:1 frame line and by being careful not to overshoot
CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min. x 630" min.
the set within the television area of 0.594 inches high as
measured on the film.
2. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) pho-
tography for television presentation (Sound area blocked).
(Figure 1) (See also "Television Film Cinematography.")
The television aspect ratio is 1.33:1 and the dimensions
given on the accompanying diagram indicate not only the
actual headroom but also suggested "safe areas" for both
action and titles. In television transmission, maladjustment
TV STATION- or electrical errors can cause cropping of the image before
PROJECTOR APERTURE
0.816" x 0.612"
it reaches the home viewer. The areas so indicated delin-
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
eate the usuallirnits of such cropping.
0.792" x 0.594" 3. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) pho-
TV SAFE ACTION AREA tography (full aperture). Camera aperture fills 4-perfora-
'0.713" x 0.535" tion area, full space between perforations (0.980 inches by
'CORNER RADII R ~ 0.143"
0.735 inches).
SAFE TITLE AREA
0.630" x 0.475" A. Used for special effects duplication. No protection
CORNER RADII R. 0.125" dimension given (image size depends on user). (Figure 2)
B. For theatrical presentation, negativ e image is
Figure 1. anamorphosed or reduced spherically in laboratory prepa-

2 3
 ration of release printing duplicate negative. Prints must
NO.3: 35mm FULL APERTURE be projected with an anamorphic lens. (Alternate finder
SPHERICAL LENS markings are shown for 35mm "flat" and 70mm extraction.
(FOR PARTIAL FRAME EXTRACTION) Note that all extractions use the same headroom. Television
PRINTS extraction is not fixed at this writing; alternate versions
would crop sides and extend to the bottom of the camera
aperture or use the same side lines and protect the area
above the nominal headroom line. There have been minor

NEGATIVE
SUPER PANAVISION 35 .
SUPER TECHNISCOPE, ETC.
IMAGE TO BE OPTICALLY
EXTRACTED FOR RELEASE PRINT.
CAMERA APERTURE
\980" x .735"
'\ COMMON HEADROOM
),
D~
0 variations on this system, and guidelines are under consid-
0 eration for ultimate standardization of dimensions. Use of
~ the system depends on capability and willingness of the
0
laboratory to make the image extractions on the release
0
printing duplicate negatives.) (Super Panavision 35 and
1.85:1AR Super Techniscope) (Figure 2) (See also "Special Systems.")
Non-Squeezed 4. 35mm camera, 2:1 anamorphic lens (squeezed)
Proj Ap .825" x .446"
photography for theatrical presentation (Panavision and
Todd-AO 35). (Figure 3)
A. 35mm contact or 1:1 prints. For this system, cam-
eras are equipped with anamorphic lens attachments which
compress the image horizontally in a 2 to 1 ratio, resulting

D~
C) C)
0
in a lens field twice as wide as would otherwise be photo-
0 0 0
f--- I-- - ---- graphed with lenses of equal focal length. Prints from nega-
0 C) C) tives photographed in this system must be projected in the
0 (( C) 0 theater with anamorphic lenses. At least in the United
States, for all practical purposes all theaters are so equipped.
,LFINDER MARKINGS
35mm ANAMORPHIC 2.4:1AR
24 :1AR For non-theatrical distribution, 16mm prints are made
2:1 ANAMORPHIC SQUEEZE
.945" x .394" PROJ AP .838" x .700"
either with anamorphic images or by unsqueezing to
- 70 mm 2.2:1AR spherical ("flat") images with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, cropping
.945" x .430" each side of the image about 12%. Because of the 16mm
L - 35mm FLAT 1.85:1AR projector aspect ratio, anamorphic prints made at the reduc-
.945" x .511" tion ratio of RP65-1991 will crop the top and bottom of the
35mm image. Some reduction prints have been made at
CJ Cl 2.4:1 aspect ratio with printed-in mattes at the sides to avoid
0 0 this problem, but this is not yet standard practice.
Cl Because of the aspect ratio and the anamorphic
0
squeeze, direct prints from this system cannot be run on
CJ CJ television, except in letterbox. In most instances a 1.33:1 as-
CJ CJ pect ratio extraction from the center of the screen loses sig-
~I
- nificant action. This problem has been circumvented in the
5 perf 70 mm 2.2:1AR past by "scanning" the image to follow action in the prepa-
Proj Ap 1.912" x .870" ration of a duplicate negative from which television prints
may be made - an unsatisfactory but common solution.
The accompanying diagram shows the transition. A num-
Figure 2.
ber of optical houses are prepared to supply this type of du-
plicate negative either in 35mm or 16mm. (Figure 4)
4 5
 35.111 ANAMORPHIC LENS CAMERA SCANNING ANAMORPHIC IMAGES
FOR TELEVISION

(A) 0 IL
- - -=rI
0 IfF' 0
II II
0 II 0 II
II II
0 II 0 II
'I I
0 6-_-----J~ 0
0 0
35111. SQUEEZED PRINT
NO. 4 FINDER MARKING & .., ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHY
PANAVISION 35 r
ANO
PROJECTOR APERTURE ,
I Camera Aperture .864" x .732" min.
Projector Outline .838" x .700"
TOOO-AO 35
SQUEEZED
.838" x .700"
(Additional finder markings:
70mm .753" x .668"
10m
I
I
,
1
I
Squeeze Ratio 2:1
Anamorphic camera lens
NEGATIVE 16mm .614" x 668" 1.85:1AR
/
L -J
,,
CAMERA APERTURE
16mm .817" x .615" 2.66:1AR /
, ,,
.864" min x .732" min /
/
,,
/
/ ,
.., SChematic figure:
'0
rn
0 r I TOTAL IMAGE OF ORIGINAL

D~-
I I
0 I PHOTOGRAPHY-UNSQUEEZED
0
--PRINTS
IlI e-fi ) I
I
I
Screen Aspect Ratio 2.36:1
Areas 1.728" x .732"
0 1611111 SQUEEZED PRINT
.380 x .286 I
L
:0-

~
,
I
1.676" x .700"
0 Max. proj. ap. \ I
I
0 0 \
I
\ I
\ I
\ I
LINEAR REDUCTION OF ABOVE
TOTAL UNSQUEEZED IMAGE AREA

rC PEj
I
I
Area for selective scan-
I ning: 1.459" x .616"
I
I
l-
I MASKING to follow important
action equals TV SAFE ACTION
16111111 UNSQUEEZED PRINT \ \
\ , \ AREA: .713" x .535"
(1.85:1) \ \
.380" x .205" \ \
Proj ap or matte. r ..,
l@
I FINAL PRINTED IMAGE
-f EB
I
I I Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
I ":" 1 Area: .868" x .616" (35mm)
L

~~
0 0 ..J Suitable for TV projector
0 ~
1-'
aperture: .816" x .612" and

~
Theatre projector aperture
0 0 .825" x .602"
~ h or: .380" x .286" (16mm)
+
~O o~
~
~~
o o ......
.~
~
(8)
70mm
UNSQUEEZED PRINT
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" x 0.870"
Figure 3. Figure 4.

6 7
 B. 70mm de-anamorphosed (unsqueezed) prints. Sev-
16mm FILM APERTURES
erallaboratories are equipped to manufacture 70mm posi-
TELEVISION SAFE AREA tive prints from such negatives. The aspect ratio of 70mm
prints (2.2:1) crops very little from the 35mm image, which
is anamorphically unsqueezed in the making of the prints.
The resulting 70mm print therefore is projected with spheri-
cal lenses. 70mm prints are striped with magnetic oxide,
NO. 5 and their soundtracks are capable of carrying six channels.

[ CAMERA APERTURE
.404" x .29S"
TV STATlON-
PROJECTOR APERTURE
.380" x .286"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
.368" x .276"
TV SAFE ACTION AREA
.331" x .248"
CORNER RADII R ~ .066"
SAFE TITLE AREA
.293" x .221"
CORNER RADII R ~ .OS8"
NO. 6 16mm FINDER MARKINGS
for enlnglng to 35mm
16mm Systems
5. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for tele-
vision, industrial and educational use. (Figure 5) (See also
"Television Film Cinematography. " ) 16mm cameras
equipped with spherical (nonanamorphic or "normal")
lenses are used for this type of photography. Either rever-
sal or negative films may be used as camera originals. Be-
cause 16mm is used for economy as well as portability,
direct contact release prints are often made from the cam-
era original film when only a few are required. In such
cases, extreme care should be taken to protect the original.
For prints in quantity, duplicate negatives are made on ap-
propriate raw stock. The same comments as to the limita-
tions of television transmission apply as were noted in the
35mm television section above (#2). The accompanying dia-

~
Camera aperture .404" x .29S"
Projector aperture .378" x .276" (max).
Projector aperture .378" x .20S" (1.8S:1)
(enlarging ratio 1:2.18)
SUPER 16 (16mm Type W)
for enlarging to 35mm
~D--------­
gram shows the dimensions for the ground glass to be used
for 16mm photography for television.
6. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for en-
largement to 35mm for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5)
(See also "Shooting 16mm Color Negative for Blowup to
35mm.") From 16mm originals, 35mm duplicate negatives
may be prepared by optical enlargement for the manufac-
ture of 35mm release prints for theatrical distribution. Most
theaters in the United States are currently matting 35mm
prints to a 1.85:1 aspect ratio.
The accompanying diagram shows the height of the
ground glass mark suggested for this type of photography.
As with 35mm photography, it is wise to protect the bal-

bbdJ
Camera aperture .493" x .292"
ProjeclOr aperture .463" x .279"
ProjeclOf aperture .463" x .251
Figure 5.
8 9
ance of the aperture so that both theatrical and television
prints will be suitable.
7. 16mm special camera, spherical lens photography
specifically for enlargement to 35mm wide screen for the-
atrical presentation. (Figure 5) (See also "Shooting 16mm
Color Negative for Blowup to 35mm.") (Super 16 or 16mm
Type W) Special16mm cameras with extended-width ap-
ertures extending into the area usually reserved for the
sound track are used for this syst~m. The aspect ratio of the
resulting negative is 1.66:1, and this image is enlarged to
65111111- 5 PERFORATION PULlOOWN CAMERA
the standard 35mm sound film aperture. 1.66:1 is com-
monly used in Europe and 1.85:1 in the U.S. Both dimen- No. 8 & 9
sions are given for finder marks. A specially centered 1.33:1 TODD-AD
SUPER PANAVISION-
16mm or 35mm duplicate negative and/ or print is required NONSQUEEZED NEGATIVE
for television display.

Sp ecial Purpose System s

During the history of motion pictures, there have been ~I I~ -

g
0 35mm
numerous camera and projection systems, some of which
CAMERA APERTURE
have had widespread use for a period and then have be- 2.066" x 0.906"
come obsolete. It is the purpose of the American Cinema-
tographer Manual to explain and display current systems; 70mm
for history, please refer to earlier editions of the manual and

-H
American Cinematographer m agazine. PROJECTOR APERTURE

~[
0.838" x 0.700"
8. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for 1·- 2:1SQUEEZED
compositing to one of the 35mm systems. Any part of the
negative image may be used. 0

9. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for print- PROJECTOR APERTURE

ing on 70rnm. The difference in camera and projector ap-
ertures allows for a magnetic sound track between picture
and perforations on each side, and the added 5mm width
allows for two magnetic sound tracks outside the perfora-
tions on each side. (Figure 6)
A. General theatrical distribution; rarely used pres-
ently.
B. Showscan; uses this format but photographed and
projected at 60 fps in a specially designed theater environ-
ment on a large screen at higher than standard brightness
and with terraced seating to improve sightlines. Grain,
flicker and image "strobing" are minimized.
C. For special purpose projection systems such as
Disney's 3-D at EPCOT.
10. 65mm, 15-perforation, horizontal frame photogra-
phy (24 fps) (Imax/Omnimax). (Figure 7) The film format
for the two systems is the same. Imax is projected on a large
flat screen in specially designed theaters.
Onmimax is photographed with a "fisheye" lens, op-
tically centered 0.37 inches above the film centerline and
displayed on a dome screen, filling 180 degrees laterally
and 20 degrees below and 110 degrees above the horizon
for central viewers. The picture shape is thus elliptical. Both
systems use terraced seating to improve sightlines.
1.912" x 0.870"
Dotted line indicates
finder marking for 35mm
extraction 1.912" x 0.816"
Figure 6.
11. 35mm, 8-perforation, horizontal frame photogra-
phy (VistaVision) for compositing to one of the 35mm sys-
tems. As any part of the negative image may be used to suit
the user, no projection aperture or finder markings are
shown. (Figure 8) (Lens angles are given in the tables only
for the full negative aperture.)
Depth of field is also affected by the ultimate use; it is
therefore suggested that the 35mm tables be used as a guide
to the relative depth of field, one lens to another, until test
results are seen on the screen.
12. Proposed 35mm anamorphic projection systems
using 1.5:1 squeeze and the conventional (ANSI PH22.195
Style B) anamorphic projection aperture for a 1.8:1 aspect
ratio. Source camera negative would be VistaVision (Fig-
ure 8) or 35mm full aperture (Figure 2) from either of which
a laboratory printing duplicate negative would be
anamorphically printed; alternately, 1.5:1 anamorphic
lenses would be used on standard 35mm cameras.

10
11
 13. 65mm 8-perforation, frame (vertical pulldown) Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35 and
photography (24 or 30 fps) (Dynavision). Camera aperture
2.080" X 1.480" for printing on 70mm positive film. Lenses Super 35 Film Formats
may be "fisheye" for dome theater projection or conven-
tional focal lengths for 4 X 3 aspect ratio projection. by Rob Hurrunel

No. 10 65mm Horizontal 15 perf.

The most prevalent film formats, or aspect ratios, pro-
Imax/Omnimax jected in the United States are 1.85 and 2.35. As a point of
reference, these ratios are determined by dividing the width
• FILM TRAVEL DIRECTION (VIEWED FROM BASE SIDE)
2.772" 70.41MM
of the picture by the height, which is why you will some-
0.69MM times see them written as 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 Verbally, you will
TRAVEL hear them referred to as "One Eight Five" or ''Two Three Five"
REGISTRATION PIN \
(2.35 is also often referred to as "Scope," referring to its ori-
[] [] ( O[]OOOOOOO[]O[]OOO ' · 000 D
. ~
---. -. f' ---- ~:;;
:;;
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gins as Cinemascope).
An examination of films over the past forty years
M
.....
'"
N en
~ shows that format is not automatically dictated by dramatic
'" '"
I
PROJECTION CUTS OFF W content. It is a creative choice on the part of the cinematog-
u
I z rapher and the director. The full range of drama, comedy,
• 0.80'" MIN. TOP & BOTTOM
u.J
a::
~ romance, action or science fiction can be found in both as-
.016" MIN. AT SIDES u.J
e:. pect ratios. The purpose here is to advise on the pros and
~ ~~ N to
r--
:g cons of both aspect ratios and the photographic alternatives
_._---------j.---
- ---
0
N N available to achieve them. This should help a filmmaker
CC ccccccoccocoOOO.CODC
make an informed decision as to which format is best for a
FULL REGISTRATION
PIN
J given project.
15 PERFORATION PULL-ACROSS As a clarification in this discussion, Full Aperture will
2.799" 71.09MM refer to the total area between the 35mm perforations, in-
Figure 7. cluding the area normally reserved for the soundtrack (this
Full Aperture area is also referred to as the camera aperture).
Academy Aperture will refer to that area of the negative ex-
cluding the soundtrack area. Academy Aperture got its
name when the Motion Picture Academy established the
000 0 0 000 0 0 standard for where to place sound and picture information
when the first talkies were produced.
VISTAVISION
While all 1.85 composed films are achieved with nor-
mal, spherical lenses, the 2.35 aspect ratio can be achieved
0.991"
in two ways. The most common method is with the use of
anamorphic lenses that squeeze the image to fit within the
Academy Aperture (see Illustration 6). The alternate
-<---- 1.485" method (Super 35, Super Techniscope) uses norma/lenses
without any distortion of the image. Both methods will be
discussed here.
0000000 0 0 0 Also, the formats discussed here deal with general
35mm motion picture photography. Formats such as
Figure 8. VistaVision and 65mm are most often used for visual ef-

12 13
fects and special event cinematography and would require
a separate article.
Composition
Before getting into specifics about the different for-
mats, I want to point out the composition differences be-
tween the two aspect ratios of 2.35 and 1.85, regardless of
how they are achieved photographically.
illustration 1 displays a given scene of the Taj Mahal.
On this image, a 2.35 aspect ratio is outlined by a white rect-
angle.
In illustration 2, two 1.85 aspect ratios are outlined by
white rectangles. The larger of those two rectangles repre-
llIustration 1 - Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
Illustration 2 - Aspect Ratio 1.85:1
14
sents a 1.85 composition equal in its width to the 2.35 aspect
ratio in illustration 1. The smaller 1.85 rectangle is equal in
height to illustration l's 2.35 rectangle.
illustrations 1 and 2 demonstrate that a 1.85 image has
potential of encompassing as much width as a 2.35 image.
Althuugh 1.85 will take in the same width with greater
height in the composition, it's important to realize that wide
sets and vistas are not restricted to the 2.35 format.
I. The 1.85 Aspect Ratio
Photographed in NORMAL Academy Aperture
Photography
1.85 is far and away the most common aspect ratio for
motion pictures filmed in the United States. I say the U.S.,
since around the world the aspect ratio most commonly
used swings between 1.85 and 1.66 depending on the coun-
try.
Illustration 3 - 1.85:1
illustration 3 portrays how a 1.85 film composition
would be framed in the viewfinder of the camera.
illustration 4 shows how that image appears on the
negative and subsequently on a positive print for projec-
tion. Although you wouldn't have an optical track until
final composite prints are made, the track is illustrated here
for clarity. The shaded areas of the film frames indicate that
area of the Academy aperture that goes unused in a 1.85
film. Although additional picture information is usually
contained within that shaded area, it is masked out when
the film is projected.
15
,.
o o
o o
o o
o o
t OplaJSoundt_
llIustration 4 -1.85:1. Above Left: The scene as it appears on the negative.
Above Right: the scene as it appears on a contact print for projection.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assum-
ing it is projected properly), it will appear the same as origi-
nally composed in the viewfinder (see illustration 3).
A. Advantages of 1.85
1. Many perceive 1.85 as more appropriate for pictures
that lend themselves to more compact visuals. Since close-
ups virtually fill the entire frame, it is often considered a
more "intimate" format.
2. If a film is largely interiors, 1.85 is often argued as
the preferred format, since interiors usually don't involve
the wide panoramic vistas associated with 2.35. On the
other hand, many do not weigh interiors or exteriors in their
choice of format.
3. Greater depth of field (the total area in focus at a
given distance). Since 1.85 uses shorter focal length lenses
as compared with anamorphic, greater depth of field is
more easily attainable, making photography less prone to
focus problems. This advantage is sometimes negated by
cinematographers using such small amounts of light that
they have to shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
4. An opinion often expressed is that sets don't need
to be as wide on a 1.85 film as one photographed in 2.35,
resulting in savings in set construction. However, many
would argue that film format has no bearing on the width
of set construction. As illustrations 1 and 2 pointed out, it's
possible for 1.85 to require as wide a set as 2.35, depend-
ing on the composition.
5. 1.85 is the simplest format to execute from a me-
chanical/technical standpoint. The choice of photographic
equipment is virtually unlimited, as any standard 35mm
camera will accommodate this format.
6. If a stunt camera mount is required that risks de-
stroying a camera, there are a number of expendable cam-
16
era bodies available.
7. With some effort on the shooting company's part,
composition can protect for video so that a simple one-to-
one transfer can be done without panning and scanning.
While left and right image integrity remain virtually intact
this way, there is an approximate 33% increase in the ver-
tical height of the composition.
Although many think it routine to protect the TV area
from intruding objects (e.g., lights, microphones, etc.), it
makes the cinematographer's job more difficult, by pre-
venting him or her from bringing lights down close to the
area of composition. This is why many cinematographers
shooting 1.85 prefer to shoot with a 1.66:1 aspect ratio hard
matte. 1.66 is slightly larger than 1.85, closely approximat-
ing the height of the TV frame, and it gives the cinematog-
rapher more freedom to light his subjects, without fear of
a light or microphone showing up when transferred to
video.
8. Many people believe it is an advantage to shoot 1.85
because spherical lenses are sharper than 2.35's anamorphic
lenses. This is a misconception. It is true that spherical
lenses are sharper than anamorphic; however, the much
greater negative area used with anamorphic more than
makes up for the subtle difference in resolution from
spherical lenses.
B. Disadvantages of 1.85
1. The main disadvantage is the actual size of the 1.85
format on the negative. Because of the smaller area, 1.85 is
noticeably grainier than anamorphic 2.35. This is not as
noticeable in the original negative stage, but becomes more
pronounced after going through dupe negatives.
The negative area of 2.35 anamorphic is a 59% increase
over the 1.85 area.
2. Because of the greater height of 1.85's aspect ratio,
ceilings of sets are more prone to being photographed. This
can be a restriction on how easily a cameraperson can light
an interior set (visible ceilings limit light placement). On
some sets, it may require additional construction.
3. Opticals (dissolves, repositions, etc.) tend to be
grainier than with anamorphic 2.35. .
A current trend is for editors to order "double IF"
opticals, compensating for the smaller negative area of 1.85.
This improves the quality of opticals, but at greater expense.
17
 4. Not truly compatible with 7Omm. Although it can
be done, there is a large amount of unused print on the sides
when blown up to 70mm (see illustration 11). Also, because
of the greater magnification in 1.85 70mm prints, grain is
much more apparent than in anamorphic blOW-Ups to
70mm.
5. When projected, the area of the frame for 1.85 is
subjected to much greater magnification on a screen than
an anamorphic frame, resulting in more apparent grain in
the image.
II. The 2.35 Aspect Ratio
Photographed with Anamorphic (Scope) Lenses
The following is a discussion of the 2.35 aspect ratio
photographed with anamorphic lenses. A discussion of
Super 35 composed for 2.35 will follow.
Anamorphic 2.35:1 (also known as "Cinemascope" or
"Panavision") optically "squeezes" the width of the image
to fit within the 35mm Academy Aperture. illustration 5
portrays how an anamorphic 2.35 scene would appear in
the viewfinder.
lllustration 5
illustration 6 shows how that image appears on the
negative and subsequently on a positive print for projec-
tion.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assum-
ing it is projected properly), it will be "unsqueezed" by an
anamorphic projection lens and appear on the screen the
same as originally composed in the viewfinder (see illus-
tration 5).
A. Advantages of Anamorphic 2.35
1. The most salient advantage is the much larger nega-
tive area. A 59% increase in negative area over 1.85 results
18
o
o
o
o
Illustration 6 - Anamorphic 2.35:1, Above Left: The scene as it appears
on the Negative "squeezed" by the anamorphic lenses. Above Right: The
scene as it appears on a Contact Print for projection.
in finer grain, better opticals, and an increase in apparent
sharpness (apparent because while a similar image photo-
graphed in 1.85 will be sharper, the increase in grain and
greater magnification actually make it appear less sharp).
This difference becomes most apparent after going through
the dupe negatives.
2. More compatible with 70mm. Because of the origi-
nal negative area, there is less of a blow-up than with 1.85,
resulting in finer grain in the 70mm print. Also, the aspect
ratio can fill the entire 70mm print frame.
3. Allows for complex compositions. Able to do a tight
close-up on two individuals simultaneously. Action can be
spread across a wide expanse of the frame.
4. Most often the format of choice for films with a lot
of action or big production values.
5. Most closely approximates the normal field of vi-
sion.
6. When shooting interiors, ceilings become obscured,
giving the cinematographer more alternatives for place-
ment of lighting.
7. A possible advantage may come with continuing
advances in High Definition TV. The area of negative used
in anamorphic films means you will exceed HDTV's reso-
lution capability for many years to come. Some HDTV tech-
nologies are already almost equal to 1.85's resolution ca-
pability.
B. Disadvantages of Anamorphic 2.35
. 1. Difficult video transfer. To extract a video image
dIrectly from tlle center of the 2.35 frame usually results in
odd compOSItIons and the exclusion of relevant action.
An alternative is to "pan and scan" the image (panning
the WIdth of the 2.35 frame, following the most important
action). While not mechanically more expensive thanregu-
19
lar video transfer, panning and scanning usually costs more
due to the extra time required by each scene's composition
decisions. While panning and scanning makes the best of
a bad situation, many people feel it compromises the origi-
nal compositions. Many filmmakers have released videos
of their films in "letterbox" format, where the 2.35 format
is maintained by putting black mattes above and below the
frame. This is a common practice in videodisc releases of
films.
The difficulty in video transfer is the most often stated
disadvantage of the 2.35 format.
2. It is often said that anamorphic is more expensive
than 1.85. However, the difference in cost between an an-
amorphic lens package vs. a 1.85 lens package is negligible.
Anamorphic would be approximately $2,400.00 more ex-
pensive over the course of a ten-week film schedule.
Also, discussions with a number of prominent cinema-
tographers indicate that they wouldn't increase the size of
their lighting package significantly for the 2.35 aspect ratio
(in fact, one said it wouldn't change at all).
3. Single close-ups result in wide areas on either side
of a face, with potential for distracting objects in the frame.
However, d~e to the nature of anamorphic's longer focal
length lense~, usually anything in the background on either
side of a face would be severely out of focus.
4. Many people feel that sets need to be built wider
because of the wider aspect ratio. There are also many who
feel it doesn' t matter, and that sets can be accommodated
by choosing lenses carefully. See again illustrations 1 and
2 and the discussion under Composition.
5. Some directors have a hard time blocking action
within the larger frame.
6. Expense of more extras may be necessary for some
crowd scenes.
III. Super 35 Formats
The Super 35 Formats, known under a variety of names
such as Super Techniscope, Super 1.85, and Super 2.35, are
all flat, spherical lens formats using equipment similar to
that used in 1.85 photography. All of the Super 35 formats
require an optical step when making dupe negatives for
release prints.
illustration 7 is a diagram of a standard Super 35 frame
of film where all aspect ratios are aligned on Full Aperture
center. As the illustration shows, information is usually
20
exposed over the entire Full Aperture area of the film. The
filmmaker decides what format he is composing for, and
it is that aspect ratio the film lab will eventually extract from
the frame for release prints.
When speaking of Super 35, people are usually refer-
ring to its use in composing for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio, the
same ratio as 2.35 anamorphic.
o r;:::::=============::::::;l (~
o 2.35 1.85
Area Area
o
o
Illustration 7 - Standard Super 35/Super Techniscope
Anamorphic 2.35 uses special lenses that squeeze the
wide image to fit within the standard Academy Aperture
frame. Super 35 composes for 2.35 with standard lenses and
extends the width of the frame into that area of the nega-
tive reserved for the soundtrack. Although most cameras
already expose picture information in the soundtrack area,
it normally goes unused.
At times, people will suggest shooting Super 35 com-
posed for 1.85 (a. k. a. Super 1.85). The reason for this is a
belief that the slight increase in negative area with Super
1.85 will yield a finer-grain image for release. Tests have
shown this is not so. Once the negative has gone through
~terpositiveand intemegative, and been optically reposi-
tioned for standard 1.85 release, there is at best no differ-
ence between Super 1.85 and standard 1.85 photography,
and depending on the scene, Super 1.85 can look worse
than standard 1.85.
Standard 1.85 produces all dupe negatives and prints
with contact printing, while Super 1.85 requires an optical
step to reduce the image into the standard 1.85 area. Con-
tact printing significantly reduces the appearance of grain,
while any optical step precisely focuses the grain in a nega-
tive, effectively enhancing the appearance of grain.
21
 As for arguments that Super 1.85 yields a better 1.85
blow-up to 70rnm, the difference is slight, and only notice-
able in a dJect AlB or side-by-side comparison. Otherwise
it is indistinguishable. If, however, a scene is already com-
mitted to an optical step (i.e., a visual effects shot), Super
1.85 may provide an improvement in negative area that
results in 1:1 better image quality when compared with a
standard 1.85 image going through the same optical pro-
cess.
Another method of photography for Super 35 is re-
ferred to ~s common topline (see Illustration 8). Common
topline derives its name from the ground glass of the cam-
era having multiple formats scribed on it, all having the
same, or cornmon, topline. This variant of Super 35 is based
on the notion that it could be a generic film format; the film-
maker may shoot a movie with the option of releasing it in
any aspect ratio desired. The common topline is supposed to
lessen the effect of changing aspect ratios by maintaining
the headroom l and raising or lowering the bottom of the
frame. In Actual practice, most cinematographers find it dis-
agreeable to compose for multiple formats. Also, the change
in composition from 2.35 to 1.85 or television's 1.33 can be
quite objectionable (close-ups become medium shots, etc.).
0 0
0 0
0 ,
,, ,,
0
-:-- ,
I-
0 2 -- .-.---- --------------"
0 Illustration 9 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
L 1.66:1 Projected Area
- 1.85:1 Area
" " ' - - - - 2.2: 1 Area (70mm Aspect Ratio)
2.35:1 Area
Illustration 8 - Super 35/Super Techniscope Common Topline
Experience has shown, most filmmakers agree, that
just modifying a film's aspect ratio to fit within the video
realm is a creative process. To assume that a generic for-
mat will automatically deliver pleasing compositions no
22
matter what aspect ratio you choose does not hold up cre-
atively.
The rest of this discussion will only deal with Super
35 composed for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Illustration 9 portrays
how Super 35 composed for 2.35:1 would appear in the
viewfinder.
A. Advantages of Super 35 Composed for 2.35 Aspect
Ratio
1. The main reason for choosing this format is its
greatly increased depth of field over anamorphic 2.35.
Where anamorphic lenses have to rack focus to keep near
and distant objects sharp, Super 35 has a greater potential
for keeping both objects in focus simultaneously.
However, as stated in the advantages of 1.85, the po-
tential for greater depth of field can be negated if cinema-
tographers choose to use such small amounts of light that
they must shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
2. An often-stated advantage is the production savings
in the lens I camera package over anamorphic. This is er-
roneous, since the expense of optical Super 35 dupe nega-
tives (needed for release prints) negate any cost savings in
production.
Camera
Apertu re
1.33:1 Area
for Video
3. The ability to shoot a film composed for 2.35 and, if
necessary, change directions and release in 1.85 by increas-
ing the top and bottom of the frame. For most filmmakers,
however, this would be a serious compromise of the origi-
nal composition (see Illustration 7).
4. Lenses are much smaller than anamorphic, result-
ing in a smaller, more lightweight and portable camera
package. This smaller size allows the camera to fit in smaller
places than the large anamorphic optics allow (this is one
23
of the reasoJ the format was chosen for Top Gun; the cam-
eras were able to fit in the aircraft cockpits).
5. Often claimed to be more compatible with 70mm
than anamorphic. Some have this impression because Su-
per 35 is a straight blow-up to 70mm, while anamorphic has
to be unsque1zed when enlarged to 70mm.
This would be true if Super 35 had an equivalent nega-
tive area to anamorphic. As it stands, anamorphic's greater
negative area lmakes up for any possible loss of resolution
when unsqueezed to 70mm. As a result, 70mm prints from
Super 35 appear Significantly grainier than those from an-
amorphic negatives.
6. Claimed to be a simpler video transfer by just do-
ing a 4-perf frame extraction, resulting in dramatic increase
in top and boftom areas over the original 2.35 composition
(See illustrati ~n 7). In practice this never works, since a full
frame extraction is such a distortion of the original compo-
sition (for exAmple, close-ups become medium shots). A
panned and scanned video transfer is what ends up being
done for the bulk of the film with a few full-framed extrac-
tions where a propriate (Ferris Bueller's Day Off is an ex-
ample).
B. Disadvantages of Super 35 Composed for 2.35
Aspect Ratiol
1. Most notable is the small negative area. Anamorphic
2.35 has an increase in negative area of more than 60%. It
also has slightly less negative area than standard 1.85 pho-
tography. The difference in negative area becomes most
pronounced after 35mm dupe negatives are made. An-
amorphic du~e negs are made with contact printing, which
in itself tendslto lessen the appearance of grain. Super 35
dupe negs involve an optical step during which the image
is blown up, then squeezed to produce an anamorphic im-
age for release prints. Because of this optical step, grain in
the negative tends to be more sharply resolved, making it
more objectionable.
2. For best quality, all dissolves and fades must be done
with A & B printing in the laboratories. When these effects
are done by ~n optical house they become excessively
grainy in release prints.
3. Because of the optical step involved, composite
prints cannot be struck until after dupe negatives have been
made.
24
Illustration 10 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1. Above Left: The scene as
it appears on the negative, positioned wit~n the FU~L a.perture fr~e.
Above Right: The scene as it appears on a pnnt for projection, after beIng
blown up & "squeezed" to make room for the optical soundtrack.
4. Again, because of the optical step involved, origi-
nal negative composite prints cannot be struck. ~ctually,
it is technically possible, but can only be done WIth COn:-
plex procedures and such a ~l?h risk of .failure that It
doesn't merit subjecting the ongmal negative to the han-
dling involved. . .
5. More difficult to preVIew because of a SpecIal ~ro-
jection mask required for the Full Aperture work pr~t.
Since Super 35 uses the area reserved for a soundtrack ill
the work print stage, many theaters cannot be adapted to
project the format. . u
6. Main title opticals must be done WIth the double
IF" method to maintain quality, doubling the expense of
such opticals.
7. Editing equipment must be adapted to show the
soundtrack area.
8. Because of the small negative area, many cinema-
tographers limit choice of negativ:s to slower spee? stoc~
(Le., 5245, 5248), or overexpose high-speed ~egatives 1-Y2
to 2 stops for better grain qu~ty, often negating the advan-
tage of the high-speed negativ~. .
9. Video transfers usually illvolve pannmg and scan-
ning because of the wide-screen asp~t ratio. This is also a
pan and scan of a much smaller neg~tive.a rea than anamo~­
phic 2.35, resulting in a lower quality vI.d eo trans~er. This
becomes most evident in letterbox verSlOns of a film and
particularly on HDTV. . .
10. There is potential for more expensIve VISUal effects,
if a decision is made to have coverage beyond the 2.35 com-
position, allowing for full frame video .transfers. Matte
shots, miniatures, etc., might be comproffil5ed on full frame
transfers if the image isn't protected completely to 1.33 (see
illustration 7).
25
r
The author wishl to thank Marty Katz fo r making him write this in the to this rule are theaters that have acoustically transparent
first place, flIld Harrisok Ellenshaw, Stephen H. Burum, ASC, Skip Nicholson masking (all THX 70mm theaters have transparent mask-
and Evans Wetmore for their help in bringillg greater clarity to the article and
keeping him honest. Also, thanks to Trici Venola for the use of her computer ing).
graphic of the Taj Maltal.
Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
35mm Blowups to 70mm Prints The image below has a 2.35:1 aspect ratio.
Aspect Ratio 2.2:1
The aspect ratio of 70mm prints (and 65mm camera
negative) is 2.2:1. Since 35mm films are not usually photo-
graphed in this aspect ratio, they must adapt their compo-
sition to fit within this area. In this illustration of a 70mm
frame, the gray area represents a magnetic soundtrack.

o What follows are examples of the options, and p~t~n­

tial compromises, available to adapt a 2.35:1 composition
o for 70mm release.
o Most often, film labs will enlarge the 2.35 image to fill
the entire area of the 70mm frame. Although the height of
Aspect Ratio 1.8J:1 the 2.35 composition is not affected u,us way ~i.e., all Nort~­
South picture information remams mtact), i~ormation is
When 1.85:1 [films are blown up to 70mm, the full lost on the right and left sides of the compositiOn:
height of the 70mm frame is utilized. Ali 1.85 picture infor- The frame below graphically illustrates what informa-
mation is maintained with black burned into the unused tion is lost when 2.35:1 is blown up to fill the entire 70mm
area of the frame.
frame.

Most theaters have black screen masking (black cur- 2.35 to 70mm Prints Continued
tains) that they use to cover areas of the screen that don't
The following illustration shows how the .image.actu-
have any image on them. In a 1.85 70mm print, although
ally appears on the 70mm print ~d whe~ projected m the
the black area does not contain any picture information,
theater after being blown up to fill the. entire 70mm.frame.
theaters must be careful not to close their screen masking
The alternative method for blowmg up 2.35:1lIDages
over the black area on the screen. Were they to do so, the
to 70mm is to maintain the full width of the aspect ratio.
masking might cover speakers placed behind the screen
This is accomplished by fittirlg the 2.35 area within 70mm's
that are utilized for 70mm soundtracks. The only exception
26 27
 Cameras
65mm
Arriflex 765 31
Cinema Products CP-65 33
Fries 865 34
2.2 area and burning black above and below the picture, Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO 36
effectively gi~ing the film thicker frame lines. A number of MSM8870 37
films have bE1en released in this manner in recent years,
Panavision ACjSPC 39
including Superman, The Untouchables, and Star Trek IV.
In this example, the area that would be a thick black Pa."lavision System-65 39
frameline is crosshatched for clarity in this illustration. It Panavision Panaflex System-65 43
would not appear this way in an actual 70mm print.
35mm
Aaton 35mm 45
Aaton 35-II 46
Arriflex 535 47
Arriflex 535B 50
Arriflex 35-3 52
Arriflex 35BL-4s 54
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arriflex 35-2C 57
Cinema Products FX35 59
Cinema Products XR35 61
Feathercam CM35 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,
BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm) 64
Mitchell S35R (Mark II) 66
Mitche1l35mm Standard and High Speed 67
Moviecam Super 35mm 69
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 70
Panavision GIl Golden Panaflex 74
Panavision Panaflex-X 74

28 29
 35mm clntinued 65mm Cameras
Panaflel Panastar High-Speed 74 Arriflex 765
Panavision Super R-200° 76
Photo-Sonics 4B / 4C 79
Photo-Sonics 4ER 79
Ultracam 35rnm 80
VistaVision
MSM 8812 81
Wilcam W-7 82
Wilcam W-9 83
Wilcam W-ll 85
16mm
Aaton XTRplus 86 Movement: The 765 uses advanced microprocessor
Arriflex 16SR-2 control technology to link two quartz-controlled DC mo-
88 tors in a direct drive configuration to control shutter and
Arriflex 16SR-3 93 film transport. No belts or mechanical couplings are used
Arriflex 16BL 95 in the drive system. Dual registration pins, triple-pin pull-
down claws and user-adjustable pitch control assure im-
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B 97 age quality to optical printer standards.
Bolex 1 nun 99 Speed Range: Quartz-accurate sync at 15/24/25/
Bell & Howell Filmo 70 29.97/30/60/75 fps on-board; 2-100 fps with the CCU; 24
101 fps reverse; and 1 fps with the 765's Remote Control Unit.
Minicam 16rnm (GSAP) 102 Run-up time is less than 1 second at 24 fps.
Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A 102 Shutter: Rotating, microprocessor-controlled silicon
mirror shutter, mechanically variable from 15° to 165°, plus
Cinema Products CP-16R, 16R/ A 104 144°, 172.8°, and 180°.
Cinema Products GSMO 105 Reflex Viewfinder: The viewfinder has a built-in op-
Eclair ACL tical turret that permits on-the-fly selection of either 80:20
107 or 100:0 video/viewing ratios, and has a switchable ND.6
Eclair CM-3 (16/ 35rnm) 108 contrast viewing glass, ArriGlow illuminated frame lines,
Eclair NPR 109 and a finder extender with built-in 2X image magnification.
A short finder (for portable operation) and a video finder
Mitchell Professional HC, HSC 111 are also available. A wide-angle eyepiece with manual iris
Mitchell Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16 113 closure, 8X magnification, and 2± diopter adjustment is
Panavision Panaflex 16nun standard.
114 Camera Control Unit (CCU):The CCU remotely turns
the 765 on and off, and also activates speed changes, from
up to 100 feet away.

30 31
 Lens Mount: 64mm diameter Maxi-PL (positive Lock) Cinema Products CP-65
lens mount; flange focal distance of 63.5mm; designed for
ARRI Maxi-PL prime and RTH Cooke zoom, wide-angle
and telephoto lenses.
Drive: Microprocessor-controlled 24V DC motor in
direct-drive confi~ation to shutter and movement. Power
input via a 3-pin connector: pin 1 is (-), pin 2 is + 24V. Op_
erating temper ture range is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C to
+50°C).
Operating Noise Level: 25 dBa at 24 fps; 28.5 dBa at
30 fps.
Indicators: ~-finder displays: out-of-sync and filrn-
end. Digital LCDITachometer and Footage Displays: cam-
era left/ right; audible and visible out-of-sync; low battery;
and feet/meters footage display.
Magazines: 1400' (160m) and 1000' (300m) displace-
ment with microprocessor-controlled torque motors. Mi-
croprocessor samples and adjusts feed / take-up tension and
all other functions continuously. Automatic cOlmection and
data transfer to ckera via multi-plug pin plug. Mechani-
cal and digital LCD counters.
Lenses: ARRI/ Zeiss 65mm format lenses include
30mm, 40mm, 50mm, 60mm, 80mm, 100mm, 1l0mm,
120mm, 150mm, 250mm, 350mm, 2X Mutar Extender, and
a 38-21Omm zoom. Maximum aperture ranges from T-1.8
to T-4.2 for primellenses, and T-6.2 on the zoom.
Matte Boxes:The 765's 6.6x6.6 Swingaway Production
Matte Box covers all65mm format lenses. Has two fully
rotatable 2-filter stages. Geared filter frames.
Electronic Atcessories: 1. Variable Speed and Sync
Unit (VSSU): The VSSU module allows remote speed Ii-- - - -- -- -,-
I
changes between 6 and 100 fps non-crystal; provides syn-
chroniza tion witI:lexternal PAL or NTSC video signal (50/ , " ~ ---.J - -~)

60 Hz) via up to ~OO' BNC cable. 2. Video Optics Module

(YOM): Color and B & W CCD video tap cameras, with
flicker reduction and iris control.
Additional ~ccessories: 2-Speed follow focus;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mount for
matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy
lenses; finder exte.l}der and leveling rod; barney and heated
barney; Arri Geared Head.
32
~~/
This camera, designed in conjunction with Wil~am, is
intended to meet the exacting needs of Showscan cmema-
tography (60 fps) but operates at conventional speeds as
well. Photographed aperture is standard 5-perf 65mm
(2.072" x 0.906"). . .
Movement: Compensating link, with dual re~stra~on
pins and four pull-down claws. Retractable register pms
33
 and 2-axis stroke adjustment that permits hIDing the move-
ment for most silent operation. Removable aperture and
pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter:!170° fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
Speed Range: 1-72 fps, forward or reverse, by 4-de-
cade digital dial that is crystal accurate at all selected speeds
up to 2 decimal digits. Single-frame operation under con-
trol of extern~l in~ervalometer also available.
Reflex Viewmg System: Rotating mirror reflex image
through ground glass, with provision for film clip insertion,
to a 360° erect image orientable viewfinder. Easily attached
eyepiece extender with automatic leveler also available.
I
Built-in video tap for high-resolution CCD chip camera also
included. ..
Lens Mount: Quick-acting bayonet lock for specially
mounted CP-65 lenses. 1'11"; 11 IN L ROTATE
111·1· ...1 111.10£1'1:11

Lenses: A complete series of specially mounted prime ~~ ::; ::w 1'11.1' -,

lenses varymg from 24 to 1200mm, as well as high-quality ~P==1"

zoom lenses, rare available.
. Sound Blimp: The camera's self-blimped design per- lIt:r. 1'IN
nuts sync-sound shooting at 24 fps. At Showscan speed of II£LEASE "1U'l0UT
TAlu;-ur

60 ~s, a lightweight composite material sound blimp is

prOVIded to ~eet exacting SOlU1d level requirements of sync
sow1d filming. 1.1)"'1
1 'O~ITIOH
Magazines: lOoo-ft. magazines and 25QO-ft. individual
s~pply and tak~-up cassettes are available. Magazine
blimps for both SIzes are also available. DIo\CKAM

Special ~eatures: Camera can be externally controlled

for phase locKing as required by process photography and
3-D filming. I'U SII 1M" ROTATE
IA)lIIEIt 1l:t:f.:PU

Fries Model 865 65mm/8-perf.
This is a farge-format 65mm 8-perforation camera de-
s~gned to meet the. requirements of new formats for spe-
oal venue productIons. Photographed aperture is 2.072" x
1.450"
Movement: Dual registration pins and six pull-down
claws. A camland eccentric mounted on a single shaft ac-
tuate the pull-down and operate the register pins. Remov-
able aperture and pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter: 170° fixed opening blanking shutter.
Speed Riplge: 2-72 fps forward or 2-30 fps reverse. All
speeds crystal controlled.
Reflex Viewing System: Rotating mirror reflex im-
age. Viewfinder is orientable through a full 360° and self-
34
corrected through approximately 180°. Built-in video tap
for high resolution CCD chip camera also included.
Lens Mount: Universal bayonet type with a large port
diameter. Special mounts available upon request.
Lenses: A complete series of Hasselblad lenses is
available.
Drive: Internal 30 VDC crystal controled
Magazines:500ft. and 1000ft. displacement magazines
with torque motor take up and hold back.
Special Features: Valve which allows the operator to
direct light to the viewing system, or to the video assist or
combo which splits the light between both viewing and
video assist.
35
 Weights: Camera body 45Ibs., 1000 ft. 13 Yz lbs.
Accessories: Standard Arri matte box.
Mitchell 61smm Reflex TODD-AD
Movement: Dual registration pins. Four pull-down
claws. Adjustable pull-down stroke. Removable aperture
plate with built-in matte slot. Aperture 2.072" x .9055" Speed
range 12 fps-32.
Shutter: Focal plane 175°.
Reflex Viewfinder: Pellicle beam splitter (shock
mounted) vier'S more than full aperture area. High mag-
nification for tritical focusing; contrast viewing filters.
External Viewfinder: Large erect image viewfinder
calibrated for different focal-length lenses. Calibrated for
any two aspect ratios. Parallax correcting carns for all fo-
cal-length lenses.
Lens Mohnt: Single mount with quick-release flange
T-stop calibration allows for mirror absorption. Accepts all
Todd-AO fixed focal-length and zoom lenses. All lenses
geared for manual follow-focus control.
Drive: Internal 28V DC motor, solid-state speed con-
trol.
Speeds: 12, 18, 20, 22, 24, 28, and 32 fps . Manual
threading knob provided. Belt pack batteries. Rectifier unit
36
nov AC-28V DC. Camera will also accept externally
mounted motors for special purposes.
Magazines: 350' lightweight magnesi~ displacem~t
type; remaining footage indicator; pOSItIve clutch dnve
1000' magazine also available.
Features: Weight: 27 pounds with 350' of film. Sho~­
der support and hand grip or tripod mo~t. Dual gel~tJn
filter slot in front of film aperture. Heating system. Film
runout indicator. Remote control.
Accessories: Zoom lenses: 60-150mm, 100-300mm,
and 65-390mm. Underwater blimp with internal battery
and externally controlled film speed, stops and focus; de-
signed for 50' depth or less. Built-in exposure meter.
MSM Model 8870 6SmmJ8-perf.
Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, dual-regis-
ter pins, claw engages six perfs. Shrinkage adjustment
changes both stroke and entry position. Indexable loop-
setting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures filmplane accuracy, removes
without tools for cleaning. Aperture and movement re-
m ove easily for cleaning and lubrication. Aperture size
2.072" wide x 1.485" high . Frame-rates from timelapse to 60
fps forward, also to 30 fps reverse.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from
172.8° to 55° with stops at 144° and 108°.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder ro-
tates 360° with erect image; image can be manually rotated
for unusual setups. Finder shows 105% of frame, magni-
fier allows critical focusing at center of interest. Single le-
ver controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. High resolution B & W
or optional color CCD video tap is built into camera door
with swingaway 50/50 bearnsplitter. Viewfinder removes
completely for aerial or underwater housing use.
Lens Mount: MSM 75mm diameter x 80mm flange
depth.
BNC-style lens mount is vertically adjustable 7~ .for
flat or dome screen composition. Mount accepts modified
Zeiss (Hasselblad), Pentax, Marniya, and other large-format
lenses. 15mm matte rods are on ARRI BL centers for acces-
sory compatibility.
37

t
vacuum backplat e
regpin retract knob
pitch adjustment knob
keeper release button
loop setting sprocket knob
Magazines: 1000' displacement magazines use the
MSM TiltLock mount. Magazines lock to the camera with
a pair of 8mm hardened pins, and can tilt away from the
operator to allow easier camera threading. Optional mini-
mum profile 1000' coaxial magazines use same mount with-
out tilt feature. Both magazines operate bidirectionally at
all camera speeds. A positive carnlock secures the mag in
running position and switches power to the motor and
heater contacts in the magfoot. Expanding core hubs have
integral OC servomotors controlled by film tension in both
directions, with soft startup to eliminate slack. Tightwind
rollers guide film winding for smooth solid rolls at any
camera angle. Non-contact light traps feature infrared end-
of-film sensors.
Features: Crystal sync from 5 to 60 fps in .001 incre-
ments. Status LEDs for power, heat, low b attery, mag
38
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Two illuminated LCD foo t-
age counters. Digital battery volt/ amp meter. Circuit break-
ers for camera, mag, heat, and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with
computers and external accessories.
Panavision 65mm AC (Auxiliary Camera)
SPC (Speed Camera)
Movement: AC: Compensating link, dual registration
pins, four pull-down claws. Low noise level.
SPC: Dual registration pins and four pull-down claws
ensure same degree of steadiness as AC model.
Both Models: Movement has matte slot, removable
aperture and pressure plates that can be removed for clean-
ing. Timing marks provided for reassembly. Aperture
2.072" by 9.055".
Speed Range: AC: Stop-motion to 32 fps.
SPC: 16 fps-72fps.
Shutter: AC: Variable 50°-200°, forward or reverse.
SPC: Variable 0°-1 70°, forward or reverse, segments
calibrated to 10°.
Focusing: Rack over for critical focusing and lineup.
Erect image telescope built-in, variable magnification, con-
trast viewing filters, interchangeable ground glasses, slot
for mattes.
Viewfinder: Large erect image nomeflex viewfinder.
Cam operated parallax correction. . .
Lenses: Quick-acting bayonet lock for PanaVlSIOn
lenses. Lenses do not rotate.
Drive: Both cameras accept all Mitchell motors.
Panaspeed motor has 24 fps crystal sync and may be var-
ied from 12 fps-32 fps. Operates on a 36V battery. For high
speed, a precisely controlled motor capable of 12 fps-72 fps
is provided. It operates on two 30V batteries.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' double chamber. 500'
bipack magazine available for special effects.
Panavision System-65 65mm
Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-plate image steadiness. Four pull-down claws. Pitch
adjustment to optimize camera quietness. Entire movement
may be removed for servicing.
Aperture plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
39

~hutter: F~Cal wi~h
plane shutter infinitely variable
openmg and adjustable m-shot. Maxunum opening: 180°;
rrurumum: 40° with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in 1;]0°
increments: Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchro-
ruzahon With c~mputers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote-con-
rro) tuilts avaLlab)e.
Reflex system: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system.
Optical viewfinder system: High magnification opti-
cal system. The!viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
40
constantly upright image through 360°. Short, Intermedi-
ate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incor-
porates an 0Vtical magnifier for critical focusing and pic-
ture comp~SItion, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. Adjustable eyepiece lev-
eling.link-ar~ ~s supplied with every Panahead to keep the
eyepIece pOSItion constant while tilting. An eyepiece di-
opter to suit the operator's own eyesight can be provided
on request.
. Groun.d Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
avaIlable WIth any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panag~ow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control IS standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical frame align-.
ment.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
l~ mount for main~aining critical flange focal depth set-
ting. All lenses are pmned to ensure proper rotational ori-
entation.
. Lenses: A wide range of color-matched lenses, rang-
mg from a distortion-free 24mm to 400mm. Most are T-2
or T-2.8. Also available are a 60-360mm T-6.3 zoom and 35
and 45mm pivoting lenses for slant focusing. In addition,
many of the mid-range Primo and Zeiss lenses, and the long
focal length Canon and Nikon lenses, can be used with a
special adaptor. All lenses checked and calibrated by MTF.
All lenses have widely spaced lens focus calibrations and
low im~!?e veiling glare. Lenses are supplied with adequate
length lflS rods for matte box and filter support. Focus con-
trol can be used from either side. Zooms are supplied with
and electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Boxes: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incor-
po~atin!? more.filter stage~, with provision for sliding (mo-
tonzed if reqwred), rotating and/or tilting and for taking
6.6" ~qu~e .filter~ are optional. Panavision can also supply
speCIal slidmg diffusers, diopters and all marmer of image
contr.ol filters, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
41
 I
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor runs the camera at any
speed from 1J,-30 fps. Camera speed is crystal-controlled at
all frame rates and may be adjusted at 1 fps increments.
Special syncboxes are available to synchronize the camera
with a mains power supply, computers, video signals, or
process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. Inter-
nal heaters ensure that cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperatures without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 25db with film and lens, mea-
sured 3 feet from image plane.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
Both can be used on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height.
Optical accessories: Almost all Panaflex 35mm front-
of-lens optical accessories and filters, etc., can be used on
the System-65 cameras.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery.
Camer,a support equipment: "Super Panahead"
geared head incorporates a 60° tilt range with a built-in
wedge syst~m to allow the operator to select where that
range IS, anywhere between the camera pointing directly
up or. direct~y down, and three gear ratios in both the pan
and tilt I~o~ements . A sliding base unit enables a camera
to be gmckliY attached and detached and to be slid back-
wards and forwards on the head for optimum balance.
"Panapod" tripods, with carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Environmental protection equipment: All System-65
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters for operation
in ar:~ temperature. Heated covers are available to give
additional protection to lenses, especially zoom lenses.
Other covers are available to protect the camera, magazines
and lenses. Spinning-glass rain deflectors are available for
use in storm conditions. An autobase is available to secure
the camera in conditions of vibration, high "g" forces and
other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is
available to protect the camera in shallow water conditions;
a hazard box protects the camera from explosions, collisions
and other dangerous situations.
42
Panavision Panaflex System-65 Hand-
holdable
Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-pla~e Image st~adiness. Pilot pins register in the same
~erforation holes (Immediately below the bottom frame
Ime) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire
movement may be removed for servicing.
Aperture pl:te:.Removable for checking and cleaning.
Shutter: 170 FlXed-operung focal plane shutter.
Reflex System: Two models are available - one has
a rotating mirror, the other a semi-silvered fixed reflex
mirror for flicker-free viewing, which is especially suitable
for ~anaglide, Steadicam, Louma and remote camera op-
eratIon.
Optical viewfinder system: High magnification opti-
cal system. The viewfinder tube is orientatable and gives a
const~tly upright image through 360°; short and long
vIewfmder tub.es are available for handheld and tripod
usage. System mcorporates an optical magnifier for criti-
cal focusmg .and picture composition, a contrast viewing
filter an.d a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjust-
m~~t WIth ma;,ker bezel to note individual settings. A built-
111 .Panaclear eyeI:Iece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable leveler l~ arm supplied with every Panahead
to keep eyepIece pOSItIon constant while tilting the camera
up or down. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own
eyesIght can be provided on request.
. Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
~vailable w~~ any .marking, ?r combination of markings.
Panag~ow illummated retIcle system with brightness
controllS standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
l~ns mount for main.taining critical flange focal depth set-
tIng. ~ lenses are pmned to ensure proper rotational ori-
entation.
Lenses: Lenses are interchangeable with the System-
65 Studio Camera.
Lens Control: Focus control which can be used from
either side ?f the camera. Zoom lenses are supplied with
an electrornc zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Box~~: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, proVISIon for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incor-
43

(Note: The extension unit is used only for top-magazine configuration.)
porating more filter stages, with provision for sliding (mo-
torized if rt;quired), rotating and/ or tilting and for taking
6.6" square~ters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special slid' g diffusers, diopters and all manner of image
control filte s, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam-
era at any ~peed from 4-72 fps. The motor is crystal con-
trolled at all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps incre-
ments. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the
camera with a main power supply, with computers, with
video signals and with process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization. Internal heaters ensure that the cameras
may be used at sub-zero temperatures without special
preparation.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
1000' reverse running magazines available on request.
Magazine loading: Same as Panavision PSR 200° cam-
era.
Optical accessories: Interchangeable with System-65
Stuclio camera.
Batteries: The camera, heaters and accessories all op-
erate off a single 24V Ni-ead battery. Belt batteries are avail-
able for hand-holding.
Camera support equipment: Lightweight System-65
Hand-holdable cameras are ideal for use with Panaglide
and Steadiqam floating camera rigs and on remotely con-
44
trolled camera cranes. They can also be used with a
"Panatate" 360° turn-over rig.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color. Flicker-free images
are possible with the pellicle reflex system.
Environmental protection equipment: Same as Sys-
tem-65 above.
35mm Cameras
Aaton 35mm Handholdable
This extremely compact camera -7 kg (15.41bs.) with
120 meters (400 feet) of film -- is designed for handheld
small-camera situations where traclitional35mm cameras
would be too bulky or awkward. The film channel is ad-
justable: Academy, 1.85:1, or Techniscope.
Movement: The movement of the Aaton 35 is a linear
stroke, with the in/ out movement controlled by a cam co-
axial with the claw shaft (U.S. patent no. 3806016). The se-
curity provided by the claw's linear pull-down, followed
by non-shifting withdrawal from the perforation at the
dead point, ma~es a registration pin system unnecessary
- the claw tIp Itself ensures this function. The vertical
steadiness of this pull-down movement is enhanced by the
perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded
side pressure guide.
. Shutter: Reflex mirror shutter, single blade, 180° open-
mg.
F~~s~g: Through-~e-lens viewing and focusing, 6X
magnificatIon. Auto erect lffiage. Swiveling viewfinder for
perfect eye-ta-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lenses: Panavision, Arri PL or Aaton mounted lenses
can be installed. The Aaton mount, because it has the short-
est flange focal clistance of the industry, can receive almost
all the best still-photography lenses, like the Leica R, Nikon
and Canon-AF.
Motors: A small direct-drive brushless motor (1500
rp~) runs the mechanism. Automatic stop in viewing po-
SItion. A second motor in the camera body drives the maga-
zine through an independent magnetic clutch. The Aaton
battery (12V, 1.8 Ah) fits directly onto the camera body.
Magazine: 400' displacement-type magazine is pre-
threaded and allows quick changing. It is automatically
~ocked into pos.iti.on when placed on the camera body and
IS released by lifting a lever on the motor side of the cam-
45
era. The feed and take-up rolls compensate for each other
in size, w~e the shaft of each roll shifts position as the film
is exposed. The electronic counter registers in feet and
meters.
Video Assist: A small high-resolution CCD video
camera attached to the side of the camera only bleeds off
30% of the light from the viewfinder.
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing-away
matte-box; two 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and zero-
backlash follow-focus system. CCD video assist with
manual iris control delivers extremely sharp images.
Arriflex 535

Aaton 35-11
Movement: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering
(U.s. patent no. 3806016). The vertical steadiness of this
movement is enhanced by the perfect lateral film position-
ing ensured by a spring-loaded side pressure guide. Hair-
free gate has air circulation channel to keep hair out.
Shutter: True 180-degree front surface mirror facili-
tates 60Hz HMI and video monitor roll-bar elimination.
Stops in viewing position. May be inched for aperture in-
spection.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter, 6X magnification,
auto erect image, interchangeable ground glass. Swiveling
viewfinder for perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lens Mount: Panavision, Arri PL or Nikon inter-
changeable!mounts. 35mm to Super 35 format conversion
in five minutes in the field.
Drive:IBrushless crystal sync 12V motor for 24, 25, and
29.97 or 30 ips. Variable control 6 to 54 ips. Maximum speed
with external control is 32 ips. Circuit board and motor may
be removed and replaced in two minutes. Slim battery (12V
1.8Ah) fits directly onto the camera body. A second motor
in the camera body drives the magazine through an inde-
pendent magnetic clutch.
Magazines: 122m (400') pre-threaded displacement-
type magazine for instant changing. The feed and take-up
rolls compensate for each other in size, while the shaft of
each roll shifts position as the film is exposed. The electronic
counter transmits feet or meters to the camera body. The Arriflex 535 is a completely integrated camera
Features: Digital control display: footage, voltage, system. Its microprocessor control technology permits shut-
speed, ISO, magazine footage, low battery and out-of-sync ter angle and speed changes while running - at the cam-
warnings. The key-eode compatible, AatonCode time re- era or remotely.
cording system prints large and rugged time matrixes on Movement: Multi-link film transport with dual-pin
the edge of the film, ensuring perfect sync with SMPTE time registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
of audio recorders. 1 ppm TCXO internal clock, initialized dual pull-down claws. Easily removed for changing to a 3-
with RS232 or SMPTE signals. Negatives from the Aaton perforation pull-down. Adjustable pitch control. Universal
35-II are ~y mixable with Panavision, Moviecam and Arri aperture plate has both interchangeable format masks and
BL AatonOode-equipped cameras. a behind-the-Iens gel filter holder. Ground glasses and fi-
46 47
ber-optic focus screens for all aspect ratios available.
Shutter: Microprocessor-controlled variable mirror
shutter. Continuously adjustable from 11° to 180° while
running, in .01 ° increments, at any camera speed. Exposure
is %8 of a second at 24 fps with a 180° shutter. The 535's
program also permits simultaneous frame rate/shutter
angle effectk such as programmed speed changes with
. I .
precIse exposure compensation.
Viewfinder: Swingover Viewfinder fully operational
from either t amera left or camera right. Permits omni-di-
rectional reflex viewing with constant image correction
side-ta-side and upright. Programmable ArriGlow for low-
light filming. Nine pre-programmed illuminated formats,
an optional customized format module and fiber-optic fo-
cus screens. !Switchable ND.3 and ND.6 contrast viewing
glasses, a variety of in-finder information LEDs, and a 12"-
15" variable fulder.
Lens Mount: PL (Positive Lock) lens mount, 54mm
diameter, with relocatable optical center for easy conver-
sion to the Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm,
and image sharpness is guaranteed due to the rigid me-
chanical corytection between lens mount and film plane.
Both Super Speed and Standard lenses with PL mounts
may be usedlPL zoom and telephoto lenses should be used
with a bridgeplate system.
Lenses: The 535 utilizes the full range of: Zeiss
Superspeed '- 18mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, 65mm, and
85mm T-1.3s; Zeiss Standard -10mm, 12mm, 14mm,
16mm, 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 32mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm,
100mm, 135E T-2.1s; and 60mm, 180mm, and 300mm T-
3.0s; Arri ~amorphic - 32mm, 40mm, 50mm and 75mm
T-2.3s, and 1 00mm and 135mm T-3.0s; Arri Macro -
16mm, 24mril, 32mm, and 40mm T-2.1s; 50mm and 100mm
T-3.0s and 200mm T-4.3. RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom
lenses.
Motor: Microprocessor-controlled 24V DC motor that
operates with quartz accuracy at 24/ 25/ 29.97/30 fps on-
board, and at 3-50 fps with the Camera Control Unit (CCU),
Remote Uniti(RU), or the Variable Speed Unit (VSU). It also
operates at 24/25 fps reverse with the CCU, and at 1 fps
crystal accurate with its phase button. 50/ 60 Hz is standard.
External Sync Unit (ESU) is designed for multi-camera,
video, or projector interlock. Power input is through a 3-
pin connector: Pin 1 is (-),andPin2is +24V. Operating tem-
perature range is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C to + 50°C).
48
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial, each with two mi-
croprocessor-controlled torque motors. Microprocessor
samples and adjusts feed / take-up tension and all other
functions continuousl y. Mechanical and digital LCD
counters are built-in.
Matte Boxes: The 535 utilizes a 19mm diameter rod
Camera Support System. The Support System includes a
full range of matte boxes, bridgeplate, 2-speed follow fo-
cus, and lens supports. 15mm rod adapters are available
upon request.
1. 6.6 x 6.6 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 12mm
and up, as well as most presently used zooms. Interchange-
able two, four, or six filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees,
swing-away for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
2. 5 x 6 Production Matte Box: covers fixed lenses
14mm on up, as well as most presently used zooms. Two
filter stages, swing-away for changing lenses. Geared fil-
ter frame.
3. 4 x 4 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 16mm and
up. Two and four filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees, swing-
away for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
4. 4 x 4 Matte Box: (for use with 35-3 and 16SR systems
only) covers lenses 16mm and up. Two filter stages, mounts
on Arri lightweight support.
5.4 x 4 Lightweight Matte Box: mounts directly to the
front of any 80mm front diameter lens. Two filter stage with
removable rubber lens shade.
Indicators: In-finder Displays: LEDs in the viewfinder
allow the operator to monitor various camera functions,
battery status, and programmable film-end warning. Digi-
tal LCD Tachometer and Footage Displays: camera left/
right; audible and visible out-of-sync warning; visible film
jam; film-end; error codes; improper movement position;
improper magazine mounting; and disengaged rear film
guide indicators.
Electronic Accessories: Variable Speed Unit (VSU)
module mounts directly to the 535, and permits camera
speed changes between 3 and 50 fps, non-erystal. Shutter
Control Unit (SCU): mounts directly to the camera and
permits camera shutter angle changes between 11° and
180°. Remote Unit (RU): operational remotely from up to
60', provides an VSU / SCU (variable shutter / variable
speed) combination. The RU links the SCU and VSU to
permit manual adjustment of the frame rate while the 535's
microprocessor varies the shutter angle - all to ensure a
49
constant det th-Of-field and exposure. Video Optics Mod-
ule (YOM): provides flicker reduction and iris controL With
Selectable Beam Splitter, facilitates video viewing under
difficult conditions. SMPTE Time Code Module plugs in to
utilize on-board time code generator, and provides full
SMPTE 80-bit time code capability. Electronic Sync Unit
(ESU): The ESU, operational remotely from up to 60', pro-
vides synchronization with an external PAL or NTSC video
signal (50 / 60 Hz), another camera or a projector, or com-
puter or video monitor via a monitor pick-up. It also con-
tains a phase shifter, pilotone generator, and selectable di-
vision ratio between an external source and the camera's
frame rate. Camera Control Unit (CCU): provides inte-
grated control over all electronic functions.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus with 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balance and
mount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lense~; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the
camera; finder extender and leveling rod; barney and
heated barr~ey; Arri Geared Head; and director's view-
finder with PL mount.
I
Arriflex 535B
The Arriflex 535B is the lightweight version of the 535,
designed for handheld and Steadicam cinematography.
(Refer to the Arriflex 535 section for full 535 specs.)
Movement: The 535B has the same multi-link film
transport, with dual-pin registration that conforms to op-
tical printer standards, and dual-pin pull-down claws as the
535. It has an adjustable pitch control. The 535B operates
at crystal-accurate speeds from 3 to 60 fps.
50
Shutter: The 535B has a manually adjustable mirror
shutter, variable from 11° to 180° in 15° steps, and 144° and
172.8°.
Lens Mount: The Arri 54mm PL lens mount, with a
relocatable optical center for easy conversion to Super 35.
Flange focal distance is 51.98 - O.Olmm.
Lenses: Same as 535.
Motor: The 535B has a microprocessor-eontrolled 24V
DC motor that operates from 3-60 fps, variable in 0.001 in-
crements at crystal accuracy. It features on-board program-
mable speeds of 24,25,29.97 and 30 fps, and variable crys-
tal speeds from 3-60 fps. Speeds are continuously variable
when the Remote Unit (RU-l) is used. Speeds can be pro-
grammed from the on-board LCD, with the Remote Unit
(RU-l), and with the Camera Control Unit (CCU), Arri's
standard off-camera programming unit. The 535B's power
input is through a 3-pin COImector: Pin 1 is (-), and Pin 2 is
+24V. Operating temperature range is -4°F to +122°F (-20°C
to +50°C) .
Viewfinder: The 535B has a lightweight Swingover
Viewfinder that pivots on two axes, with full left or right
side viewing, and a fully upright image no matter where it
is placed. It can be used with the new Arri flicker-reduced
CCD black & white and color video assists, and be easily
set up for anamorphic use. Adaptable for left- or right-eyed
viewing with a built-in telescopic extender, and has quick-
change beam splitters for B & W or color CCD video, and
slide-in masks for illuminated in-finder format markings.
The entire finder is easily removed without tools, and ac-
cepts a 100% video module for Steadicam use.
Magazines: Standard 535400' and 1000' coaxial maga-
zines.
Electronic Features: At the LCD, the user can pre-set
camera speed and time code information, and display
frame rate, film stock, battery voltage, and time code and
user bits. The CCU (Camera Control Unit) can be used to
set and run these 535B camera functions. An additional
LCD display can be added on camera right. The LCD also
indicates film jam, film end, improper movement position,
magazine improperly mounted, and rear film guides dis-
engaged. If the 535B is not ready for operation, its running
control lamp illuminates red. Time Code: The 535B utilizes
the same plug-in TC module as the 535. It records SMPTE
RP 136 Form C, and has an 80-bit integrated TC generator.
TC crystal accuracy is plus/minus Ippm (0-50 degrees C).
51
 Electronic Accessories: VSU, RU, and time code mod-
ule (see 535); Video Optics Module (VOM) -- Video moni-
toring is an integral part of the 535B's design. The 5358 can
accommodate both B & W and color CCD cameras, and
attached to the YOM both provide flicker reduction and iris
control.
Matte Boxes: See 535.
Additional accessories: 2-Speed follow focus;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mount for
matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy
lenses; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the camera;
finder extender and leveling rod; barney and heated
bamey; Arri Geared Head and Arri Geared Head 2; and
director's viewfinder with PL mount.

Arriflex 35-3 High Speed MOS

Movement: One registration pin and dual-pin pull-
down claw. Film channel incorporates a pressure pad at the
back of aperture area. Aperture plates and ground glasses
for all aspect ratios are interchangeable.
Shutter: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter
system, with variable shutter: 180°, 172.8°, 144°, and 135°.
Variable s~utter from 15° to 135° in 15° increments is avail-
CfJ-
0o 1/

able for earlier cameras, and is standard on 35-3 130 fps " "\\
models. The 15° to 180° shutter is constructed of lightweight I
silicon crystal. Exposure is Y4sth of a second at 24 fps with I
180° shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: Four interchangeable doors with
viewfinders are available: Standard door with fixed
viewfinder and mount for video tap; offset finder door for //
~

use with 400' coaxial shoulder magazine; pivoting finder /

door, pivots 210°; new pivoting finder door with optical /,.
adapter to attach video camera. All have adjustable Super
Wide Angle eyepiece with manual iris closure. Finder ex-
tenders available are 9"standard, 9" anamorphic, and 12.2"
standard with ND.6 contrast viewing glass.
Lens Mounts: 54mm diameter PL mount. Flange fo-
cal distance is 52mm. Super Speed and Standard lenses
with PL mount, those with Arri Bayonet (41mm diameter),
and Arri Standard lens mounts with PL adapter may be 4 to 50 fps at 12V DC. The camera is continuously variable
used. PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be from 4 to 100 fps (130 ips on the 35-3130 fps camera) at 24V
used with Bridgeplate Support System. DC with a Variable Speed Unit. The 50/ 60Hz EXB-2 Exter-
Motor Drive: 12/ 24V DC motor, with quartz-con- nal Sync Control may be used to interlock the 35-3 with a
trolled sync at 24/ 25/30 fps, 50/60 Hz. An on-board vari- video source, projector or another camera. A 4-pin power
able speed dial may be used to adjust camera speed from
52 53
connector is located in the rear of the electronics housing.
Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12V (+). Operating temperature range
is -13°F to +122°F (-25°C to +50°C).
Displays: An electronic tachometer and footage
counter. Aln. external red LED located below the counter
indicates when a low memory battery condition exists. A
red LED to indicate an out-of-sync condition and a green
LED to indicate variable speed mode are visible in the
viewfinder.
Magazines: 200', 400', and 1000' displacement mags;
400' low profile, coaxial shoulder magazine for
handholding.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan-
dard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses. See Arriflex 535 Lenses section for
details.
Arriflex 35BL-4s
Movement: 35BL-1 through BL-4 cameras feature
dual-pin registration and dual pull-down claws that ad-
vance the film through a fixed-gap film channel. The 35BL-
4s has a technologically advanced movement that includes
an adjustable pitch control. Aperture plates and ground
glasses for all aspect ratios are interchangeable between all
35BL models.
54
Shutter: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter
system, with variable shutter: 180°, 172.8°, 144°. Exposure
is Y48 of a second at 24 fps with 180° shutter. 35BL-1 and
35BL-2 cameras have 180° fixed shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: 35BL-4s and BL-4 viewfinders are
a full stop faster and brighter than earlier 35BL cameras,
and feature a larger exit pupil, ArriGlow illuminated frame
lines, and a high aperture 12.5" finder extender with swing-
in contrast viewing filter and variable magnification up to
2X. The finder rotates 90° above, and 90° below level with
the image always upright. An adjustable Super Wide Angle
eyepiece with manual iris closure and 6.5X magnification
is standard on 35BL-4s and BL-4 cameras. An adjustable
eyecup allows the operator to select the optimum eye-to-
exit pupil distance. Finder extenders available for the 35BL-
4s and 35BL-4 include a 12.5" standard with switchable con-
trast viewing filter, and for the 35BL-3, 35BL-2, and 35BL-
1, a 9" standard, and 9" Anamorphic.
Lens Mount: 54mm diameter PL mount, switchable
to Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm. Super
Speed and Standard lenses with PL mount, those with Arri
Bayonet (41mm diameter), and Arri Standard lens mounts
with PL adapter may be used. Both PL and non-PL zoom
and telephoto lenses should be used with a bridgeplate
system. Early 35BL cameras have Arri bayonet mount. BNC
mount available for 35BL-3 only. 35BL-2 and BL-1 cameras
require lens blimps for silent operation.
Motor Drive: 12V DC motor with quartz-controlled
sync at 24/25/30 fps, 50 or 60 Hz for all 35BL models. A
Variable Speed Control accessory extends the recom-
mended speed range from 5 to 40 ips on the 35BL-4s, 35BL-
4, 35BL-3, and 5 to 50 fps on the 35BL-2. The 35BL-1 will
operate up to 100 ips with the HSU-IOO speed control, spe-
cially modified magazines, and two 14.4Vbatteries. Multi-
camera interlock is achieved with the EXS-2 SO/60Hz Ex-
ternal Sync Unit. Power input through a 4-pin connector.
Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is +12V. Operating temperature range is -
4°F to +l22°F (-20°C to + 50°C).
Indicators: An LED electronic tachometer and footage
indicator and an audible out-of-sync warning are built-in.
A red LED near the footage counter indicates low footage,
memory, battery.
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial. The 35BL can be
handheld with either magazine. Mechanical footage
55
 cOW1ters are integral, and 35BL-4s magazines have an ad-
justable pitch control.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan-
dard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses. See 535.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus; bridgeplate sup-
port system for CG balance and mOW1t for matte box, fol-
low focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video
adapter for simultaneous optical and video viewing;
SMPTE time code; finder extender and leveling rod;
barney and heated barney; Arri Geared Head; director's
viewfinder with PL moW1t.
Arriflex 35-3C
Movement: Single pin claw with extended dwell-time
to assure accurate film positioning during exposure. Film
gate components are precision finished steel, and hard
chrome plated. Full aperture is standard, with other formats
available.
Shutter: Rotating reflex mirror shutter system, variable
from 0° to 165°, in 15° increments. Exposure is ~2l1d of a
second at 24 fps with a 165° shutter.
. Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Super Wide Angle eyepiece
for mcreased side-to-side viewing; interchangeable doors
U:clu~e fix~d v~ewfinder with mOW1t for videotap, 210°
pIVotmg vIewfinder with or without video, and offset
viewfinder door for use with 400-ft. shoulder magazine.
. Len~ Mount: 54mm diameter PL moW1t. Flange focal
dIstance IS 52rnm. Super Speed and Standard lenses with
56
PL mOW1t, those with Arri Bayonet (41rnm diameter), and
Arri Standard lens mOW1ts with PL adapter, may be used.
Both PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used with a special3-C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: Forward or reverse running 12V DC
handgrip motor with quartz-accurate sync at 24/25 fps,
with EXB variable speed accessory to adjust speed range
from 5 to 50 fps. Multi-camera interlock is achieved with
the 50/60 Hz EXB sync control accessory. Power input
through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12 V (+).
Operating temperature range is -13 F to +122 F (-24 C to +50
C).
Magazines: 200' forward operation only, 400' forward
or reverse; and 400' modified 35-3 shoulder magazines
available.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan-
dard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses (see Arriflex 535 Lenses Section for
details).
Accessories: Finder extenders including 9" and 12.2"
non-anamorphic, and 9" anamorphic; leveling rod; 2-speed
follow-focus; special 35-3C bridgeplate support system for
CG balance and mOW1t for matte box, follow focus, servo
zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video adapter for simulta-
neous optical and video viewing; Pilotone generator for 24/
25 fps, 50/60 Hz shooting; director's viewfinder with PL
moW1t.
Arriflex 35-2C
Description: The 35-2C series consists of multipurpose
35mm cameras. They are used handheld, and with appro-
priate accessories, for almost every type of motion picture
production application.
35-2C1B: Standard 2C featuring the Arri parallax-free
viewfinder system, a precision film transport system with
a maximum speed of 48 fps, a three-lens mOW1t turret, and
an interchangeable motor-drive system.
35-2CGSIB: Standard 2C features plus Pilotone output
and startrnarking system.
35-2CVIB: Standard 2C features plus variable shutter,
adjustable from 0° to 165°.
35-2CHSIB: High-speed model with 80 fps movement
and tachometer. A 32V DC motor with variable speed con-
trol is included with the camera.
57
 Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Wide Angle eyepiece and
parallax-free viewing.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret with two Arri Standard
and one Arri Bayonet moUflt. All Arri Standard and Bayo- .
net lenses that cover the full 35mm format can be used.
Zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with a special
2C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 32V DC highspeed handgrip motor for
20 to 80 fps operation is standard; other motors include 16V
DC governor motor for 24/25 fps operation, 24-28V DC
variable motor for 20 to 64 fps; 16V DC variable motor for
8 to 32 fps. Operating temperature range is -13 F to +122 F
r (-24 C to +50 C). Magazines: 200' forward operation only,
400' forward or reverse.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stan-
dard, RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom lenses with Bayo-
\
net or Standard mOUflts. Matte Boxes: Bellows and light-
weight versions.
\
"- "-.
.:::-.......... ~
\ Accessories: Servo zoom drive; camera door (Anamor-
phic available); periscope finder; finder extender; and flat
I
motor base to convert camera to flat-base configuration for
,
I--'~ ........
)....... /- .... mOUflting on flat surface or inside blimp housing.
r-~ «i
, I Cinema Products FX35
I I
r-r---fT~ I
" I I I I
I I II', I
I I II:, I
" II ,I I
I I II I I
u--iJ.~ I
I, I
I LJ I
L~ -{- __ '\... -..1/
, T"-, ---
'-T- ------T-..... - Special effects camera featuring pin-registered stearu-
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN) ness to 120 fps and computer control interface. Can be
handheld.
35-2CT/B: Standard 2~ with Techniscope gate and Movement: Cam-driven dual-pin pull-down. Dual-
two-perforation p~down film transport system. pin registration in Mitchell position. Adjustable stroke
Movement: Smgle-claw with extended dwell-time to length and entry position. Exit and entry buckle trips. For-
assure accura~e film positioning during exposure. Acad- ward and reverse operation, .980" X .735" standard aper-
emy aperture 1S standard, with other formats available. ture with provision for hard mattes.
° Shut~er: Rotating reflex mirror shutter system with Shutter: Butterfly reflex with focal plane cup. Adjust-
180 openmg. Exposure is Y4sth of a second at 24 fps. able 180°/172.8° /144°/90°/45°/0°. Stops in viewing posi-
tion. Internal phasing control to sync with TV equipment.

59
 IFILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
r
i
. Re~e~ Viewfinder: Erect, bright image, orientable.
Fme-~ammterchang~ableviewing screens. Precision reg-
Ister pms for matte alignment. Three viewing filters. 360°
adjustable eye piece; extender available. Optional video
aSSISt.
. Lens .Mount: BNCR standard, PL optional; anamor-
phic locating pin. Optional adapter for Arri standard or
bayonet-mounted lenses.
. Drive: Self-contained, 12 to 32V DC motor; synthe-
slZ~d crystal control from 1 to 120 fps in 0.01 fps steps. (Re-
9.wres 24.to 32~ f?r over 64 fps). One fps button for thread-
mg. Audible/Vlslble out-of-sync indicator.
Magazines: FX 35 QUAD (quick acting displacement)
400' (~orward/reverse), 1000' (forward only). Feature steel
toe~ smgle lat~ cover, footage indicator, anti-spill brake,
easily cleaned light trap. Adapter for Mitchell magazines.
Feature~: Can b~ run from personal computer. Feed-
back: status information, alarms. Shutter and digital shaft
coder quadrature and all control functions. Designed to be
as ste.ady as ~ optical printer. Display module over
viewfinder sWlvels for operator or assistant; shows speed,
footage, camera mode, battery voltage, current, and low
battery alarm. OptionallO-foot extension cable.
. Acce.sso~es: Matte boxes, filters, lens control systems,
Video aSSIst, time code, viewfinder exposure meter com-
puter interface module. ' drive; mounted on front housing. Six station filter wheels
Cinema Products XR35
Lightweight Studio Camera
Lightweight blimped silent studio camera.
Movement: Standard Mitchell pin-registered compen-
sating link; Cinema Products' independent adjustment of
stroke length and entry position. Removable aperture plate
with built-in matte slide for various formats. Timing marks
for reassembly after cleaning. Inching knob.
Shutter: Focal plane, continuously variable 5° to 180°;
control and lock on rear panel.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror, stops in viewing
position. Fine-grain interchangeable screens. Standard or
de-anamorphic optics. High-low magnification relay lens,
two contrast filters, built-in closure. Large eyepiece with
diopter adjustment and lock.
Lens Mount: BNCR with anamorphic locating pin.
Drive: Internal crystal-controlled motor assembly con-
tinuously variable 4 to 32 fps. Fps indicator and control
knob. Pushbutton for sync speed, selector switch for 24 or
25 fps ±15 ppm in 0°-140° F temperature range. Visible/
audible out-of-sync warning. Circuit breaker, power indi-
cator, running indicator lights, 30V battery pack.
Magazines: 1000' QUAD (quick acting displacement).
Lightweight, steel toe plate, velvet rollers, snap latch
mounting, single latch cover. Footage indicator, anti-spill
brake. Magazines are installed on the camera through a
"clamshell" opening in the blimp housing which provides
maximum access without requiring side or headroom clear-
ance.
Features: Built-in focus control system with right and
left side knobs, magnetic calibration discs, brake, auxiliary
accepting standard gelatin filters. Lightweight swingaway
61
 Accessories: Video assist, bridge plate, matte box, pis-
tol grip.

IMAGE 300 35mm

(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)

matte box. illuminated level, lens light and interior thread-

ing lights. LED footage counter in feet or meters. Built-in
carrying h~dles. Complete camera system (less lens and
film) weighs 93 pounds.
Accessories: Matte boxes, filters, viewfinder and ap-
erture mattes, video assist, time code.

Feathercam CM35
Lightweight (10 pounds) handheld pin-registered
camera with snap-on magazines.
Movement: Cam-driven dual pull-down, dual-regis-
ter pins. Six-inch-Iong film gate. Loop-forming threading
system. Simple maintenance.
Shutter: Rotating mirror, 180 stops in viewing posi-
0
,

tion.
Reflex Viewfinder: Right or left eye. Extension avail-
able.
Lens Mount: Optional and interchangeable BNCR,
Nikon, Arri (new or old).
Drive: Variable 4 to 48 fps built-in 24V motor; 24/25
fps crystal sync, soft start-up to eliminate slack. Optional
single-frame drive. 24V battery, on-board or external. LED
fps / footage (or meters) counter with memory.
Magazines: 500' coaxial snap-on. Does not require
prethreading. Mechanical footage counter.
62
1'-
35mrn highspeed (300 fps) pin-registered reflex cam-
era.
Movement: Epicyclic; six pulldown claws; two regis-
ter pins in Mitchell position. Dynamically balanced. Frame-
to-frame register 0.0005" or better. Full (silent) aperture.
Shutter: Beryllium rotating two-blade mirror; 1200 •
63
 Reflex Viewfinder: Bright upright image; inter-
chan~eable groW1d glasses; variable magnification; video
tap; light trap prevents accidental fogging.
Lens Mount: BNCR; Panavision available.
. Drive: Built-in motor and circuitry; maximum speed
m three seconds. Self-braking; will stop in five feet from 300
fps. Requires 115V AC, 50/60 Hz, 30A starting, 18A rW1-
ning. Ten pushbutton-actuated speeds, 24 to 300 fps.
Magazines: Coaxial 1000' feed and takeup magazines
are identical and separately mOW1ted; takeup can be re-
moved "'.'ithout removing the feed magazine. Gear driven,
differentially controlled. Automatic drive engagement and
supply overrW1 brake. Footage-used coW1ter for acetate or
polyester base.
. Features: Sync pulse for strobe light, sync at all oper-
ating speeds. Matte box iris rods compatible with Arriflex.
Footage counter with memory. Remote control input jack.

Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC, BNCR (35mm);
FC, BFC (65mm)
The C camera differs from the "standard" model in
that it uses a mechanically different and quieter movement
and has other features which make it quieter. NC, BNC, FC,
BFC are rack-over models. NCR, BNCR are reflex models.
C model has a four-lens turret, the others a single lens
moW1t. B models are blimped versions.
Movement: Dual-register pins, four-prong pull-down;
adjustable stroke. Timing marks on shutter and movement
facilitate removal and reassembly. Removable aperture
plate with built-in matte slot. 35mm full .980" x .735" aper-
~e. Speed range: smgle frame to 32 fps. Slot for dual gel
filters.
Shutter: Focal plane 175° maximum variable to 0° in
10° increments. Phase and opening indicator on back of
64
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)
camera. Some models have automatic four-foot fade in or
out.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Viewing tube
same on rack-over and reflex. Interchangeable ground
glasses, variable magnification, film clip/matte slot, con-
trast viewing filters. Adjustable focusing eyepiece.
Viewfinder: External large screen erecting finder.
Parallax correction coupled by cam to lens focus knob.
Lens Mount: Four-lens turret, NC only; flange depth
1.695". Single mOW1t all others: 35mm flange depth 2.420";
lenses can be centered on full or Academy aperture.
Magazines: 400', 1000', 1200' double compartment
sOW1d insulated. NC magazines will not fit standard cam-
era but standard magazines may be used on NC models
with adapter; not recommended for sOW1d shooting.
Drive: DemoW1table motors for all types of shooting;
synchronous motors are soW1d insulated. Crystal sync 30V
DC with 50/60 Hz signal, mirror positioning circuit and
audible offspeed indicator.
Accessories: Film matte pW1ch. Matte boxes for rotat-
ing and sliding diffusion and filters. Director's finder which
takes camera lens moW1ts.
65
which camera body racks over for focusing and critical Moviecam Super 35mIri.
lineup.
Note: There are several versions of modifications avail-
able for special applications.
Movement: High Speed: Dual registration pins. Dual
forked pull-down claws engage four perforations simulta-
neously. Removable aperture plate has built-in matte slot.
Full Aperture: .980" x .735" Academy Aperture Mask: 868"
x 631". Speed range: Single frame to 120 fps (160 fps can be
achieved but is not recommended) . Standard movement
cannot be used for high-speed work. Not possible to con-
vert standard to high-speed camera by interchanging
movements.
Shutter: 170° maximum. Variable in 10° calibrated
segments to 0° manually, forward or reverse.
Focusing: Variable magnification erect image focusing
telescope built into the camera. Through-the-Iens ground
glass critical focus and viewing when camera is racked
over. Built-in contrast viewing filters for color and mono-
chrome emulsions. Interchangeable ground glasses. Any
aspect ratio outline available. Camera focus tube has built-
in matte slot and permits the making of perfect match dis-
solves.
Lenses: Four-lens turret. Positive index type, with ris-
ing and falling front. Mitchell-designed heavy-duty rotary- (FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
type lens mounts. Flange depth: 1.695". Standard and wide-
angle matte boxes provide for use of glass mattes, gauzes, Movement: Compensating link with dual pilot pin
hard mattes, glass filters, Pola screen, diffusers, variable registration and dual pull-down. Interchangeable aperture
diffuser attachment, etc. plates for all standard aspect ratios.
Motors: Variable (wild) motors: 12V DC (8 to 24 fps), Shutter: 180° rotating mirror variable to 45°. Cali-
nov AC or DC (8 to 24 fps), High Speed. nov AC or DC brated at 90°,144°,172.8°. Stops in viewing position.
rheostat controlled (24 to 128 fps). Synchronous (sound) Reflex Viewfinder: Rotatable 360° maintaining erect
motors: nov, 60-cycle, 1 phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase image. 12" extension tube with built-in 2.4X magnification
AC; 220V, 3-phase interlocking AC; 220V, 3-phase AC/96V available. Large exit pupil has heated rear element. Eye-
DC Multi-duty (Synchronous at 220V AC only). 50-cycle piece adjustable. Anamorphic viewin~ available. m~­
motors available on request. Animation motor: Stop-mo- nated frame lines. Integral video aSSist; external Video
tion, nov AC. power unit includes 1 W' monitor.
Magazines: 400', 1000' and 1200' double compartrnent- Lens Mount: BNCR.
type magazines. Drive: Microprocessor-controlled motor, 12 to 32 fps
Viewfinder: Large erect viewfinder calibrated for dif- in one-frame increments. Crystal sync. 24V DC or 110/220V
ferent focal-length lenses. Available with dual calibrations AC.
for any two aspect ratios. Parallax-free follow-focus attach- Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement-type torque
ment available. motor drive. Built-in heater.
Features: Below 20 dBa sound level. Built-in automatic
slate. Plug-in circuit boards field replaceable. Built-in cam-
68 69
era heaters. Footage and frame rate digital display forward
and reverse. Handheld and studio follow-focus for all
lenses.
Weight: 29 pOlmds with 500' of film and 50mm lens.
Accessories: "Moviespeed" attachment allows pro-
grammable speed changes from 1 to 50 fps forward and 12
to 32 fps reverse during shooting, with fully automatic ex-
posure compensation. Time base code attachment. Syn-
chronizer for flicker-free HMl shooting, filming from TV
monitors or process photography. Computer diagnosis
attachment for troubleshooting circuit boards. Matte boxes.
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 35mm
Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Double pull-down claws. Pitch and
stroke controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf
movement is standard, 3-perf is available. Movement may
be removed for servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes are
available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super 35, 1.85:1,
70
1.66:1, and any other as required. Special hard mattes are
available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and
adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200°, minimum: 50°
with adjustable maximum and minimum opening stops.
A digital display allows adjustments in l!J.oo increments.
Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization
with computers, TV monitors and HMllighting at unusual
frame rates. Manual and electronic remote control units
available.
Behind-the-Iens Filtering: Behind-the-Iens gel filter
holder.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnification op-
tical system. The viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image through 360°. Short, Intermedi-
ate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incor-
porates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and pic-
ture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast viewing
filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjust-
ment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A built-
in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable eyepiece leveling link-arm is supplied with
every Panahead to keep the eyepiece position constant
while tilting the camera. Entire optical viewfinder system
may be removed and replaced with a video viewfinder
display for lightweight camera configuration (e.g., for
Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma, remote camera usage). An
eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own eyesight can be
provided on request.
Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
available with any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panaglow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical image match-
ing. Frame cutters are available to suit negative or positive
perforations.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth set-
ting. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational ori-
71

.entation. (Note: this is particularly important with anamor-
phic lenses.) Iris-rod support is supplied.
Lenses: Exceptionally wide range of spherical, an-
amorphic and specialty lenses is available. All are checked
and calibrated by MTF. Primo lenses are all color matched
and range from a distortion-free lOmm to 150mm. Primo
zoom lenses are equal to Primo lenses in image-look and
optical performance. All Primo lenses have widely spaced
lens focus calibrations and have been especially designed
for low veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
with adequate length iris rods for matte box and filter sup-
port, ultra wide-angle lenses are supplied with a suitable
sun-shade and matte box.
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can
be used from either side of the camera is standard; an in-
terchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic rerriote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control unit as stan-
dard.
Matte Boxes: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, with provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which
can be individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes
incorporating more filter stages, with provision for sliding
(motorized if required), rotating and/or tilting and ,for tak-
ing 6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also sup-
ply special sliding diffusers, diopters and all manner of
image control filters, etc, to use in their matte boxes.
72
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam-
era at any speed from 4-36 fps and is crystal controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in YlOth fps increments.
Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera
with a mains power supply, with computers and video sig-
nals and with process projectors to run in shutter phase
synchronization. Panaflex cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperatures without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 20 dB with film and lens, mea-
sured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 2000', 1000', 500' and 250' magazines are
all available. All can be used on the top of the camera for
minllnum camera length or at the rear for minimum cam-
era height and for good balance when hand-holding (2000'
magazines can be used in the top position only). 1000' re-
verse running magazines available on request.
Magazine Loading: See diagram.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are-
provided for hand-holding the camera. In this configura-
tion the camera is best used with a 500' or 250' magazine
fitted at the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held
mode, with a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 27
lbs.
Image Contrast Control: "Panaflasher" light overlay
unit an optional accessory.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-Iens optical accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, low/high
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is two x cased units with built-in charg-
ers. Belt batteries are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: "Panahead" geared
head, incorporates a 60° tilt range with a built-in wedge
system to allow the operator to select where that range is,
anywhere between the camera pointing directly up or di-
rectly down, and three gear ratios in both the pan and tilt
movements. A sliding base unit enables a camera to be
quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards
and forwards on the head for optimum balance. "Panatate"
turn-over mount allows 360° camera rotation about the lens
axis while at the same time permitting nodal pan and tilt
movements. Nodal adapter available to mount a Panaflex
73
nodally on a Panahead. "Panapod" tripods with carbon
fiber legs are available in a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B &W or color.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be operated in any ambient temperature. Heated
covers are available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation smooth in
intensely cold conditions. Other covers are available to
protect the camera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and water. Spinning-glass rain deflec-
tors are available for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration
high "g-forces" and other stressful and dangerous condi-
tions. A water-box is available to protect the camera in shal-
low water conditions, a hazard box to protect the camera
from explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.
Time Code: The AatonCode code system encodes ev-
ery frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by
both computer and human.
Panavision GIl Golden Panaflex
Very similar to the Platinum Panaflex. Incorporates
most of the features and operates with most of the acces-
sories listed for that camera.
increments. Micrometer adjustment allow critical synchro-
nization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame rates. Manual and electronic remote con-
trol units available.
Reflex System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Viewfinder System: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Ground Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Mounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam-
era at any speed from 4-120 fps and is crystal-controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Spe-
cial sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera with
a main power supply, with computers, with video signals
and with process projectors in shutter phase synchroniza-
tion. Panastar cameras have internal heaters and may be
used at sub-zero temperatures.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available. Ei-
ther can be used on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height

Panavision Panaflex-X
Similar to the GIl Golden Panaflex but has a fixed
viewfinder system and is not hand-holdable.

Panaflex Panastar High-Speed

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures pro-
cess-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire
movement may be removed for servicing.
Threading Diagram: See below.
Aperture Plate: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Aperture Mattes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. Maximmn-opening: 180°,
minimum: 40° with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in YJoo
74
75

Panastar reverse running type magazine threading
and for good balance when hand-holding; 1000' reverse
running magazines available on request.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are
provided for h~d-holding th~ camer~. In this. c0n?gura-
tion the camera is best used With a 500 magazme fitted at
the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held mode, with
a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 26 lbs.
Image Contrast Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Batteries: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Video Assist Systems: Same as Platinum Panaflex..
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as Plati-
num Panaflex.
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes
are available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super-35,
1.85:1,1.66:1, TV transmitted and any other aperture re-
quired. Special hard mattes are available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
opeaing and adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200°;
minimum: 50° with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in Viao
increments. Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchro-
nization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote con-
trol units available.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision for a behind-the-
lens filter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: Fixed optical system.
System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focus-
ing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast
viewing filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocu-
lar adjustment with marker bezel to note individual set-
tings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-

Panavision Super R-200° 35mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration. Doub~e pull-
down claws. Pitch control to optimize camera qwetness.
Entire movement may be removed for servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.

76

free viewing. An eyepiece dioptI!£ tb suittheoperaIDI"sown
eyesight can be provided on request.
GlOund GI_es: Same asPiatinumPana8ex.
LensMcnmting System: Same as Platinum Pana8ex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum PanafIex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum PaniI:8ex.
M.ate Boxes: Same as Platinum PanafIex.
Camera Motor: 2401' 36V motors are used to om the
camera at any speed &om 4-36 Cps withaystal control at
24 and 25 fps. Special sync boxes are available to ~
nize the camera with a main powersupply, with comput-
ers and video signals and with process projedors in shut-
lerphase synchronization. May be used at sub-zerp tem-
peratures without special preparation.
DBAllatiDg: Less than 24 dB with film andJens,m.:a-
sured 3' from the image plane. Magazines: un)' and 400'
magazine$ are available. The 400' magazine can be used,.
together with a speciallow-prolile magazine ~, for
minimum camera height.
Optial Accaeories: Same as Platinum PanafIex; see
P-il8'! 70.
Batteries: Camera, heaters and accessories all op.erate
on either a 24V or a 36V Ni-<:ad battery. The normal bat-
terY.. complement is two x cased units with built-in ~
ers.
~era Support Equipment: "Super Panall~ad"
geared head incorporates a 60" tilt range with 'a built~in
wedge ~stem to allow the operator to select where ~t
range is, anywhere between the camera}»inting c::Iiredly
78
up or directly down, and three gear ratiosID both the_pan
and tilt-movements. A sliding base umt,-enables-a camera
to be quickly attached and detached_and to be: sli~ back-
wards and forwards on the head for optimum balanced
"Panapod" tripods, with car\:xm fiber:legs~ ~available in
a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, ceovideo
systems are available in B & Wor color.
Photo-Sonies 3Smm 4Bl4C
Rotary prism recording cam~designedfor high
Speed full foanat 35mm phot9graphy.
Film Transport: Continuous.
Frame RaIe: High-speed system: 500 to 2500 Cps in 500-
frame intervals. Low~~250 to 1250 fpsin250-
frame inaEWei lis. Special Iow-speedmoto£, 125 fps:625 Cps,
available on request.
Aperbue She: FulI-fcame35mm.
Film Spedfkations: B 4tH .1866" perfuta1ions.
Shutll!r. Rotary disc. 72" fixed sImUer. 36°, 18" 01' fJ"
shutter available on request.
Viewfinder: Fries orien~ BQresigbtillgis acc0m-
plished through the taking lens usiDg~
Lens Mount NUwn 01'HNCR.
Drive: High-speedD VAC, 3 ~ 60 Hz. Y<OD.-
nected synchronous speed. motor. Surge at maximum
frame rate 60 amps/each phase; nmning'30 amps/each
phase. Low speed l1SVAC, single phase, 60 Hz,~
nousspeed moIoI'. Surge atmaximum frcurienrte40 amps;
nmning 20 amps.
Mapzine: 1000'.
Film Cores: Film must be wound on dynamicalJy-bal-
aru:ed aluminum film cores prior to ~in this ~
Aa.'es&ories: Video assist an-axis, paraUax-free, Shut-
tered video camera or oH-axis side mounb!d,
Photo-Sonies 3Smm-4ER
High speed, (6 to 360 f.p.$.) pinregisterstudio-.recoJ'd-
ing camera•
.Movement: Intermittent with 12 pulklown aIms, four
regiStration pins and a vacuum ba~
Shutter: Adjustable rotary disk type with jncrements:
pO between 5° and soo; 100 between 50° and120".
 Reflex Viewfinder: 4ER incorporates'a reflex vie~g
system in conj\}I\ction with a Jur~/~exorientable
viewfinder system and shuttered ceo Vldeo1ap. __
Lens Mount BNCR, Panavision or Photo-So!lic;s.
Drive: Built-in motor ~ ~ .RequireS208:VAC,
single phase, 60 Hz, SCR, solid state. Surge at maXlmum
frame rate 35 amps; running 20 amps.
Magazines: 1(xx)-foot~pacity with built-inligbftrapS.
Feahues: 200-watt heater. Sync pulse for- strobe light
synchronizatipn. Ground glass with Academy, TV safe
action and 1.85:1.
Welght: 125 pounds with l000-footmagazine lOaded.
Accessories: Aniflex 5 x 6 Matte.Box with Hard Matte
set: ArrifJex 6x6 Matte Box with Hard Matte set. Diopters
for dose focus: + 1/2, +1, +2, +3 set.
mtracam 3Smm
Sound level20±1 dB at tbreefeetwith.filmand 50mm
lens.
Movement: Fun aperture: .985" x .7'36". Single Claw,
dual registration pin. compensating link. using tungsten
counter-balance for minimum possible vibration. AUl&
malic film location by spring-loadedpin.PitchadjiJstInent
compensated for 3X more cbangein stroke length-at end
of stroke than at start Entire movement can be removed
for deaning; coupling is keyed for correct ~ on
replacement. shaftwith _.
Shutler: Focal plane 115" on same . mmor.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating two-blade balf~
mirror. 41"30' to permit short back focus ~ E~
rotates 360" using prism to pnwideerectimage. All surfaces
high efficiency for bright image, exitpupillOmm. ~ to 9X
true zoom magnification. Anamorphic correctilXl available.
Interchangeable ground ~ Internal diQpter.atcommo-
dation.. Right or ieft eyeoperation. Video assiston bayonet
mount
Lens Mount SBNCR. __ _
Drive: Intemal '1JN DC opticallyenaxled. 8, 12, 16,18,
20,24,25,30, and 32 Ips and by a 10V p.p extenla1pulse of
60X frame rate. Crystal sync .tIS ppm over 0°·to !30" F
range. SO/60 Hz and fr~Tateoutput pulse.
Weight 31lbs. with 400' of film and 5OnUnJenfi:,
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement. Buil~-~
torque motor and electric brake. Eithet size will mo1iIlton
c;amera top or rear.
80
Features: Quidc-rel~ balante plate. B~t-in follow-
focus. LED coUn.t:er feet/meters ,may be'preset to any read-
ing; battery operated memory. Built-inheatet. Swing-away
matte box; rotating featureacxepts v~ ~ fillefS with
two stationary Stages and two rotating stages.
VIStaVISion Cameras
MSM Model 8812 3SmmJ8-per{ VistaVision
Movement MSM Moncblock higIH;peed, triple reg-
ister pins, claw engageslour perfs. Shrinkage adjustment
changes both stroke and entry position. lniJexaDIe loop-
settingsprockets have independent locking'keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures film plane accuracy, IeD10VeS
without tools lor cleaning. Aperture and moveJDmt~
move easily for cleaning and lubrication. Aperture SIZe
1.485" wide x .9'Ir high. ~tesIrom time-lapse to 72
fps forward, to 30 ipS reverse.
Shuua: Focal plane shutter,manually variable-from
l72.80 to SSO withstcps at 1«° and 101r'.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins fur film dips. ~ to-
tates36O" with erectimage, image can·be~yrotated
foe unusual setups. Finder shoWS 1<5% of fraine, magni-
ner allows critical focusing at center of ~~ ~ le-
ver controls internal filter and douser.Heat~l:teyt!p.lECe has
large exit pupil and longeye relief.Hi~~ti~ B &£ W
ceo videotap is builtinto camercl clPoE with ~gaway
SO/SO beamsplitter. Viewfinder temoves:rompletely for
aerial or underwater housing use.
Lens Mount BNe lensmount15nup matte rods are
on Am ~J. centers for .~ coIDpafibili~. .
M~gazines: 1000' and 400' disp~~t mag~es.
operale bidirectionally at all camera speedS. A poSitive
81
 (

camloCksecurelithemag iniunning posi~n and sWikhes

power to the motor and heater contacts' jn the magfOOt.
Expanding core'hubs bavein~ DC servomotors con-
troIledby Iilm tenSion in bothdirections, widLsoft stamlp
loe1iminate sIack..Tightwindrol1ers guide filmwindinglor
smooth solid rOIls at any camera angle. Non-contact.light
traps feature infrared end·oMilm sensorS.
Features; Crystal sync 4!m 5 to 72 fps in .091 i:r\(n!-
ments. Status l:.EDS for POWe!;, heat~ lew batter,yl, ~~g
ready, b:uCkle/ ang $peed s~TW:Q illum:iriat'ed USDloot:'
age_coun~ Digitalbattery,vQit/amp~. Circuit~~
ers fOr camera, mag, heat, an~ accessories. Control-port
alk>ws operationfiPm.handheld remote or interface with
computers and extemalaa:essories. Lenses: 14mmf/28 Canon; 19mmf/2.8-Leitz,24mm
T-1.4-Canon. 28mm T-l.8 Zeiss, 3Smm T-l.4 Zeiss, 50nun
T-l.~ Zeiss, 85mm T-l.~ Zeiss, 1.35mm T-l.8 Zeiss, 35-14Q
Wileam W-7 VistaVision High -Speed f/1.4 VlVitar ~ 4lso 2OOmm, 400nun, and 6OOmm.
VtStaVision,.&perforation35mm desi~ for opera- Magazines: l000:-foot.
.tiOPllt.209 ~ ~ secondo-c. :Magazine D~e:'Gear-driven through torque motors·
~R.-~8tration: 13\dual-r~giSW
pins., . .' . pennahe-ntly mourde¢!. ont1'ie'c.ameraJ)odY.
FUm'Transp(Jrt: 2 claw-pins/ Trans'Iiort claws never Matte Box: Wijcam 4 x 5.65 ~so standard Arriflex 6:
~ the ~t:iOnpin ~tions. x '6.
Shutter: Beryllium mirror with tungsten counter Weight: 110 peunds with~ lens andJilm.
weigt.tts. .
Vie'wfindet; Rotating mim>r. Uses servo motors for WUmn W-9 VlStaVision Ughtweighl
constanterect image while the·eyepiece is'being rotated.
-.;.ens Mom¢'BNCR VJSfaV1Sion, 8-pedoration3Smm desi~for general
purpose use. Maximum speed 100 ftames per second.
83·
82

Registration: 3 dual-register pins.
Film Transport: 2 claw pins. Transport claws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
Shutter.IllJ" BerylliumlJlin'Ol'withtungslm~­
weights.
Viewfinder. Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors fQr
constant ereetllnage while the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens Mount BNCR.
Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/28 Leitz..t4ttun
I-I.4 Canon, 28mm T-I.S Zeiss, 35mm T-I.4zeiss, 50riun
T-I.4 Zeiss, 8Smm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-l.8 ZeiSS, 35,,1.40
flU Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and liromm.
Magazines: lOOO-foot.
Magazine Drive: Torq~e motots mounted on ~ch
Matte Box: Wilcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6
x 6. . - -. "-
Wetght 37 pounds with 5pnun lens an.d film.
Wilcam W-tt VistaVision Sound Speed
-
Vista Vision 8-perforation 35mm. ~gned for
soundstage production shooting. 'Ruils at 24-, 25, and 30
frames per second, all aystal sync. Virtually silent in ~
eration without relying on extensive bliInping; Noise level
in operating condition with a prime knsis"25 dB.at 3 feet
in front of the camera lens.
Regiftration: 3 dual-register pins. 2 pairs in conven-
tional !ocation, I pair .050 wide J?erforatiQrJs trcriliItg.
Film Transport 2 claw pins. Transport ~aws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
85
 Shutter. Half~, 144 degrees. Beryllium mirror
driven by second ~~1OOkMto camera motor.
Viewfinder. . grmmd glass with locat-
ing pins for film clip. Automatic image erection with
manual override:for odd-angle vieWing. lOX magnifierlor
critical focusing. Built-in Sony ceo video camera.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Lmses:Available BNCR Jeoses: 14mm1/2.8 Canon,
19mm flU,1-eitz. 24mm T-1.4-~ 28mm T-l.8 Zeiss,
3Smm T-l.4 zeiss, SOmm T-1.4 zeiss, 85mm T-l.4 Zeiss,
135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140 f/1.4VIYitar zoom..Also 2OOnUn,
400mm and 600mm.
Magaziiles: 100G-fool Supply. on right side ofcamera,
take up ,o n ~ar.
.Magazine Dri,ve: liyster~ Qutm with Senfiing arms,
in camera b«lyfor correct film tension.
BatteJy Voltage: 36 volts.
Current: 3 amperes.
FoUowfoc:us: On left side of camera. Detachable.
...... -y----- .
Stopsin viewingposition. May be inched for ,.N>rtt ..... in-
~r-~on.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter. Ultra-bright view-
~ Box: Wllcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6
finder. FiberopticJmagi finder 6eld is 1..2lJ% of standald
x6.
l~ frame. Swiveling autoerectimage eyepiece with lOX
Weight: 60 pounds with SOmm lens and 100> feet of
magnification. 20cm or 40cm extensions and left-eye ex-
film.
tender available. Field interchangeable St16/Super 16
ground glass with Aatonite marlcings available on option.
16mm Cameras Built-inlightmeterdisplay in viewfindel:alSoindiades low
Aaron XTRplus bauery, out~f-sync and before-the-end and end-of-film
warnings.
Lens Mount Aaton.positive lock ring mount, Ani PL
~l!o ~anavjsion Primo,1l)Ounts. Aaton m01J!lt also accepts
Am Bayonet or anycreflex-type lens witfl-&ton adapter.
Staildard to Super 16f9~t eonversion innveminutes.
Drive: Brushless crvsta1 sync 12V motor fOI: 23.98, 24,
lS, 29.gJ &t 30 ips. VariaBle control form 3 to 60 fps aystal
C

Ergonomically designed standard 16 and Super 16
camera for studio and documentary use, featuring time
code and video assist. Sound level19dB. (Allton XTRpIus
spedficJmlvns IIf'P5T in itDlics.)
Movement: Linear~single claw; selfregisteiing.
Lateral andvertical registration system ensures a p0sition-
ing of the film bette£tban 2.Smm in all three axes. Hair-fme
gate with air cin:ulation channelpullS hair out
ShUtter: True 18O-degree front surface mitror facili-
tates 60&HMI and video-monitor roll-bar elimination.
86
controlled to I1I0000lps. Built-inTV bar ~tor. (24, 25, 30
~ plus 6 to 54IPs in U steps, no bul1t-mTV bar eliminJltor on
XTRplus.) E1ectronicbase and motor maybe removed and
Iq>laced in two minuIes. Slim battery (UV"l.8 Ah).fits di-
reCtly onto the camera. body.
Maprines: 122m (4OOft)coaxia1. Feed chamber loaded
in~ and loop threaded indayJight. Fom1een to fifteen-
perforati~ ~ length.Twistlessfilm ~andhair­
~ gate eliminates pressuremadcs andemt;dsionpile-up.
Magnetically driven takeup with electronic and:mechani-
~ counters. Memo-mag indexes fot ma&l¢ne ID recog-
lUUOn.
87~
 Features: Back-lighted dlg!ta1 contrpl display; footage,
speed, voltage, ISO, time code, magazine elapsed tinte (itO
baCk-light 1I0r elapsed time on XTRptU5 displny). M~o-,m~
allows magnetic recognition by the camera body of 7-dif-
ferent magazines (3 on XTRplus). Coun.ter in camera pro-
vides LCD display of remaining footage - for sl19rt-endS
load or multi-emulsion shoot I<eycode compatible and
frame..accurate time code marking in SMPTE matrixes and
human readable numbers. Ippm TCXO.intemaJ doddq~
8-hour autonomy. BOttom of camera-to-lens optical axis
distance is l05mm to make the XTRplus compatible with
35mm camera accessories (l09.2mm Oil XTRplus).
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing.,.away
matte box: two 4 x5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and with-
outplay follow-focus system. TotallyincorporatedbladC&
white or color ceo video assist: the conlbinalion of ctln-
cave viewing screen and exclusive relay lens with mMwal
iris cootrol delivers the clearest and ~ images -
requires no set-up time. LTR Model: superseded by ~,
LTRs are differentiated by the magazinemed1anical drive,
no LOJ counter and no ceo video-assistcompatibility.

Arriflex 16SR-2
Description: The Arri8ex 16SR-2 is a silent 16mm pr0.-
duction camera, featuring a narrow, symmetrical body
deiignand a unique, patented swing-over~The
16SR:'2 's unique design allows the user to operate frQm ei-
ther side of the camera. The 16SR-2features a pin-tegisten:d
film transport and fixed-gap channeL a~tie viewing
screen, patented orientable swingover viewfinder, APEC
TIL metering system, auto shutter stop, and preset iris
activator. It is widely used internationally for feature films,
television production, TV commercials, music videos, na-
ture ana wildlife films, documentaries, and for industrial
cmd scientific fUm production.
Venrions:
1. 16SR-2E: Standard 16SR without APEC, p~t lens
activator or automatic exposure cOntrol. These features may
~~fi~.
2. 16$R-2: Standard 16SR, with APEC (Arri P~on
ExpOsure,Control).
3. 16SR-2 Automatic: Same as Standard 16SR with
APEC, but also includ~ servo-activated, fuliy autOmatiC
CALM TAKES UP EMULSIQN SIp[ IN)
exp06tae control Exposure is adjusIedautomatically at any
speed &om 5 to 15 Ips.
4/5. 16HSR-2 Higbspeed AufomatiC, and 16HSR-~
Highspeed (w /oAPEC): Operateup to'15Pfpsand~
gray finish 16SR Highspeedmagazines. On tbeAutomatiC
version. exposure is adjusted au~~caUy -~ lO to 150
fps withlenses equipped withauto-inS capability.
6/7. Super 16 16SR-2 and Sup~r II> 16HSR-2
Highspeed Standard and Hi~ 16SR~:.All
. Ani accessories may be used wlth01.lt-modification.
liighspeed camera requires grey fiQish lii~ma~-
zines. 'lirikfilm
Movement Pin-registered, com~~tJtlg . .
trcmsport, with fixed-gap Dlm~. The 16~'R..2 operates

88, 89
from 5 to 75 fps with external variable speed control. The
16HSR-2 Highspeed (and the 16HSR-l Highspeed version)
operates from 10 to 150 Ips with extema.1 variable speed
control. The movement does not require threading as the
loop is preset when the magazine is loaded. Switches l0-
cated in the camera base 01 early versions lock in crystal
speeds of 24 and 25 Ips, SO and 60 Hz,. and in IaIl!'rSR cam-
eras, 30 fps. 72 tiL AU 16SRs can be modified with a 30 fps
lril
S ~ VtntfiDder. Rotatins mirror-shutter sys-
II!m. with 180" opening (y_!lee at 24 ips). with high aper-
turt'/ paraUu-free viewing.. and lOX magni6catim at the
e,epiece l'he swingover reflex viewfinder is centRlly l0-
cated.. and swings within a 190" an: to eithel- side oi the
camera for" Ieft- and right-side operation. The finder also
rotates 360" parallel to the camera on either side, and
swings out 25" for additiona1 operator com.fort. It features
a fiJeN:lpticviewingsaeen.a red out-of~ lED;and an
APEC exposure indicator.
Lens Mount: Steel bayonet 5ens mount (41mm diam-
eter), with built-in auto-iris facility. Range focal distance
is 52mm. When used with an auhHris lens. the iris will
open to full aperture when camera is turned off and dose
down to a preset aperture when thec:amera is activaled. All
Ani 16nun or 35mm format standard and bayonet mount
lenses covering the 16mm format can be used. Long 01"
heavy lenses must be used with the bridgeplale support
>ySlnn.AftC~Ani_E>p<oureCon-
troI system. Provides continuous exposure infonnation
(match-needle mode) m a 4-stop indicator displayed in
viewfinder. For film speeds A5A 16-1lXXl An optional
servo-operated automatic exposure control system (with
manual override) for complete automatic exposure control
with auto-iris lenses is available.
Molar Drift: Quartz-eontn::lUed l2V OC motor for 24/
151?JJ fpo.50l(J)mHzopention.A~ocrer
""'1_ the speed range from 510 75 rp. (00 the 16H$R
Highspeed, hom 10 to 150 fps). Multi-<amera interlodc is
adtieved with the PSZ-D sync control accessory. Power
input through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (.); pin 4 is +12V.
Modular plug-in e1ectroni.cs boards contain circuitry ron-
trolling all electronic functions, including a built-in start-
marking system. out-of-sync light, Pilotone output and pre-
90
wiring for SMPTE 8O-bit time code. Operating temperature
range is -40 F to +122° F (~20" C to +50" C).
Mapzines, 400' eoo>daI; ronnally acrepls 100 "'" m
daylight loads; 400' daylight reels may be used if 1/8~ is
milled off the reel's edge. Loop is formed during loading
10< qukI< magaz;ne change. G'")' futish lUghspeed maga-
zines must be used on 16HSR, 16HSR-2lUghspeed and
16SR Super 16 ~ cameras.
Super 16: Both 16sR-2 and 16HSR-2 Highspeed oun-
eras are available in Super 16. Thl! wider Super 16 format
(15mm x l23mm) n!<jUUed ~tionmg the optical.oos
1mm to the left. The lens mount.. fiber sc:rem. viewfinder.
tripod mounting hole and ji«(f"CS!l·Y shoe were IIlICJYed ac-
cordindY. Thl! shutter opening 01 the Super 16 camera is
112.8".-thr APEC exposure systm't is standard on both
cameras.. but auto-iris ~contmI isnot available. The
following beyonet-mounled ....... will wad<" the Sup«
16 format Zeiss 16 format Superspeed primes 12uun.
, ......and 25mm T-1.3;:ze;" 35 fonnat5upeo;peed primots
18mm.25mJ:n.35mm..5€knm.and 85mm T-l.3and 13Smm
T-21; Zeiss 35mm Standard primes 10mm, 16mm, 2Ornm.
24mm, 28mm. 32mm, -.n. SOmm.ll5mm. tOOnun. and
135mm T-2.1; and 6Omm, 180mm, and 300mm T-3.0.
Angenieux 16-44mm T-1.3 and 15-15Omm T-2.3; RTH
Cooke 102-54mm T-28. A1I35mm formal zoom lenses will
cover Super 16.
M.dtlr Boxa: See Arriftex 53S Matte Box section £or
details. .Act::eslDies: 2-speed follow-lOCus with 1:1 or 1:..06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balancr and
mount for matte box. roIJow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heevy_lightweghtsupport.oo-bxud be_left
aM ridrt grips for handhekl operation of the camera; ~
exIiI!rder; SMPTE time code generator; High-5peed unit for
operation of Standard 16SRs up to 75 fps or 16HSR
Highspeed up 10150 fp<; Ani Gea<ed Head; and _ .
viewfinder with PI. mount
Aniflex Super 16
Two versions of the 16SR-2 camera are available in the
Super 16 format the 16SR-2 (5-75 fps) and the 16HSR-2
Highspeed (1(1-150 rp.). N"",,," open_ and functiono
ofboth are virtually the same as withstandard 16SR-2 cam-
eras.
The heip;ht of the Super 16 aperture in the 16SR~2 is
identical to that in regular 16SRs, but the aperture is 2mm
91
wider; pushing intO the 16tped area 00 the negative. The 50mm Zeiss Planar T:.2.1
Super16~75X12.3mm.andibecwertureof~­ 60mm Zeiss Macro Planar T-3.0
Jar SRsis 75 X 10.3.rom. ThiS necessitates the reposition- 85mm Uiss Planar T-21
. of the optical middle axis of lens mount, vieWfinder,
~ tluead and a~ !lolder by tmm to the~.
10Qmm zeiss Planar T-21
SingJe-perf film must be used. .
mmm zeiss Planar T-21
180mm zeiss SaMar T~._O
J1::!e ~6SR-rs _sp~.mror shutter;l):asa,172.8" sh~_t­ ,~ Zeiss Tele-Apotessat 1-3.0
tet openiJ;\'g. Super16 SRs have the;same-·~osure JIl~ 1{W):lh ~ tartge:e"fen1ier
'sy.stein as in regular 16SRS;~k~t the autOmatic: eXpbiiute becomes 600mm T~.O)
conlr6l feature cannot be installed.
Beeauseof the wider apertiue areac:overed. someslan- ZOOm Lenses: All 35mm format zoom lenses with
dard16mmlenseswiD ~ The following~Steel 41uu:D steel bayonet mount will cover Super 16.
BayonetMountleoses can be Used forSup!r 16production;
Tune Code Note: 16SR-2 Super 16 cameras'are time
16mmFormat code ~tible.
• Supempeed Primes
nriun ~ DiStagQl.i'I~1-.3 Arriflex 16SR-3
16inm ~ Distag<,>n T-1.3
.25atm 2!.eiSs Distago~ T..!.3
50mm Zeiss Planar T-1.3

ZOomLenses
ll~ Angeniewc~26
115-138mm Angenieux T-2.3
15-15Omm Angenieux T-2.;J
16-44mm Angenieux T-1.3
10.4-52mm CQoke Va,rOkii\etal T-2.8
l()..30knm Co.o~ Vfll'Q~~W T-1.5

35mmFormat
- SUperspeed Primes
18mm Zeiss Distagon T-13
2Smm ?eiss Distagoq. T-1.3
35mm ZeissDistagort T-13 Silent 16mJnproduction camera systemf9r' both Stan-
-5Omm Zeiss Planar T'-1.3 danU6 jUld Super 16 productiort. In two versjons:
65IiUn Zeiss Planar 1;-1.3 1. 16SR-3-SliIn~ (Standard 16 and ~ 16)
85mm Zeiss Planar T~.a 2, 16HSR'"3,~~~ (~!<W-g<u:d ~,~'an9 S!J.per16),-
Mov~ent: ,!~m.,registerea :compenSatiIl~ 1in:k, with-
Standard Primes fixed-gap 1i1m dianne!. 5-75 fps Standard; 10-150 ips
16Jnm zeiss DistcigonT-2.1 Highspeed. · -
20mm ~ Distagm T-21 Shutter. Variable (manually) rotating mirror' shutter,
24mm Zeiss Distagon T-2.1 90", ~, 144°,1n8", 180" shutter operUngs._Shutteropen-
28mm Zeiss Oistagon T-21 ins .indicated on LCD display during eIectronic inching-
32mm Zeiss Planar T~21 mode.
40mm Zeiss PJanM T~21
92
 tleflexVi~der: SWi.Ag(jv~Viewfinder swings in
a 190" arc for full left- or right~e operation,. with fully
upright imagemany position. With ceo video assist and
Bicker-redudimelectronics attaChed, viewfinder swings in
a 120" aro._Finderis equipped with AniGlow - sleplessly
adjustabJeilliuninated frame lines forboth Standard 16ana
Super 16. Thefinder also has wamingindications Cor asyn-
chronous(;amercupeed, film-end arid low battery. NOlE:
the 16SR-3 ~ 16 aperture aq be-masked lor the Stan-
dard 16mm.frame. No additional aperture is needed.
Lens~unt:.Standard54mmAnjPLmountwill~
any 35mm ~t.PL mount lens. Adapters available fix
41mm bayOne!1UlEl standardmouflHenses.
Prive: aunt-in ex:ystal-eoI'l~!1e'¢ .~;iV DC motor·. On~
poa;rdpr~gt'~i:lple ~peed$ of24;~::~9.97~d 3P fp~,an"p
vanable:~stal speeds from 5-75 ¥.m'theStandard aqn-
era, orlO-15QJp5-in theHighspeed 16SR-3, variable inOJlO1
increments at crystal accuracy. Speeds are continuously
variable when the Remote urnt (RU-t) is'used. Speeds am
bep~thel6SR-3'st)l'l-board
LCD, with~
Remote UJiil(RU-I) or with the Camera Control Unit
(CCU), Arri"sStandardoH<amera~g unit.
Mapzi~: 4OO-fbot coaxial- Standard 8O-bit SMPTE
timecodemodUIeBuiltin.ExiSting l 6SR-2magazinescan
beused.165R~magazineswilhotittimecodeareavailable
TUDe ~lrite8ral8O-bitSMPIE time.code. IU!cord-
ing mod~ btillt into 16SR-3 magaziDes. Fully complies
with SMPTE RP 114 standard.
Video Assist: Takes Am lii"b~qc & white oreolor
ceo vidl~(:t'!lpi~t, :~d Ani AEP-2Ali~r iedlictioI'l clt.'G.,.
troRics for b~g1i~i fli~~r .re~,,!-~~ges. Adjus.taple ,{ ot
'Standard t6'lifrClSIi~. 16, witn thdulfifnage oIeither for..
mat on the mQPitor. Changing'beam:splittet ratio for color
or B & WiS ea$y, and requireslUndj1lstment
LCD QispJay:
a. setl ~lay.frame rates
b. setldisplay.film counter
c. display 1Iiirror shutter opening (during electronic
inching mode)
d. setldisplay time oode and u<;e[ bits
e. dEplay 1'C sensitivity readout
f. battery vOltage and low~waming
g. film~and asynchronous camera speed
The CCU can be used to control or set most of the
above funetioni.
94
System Compatibility: A wide vari~ of Arriflex
35mm accessories can be used with the 16SR,.3, such. as:
a5U-l, BxtemalS~Unit; RU-l, Remote Unit;
RS-3, RemoteSwi~HE-3 ,Heated EyeC1lp; thestandard
camera. handl¢p; Crn-1, Camera Control -Unit; and the
AFP-2 Anti-Flicker Proa!s5or.
-' - Lenses: Withi554mm. PL lens motmt, the 16SR-3 uti-
lizes the full range of33mIn.fOrmat and 16mm format Zeiss
$qperspeed, Zeiss Standard, Am ~ and Arri
Maqo lenses, and Rl:ITCooke and A:ngmieiJizoom lenses.
Matte BoXell: 'I1\e 16SR-3 uses the Ani 19mm rod
~era Support System. 1be Support S~~.includes a
,i ull rarige of matte bOxes '(6~6x6.6, 5xS, and:a.,variefyof4x4),
prig:s.~plates, 2-sRe~4}d.Uow...focusr ,~~d,J~fis .s,uPpo.rts.
' !5iIlli'1. rod'adapters are available on ttequest. The 4x4 Pro-
d¢tion Matte Box.1s ideal'for the 16SR~. ~1S' sWingaway
a::esi~ covers lenses l6~ and up, haslJ:t~4\~geabl~
fw~ and four-frame geared filter stages, is.fulLy rotatable,
~ ~ts most 5upRprt System accessori.es.-
Geared Heack The 1lOR-3 works with both the Ani
Geared Head, and the.Arri GearedlJead 2-
ArrifIex 16BL
_ Movement: RegiStration pin operates-through a vari-
a61e speed range of 5 to' 50 Cps, forward or reverse, when
Used with appropriate mQtor andspeed controls.
_ Keflex Viewfirider: Rotating mirrOr~system
wifh1ixed 180" opening (1/. ~at 25 fps),ltigh-aperturel
paraDax..free viewiD& lOX magnification at the eyepiece.
An offset finder ~ is available fOr handheld cam-
em applications fOr a&litio!lill operator ~
Lens MountSteelArri Baycmetmount (lens1louSing9
cue~uired to~minimalcamera QP?ta!i"ssound
leveb). All ArriBex ~ or BayonetmQWltlenses that
rover'the 16mm fOtmiitiean be used with"Ienshousings.
95

16mm ARRIFLEX 16Bl
DOUBLE·SymM
(FILM TAKES UP EMUlSION SIDE IN)
16mm ARRIFLEX MODEl 1681
SINGLE·SYSTEM SOUND
(ALM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
Standard zoom and telephoto lenses should beused with
the BridgepJate Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meterS behind the
lens and displays ~uousexposureinformation (match-
needle mode) In the viewfinder.
Motor Drive: Two motor-drive systems are available.
The quartz-con~lled motor provides cor:dless sync~on­
frol and automat;kallystops the shutter in viewing~Oll.
Its ~ rangelS 6, ~ 24 (quartz-controlled) and 48.rp5.
The UJ\1V~ motor IS transistorized and goveqlor··roll-
~lled. A Vanable Speed Control accessory Will drive the
96
Univ~ motor lrom 10.f psto ~ ips. M<l~: 200t~.400'
(fotwatd and ~erse), and 1200 (follY:iUdoilly)magazmes.
Lenses: FIxed focal length.ptanduQ and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux and Cooke zoom
lenses.
Matte Box: Bellows type; availaPle fur all i6BL lens
housings.
Accessories: Universal Lens Housing}PI use with
fixed focal1ength lenses when minimal camera operating
sound level is required (accepts 3x3 or a ~ diameter
filte;r); ~le 1V grotmd~;fiber~screen
available; offset finder; finder extI!nder; zoom drive; UV
IX: quartz motor Ioc 6, 12.24 and 48 Ipsi Variable Speed
Control for 10 to f() ips operation With universal motor;
plug-in Single-System Sound Module; andSingIe-System
Record Amplifier.
Aniflex 16S1B; l6SIB-GS; 16MlB
ArrifIex 16SIB: Features pin-registered film transport
system operating to 75 fps, l CXJ-footintEmal daylight film
spool loading. with top-loading 4t»fuOt magazine,miex
viewfinder system, divergent1bree Iens-mount tum!t, and
motor inlerchangeability.
ArrifIex 16 SlB-GS: PiloIooesync~and start-
maddng system built-in. ~
ArrifIex l6MIB: The 16M camera is cortfigured diHer-
entl¥ and has no internal daylight spgol ~ load capac-
ity. 200-, 40(). and l2OO-£t.16MmagaZines are available for
this camera. It accepts all of the accessories in the 165 sys-
1em except1be magazines and~-¢)les.
Movement Registration pin, operaieSthrbugh a vari-
able speed range of75 ips (with·appropriate tachometer),
forwatd 01' reverse. The 165, 16Manci l6BLmovements are
identical.
Reflex Viewfinderl Rotating~~qr...:$q~~ system
with 180" opening.(Y4I·sec at 24'fpS), mgni iipertu:te!paral-
97
 Lens Mount: The 16S and M cameras have divergent
three lens-mount turrets with two standard and one steel
bayonet-lock mounts. Any Arriflex standard or bayonet-
mount lens that covers the full16mm format may be used.
Zoom and telephoto lerlses require use of the Bridgeplate
Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (match-
needle mode in the viewfinder, 16S only).
Motor Drives: Quartz-regulated, governor-eontrolled,
synchronous, and variable-speed motors are available for

~r
16S and M cameras, Motor specifications are listed in the
accessory column,
165 Magazines: 200- and 400-ft. torque motor-driven
magazines are available for 16S cameras. The torque mo-
tor drive is essential with 16S magazines, and is inter-
--- -~
- - -- _._-------' changeable with a1116S magazines -of the same film capac-
ity, .
16mm ARRIFLEX SIB SERIES 16M Film Magazines: 200-,400- and 1200-foot maga-
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN) zines are available for the 16M cameras. These magazines
are gear-driven and do not require torque motor drives. The
1200-foot magazine operates in forward direction only.
Lenses: Fixed focal length Standard and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux, and Taylor Hobson
Cooke zoom lenses in Arri Standard or Bayonet mount.
Matte Box: (16S/M) with adjustable bellows, one ro- .
tating and one stationary filter stage. Accepts 3x3,3x4, and
4 x 4 glass filters. A 94mm round Polarizing screen can also
be used. Lightweight sunshade and filter holder (rubber)
for 16S or 16M, accepts 3 x 3 filters.
./ Accessories: Fiber-optic screen; periscope viewfinder;
:.:.;.\ r: '~L " finder extender; 12V IX quartz-motor for 24/25 fps Sal
60Hz, variable speeds 5 to 75 fps, and single-frame forward
j 'j ,oJ
'
and reverse capability and pilotone output; BV and 12V IX
governor motor for 24 fps forward operation only; BV or
/ :L." r
12V IX variable motor for 5 to 40 fps forward or reverse
____.__//
_~L
LJJ _ JU 0

operation; nov AC/60 Hz synchronous motor and in-line

power supply for 12V, 24 fps operation; bridgeplate sup-
16mm ARRIFLEX 16M port system; adapter for microscope stand and microscope
(FILMI TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN) optical link.

lax-free viewing, lOX image magnification at the eyepiece,
An interchangeable ground glass or fiber-optic screen, and
an optional APEC exposure control indicator, are located
within the viewfinder system.
98
Bolex 16mm (All Models)
Movement Single-claw pull-down. Trailing claw sys-
tem assuring maximum picture steadiness without need for
registration pin. Aperture plate made from hard chromed
99
steel. Gate has aul matic threading device that loops the
film and inserts i into gate and around sprockets. Rear
pressure plate can ~ removed for cleaning gate. Automatic
loop former preverts loss of loop.
~~ I ~m
,. ~ magazine with self-contained take-up motor available.
)j 0 tract. Spring motor may be disengaged. FuU1oo' film re-
Shutter: Bole spring-driven cameras (H-16 Rex 5 and
H-16 SBM) have 13 ° variable shutter which can be opened
or closed while c era is running. It can be locked at Y4,
Y2 and can be op ned and closed automatically with
Rexofader accesso . Shutter speeds 12-64 fps, single-frame.
Bolex electrically ·ven cameras (H-16 EBM and H-16 EL)
have fixed 170° sh tter. Shutter speeds electronically con-
trolled 10-SO fps.
Focusing: All cameras have flickerless focusing and
parallax-free viewmg through prism reflex finder. Image
is magnified 14X~ ~ye-Ievel finder and may be continu-
ously viewed in ~g or stopped position.
Lenses: H-1 ex 5 has 3-lens turret for C-mount
1
lenses, other mod have large Bolex bayonet mount suit-
able for he~vy zoo and telephoto lenses. Adapter for C-
mount lenses and ccessories available. Full line of Switar,
Vario Switar and genieux zoom and standard lenses,
matte box, extensi tubes, Aspheron wide-angle adapters
etc, available.
Drive: Spring ·vencameras will expose 16 W of film
on one winding. .able-speed motor and electronically
stabilized motor s .table for sync pulse and crystal sync
100
available for syring-driven cameras. H-16 EBM and ~-.16
EL have 10-SO fps electronically regulated motors built ffi.
H-16 EL has single-frame and electric rewind, instant start
and stop. All models accept 400' magazine with take-up
motor.
Magazines: All cameras accept 100' Daylight Loading
Spools, which can be ejected with built-in lever de~Tice. 400'
Features: Footage and frame counters add and sub-
wind. Audible scene-length signal clicks every 28 frames.
Single-frame exposure button for instantaneous or time
exposures. All cameras have filter slot behind the lens.
H-16 EL has built-in through-the-Iens silicon light meter
with shock-proof LED indicators in the VF. . .
Accessories: Automatic Rexofader fading deVIce for
H-16 REX and SBM available for 4Q-frame fades. Camera
grip, barney blimp, extension tubes for macrocinema-
tography. Underwater housing for EL and EBM, matte box,
cable releases, tripods, monopod, shoulder brace.
Note: Many other accessories, such as animation mo-
tors, microscope attachments and time-lapse units, are
available from other firms.
Bell & Howell 16rnrn Filrno 70
Compact, spring-wound 100' daylight loading 16mm
camera. Accessory 400' magazine and electrical motor for
models 70HR and 7OSR.
Movement Cam-operated single claw. Spring-loaded
edge guide and pressure plate. Relieved aperture plate.
Shutter: 204° (models before SN 154, 601: 216°)
Viewfinder: Outside finder tube, 3-lens turret, paral-
lax correcting eyepiece.
Focusing: Magnified central image on ground glass
when objective lens turret is rotated 180". Safety latch pre-
vents camera running when in focusing mode.
Lens Mount 1bree-Iens turret, geared to finder lens
turret. C mount.
Drive: Spring-driven, govemor-controlled drive ex-
poses 22' per wind at 8 fps-64 fps (model 70SR at 128 fps
only). Models.7OSR and 70HR have optional battery or AC
motors. .
Magazines: Model 70SR and HR use optional 400'
compartment-type magazines (electric motor should be
used for magazine operation).
101
 Features Accessories: Hand backwind for dis-
solves. Standar dial footage indicator, optional digital
Veeder. Single- e drive. Replacement shutter for less
than 204°. Filter slot modification. External large image
viewfinder.

Minicam 16 (GSAP)
Movement: termittent, single pull-down claw, cam
actuated.
Shutter: 133 fixed.
Focusing: B resight alignment tool available as op-
tional accessory.
Lens Moun Supplied to accept lenses in "c" mount
or Arriflex Mount configuration.
Motor: In I al, 24V IX. Adjusted for 24 or 48 fps.
. Magazine: ~ pre-loaded Eastman Kodak maga-
ZInes, 16mm x 50 , m all popular emulsions.
Other Fea s: Light weight (less than 21h Ibs). Ideal
"point-of-view" amera. Widely used for skiing, auto rac-
ing, sky diving 0 installations hazardous to camera equip-
ment.
Accessories: "c" mount front plate; Arriflex Mount
front plate; Batte , Ni-Cad, rechargeable; adjustable cam- (FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)
era to?I; boresigh alignment tool? power plug; power cable;
carrymg case; un erwater housmg; battery charger.
Lens Mount Type "C".
Cinema Prod cts CP-16 & CP-16A Drive: Plug-in 20V battery drives crystal sync built-in
16mm new /documentary/single/double system motor. 24 fps ± 15 ppm over 0°-140° F; interchangeable
sound cameras. pulley for 25.
Movement: , inusoidal, intermittent movement. Self- Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell 400'
engaging sing! w film pull-down with precision lapped and 1200' magazines.
surfaces for quit, long-life reliability. Film accurately Sound Recording System: CP-16 and CP-16/A cam-
guided over a se es of stainless steel balls to guarantee in- eras operate with 3XL-type record/playback head assem-
foc~s, scratch-fr e pictures (with no emulsion pickup). blies. The CP-16/A features the Crystasound built-in am-
Stainless steel pr sure plate, ground lapped with recessed plifier system, a self-contained recording system complete
center area, easil removable for cleaning. with two low-impedance dynamic microphone inputs, one
Shutter: 173 . (optional 144°). 6OO-ohm line input, VU meter, headphone monitoring,
. View~der: e CP-16 was designed for specific use switchable AGe and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for
With Angemeux m lenses with built-in reflex viewfind- wireless receiving is also available. An auxiliary mixer,
ers. Viewfinders available in various lengths for shoul- model 6C, provides 6 channels of microphone input. The
?er or tripod ope tion, and provide ground spot focusing auxiliary mixer is complete with VU meter, switchable
m the center of th clear viewing are~. TV reticle markings AGC, and headphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in am-
d~fine ~e. action area. Horizontal, 221ho & 45° angle eye- plifier and wireless units are all powered from the camera's
pIece posItion. Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).

102 103
 eighs 15.8 Ibs. with 400' film and 12-
120mm zoom. .81bs. with sound amplifier. Out-of-sync
warning light d battery indicator. Filter slot.
Accessorie : An AC power supply, single and mul-
tiple chargers, ound preamplifier, microphones, front-
mounted VU ter, mike/lite bracket, lighting kits, fluid
head tripods, q 'ck-release shoulder and tripod mount,
plus a line of genieux zoom lenses and-a wide range of
carrying cases.
Cinema Pro ucts CP-16R & CP-16R1A
Reflex 16 m news/documentary/studio single/
double system und cameras.
Movement Sinusoidal, intermittent movement, self-
engaging singl -claw film pull-down. Film accurately
guided over a .es of stainless-steel balls to guarantee in-
focus, scratch-free pictures (with no emulsion pickup).
Stainless-steel pture plate, ground lapped with recessed
center area, eas' y removable for cleaning.
Shutter: Fo al plane 170° (optional 144°).
Reflex Vij finder: Rotating mirror integral with fo-
cal plane shutt . Stops in viewing position. Fiberoptics
screen marked ·th TV safe action, projection, and 35mm
blow-up lines. djustable focusing eyepiece 12X magnifi-
cation, 90° click top rotation; optional 360° rotatable right
or left eyepiece. rect image.
Lens Mo t: Thread-locking bayonet. Adapters for
Arri or Nikon ounts.
Drive: 20V lug-in battery drives built-in crystal-eon-
trolled motor 24 r 25 fps sync speed± 15 ppm over 0-140°
F. Standard sp s 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 fps. Pulley
change 24 to 25 akes range 12.5, 16.5, 21, 25, 29, 33.5 and
37.5 fps.
104
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)
Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell 400' .
and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: The CP-16R and CP-16R/
A cameras have been designed to accept Crystasound 3XL-
type magnetic record/playback heads. The CP-16R/A fea-
tures the Crystasound built-in amplifier system, a self-eon-
tained recording system complete with two low-impedance
dynamic microphone inputs, one 6OO-ohm line input, VU
meter, headphone monitoring, switchable AGC and aux-
iliary mixer input. A provision for wireless receiving is also
available. An auxiliary mixer, model6C, provides 6 chan-
nels of microphone input. The auxiliary mixer is complete
with VU meter, switchable AGC, and headphone monitor-
ing. The mixer, built-in amplifier and wireless units are all
powered from the camera's Ni-ead battery (model NC-4).
Features: Filter slot. Battery test. Viewfinder indicator
LED for battery, out-of-sync, film runout, sound VU.
Weight with 10-15Omm zoom, 400' film, battery: 17.41bs.
Accessories: Finder 7 ' extension. Cinevid-16 video
assist, bayonet mounted. Automatic or semi-automatic
exposure system with viewfinder display. Zoom control
system. Power supply/charger. Shoulder and tripod
mounts.
Cinema Products GSMO 16mm
Movement: A high-precision, single-elaw, sinusoidal
registration movement with a curved film gate for mini-
mum pull-down time. The interchangeable film gate as-
105
sembly with it floa ting pre sure plate and hard chrome-
edge film g uid e is loca ted in the cassette-type coaxial
magazine.
tiGHT TRAP
IFILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE INl
Shutter: Rotating mirror 1 0° stops in viewin g posi-
tion. (1-!4° hutter for TV filming applications optional.)
Reflex Viewfinder: Fiberoptic viewing screen marked
with TV af acti n, 16mm projection, and 35mm blow-up
lines. Tw viewfi nd r options; both have 12X magnifica-
tion, high-cffici ncy opbcs, focusing eyepieces. Dual-pur-
pose viewfind l' prov ides 32 adjustable viewing posi tions;
may b e tend ed 7" for tripod operation . Optiona l
viewfinder pivots fo r left or ri ght eye and prOVides 360°
rotation. Erect image. Optional 7" extender.
Lens Mount: Single-tlu'ead locking bayo n t with lo-
cating pin . pti nal ada pter for Ani and Nikon mowlted
lense.
Drive: 20V plug-i n ba ttery drives Gystal-controll d
motor; pe d of 12, 16, 24, 25, 32, 48 and 64 fp or alter-
nate speeds of 12, 20, 24, 25, 30, 48 and 64 fps. ACCLlracy +
30 ppm over 0°-140° F.
Magazine : Quick-change, rugged, cassette-type co-
axial magazin e contains interchangeable film-gate as em-
bl . Automatic I p forming d vice. (Preloaded magazine
can be chan d in tantl without touching film.) 100' and
106
400' capacities. 400' magazin f atur s " fiLm remaining"
manual indicator.
Features: Illumina ted digi tal film co unter (fee t or
meters) with memory. Full-h'am auto lating. External
battery test. LED out-of-sync and low-battery indicator in
viewfinder. Weight with 400' load and 17.5-70mm zoom
lens: 12.44lb .
Accessories: Exposure control ystem with display in
viewfinder. Remote speed control with continuously vari-
able peed from 12-64 fps. Zoom contr Is tem. AC power
supply, battery charger. Quick-release houlder and tripod
mounts. Video assist.
Eclair ACL 16mm
Movement: TIle claw movement i a wedge- haped
claw controlled by an eccentric and a fixed cam and ren-
dered positive by the use of a cowlter cam. The steadiness
of tile image is excellent, Witll a toleranc of less than one-
thousandtll of frame height. Lateral tead iness is assured
in the gate by a fixed side bar and a spring-loaded guide.
Image sh arpness is ensured by a spring-loaded preSSlll'e
plate whicll forms part of the fron t of th ACL magazine
and which maintains tile film perfectl y against the aperture
dur ing the exposure.
Shutter: Focal plane 175°.
Reflex Viewfinder: Oscillating mirror, low-loss opti-
cal system, fine-grain groLUld gla s. Image magnification
12X. Focusing eyepiece wiU rotat through 360° parallel to
tl1ecamera.
Lens Mount: Universal Typ . Outside thread for
various ad ~ pters .
Drive: 12V DC Gystal-controUed motor a t 24 or 25 fps
directly on shutter shaft. Variable- pe d ca pability 12 to 40
fps. Optional 115V sync motor.
Magazines: Snap-on 200' coa ia l. Prethread ed for
quick change; as soon as core load film or daylight spools
are inserted in feed side of magazine and film is passed
107
through light trap to takeup side, the remainder of load-
ing operation may be carried on in daylight. Film remain-
der dial.
Features: Automatic tar t mark. Pilotone output 50 or
60 Hz. Weight: 7.71b .
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm
Movement: Pull-down claws are mounted on sliding
cam-driven plate. Movement has two sets of ratchet-type
pull-down claw; one on each side for 35mm and a centered
claw for 16mm. Ea e of adjusting claw stroke permits
adapting camera to either normal four-perforation pull-
down or two-p rforation pull-down for Techniscope, or
single-perforation pull-down for 16mm operation. Claw
mo ement tr ke may be changed by sliding cam, which
is reached through opening in aperture plate. 0 disassem-
bl or pecial tools required . Registration and steadin
achieved b double rear pressure plate and very long side
rails. Top plate keep film flat in focal plane, bottom plate
holds film at edges only, to keep it properly aligned for pull-
down claws. perture plate is made of one piece of tee!,
hand-polish d and undercut to prevent scratching. Aper-
ture plate is part of camera body proper, pressure plates are
built into magazine. Raised area in center of aperture por-
tion of pre ure plate eliminates breathing.
Shutter: 200 0 variable front-surfaced mirror reflex
hutter rotate at 450 angle between lens and film plane.
Center of hutter i below aperture, thus describing a hori-
zontal wiping motion across film. Shutter may be varied
to 350 by turning knob on left side of camera body.
Reflex Viewfinder: Through-the-Iens focusing and
viewing. Len may be follow-focused while viewing. Ex-
b'a fine-grain d ground glas presents brilliant image even
wlder low-light lev I or when lens is stopped-down. 3600
ro tatable ey piece for right or left eye. Adjustable ma ttes
for va rious a pect ra tios.
Lenses: Three- lens divergent cam-lock turret with
Camerette A-I len mounts. CA-llens mount is large
diameter bra bayonet-type. Divergent turret permit
mounting s.7mm f cal length and longest telephoto lenses
without optical or physical interference.
Drive: Motors are mounted on side of camera and may
be changed in a f w econd . Basic motor is 6- V DC rheo-
stat-controlled variable peed type (also available for 24V
power). Other motors: 6, 12 and 24V DC transistor-con-
108
trolled regulated motors with variable-speed or constant-
speed operation with 50 or 60 Hz ync pulse outputs. l1sV
60 Hz and 220V three-pha e, 60 Hz AC motors for ynchro-
nous sound shoObng. Hand-dri e al 0 available for 1, 8 or
16 pictures per nun.
M~gazines : 200', .400' an d 1000' di placement-type
magazme allow rapId changin . Maga zine are pre-
loaded with a fixed loop (which may b t from outside
a~ any time)..Automatic footag COWlt r. Remo al f maga-
~me aBO' s rnspection and c1eanin of aperture plate and
film channel: For Techniscope operation, T-Type magazine
operates at ether 45' per minut or 90' perminuteb merel
changing gears.
Features: Built-in tachometer. liding mattes for film
a~rture and i~wfinder for 16mm. Techniscope or other
wlde-~reen rab~ . Dovetail adapter for in tant tripod
c1ampmg has rnrm matte-bo rod for mounting metal
matte box. Two filter tages, one r tatabl and removable,
for use with extra-wide-angle len . dclitional mattes
may be positioned in front of matte bo to protect the lens
from bemg struck by back-light.
. Accessories: Lightweight magn ium tripod . Entire
tripod bowl and movem nt can b lifted from leg and
clamped to table edg , door , ladder, etc. Sound blimp.
One door allows tiding camera ou t on rail for instant
magaz.me change, and automatically connects follow-focus,
len dl~phragm and ext~mal eyepiec . Camera may be
u ed WIth all anamorphiC and zoom I nses, in or out of
blimp. Full instrumentation capabi litie available with
ingle-frame pulse and intervalometer op ration. Aquaflex
underwater housing fo r both 3s mm Techniscope and
16mm.
Eclair NPR 16mm
Blimpless, silenced cam ra .
109
 Movem en t: Film is advanced by desmodrimic cam
movement. Quiet mo ement i achieved by wedge- haped
claw which slides into perforation with a wedging motion.
Film is pulled d wn and registered upon bench-type reg-
istration pin which begins moving into position before film
has topped. Extra-long rear pr ure plates and side guide
rail steady film. Raised area in center of aperture portion
f pressure plate eliminate po ibility of breathing or focal
hift.
Shutter: 1 0° high reflectance fro nt-sm-faced mirror
reflex shutter, centered on motor shaft below ape rture, ro-
tates a t 45° angle between lens and film plane. Shutter ro-
ta tion d eliver horizontal expo ure ac tion and lessens
" kipping" problems on fa t-movingsubject matter or fast
horizontal camera movement.
Focusing: Parallax-free through-the-lens focu ing and
viewing. Image magnified 12X. Critical focusing possible
e en at low Light Ie els, or with top-down lens, because
of extremely fine-grain ground gla s and high-gain mirror
and tow-los optical system.
Lenses: Standard hovo-po ition tW"ret ha one Camer-
ette CA-l len mowl t an d on "C" mount. Turrets avail-
able with two CA-1 mounts, orwi th two " C" mowlts. Any
lens from 5.7mm focal length may be used without affect-
ing sOlUld level of camera. CA-1 i a bayonet mOlUlt with-
out springs or other loose-fi tting adj ustments. Lenses by
Angenieux, Kinoptik, Taylor Hobson Cooke and some
Berthiot optic can be supplied in CA-1 mount.
Motor Drive: Standard motor is 12V DC transistor-
controlled regulated 24 fp type. Motor generates 6O-cycle
ync pulse when operating exactly at 24 fps and maintains
peed accuracy within 2;\0 of 1% (indicated by rwming
Ligh t). Motor hah.igh torque and opera tes at 1440 rpm to
turn shutter haft directly, so tha t no noise is caused by
gearing down . Also available: variable speed (wild) 12V DC
motor (0-40 fps); syn cl1Tonous (soWld) nov AC, 220V AC
single or three-pha e motors for operation fro m mains or
from crystal-controlled power packs for cordless synchro-
nous opera tion. All sync motors are available for 25 fps 50
c de (European TV) operation. Motors are interchangeable
\ ithout tools.
Magazine : 400' instant changing coaxial magazine
ha prethreaded loop and may be snapped on and off in-
tantly. Entire film apertW"e and film charmel may be in-
pected and deaned when magazine is removed . No torque
110
motors required for take up. Eacll magazine take ei ther
core loads or daylight pools of 100',200' or 400' capacity.
Separate footage counters provided for core and daylight
spool loads. As soon a core load film is engaged in procket
wheel of magazine feed chamber, remainder of tl1Teading
operation may be carried on in daylight. Magazine ha
noisemaking c1utclles and loop guard to disengage drive
and warn of malfunction.
Viewfinder: Double 360° swiveling viewfinder; hows
more area than film apertW"e. Insid e UUler rectangle ou t-
Iin es full apertm-e. Inaccuracies in aJignmen t of viewfinder
d o not affect accuracy of ground glass positioning. Eye-
piece adj usts for eith r teft- or right-eye operation and has
full diopter compensation with au tomatic opening and
do ing light-trap.
Features: Built-in automatic dapper for start-marks
with bloop modification for use with agra W' magnetic
tape recorder and other oscil1ator markers. Camera may be
used with any tape recorder with sync pulse recording fa-
cili ty. Matte box with adjustable bellows and two-stage fil-
ter holder with rod and long lens su pports. oise Level:
29.5dB at 3'.
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS & HSC
Movement: Dual pilot pins. Dual claw pulJ-dow n as-
sures optimum registration. Remova ble apertW"e plate has
built-in filter slot. P ressure plate removable. Timing marks
on sh utter and movement permit ea y removal of en tire
mechanism for clearling, eliminating danger of improper
insertion. Speed range: Professional Model single-frame to
128 fp ; HS & HSC single-frame to 400 fps. All models will
fW11200' roll of film at maximum frame rates.
Shutter: Professional Model: 0° to 235°. HS and HSC:
0° to 140°. Both adjustable while running (not recom-
mended above 150 fp on HS and HSC models).
111
 Focusing: Prof ional and H Models: variable mag-
nification, erect image focusing tele cope built into camera
door. Tlu'ough-the-l ns grotU1d glass critical focus and
viewtng when camera is racked over. Built-in contrast
viewing filter for color and monochrome film . Inter-
changeable ground glasse with different aspect ratios
available. HSC mod I: use lOX pri matic bore ight look-
ing through aperture plate opening in regi tel' plate.
Lenses: PI' fessional and HS Model: Four-I ns turret,
positive mdex type. Flange depth 0.900", Mi tchell-designed
hea -duty precision rotary-type lens mounts with built-
in foUm -focus gear ring. "C" type Mitchell adapter avail-
able, p rmits u e of "C" mounted lenses on 16 Mitchell
turret. HSC: has single-hol e lens board on camera body.
Uses I nses in Mitchell mount . Mitchell "C" mount
adapter for len e tn tandard "C" mounts available.
Motors: Profes ional, HS and HSC Model: up to 128
fps. Variable (wild) m tors: 12V DC, 110V AC or DC. High-
peed motors: DOV AC or DC (48 to 128 fps), 24V DC (16
to 64fp ). Syncluonou (sound) motors: 110V, 60-cycle. 1-
phase AC; 220V, 60-c c1e, 3-phase AC; 220V AC/96V DC
ulti-Duty ( ynchronou at 220 only). 5Q-cycle motors
availabl on request. Animation motor: Stop-motion 110V
AC. H & HSC: 115V 60-cycle AC (12 fps to 400 fps). Ha
olid-sta te variable p ed cooh·o!.
Magazines: PTofe sional, HS & HSC Models: 400' and
1200' double compartment-type magazine. agazine
accept 100' or 200' da light poolsor-lOO' or12oo'lab loads.
Brake recommend d on f ed ide when running high
peed.
Viewfinder: PI' fes iooal, H Model: Large, erect
iewfinder calibrated for different focal length lenses pro-
vide harp, bright image and accurate field for ease of
compo ition. Para.l.la --free follow-focu attachmen t avail-
able. Sp cial tracking and monocular find rs avai lable f I'
sports and instrumentation fi lming. HSC: lOX prismatic
b resight.
Special Features: Prof ional and HS Model: Veeder
footage and frame counters. Camera base ha incorporat d
spirit level. Calibrated tad, meter built into back of cam-
era. Bullt-in buckle trip operates if fi lm fails to take-up. HS
& HSC: Have end-of-run switch.
Accessories: Complete line of acces ories a ailable,
including sound blimp (400' or 1200' magazine top), follow-
focus attachment, matte box, sports finders, dose-up de-
vices, tripods, pip timers, dual timing light, cases.
Mitche1116mm Reflex, SSR-16 Single
System, DSR-16 Double System Sound
Cameras
Movement: Single claw, single (or double for double
sy tem sound) registration pm. Adjustable stroke. Three
sprockets. Removable aperture plate has built-in filter slot.
Movement removable without losing timing. Speed range
16-64 fps. Alternate non-metallic and steel gears for quiet-
ness. Guides and locks interlocked with compartment door.
Shutter: Focal plane 170° separate from mirror.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating ffilrror. Ground glass
tinted outside film aperture area. Interchangeable ground
glasses. Dovetail on camera for outside finder.
Lens Mount: 3-lens divergent turret. Flange depth
2.047".
Drive: Variety of demowltable motors, no tools re-
quired.
Magazines: 400' and 1200' double compartment, de-
signed for quietness.
Sound Recording Features: The SSR-16 contams a
sound head for magnetic recording on pre-striped film.
Record and playback head is con tained internally in the
camera box bel1ind the movement. Extremely high quality
of the recording system and camera allows wow and flut-
ter characteristics of less than 0.3% and 0.4%, respectively.
The mixer-amplifier allows the use of two low-impedance
microphones. System is all solid-state, contams VU meter,
bias adjustment, individual and master monitoring control
for microphones; power supply is self-contained, usmg
alkaline nickel cadmium batteries with a built-in charger.
It produces 30 volts DC and charger operates on 115 volts
113
 C 50/60 Hz. Recording h ads and mixer-amplifier made
by RCA. The SR-16 also contains a pic- ync generator for
recording double- y tern lip-sync ound. The DSR 16 is for
double system lip-sync sound work. Ha sa me f atures as
the SSR-16 e cept RCA recording tern is deleted and pic-
ync generat r i used. Both model a ailable for use on 50
Hz pm er. Operating noi : 36 dB at 3·.
Blimp: An extr mely versa tile blimp is available for
ound tage w rk. Through-the-Iens reflex viewing is x-
tended through the blimp door. (Same as S35R blimp.) Flat
front d or with removable unshade for u e with fixed
focal length lenses is easily e changed for e tension hou -
ing when using zoom lens. E ternal focu and z m kn bs
on both ide, viewing windows for len scale, footage
COW1t r and tachometer dial . Five internal lights at stra te-
gic points. Th.r ading knob for mot r. Electrical panel has
lighted witch. BuckJ trip will turn out light.

Panavision Panaflex 16mm Camera System

Movement: Pi.lot pin registration en ures optimum
image teadine s. Entire mo ement may be removed for
servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and d eeming.
Normal 16mm aperture plate is standa rd, Super 16 is avail-
able.
Shutter: Focal-plane hutter w ith infinitel variable
opening and adjustable in- hot. aximum opening 200°,
minimum 50° with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening tops. digital display allow adjustments in \110°
increm nls. Micrometer adju trnent allows critical yndu-o-
nization with computer, TV monitor and HMl Lighting
at W1U ual frame-rat . anual and electronic remote-con-
trol uni a ailable.
Reflex Sy tem: Refle rotating mirror is standard and
i indep ndent f the light hutter ystem.lnterchangeable
rni- ilvered Ii ed reflex mirror for flicker-free iewing i
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Pr vi ion for a behind-the-
lens fi lter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnifica tion op-
tical tem. The viewfinder tube i orientable and give a
constantly upright image through 360°. A hort viewfinder
tube is provided for hand-holding operation and a normal
1 ngth f r trip d mOlU1ted us . Viewfinder tubes may be
sWlmg out to u.i t left- or right- ye viewing. System incor-
porates an optica l magnifier f r critical focus ing and pic-
turecomp ition, a contra t iewing filter and alight-proof
hutter. Wide-range ocular adju trnent \-\lith marker bezel
to note indi idual setting. A built-in "Panadear" eyepiece
heater en ures mist-fre viewi ng. Adjustable leveler link
c:rm supplied with every Panahead t keep eyepiece posi-
b?n co~tant while ~ting th camera up or down. n eye-
piece diopter to Ult the operator's own ey ight can be
pro ided on requ t.
Ground Glasses: "Panaglow" illuminat d reticle sy -
te?1 ",:ith brighmess control is stand ard. Ground glasse
With finer or coarser te ture availabl on request.
Lens Mounting System: Panavi ion p iti e clamp
I~ mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth set-
ting. All lenses are pinn d to en ure proper rotational ori-
entation.
Lenses: Sp cia ll y designed and manufactured
Panavision-16 lenses to uit the 16mm image format. All
len checked and calibrated by MTF. Panavision 16mm
len are all color-matched and range from a distortion-

115

free 8mm to 135mm (Ii ts are available). A wide range of
Panav ision-engi neered long-focus and zoom lense by
other manufacturers are also available. All lenses have
widely spaced lens focus calibrations and excep tionally l?w
image veiling glare. Physically long lenses are ~upplied
with adequate-length iris rods for matte box and filter sup-
port. . .
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can
be used from either side of the camera is tandard; an in-
terchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic remote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control Lmit as stan-
dard .
Matte Boxes: A tandard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provi ion for two 4 X 5.650 fil ters which can be
individually slid up and down . Special matte boxes incor-
porating more filter stage.s, with p~o~ision for sliding (mo~
torized if required), rotating and tilting - and to take 6.6
quare filter - are optional. Panavision can also s~ pply
pecial slid ing diffusers, diopters and all marmer of unage
control filters, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the cam-
era at any peed from 4-36 fps, is crystal-eontrolled at ~
speeds and may be adjusted in YIO fps increments. Special
syn c boxes are available to synchronize th~ ca~era w~th
a main power supply, with computers, WIth VIdeo slg-
nals and with proces projector in shutter phase ync.
Panaflex-16 cameras may be used at sub-zero temperatures
with little special preparation.
Camera noise: Less than 20 d B with film and lens,
mea ured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 1200' and 400' film magazines are avail-
able. Ei ther can b for min imum cam era height an d for
good balance when hand-holding.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a houlder-re tare
provided for hand-holding the camera. In thi configura-
tion the cam ra i best used with a 4()()' magazine £itt don
the rea r.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-Iens phcal accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control fil ters,
diffu ion fil ters, fog fiJ ter , Jow-eontrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split di pters, low / hjgh
angl inclin ing prisms.
Batteries:Ca mera, magazines, hea ter and acces ories
aU operate off a ingle 24V i-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is t""o x cased units with in-built cllarg-
ers. Belt ba tteries for hand-holding are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: A special 16mm version
of the "Panallead"geared head is available for the Panaflex-
16. A sliding ba e unit enables a camera to be quickly at-
tached and detached and to be slid backwards and for-
wards on the head for op timLUTI balance. "Pana tate" turn-
over mOLU1t aUow 360 0 cam era rota tion about the len axis
while at the ame time permitting nodal pan and tilt 010 e-
ments. "Panapod" trip d , with carbon-fiber legs, are avail-
able in a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems : State-o f-th -al·t, CD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex-
16 cameras and magazines have built-in heater to enable
them to be operated in any ambient temp rature. Hea ted
cover are available to give add itional p rotection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation mooth in
inten ely cold conditions. Other cover are a ailable to
protect the camera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and water. Spinning-glass rajn deflec-
tors are avai lable for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration,
high "g" forces and other stressful and dangerous forces.
A wa ter-box is ava ilable to p rotect the ca mera in shallow
water conditions, and a hazard box can be used to pro tect
117
the camera from explosion , collisions and other danger-
ous situations.
Time Code: The AatonCode system encodes every
frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by both
computer and human being.
118
Film
Color
Since the Sixth Edition of this manual was publi hed,
several -important advances in color film technology have
been made by all manufacturers marketing in the United
States. A major breakthrough in emulsion tedmology has
resulted in the dev lopment of new filins with increased
sensitivity, grea ter exposure latitude, improved speed -to-
grain ra tio, better defini tion and improved storage life. The
cinema tographer now has a choice of a variety of negative
and reversal camera films balanced for both dayligh t and
tungsten light sources.
Except for direct projection of the processed camera
film, color negative is the preferred camera film for origi-
nal cinematography in all formats except Super 8mm. In-
stances of fil.ms used for "direct projection" are travel lec-
ture photography, instrumentation photography and orne
documentary photography (availability of laboratory facili-
ties for processing the film chosen may also be a factor in
film selection ). Altho ugh the use of negative film means
m ore care in hand lin g the o riginal camera film, better color
q uality d u e to the incorporation of color masking in the
negative emulsions is the reward. Color negative film is
available in low, medium and high-speed emulsions bal-
anced for tungsten (3200°K) light sources and in low-and
high-speed emulsion balanced for daylight. If tungsten-
balanced film is used in daylight a Kodak Wratten 85 or Fuji
LBA-12 or equivalent filter should be on the camera and
the exposure index reduced by % of a stop. If daylight bal-
anced film is used in tungsten light, a Kodak Wratten #BOA
should be used, but this practice is not recommended be-
cause it requires the exposure index to be reduced by two
stops.
Color reversal camera films, w hid 1 w hen processed
result in a p ositive image on the original film, are aI 0 sup-
plied in emulsion types balanced for tungsten or daylight
light sources. Th same conversion filters recommended for
use with color negative can be used with the same adjust-
ment in exposure index. If single-sy tem sound is desired,
check with the film manufacturer. Some of these fil.ms can
be supplied with magnetic striping.
119
Black & White
A variety of black & white emulsion types are avail-
able from the film manufacturers. Many are special-pLU'-
pose films designed for cientific or instrumentation use.
The cinematographer hould be aware of these films and
the po ibility of using one or more of them if a desired
effect cannot be achieved wi th conventional motion-picture
mulsions. For pictorial us ,panclu'omatic emulsions in
several peed range are available in 35 and 16mm nega-
ti e and 16mm reversal films. The reprod uction of colored
objects in terms ofshades of gray varies with different types
of film.
Th cinematographer can control tonal values to get a
teclmicaUy correct rendition of the subject or to exaggerate
or suppress the tonal differences for brightness, contrast or
other eff cts by the use of filters. B & W negati e films of
low or medium speed are most desirable for shazpness and
fine grain, and have ample sensitivity for general use. High-
speed film is u eful f r low "available light" situations or
for high-frame-rate photography. Because of the CLU'rent
low frequency of use of black & white as compared to color,
it is especially importantto e tablish working exposure in-
dexes relative to the processing laboratory. B & W proc s-
i.ng is not as standardized as color processing, differences
in chemistry, developing time, and temperature result in
changes of contrast as well as expo LU'e index.
ASA: Exposure Indexes
While ASA film peeds do not apply directly to m -
tion-picture films, exposure meter calibrated to ASA,
SI, or ISO tandards specify exposure indexes (EI) re-
lated to film speeds (film speeds are calculated mathemati-
cally from sensitometric exposures; exposLU'e indexes are
number useful to the cinema tographer in determining or
specifying expo ure in a given instance). AU film manufac-
turers furnish EI numbers related to commercial exposure
meter as a recommendation for a starting point in deter-
mi.ning optimum expo ure.
Film Selection: Color Negative
For normal high key cinematography select the film
with an ASA number most consi tent with the light level
120
and f-stop to be utilized; in general, slower films are sharper
and less grainy than faster films. If economy in illumina-
tion or small f-stop for depth of field is a factor, use of a
faster (higher EI) film is indicated.
For any special "look" or low-key cinematography,
experimentation or experience is needed. Generally, use of
an EI lower than the manufacturer's recommendation will
produce finer grain, higher color saturation, and a slight
increase in sharpness a t the expense of loss of highlight
detail and flattening of whites; use of a higher EI than rec-
ommended will show more grain, lower color saturation,
loss of shazpness and loss of shadow detaiL Relative posi-
tion on a particular laboratory printer scale is also a factor
to be considered when determining an EI.
Color Reversal Film
Since color reversal films are intended for direct pro-
jection, there is less exposLU'e latitude (compared to nega-
tive film) for a usable film, both for actual density / expo-
sure range and lack of opportunity to shift densities in
transferring to a print.
Selection of an EI should therefore be made based on
the use to which the film will be put. If an EI higher than
the manufacturer's recommendation is required, forced
development may be used with a compromise in image
quality.
Edge Numbers
These numbers, also referred to as footage or key num-
bers, are sequentially printed by the film manufacturer
along one edge of the film outside the perforations. The
numbers on 35mm film manufactured prior to 1990 are
located every 16 frames (12 inches apart); on 16mm film
they are every 20 frames (6 inches apart) or every 40 frame
(12 inches apart). The numbers are applied during manu-
facture either by photographic exposure (visible only after
processing) or printed with a visible ink on the base side
of the film. All16mm and 35rnm camera original color film
is latent-image edge-numbered . B & W 16mm and 35mm
camera original film is ink edge-numbered.
Several changes in the format for edge numbers
were introduced during the latter part of1990. In conform-
ance with SMPTE standard SMPTE 254, 35mm film now
121
 has both human-readable edge numbers and macrune-
readable information printed as a latent image on its edge
COMPARISON of FILM SPEEDS
at the time of manufacture. In addition to an incrementing
SCHEINER
number, a zero-frame reference mark, consisting of a filled
ASAIEI BSIIJSA DIN GOST
3 3 6 2.8 16°
circle approximately 0.025 to 0.030 inches (0.64 to 0.76 mm),
4 3 7 3.6 17° is printed adjacent to the digit of the human-readable edge
5 5 8 4.5 18° number that is closest to the tail of the film. The frame im-
6 6 9 5.8 19° mediately above the zero-frame reference mark is the one
8 8 10 72 20° referenced by that edge number. The numbers are printed
10 10 11 9 21° so that the center line of the zero-frame reference is aligned
12 12 12 11 22° with the center-line of a perforation. The spacing from one
16 16 13 14 23° key number to the next is 64 perforations. A mid-foot hu-
20 20 14 18 24° man readable and a mid-foot machine-readable edge num-
25 25 15 23 25° ber is printed halfway between each key number. The mid-
32 32 16 29 26° foot human-readable edge number consists of a zero-frame
40 40 17 36 27°
reference mark and the adjacent edge number that is nearer
50 50 18 45 28°
64 64 19 58 29°
the head end of the roll plus an offset in perforations that
80 80 20 72 30° is always 32 perforations. All characters of the mid-foot
100 100 21 90 31 ° edge number are approximately ~ size. A similar system
125 125 22 112 32" currently under study by a SMPTE standards committee
160 160 23 144 33° has been proposed for 16mm.
200 200 24 180 34°
250 250 25 225 35° Film Perforations
320 320 26 288 36°
400 400 27 360 37° Pitch
500 500 28 450 38°
650 650 29 576 39" Pitch is the distance from the leading edge of one per-
800 800 30 720 40" foration to the leading edge of the next and is expressed in
1000 1000 31 900 41 ° decimal inches. Motion picture perforations are commonly
1250 1250 32 1125 42° referred to as having either "long" or "short" pitch. When
1600 1600 33 1440 43° films are being printed, the original camera film and the
2000 2000 34 1800 44° unexposed print film pass together over a curved printing
2500 2500 35 2250 45° sprocket for exposure. Since the print film is on the outside,
3200 3200 36 2880 46° the difference in diameter is accommodated by giving a
shorter pitch to the camera original on the inside.
For all practical purposes ASAIBSAlJSAlEI are the same.
The DIN system is calculated Log 10. In the past
16mm Films
DIN speeds were written with the speed number followed by 16mm camera films are supplied with either a row of
/10. (example: 2/10) perforations along one edge or wi th a row along both edges.
The Scheiner system is obsolete. It was distiguished by ° Most 16mm camera films are .f urnished with two rows of
following the number. perforations for use in "silent" type cameras. Those with
The GOST System was used in the USSR. one row are intended for u se in single-system cameras
where sound and picture are simultaneously recorded, ei-
ther optically or by means of magnetic striping on the film .

122 123
 Reversal-type 16mm camera films intended for projec-
tion are usually supplied in long pitch (.3000). egative or
reversal type film intended for subsequent release printing
is usually supplied with short pitch (.2994).
Standard 16mm perforations
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.2994
110-1986-1R-.2994
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.3000
110-1986-lR-.3000
35mm Films
35mm motion picture films are supplied with perfo-
rations of two basic shapes and with either long or short
pitch. Bell & Howell or BH indicates negative and Kodak
Standard or KS indicates positive. egative perforations are
designed to insure a steady image during exposure in a
camera-type pull-down and registration mechanism. Posi-
tive perforations have a shape intended to red uce cracking
with repeated projection. "Negative" or "positive" perfo-
rations describe the shape of the perforation and not the
type of film involved.
Standard 35mrn perforations
SMPTE 93-1992- BH-.1866
93-1992- BH-.1870
139-1986- KS-.1866
139-1986- KS-.1870
65mm Films
65mm film used for o!iginal photography and dupli-
cating is perforated KS-.1866. When first introduced this
film was perforated long pitch because only step-printing
was available. With the advent of continuous contact print-
ing facilities, the negative and duplicating films are now
p rforated with hort pitch.
Standard 65mrn
SMPTE 145-1988-KS-.1866
70mm Films
Release printing from 65mm negative or intermediate
is on 70mm film which is perforated the same as 65mm but
is an additional5rnm wide. The additional width is equally
124
divided on each side of the perforations to accommodate
magnetic sound tracks. In addition to the tandard 70mm
film format two other formats are available for special
ven ue processes.
Standard 70mm
SMPTE 119-19 KS-.1 70
70mrn Type I
ANSI PH 1.20-1963- 0.234
Perforations for this tandard are 0.13 x 0.0 in ize
with a pitch of 0.234.
70mm Typell
ANSI PH 1.20-1963 -KS-.1870
Perforations for this standard are the same ize and
pitch as SMPTE 119 but with an "E" dimension of 0.079 +
0.004 instead of 0.215 ± 0.003. -
Film Handling and Storage
Film raw stock is sensitive to heat, radiation and mois-
ture, and may be contaminated by gases or dirt. The fol-
lowing precautions ar suggested when handling or stor-
ing raw tock.
1. Store in a cool (550 F/ 130 C or lower), dean area for
short periods and in a deep freeze (0 0 F/ -18 0 C) for peri-
ods longer than six months. Relative humidity should be
50 percent or less to avoid rusting of cans and or possible
damage to labels and cartons.
2. Do not tore where chemical contamination i
present, either gas or liquid . Fumes, such as tho e from
ammonia, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, illuminating
gas, mercury, motor exhaust, solvents, sulfur dioxide, can
damage photographic emulsions.
3. Avoid X-rays or radiation of any kind. Raw stock
should not be tored or shipped near radioactive materi-
als. For example, Eastman Kodak states "to protect film
stored 25 feet away from 100 milligrams of radium, 3Y2
inches of lead must be placed around the radium."
4. Film should not be stored near exhaust or heating
pipes, or in direct sunlight coming through a window even
if the room is air-conditioned.
125
 5. Allow time for film to reach loading-room tempera-
ture before opening container to avoid condensation.
FILM DATA CHART
6. Keep the loading room and/or changing bag dean.
7.0ean magazines outside the loading room and be ASAIlSO
sure the outsides of film cans are dean before taking them Balance Emulsion Type Edge Tungsten Daylight
into the loading room. Color Negative Films Day TlJ1g 35mm 16mm 10 8 Filter EI Filter
8. Bag and seal exposed film in original or imilar con- AgfaXT 100 X XTlOO XTl00 N 100 80 85
Agfa XT 320 High Speed X XT320 XT320 H 320 200 85
ta.iners. Agla XTS 400 High Speed X XTS400 XTS400 S 400 250 85
9. Proce s exposed film as oon as possible. If it must Eastman EXR 50 D X 5245 7245 K 12 80A 50
be held more than a day before processing or hipping, seal Easlman EXR100 T X 5248 7248 M 100 64 85
the film from moisture and store as cold as possible. (A EastmanEXR 200 T X 5293 7293 200 125 85
Eastman EXR 500 T X 5296 7296 J 500 320 85
deep freeze is appropriate.) Eastman HS Day X 5297 7297 C 80 808 250
10. If raw tock or expo ed film is to be hipped by Fujicolor F·64 X 8510 8610 Nl0 64 40
commercial carrier, it should be tightly wound on cores. Fuiicoior F·64 D X 8520 8620 N20 64
The outsid hipping container hould be labeled conspicu- Fu;color F·125 X 8530 8630 N30 125 80
ously: "Keep away from heat or X-ray." Stock labels are
Fujicolor F·250
Fujicolor F·250 D X
X 8550
8560
8650
8660
N50
N60
250
64 .. 160
250
available for this purpose. FUjlcoIor F·500 X 8570 8670 N70 500 320
• lBA·12 or 85
.. LBB-12 or BOA
Processed Film Storage Color Reversal Films
Though thi is not usually the responsibility of the cin- Eastman Ektachrome Day X 5239 7239 VND 40 80A 180
ematographer, the following information may be useful: Eastman Ektachrome Tung X 7240 VNF 125 80 858
Easlman Ektachrome
1. Condition the film at 20 to 30 percent relative hu- HS Day X 7251 VXD 100 80A 400
midity at room temperature (optimwn relative htunidity Easlman Ektachrome
is 25 percent). HS Tung X 7250 VNX 400 250 858
Kodachrome 25 Movie Film X 7267 6 80A 25
2. Wind film emulsion in on cores or reels. (Do not use
Kodachrome 40 Movie Film X 7270 40 25 85
PVC containers, cores, or reels.)
Black and White
3. Store flat. Negalive Films
4. Store at temperature of SOoF/10° C or lower. Agfa Pan 250 H 200 250

(Ref: A I m .ll , MPTE RP 131 Eastman Kodak Co. publication H-I.) Eastman Plus·X 5231 H 64 80
Eastman Plus·X 7231 PXN 64 80
Eastman Dolble-X 5222 C 200 250
Eastman Double- X 7222 DXN 200 250

Fup FG 71112 FG 64 80
Fuji RP 72161 RP 64 80
• See filler section for
8&WPhotography.

Black and White

Reversal Films
Eastman Plus XReversal
Eastman Tri-X Reversal
7276
7278
PXR
TXR
40
100 125
50 I'
.

Super 8 Films
B&W Kodak PIus-X &Tli-XReversal as above. Color KodacI1rome 25 &Kodachrome 40 as
above.

126 127
....N
co Agfa FILMS
AGFA XT-l00 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I 64DAY I FILTER
84
ITUNG.
100
I
FILTER 110
- M
This is a medium-speed color negative lilm with very fine grain , wide exposure latitude,
high sharpness and laithful color rendition. Designed for general cinematography, this film
lends itself to both indoor and outdoor use,

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
Foolcandles I ~~.4 I
112.0 1/2. 8
50 100
I I
1/4.0 tis.6 1/8.0
200 400 800
I
1/11
1600
I I
required
AGFA XT·320 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM Xl 320 (35mm 116mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY
200 I.
FILTER 1 TUNG. I FILTER 110
85 320 - H
This Is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-lo-grain ralio. wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithlul color rendition, that Is Intended for use in cinematography
allow light level conditions.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
tll.4
10 I
20 40
I 80
I
160 320
I
tl2.0 tl2.8 tl4.0 1/5.61 1/8.0 I
till
640
I
required

Agfa FILMS
AGFA XTS-400 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY FILTERI TUNG. I FI~TER I 10
250 I 85 400 S
This Is a hlgh·speed color negative film with excellent speed-lo-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is Intended lor use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 6
I
f/l.4
12
I
25
I
f/2.0 1/2.81 1/4.0 1/5.61 tl8.0
50 100 200
I 1111
400
I
required

AGFA PAN 250 NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX '
I DAY FILTER ITUNG. I .
FILTER 10
250
I • 200
I H
This Is a high-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain, hi~h resolving power and wide
exposure latitude. Designed lor general cinematography, lhis film ends itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 11/1.4
Footcandles 12
I tl2.0
25
I tl2.8
50 100
I
f/4.0 tl5.6
200
I118.0
400
I
1/11
800
I
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.
 ....
VJ
o EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5245 (35mm/65mm) 7245 (16mm)

DESCR IPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY I FILTER ITUNG' I FILTER I 10
50 - 12 80A K
This is a low speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with wide exposu~e
latitude, micro-line grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I
f/1.4 1/2. 0 tl2.B f/4.0 1/5 .6 tlB .O f/11
50 100 200 400 800
I
1/16
1600 3200 6400
I I
required

EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5248 (35mm/65mm) 7248 (16mm)

DESCR IPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

IDAY IFILTER ITUNG IFILTER
64 85 100 • I ~
This is a medium speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude,
micro-line grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I I
f/1.4 tl2 .0 f/2.B 1/4 ,0 tl5.6 1 tl8.O 1/11 .0 1/1 6.0
25 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200
I
required

EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR 200T FILM 5293 (35mm/65mm) 7293 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY
1~
IFILTER
~
ITUNG' I FILTER
~O
1'0
L
This is a color negative fi lm with optimum speed for grain extended latitude, reduced
contrast, micro·fine grain, very high sharpness, high resolving power, and superior color.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture I I
f/1.41 1/2.0 f/2.81 1/4.0 f/5.61 f/8.0 tll 1 1/16 I I
Footcandles 5 25 50 100 200 400 800 1600
required

EASTMAN EXR 500T FILM 5296 (35mm/65mm) 7296 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

IDAY
320
IFILTER
85
I TUNG.I FILTER
500 •
110
J
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude, micro-fine grain,
very high sharpness and high resolving power.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture I 1 I
tl1.4 f/2.0 1"2.8 tl4.0 tl5.6 1/8.0 fIll I
1/16 I I
.... Footcandles 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640
....
VJ
reoulred
 EASTMAN FILMS
HIGH SPEED DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 5297 (35mm/65mm) 7297 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY
250
IFILTER
-
ITUNG'I FILTER
80 80B Ilg
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude that is intended
for use without filters In daylight, with HMl lights, or with mixtures of natural and artificial light.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT

Lens Aperture
t4
frames per second 170· shutter opening)
f/ l.4 I f/2.0 If/2.8 f/4.0 Ifl5.6 1/8.0 I f/11 I f/16
Footcandles 10 20 40 80 160 '320 640 1280
required

EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (DAYLIGHT) 5239 (35mm) 7239 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY
160
IFILTER ITUNG' I FI LTER
- 40 80A
IVND
10

This is a moderate speed daylight-balanced color reversal lilm designed for use under
low-level illumination or for high speed photographic applications. The processed lilm is
balanced for direct projection or television display.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOr DAYI'GHT (24 Ira~es pr secoy 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 16 32 63 125 250
I
1/1.4 fl2 .0 fl2.8 fl4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 f/11
500 1000
rpnllimrl

EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (Tungsten) 7240 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I
DAY FILTER TUNG. FILTER 10
I 80 8SB 125 - VNF
This is a moderate speed color reversal film designed lor news and documentary
applications. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shulter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 20
l. I
40 80 160 320
I I
fllA f/2.01 1/2.8 fl4 .0 f/5. 61 1/8.0 1/11
640 1250
I
requ ired

DESCRIPTION
10
VXD
This is a high-speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed lor use under
daylight illumination or a variety of HMI, xenon and mercury discharge lamps without
filtration. The exposure index 01 this film can be increased to EI 800 (daylight) or higher
by extended time of development. The processed film is balanced lor direct projection or
television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I I
1/1.41 1/2.0 1/2.8 fl4 .0 1/5.6 1/8.0 fl11
6.3 12.5 25 50 100 200 400
I
re uired
 EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME High Speed Film (Tungsten) 7250 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
10
VNX
This is a high-speed color reversal film deSigned lor use under low-level illur,llnation
when supplemental lighting is unavailable or undesirable. The exposure index 01 this
film can be increased to EI 800 (tungsten) or higher by extended time 01 development.
The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I
fl1,4 fl2. 0 fl2 .8j fl4 .0 fl5 .6 fl8 .0 fll1
6.3 12.5 25 50 100 200 400
I I
required

EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS-X NEGATIVE FILM 5231 (35mm) 7231 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION DAY
80
This is a medium-speed panchromatic film designed lor general production use, both
outdoors and in the studio.
EXPOSURETABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170' shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 40 SO
I I
f/l,41 1/2.0 112.8 1/4.0 U5.6
160 320
I I I
630
1/8.0 fill
1250 2500
required
'See filler section for B&Wphotography.

DESCRIPTION DAY
250
This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film designed for use under adverse lighting conditions
and where greater depth 01 field is required without Increasing the illumination. This film has medium
graininess. As with other negative, the granularity increases with the density 01 Ihe image resulting in
increased graininess in the projected print. Avoid overexposing, especially when using in the 16mm format.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170' shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
fl1A
13
I f/2,0
25
I I
1/2.8 1/4.0
50 100
1/5.6
200
I
400
I
f/8.0 1 '/11
800
.... required
~ 'See filter section for B&W hot ra h .
 EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS·X REVERSAL FILM 7276 (1 6mmlSuper 8mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY
50
I FILTER
•
ITUNG
40
, I FILTER I 10
• PXR
This Is a low-speed panchromatic reversal film designed for general
produclion use both outdoors and in the studio when sufficienllight is available,

EXPOSURE TAB LE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I
1/1.4 1/2,0 1/2,8 11/4,0 1/5, 6 1 1/8.0 1 1111
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
required
• See filter section lor B&W photography.

EASTMAN TRI-X REVERSAL FILM 7278 (1 6mmlSuper 8mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY
200
I FILTER
•
ITUNG
160
IFILTER
•
ITXR
10

This is a high-speed panchromatic reversal film suitable for general

motion picture photography.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 32
I I
1/1.4 1/2,0 1/2.81 1/4.0 11/5,6 1 1/8.0 1/11 I
16 63 125 250 500 1000
I
required

EASTMAN FILMS
KODACHROME 25 MOVIE FILM (DAYLIGHT) 7267 (16mmlSuper 8mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

I DAY I I
IFILTER TUNG FILTER 110
25 - 6 80A
This Is a low-speed. daylight-balanced color reversal film designed lor general
motion picture photography outdoors, The processed lilm is balanced for direct projection,

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170· shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I
1/1.4 1/2.0 1/2.81 1/4.0 115.6 1 '/8.0 1 1/11
100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
required

KODACHROME 40 MOVIE FILM (Tungsten) 7268 (16mm/Super 8mm)

DESCR IPTION EXPOSURE INDEX

1 DAY IFILTER 1TUNG, I FILTER 110
25 85 40 -
This Is a moderate speed, color reversal lilm designed for news and documentary
applicalions. The processed film is balanced lor direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shulter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I
f/l.4 1/2.0 f/2.81 1/4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 fIll
60 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
I
required
 FUJI FILMS
FUJICOLOR F-64 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8510 (35mm) 8610 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I I
DAY
40
I
FILTER rUNG . FILTER
LBA·12 64 •
110
N10
or 85
This is a low-speed color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness
and faithful color rendition.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shuller opening)
Lens Aperture 1/1.4 [ f/2.0 I f12.81 f/4.0 1115.6 I 118.0 I 1/11
Footcandles 40 80 160 320 640 1250 2500
required
FUJICOLOR F·64 0 DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 8520 (35mm) 8620 (16MM)
DESCRiPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY
64
I FILTER
•
ITUNG' I FILTER I ID
• • N 20
This is a low-speed daylight color negative film with fine grain , very high sharpness ~nd
faithful color rendition that is intended for use In outdoor filming without filters in daylight,
or with high level natural illumination-based indoor filming and artificiallighl.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shutler opening)
Lens Aperture f/l.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 If/4.0 11/5.6 I f/8.O I 1/11
Footcandles 40 80 160 320 640 1250 2500
required

FUJI FILMS
FUJICOLOR F·125 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8530 (35mm) 8630 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
, DAY
80
I LBA·12
FILTE~ /TUNG '
125
FILTER liD
• N30

This is a medium-speed color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness and faithful color
or 85 I
rendition . Designed for general cinematography, this film lends Itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shuller opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 20 40 80
I I 160 320 640
I
f/l,4 f/2.0 112.8 1114.0 f/5.6 fl8 .0 fill
1250
I I
required
FUJICOLOR F·250 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8550 (35mm) 8650 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
I I FILTE~ I
DAY
160
TUNG _, FILTER
LBA·12 250 •
I D
N50
or 85
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed·to-grain ratio,
high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is intended for use in high
speed photography as well as low light level conditions.

EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170· shuller opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 10 20 40
I I 80 160 320 640
I I
111.4 f/2.0 fl2.81 f/4.0 [ 1/5.6 1/8.0 f/l1
required
 FUJI FILMS
FUJIGOLOR F-250 D COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8560 (35mm) 8660 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY
250
IFILTER
-
ITUNG.,
64
FILTER liD
LBB-12 N60
or80A
This is a high-speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio ,
high sharpness and faithful color rendition. Designed for high-speed cinematography, underwater
cinematography, low light level daylight filming and both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial daylight illumination.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 10 20
I40
I80 160
I I
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4. 0 f/5 .6 f/8. 0 1/11
320 640
I
requ ired
FUJICOLOR F-500 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8570 (35mm) 8670 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY
320
ILBA-12
FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER
500 -
liD
N70
or 85
Th is IS a high-speed color negative tilm that is intended for use in high speed and underwater
cinematography as well as both indoor and outdoor filming under low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 1700 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture I I I 1 I
f/1.4 1/2.0 f/2 .8 1/4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 1/11 I
Footcandles 5 10 20 40 80 160 320
required

FUJI FILMS
FUJI FG PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 71112 (35mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
IDAY
80
I FILTER
*
ITUNG·I FILTER I ID
64 * FG
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition.
DeSigned for general cinematography, both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial illumination.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles 40
I I I I I I
1/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8 .0 1/11
80 160 320 640 1250 2500
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.

FUJI RP PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 72161 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION EXPOSURE INDEX
IDAY
80
I FILTER
-
ITUNG
64
I FILTER
-
I RP
ID
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition,
SUitable for general cinematog raphy. This film is designed for rapid processing where
fast access is required. .
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
I I I I
f/1.4 1/2.0 ' f/2.8 11/4.0 f/5 .6 f/8.0 f/1 1
40 80 160 320 640 1250 2500
required
'See filter section for B&W ohotoaraohv.
 Lenses
Len may be classified as normal, telep hoto/
retrofocu ,zoom, anamorphic and auxiliary.
ormallen are compactly mounted combinations
of glas e ,a mbled 0 they may be mounted in a camera
approximately one focal length from the image plane, or
film. ormallenses of long focal length tend to be bulky,
therefore tel ph to lense are designed with negative glass
elemen arranged in a manner that permits the telephoto
lens to be mounted closer to the image plane than its focal
length would indicate. When camera design, because of
beam plitters or reflex hutters, does not permit short fo-
cal length normal lenses to be mounted within one focal
length of th film, the retrofocus or in erse telephoto lens
design is used: a lens of hort effective focal length but long
back focus. Zoom lenses are a combination of the above,
with the added feature that one or more elements may be
mo ed in relation to the others. This pro ides not only a
multiple numb r of focal lengths within one body, but per-
mits chang of focal length, and therefore image size, dur-
ing cin matography.
Anamorphic lense are composed of the above types
of lenses, in combination with either a cylindrical or pris-
matic element to compress tlle horizontal image, provid-
ing for a wider a pect ratio within the confines of the stan-
dard motion-picture frame. early all present anamorphic
lenses have a c mpr sion ratio, or squeeze ratio, of 2:l.
(Other qu eze ratio have been used in the past, and there
i at lea t one on th horizon contemplating the use of a
different qu ez ratio.)
Auxiliary lens ar positive tele-extenders and nega-
tive wide-a ngle adapters, both of which alter tlle focal
length of prim r zoom lenses, and simple elements usu-
ally referred to a "diopter" or" plit-field diopters."
Selection of Lenses
Photographi and projection lenses are designed to
compromi aberration and di tortion to a minimum in a
peci fic fram area. Len e designed for cine use will not
generally fill a till-camera frame, nor will still-camera
lense nece arily be a sharp a cine lenses in the smaller
frame ize. Lik wi e, design compromises are made to al-
low large diaphragm opening with acceptable but not nec-
142
essarily optimum sharpness; be tter sharpness may be
found if such a lens is stopped down a notch or two.
One widely quoted evaluation is Modulation Trans-
fer Function (MTF), an objective mea ure of sharpness.
While a useful means of comparison, it does not account
for all distortions or aberration (to be useful, MTF must
be measured in the comers a well as in the center of the
lens field) . In simple terms, MTF compares the contrast of
a lens with its resolving power. The resultant graph plots
the MTF in percent versus the line frequency (lines per
mm). The higher the curve and the flatter it is, the greater
is the contrast of the resulting image and th more uniform
the image quality.
Testing
Some suppliers and some independent agencies have
test equipment and will help in e aluation. While it is be-
yond the scope of this manual to discuss lens design in
greater depth, it should be pointed out that the cinematog-
rapher hould take particular note of aberrations which are
most evident at wide-open apertures and diffraction which
limits the smallest useful aperture. Photographic testing is
tedious, time-consuming and co tly; the use of such a fa-
cility when available can be helpful. Qualities to be ob-
erved, preferably in comparison with a lens of known
quali ty, include image sharpne at center and corners,
contrast and flare, image distortion, and uniformity of ex-
posure (vignetting).
Care and Maintenance
When not in use, lenses hould be kept capped, and
when transported, kept in a padded cas . Shocks and vi-
bration may jar tlle elemen ts loose (tlu includes lugh-fre-
quency vibration SUcll as from an aircraft ngine). When
filming outdoors wlder d usty conditi ns, protect tlle lens
with a filter. If no filter is required, u e a cl an optical glass
or a UV filter (filters, of course, should b made of firs t-
quality optical glass). It i Ie expen ive to replace a
cratched or marred filter than a front lens element.
Lenses should be inspected periodically for physi-
cal conditipn, including len urface examination w ith a
magnifying glass to look for fine era tche , loose glass ele-
ments, and 100 e mechanical element uch as focus scale
rings, iris diaphragms, and zoom lens linkage and carns.
143
 ever clean a lens with dry tissue or fabric. Tiny abra-
si e particl may cause scratches. The safest procedure is:
1. Blow off loose dust with " canned air." (If " air" is
not available, a clean, very soft camel hair brush may be
u ed; to remo e all residual oil from the brush, first wash
it in ether or pure grain alcohol and shake it out so that it is
thoroughly dry. Keep the brush in an air-tight container.
Under no circwnstances hould the brush ever touch skin.
If it does so inadvertentl , wash it again with ether or al-
cohol.) Do not blow dust off with the mouth. ext to dried
fingerprints, saliva is the hardest thing to remove from a
lens urface without scratching it.
2.Ifnece sary to remove sm ars from the lens surface,
fold a lens ti ue and dampen the folded edge with lens-
cleaning fluid. Carefully wipe th lens surface with a cir-
cuJar motion, tarting at the center and working toward the
edg . If this will not remove the mear, take a new, clean
piece of lens tissue and repeat the procedure using pure xy-
lene or pure grain alcohol (not rubbing alcohol). Be careful
not to touch the lens mount with the xylene or alcohol. If
you do, discard the lens tissue and start over. Xylene is par-
ticula.rly useful in removing oil or oily fingerprints from
lense .If it leaves a slight mear after removing an oil y spot,
repeat the action using alcohol.
Fingerprints, or any contacts with skin, leave a residue
which may permanently etch the lens surfac . ever clean
camera lense with silicone-coated lens tissue or cloth.
Removing Lens Retainer Rings
The cinematographer, unIe skilled in lens repair,
shouJd avoid disassembly of lenses. If, in emergency, it is
necessary to do so in the field, the ring may generally be
easily unscrewed if the lightest fingertip grasp, with tl1e
lea t possible pressure, is applied. The more pressure ap-
plied, tl1e greater the expansion of the ring on the sides
oppo ite the fingers. Such pressure causes expansion of the
ring and makes removal very difficult, if not impo ible.
A particularly tubbom ring ma often be remo ed by
applying a drop of carbon tetracl1Joride or a similar solvent.
The same technique may be used in removing filter retain-
ing rings.
144
Condensation
When equipment, including lenses, is taken from a
cool, dry environment to a warm, moist environment, con-
densation will occur on the cold surfaces. This particularly
applies when moving from an air-conditioned environ-
ment to the outdoors. A few minutes should be allowed for
the equipment to warm up and the condensation to disap-
pear before photographing. Visual inspection should suf-
fice to determine when this takes place.
Understanding an MTF Chart
by Bern Levy
For many, evaluating a lens has usually been a matter
of being aware of the manufacturer's past record and the
experience of others who have used that type of lens. To
those more technically inclined, the use of a test c11art indi-
cating resolving power, in lines per millimeter, may be
considered a criterion of lens quality. However, resolving
power value can be very subjective and does not necessar-
ily indicate the true value of a lens. Resolving power alone,
regardless of its accuracy, can be misleading. Lens manu-
facturers now utilize a method of lens testing that assesses
tl1e actual capability of a given lens.
This method is referred to as Modulation Transfer
Function, or MTF. Scientifically, MTF is defined as a func-
tion that describes the modulation of a sinusoidal object as
the frequency increases. In simpler terms, MTF compares
the contrast of a lens with its resolving power. The relation-
ship of sharpness, plus the ability to reproduce an image,
gives a lens the property to produce a quality image. It is
the result of this comparison tl1at forms the MTF curve. As
tl1e spatial frequency (the distance of one black & white line
pair) of the test chart increases, the image pattern is reduced
in contrast. This change in contrast or "modulation" is the
basis for the MTF method of evaluating a lens.
Since the ModuJation Transfer Function is a method
of quantitatively measuring the limits of resolution of a
given area jiJ1d the ability to reproduce an image of a given
area, a single MTF curve only indica tes the response for the
specific conditions tested. The parameters for test data nor-
mally include focal length, aperture, object distance, light
145
 color temperature and the image field radius as well as the
spatial frequency of the test chart. In order to fully compre-
hend the performance of a lens, a number of MTF curves
must be generated to cover a multitude of points within
these test parameters.
.......
~
To interpret the MTF curve, we must first understand
that the horizontal axis of the chart normally indicates the
z spatial frequencies in cycles per millimeter and the verti-
...c
Q
cal axis provides the modulation transfer factor or contrast
i values with a maximum of 100%. The basic criteria for in-
terpreting an MTF curve are that the higher the curve and
the straighter it is, the greater the contrast of the image and
the more uniform the image quality. Whereas no lens can
deliver 100% contrast, an MTF chart showing a relatively
flat curve above 70% would indicate an excellent Lens. Con-
sideration must be made for the higher frequencies (right
side of the horizontal axis) as even a high-quality lens can-
E
<:>
not render an MTF (contrast) of more than 50% at a fre-
eE quency of over 50 cycles.
~~
<:>
ao
Most MTF charts will show two curves: one for tan-
~
...
<:> gentiallines (broken) and another for radial lines (continu-
Q ous).Telephone lines can be considered tangential lines and
....
Q
telephone poles can be interpreted as radial lines. The op-
Q

i tical aberration astigmatism shows up as sharp poles with

out-of-focus wires. An MTF chart showing a marked dis-
tance between radial and tangential curves will clearly in-
dicate that the lens suffers from astigmatism. In ersely, a
chart indicating the two lines running very clo e will
specify a lens with very sLight astigmatism.
From the viewpoint of MTF, lenses can be roughly
cla sified into two groups: high contrast with limited reso-
lution, and Lower contra t with greater resolution. What is
appropr:iate for one is not necessarily correct for another.
The film emulsion characteristics or the limiting fr quency
....... of a televi ion camera tub will dictate the preferable type.
~
Z The one with the best contrast propertie in the frequency
C
range to be recorded may be considered ideal.
~
Q
a:
a:
c
z

146 147
 Modem Telephoto Lenses
by William J. Turner
& Chris Condon
The term "telephoto lens" is generally used.to d~be
any lens, regardless of its optical configuratIOn, which
magnifies the image at least 50% ~ore than the n~~allens
on any specific camera. ~e term true telephoto rE!:fers to
lenses de igned for phySical compactness, yet ha~g ~
effective focal length (EFL) longer than thephyslcal dis-
tance of the optics from the.image plane. This type o!, lens
employs a negative rear optical compon~t. The t~ tele-
lens" is becoming more common than telephoto lens.
Many of the telephoto lenses in use t<>?ay (over l~
EFL) were originally designed for ~se w~th 35mm smgle-
lens reflex still cameras. Several major still camera manu-
facturers, in efforts to satisfy the unique telephoto lens re-
quirements of professi~nal sports photographers, have
designed superior qUality, high~speed and ~oom lens~s
using newly compollilded, low disperslOn optical glass (m
some cases crystal substances SUch.as fluori.te). Thr?ugh the
use of state-of-the-art computer-aIded optical desIgn t~­
niques, these lenses achieve a degree of color corr~ction,
sharpness and contrast far superior to those previOusly
attamable m high-speed lenses.
Most of these lenses are very fast for their focal length.
The Canon 300mm and 400mm f/2.8Ienses have become
quite popular. The now discontinued .ikon 300mm f/2
has become an industry-standard lens. ASide from thelf tra-
ditional uses in the fields of documentary, news, sports,
wildlife and surveillance cinematography, telephoto lenses
are used increa ingly in the shooting of commercials and
action films. Among the advantages of tele-lenses are dra-
matic close-ups, camera unobtrusiveness, greater safety,
technical practicality, pictorial effect ~d novelty. ~ost of
these lenses also feature mtemal focusmg. Compantes such
a Century Precision Optics have m~dified.these lenses for
the exacting requirem ents of profeSSiOnal cm~mato~apl~y
by converting the rear section and re-calibrating the ms m
T-stops. . .
Some len es are more extensively modified WJth
larger, more visible fCX?tag scal~, precision integral f~now­
focus gears, and speCial mounting brackets. The baSIC op-
tics, however, are never changed.
Techniques
Tele-Ienses tend to isolate the main subject from the
background and foreground du to their inherently shal-
low depth-of-field. They also appear to compress objects
at various distances from the camera, and may be em-
ployed to bring the background closer to the subject. A tele-
lens also slows the apparen t advance of a subject m ving
toward the camera. It is much easier to track an object
moving laterally across a field with a tele-lens, because it
will remain in iew for a longer period of time and still
retain a large image size. It is often ad visable to move fur-
ther back, use a long tele-Iens and make a slow pan that
film a large image for a greater length of time, rath r than
move in close to the subject' line of tra el with a short fo-
call ngth lens.
Several unique problems sometimes arise when shoot-
ing with tele-Ienses. Increa ing the image magnification
also resul ts m increased effect of camera vibration, thermal
effects of atmospheric refraction (heat waves), atmospheriC
dust, vapors and ultraviolet radiation reflected from the
same. However, new techniques have resulted in better
image quality even under these adverse conditions. Follow-
ing are a number of corrective tele-lens techniques that of-
fer solutions to these problems. For example, camera vibra-
tion due to vibrating motor drive, unbalanced shutter or
other mecllaIlical characteristics can be minimized. While
such vibration may have little or no detectable effects with
wide-angle or normal lenses, it can be highly magnified
when using long focal lengths. A solid tripod and a lens
cradle sh uld always be used . Most professional cameras
have sufficient magnification in tlleir reflex focusing sys-
tems so tl,at any vibration effect can be observed in the
viewfinder image. The tele-lens should first be focused in
with the camera operating, and focus should be compared
with the camera at rest to detect any adverse vibration ef-
fect.
Filters & Tele-Ienses
Several typ s of filters CaIl improve color in tele-lens
. shots. The most useful are Skylight lA, 2A, 28 and 2C; also
the UV 15, UV 16, UV] 7 and others of comparable charac-
teristics. Proper fil tering of black & whit films will greatly
aid in minimizing atmospheric haze. Yellow, orange, and
red filters improve definition and can increase contrast
149
because they filter out violet and ultraviolet light. Dramatic
haze penetration can be recorded with heavy red filters
uch as Wratten 25 and 29. The greatest haze penetration,
far beyond visual rendition, can be produced wi th infra-
red sensitive film and any of the following Wratten filters:
72B, 87, 88A and 89A. (See "Infrar d Cinematography.")
A word of caution regarding filters employed in front
of long focal length, high-performance lenses: the filter'
optical quality must match that of the lens on which it is
u ed. Any lack of optical flatne will introduce aberrations
which can ruin the .image. For this reason, it is strongly rec-
ommended never to use any untested filter, especially with
long focal length lenses.
It is becoming increasingly common to use gla filters
at the back of telephoto lenses. In orne cases, the filters are
used via a filter holder that is inserted into a slot at the rear
of the lens. In other cases, the filters are mowlted in the
camera adapter itself at the rear of the len . There are many
advantages to using the filter at the rear of the lens. Filters
are much smaller and Ie costly. The mo t common sizes
are 40.5 mm and 48 rom. Used behind the lens, the quality
of the filt r is not as critical as in front of the lens. Standard
commercial filter are typically of more than sufficient qual-
ity for use behind the lens without causing degradation of
the image. Recently, filter stages have been added behind
many telephoto lenses. These stages allow rectangular fil-
ters to be rotated and translated, not only allowing the use
polarizing filter , but hard-edge graduated filte rs as well.
These filters a re commonly u sed in two izes: 2" x 3" and
45x70mm.
To maintain the accuracy of the focus calibrations (and
any focus marks that may be made during the course of the
hot), the number and thickness of filters used behind the
lens mu t remain constant. Thi means that dear filters
must be used when no colored or ffects filters are in place.
The filters being used must al 0 be of exact thickness to
avoid shifting the predetermined focu of the lens. Both
Tiffen and Harrison are currently manufacturing these rect-
angular filters to a consistent thickness.
The use of th multiple fnters behind the lens can cre-
ate another problem. Clear filters are normally not anti-re-
flection coated.The actual light 10 s caus d by an LUlcoated
clear filter is only Y6 of a top and, typically, can be ignored.
Clear filters are aid to cause "no light loss." However,
using thr e (3) uncoated filters behind the lens results in
150
three (3) losses of % each, adding up to at least Y2 stop. This
loss, therefore, must be taken into account when figuring
the exposure (e pecially with multiple clear filters) .
The best sol ution to the "heat wave" problem is to
shoot during the early morning hours. A high downward
camera angle will sometimes minimize heat waves by less-
ening the amount of ground level atmosphere iliat the lens
must shoot through.
Focu collimation of long focus lenses can be affected
ignilicantly by temperature extremes. Lenses which are
adjusted at room t mpera ture may not be in focus in high
de ert temperatures d ue to thermal expansion of mount
components. Focu should always be checked in the field
under actual or simulated production conditions. In cold
climates, condensation of moisture and cement separation
can be minimized by gradual exposure to environmental
extremes.
T-stop calibration of tele-Ienses i tile arne as for short
focal length lenses. However, it should be kept in mind tilat
intervening haze actually lightens distant objects. The re-
sulting aerial perspective (a gradual lightening of objects
at increasing distances) will often result in an apparent
overexposure when a distant object is isolated in a telephoto
shot. Many cinematographers are, tllerefore, under tl,e im-
pression that tele-lenses are calibrated differently and re-
quire less exposure. Actually, the mall portion of the dis-
tant scene being filmed is Lighter in tone and lacks contrast
because of atmospheric conditions.
To cOLUlterbalance the lack of contrast usually encoun-
tered in long-range filming, pecial emulsions may be ch o-
sen for use with high-power tele-lenses.Sometime tl,e film
can be developed to a slightly higher gamma (if sufficient
footage is involved to make this practical). Finally, because
tele-lenses tend to magrUfy lateral image blur to an wmatu-
ral degree, it may be advisable to overcrank the cam era
somewhat.
Lens Extenders (Multipliers)
A len extender, which con ists of a multi-element
optical attachment, may be positioned behind a prime lens
to increas its focal length .These may be successfully used
wi tll many types of tele-lenses. It is a simple, inexpensive
way to further extend the focallengili of tele-Ienses. Extend-
ers of better quality can render acceptably harp images;
however, they should be stopped down for best definition.
151
 Lens extenders have an exposure increase factor cor-
re p nding to their power. A 1.4X extender will increase
the focal length of the lens 1.4X and require a 1- top increase
in e pure. Example: a 300mm f/ 2.8 lens becomes 420mm
f/ 4 with a 1.4X extender. 2X extender will double the
focal length of the lens and require a 2-stop increase in ex-
po ure. E ample: A -illOmm f/ 2. lens becom a BOOmm
f/5.6 \ ith a 2X extender.
ince tele-extenders already cause a light I , th dim
image may be difficult to focus and view. Effective aper-
tur are rarely faster than f/ od / 11, or e en f/16. E tend-
er can be combined for greater magnification. The power
h uld be multiplied to obtain the working power. For in-
tanc : two 2X extenders can be combined to form a 4X unit,
which would have an expo ure factor of 16 and require a
4- top increase in expo ur .
Catadioptric or Reflective Systems
Reflective optical y terns employing mirrored optical
urfaces enable long focal lengths to be folded in ide of a
c mpact a sembly, thu saving space and weight. The e
y terns usually combine reflective surfaces and refracti e
correcting lenses. The color correction is good and normally
requir no correction for u ing infrared sen itive film .
B au of the necessity of u ing the entire light path, an
diaphragm usuall , cannot be incorporated in these
t ms. eutral den ity filters or a reduced hutter open-
ing ma have to be used to reduce expo ure. Careful com-
parati\ e tests are advisable to determine the wtability of
th I nses for the intended purpose.
The lenses typically ha e a econdary reflective ur-
fac ith r on the back urfac of the front corr cting ele-
m nt, or as a separate element mounted inside the lens. The
light is then reflected back through a hole in the primary
mirror at the back of the len and onto the film. The block-
ing of the center of th len by the secondary mirr r re ults
in the out-of-focus highlight and points being rendered on
th film a rings (or donuts). Thi effect should be noted and
thi type of lens should not be used if this will b a prob-
I m. Ln many cases, these out- f-focus ring are desired and
are the main reason for usina the mirrored lens. It hould
b noted that mirror lenses typically ha eaT-number ap-
pro imately one (1) top lower than the actual f-number.
Exp ure tests hould be run prior to use, or the lens should
152
be calibrated on equipment capable of measuring the ac-
tual T-stop of the lens.
The primary requirement for achieving maximum re-
olving power and finest image quality with a tele-lens is
careful focusing. Long focal length lenses po inher-
ently shallow depth-of-field characteristics. This is a law of
physics and cannot be changed; therefore, some means of
focusing through the lens must be emplo ed. Secondly,
camera steadiness must be a ured by rigid lens mounting
and absence of vibration. Thirdly, the finest quality filters,
carefully chosen to fit the filming conditions, hould be
employed. A long lens hade i essential. It hould be care-
fully designed so as not to re trict the angular coverage of
the lens. It must al 0 have a totally non-reflective interior,
as hould all surfaces of tl,e lens mount that are exposed
to the image-forming light.
Modern telephoto len es have proven to be one of the
most useful tools for creative cinematography, often ren-
dering subject details, compression, and selectiveness that
might otherwise have been impossible.
Zoom Lenses
b Bern Levy
In order to und tand why we use a zoom lens, it is
best to first understand what a zoom lens is. By definition
a zoom lens is a preci ion optical / mechanical tem,
which can change its field of view without noticeably
changing its aperture or f us. This is made po ible by the
use of complex cam and followers controlling pred ely
de igned and manufactured optical component.
Today the zoom lens is used mainly as a variable
prime, meaning that the z om lens carries within it an in-
finit number of focal length which can be utiliz d for the
specific composition r quired . The cinematographer has
available almost every c nceivable focal length and aper-
ture found in fixed focal length lenses. Cine z om have
range up to 25X now, with focal length of 7.5mm to
625mm and aperture a high as f/ 11 currently a ailable,
leaving very few requirements for fixed foca1length lenses.
In addition to these properties, the zoom lens can achieve
pecial effects by ever-ehanging tl1e field of view, otherwise
known as zooming.
153
 Those characteristics which we consider important in
electing a fixed focal length lens are equally important in
lecting a zoom lens. In adctition to aperture and focal
length, we must consider zoom range, minimum focusing
distance, correction, etc. in determining which zoom lens
is s uitable for your purposes. Equally important are your
own requirements for this lens. I extremely close focusing
necessary? ls high aperture important? Will you be shoot-
ing close-ups indoors? Or mostly outdoors from long dis-
tances? All aspects must be considered.
One lens may allow better operational flexibility than
ano ther lens and therefore reduce the demands on the cam-
era . As an example, a clo -focu ing len may cut produc-
tion time as compared to a len that requires the use of
clo e-up attachments. A lens with a large zoom range may
reduce tlle n umb r of times tl1e camera is repositioned.
ReHabili ty of the lens has a direct relationship to the manu-
fac ture r. The pa t record of tl1e lens design as well as tl1e
manufacturer's reputation in tl1e marketplace mu t be con-
idered . Are ser ice facilities available? Is the facility
equipped with proper instrumentation and personnel? Will
parts be available?
Another pertinent consideration is whether to pur-
chase a new or used zoom len s. As tl1e zoom lens is a m e-
chanical ystem, tl1e age and previous u e of the lens wi ll
determine whether a used lens, at a lower cost, ha a value
over a n w lens at a higher cost. Are tl1e zoom and focus
mechani ms sm otl1? Wha t is the appearance of tl1e coat-
ing? Are the front and rear ele ments scratched? The an-
swers to these questions wiU help determine the va lue of a
zoom lens.
Mechanics of Zoom Lenses
Perhaps the ingle most important factor in preparing
a zoom I ns for use is the mounting proced ure. Unlike fixed
focal lengtl1lens, a zoom will not perform correctly if not
eated properly in tl1e camera. The distance from tIle seat
r flange of the len mount to tlle film plane (known as the
flange focal distance) is hypercritical. U not set to tIle pre-
scribed dimension (17.52mm for Standard "C" mount,
40.0mm for Aaton, 52mm for Arriflex Standard, 38.l mm for
CP, 48mm for Eclair) out-oF-focu image will result when
zooming from long focal lengths to hort focal lengths. This
phenomenon is a result of the depth of focus, tIle lens-to-
154
film tolerance being greater at the long focal length than at
the short focal length. To avoid mounting problems, both
the len mount and camera socket should be cleaned be-
fore in erting the lens into the camera . It must b pointed
out that professional zoom lenses mus t be adjusted to an
extremely small tolerance specified by the lens manufac-
turer, which could be a preci e as .0lmm (.0004") of the
flange focal distance, and therefore, a mall particle of dirt
may actually interfere with the proper seating of the e
lenses.
While some zoom lens ctiaphragms are graduated in
both f- and T-stops, exposure should only be e t on the T
cale. Because the large number of optical e lements in a
zoom lens affects the transmis ion of light through the lens,
there i a difference between the geometric aperture (f-stop)
and the photometric aperture (T- top).
Zooming, or the changing of focal length, results in the
changing of image size a t the film plane without varying
the subject-to-Iens distance. This can be accomplished by
either mechanical or electrical means. While most zoom
lenses rely on the manual turning of the zoom barrel, a
more controlled and therefore more consistently accurate
rate can be acllieved by the use of electrical motor drives.
In some cases, this is not preferred. While some cinematog-
raphers prefer to actually ro ta te the zoom barrel directly by
hand (the claim that this m thod give them a much
greater control), other prefer an electrical ervo system
with a rate control to provide a dampening effect. Thi al-
lows tll. opera tor to start tlle zoom very slowly and then
accelerate to th desired maxlllum speed. The situation can
also be repeated, in reverse, to end the zoom lowly. This
dampening effect is desirable a it tend to make the zoom
movement itself less noticeable. Regardless of whether
turning tlle zoom barrel by hand or by motor, it is suggested
that the lens be zoomed tlle entire focal length range before
actually making a take in order to ctistribute the lubrication
within the zoom cam and bearings. This will result in a
much moother zoom effect, eliminating irregular move-
ments or hang-ups.
Before attempting to focus a lens, the viewfinder eye-
piece must be adjusted to your vision. It is recommended
that th lens actually be defocused prior to setting this eye-
piece. Yo u must r ea li ze that in thi procedure, the
viewfinder is being set to adjust the focus of your eye to the
ground glass viewing system of the camera only. The lens
155
is not considered as part of this system. The viewfu1der
should be adjusted so that only the grain of the ground
glas is harp. At U1is point, the eyepiece should be locked
in position 0 that it will not be moved accidentally dlUing
use.
When attempting to focus, the lens should always be
set at it long t focal length and at full apertlUe, as these
conditions tablish the minimum depth of field for a zoom
lens and provide maximum sensitivity. Similarly to zoom-
ing, the focus barrel hould be turned throughout its en-
tire range in order to distribute the lubrication for a mooth
effect before making a take. For "grab" hots, one hould
know the hyperfocal distance of the lens. To review, the
ba ic rule i that when the lens is focused on the hyperfo-
cal d' lance, the depth of field extends from half the hyper-
focal di tance to infinity, providing the maximum focus-
ing range fora po ible"grab" hot (see tables on pages 174-
2(0).
Do's and Don't's
It hould be olU aim to create pictlUes that do not bring
attention t the mechanics invol ed in the production of the
pictlUe. We must remember that we are operating a mo-
tion-picture camera and not a moving pictlUe camera. We
must realize that eery zoom movement, like every cam-
era movement, hould have a motivation. The zoom should
not be u ed merely becau e it is available. The fact there is
a zoom I ns on a camera does not necessitate utilizing the
lens for the zoom ffect. The " trombonmg" technique in-
vented by 8mm amatelUs and propagated by profe ion-
als around the world should be avoided unless that par-
ticular effect i required in the production.
Ba ically, a zo m lens contains an infinite series of fo-
cal lengths. We should consider the zoom as a variable
prime len u ing it in mud1 the same manner as fixed fo-
cal length len es. When a specific focal length is called for,
the zoom lens h uld be set for that specific focal length and
the scene h t ju t as if a fi xed focal length lens wa
mounted on the camera.
On th other hand, when the production calls for a
searching or revealing effect, the zoom lens is capable of
handling thi t chnique. The searffiing technique was in-
herit d from broadcast television coverage of baseball and
other major sports. It tarts "'lith an overall wide-angle shot
of the arena. Upon the deci ion of the team i.nvolv d to en-
act a sensational play, the lens is zoomed in to a tight shot
of the p layer at the center of the action. The opposite type
of zoom movemen t, "revealing" th ubject, is used more
often in commercials and theatrical film a it can impose
tr mendous impact if carried out corr ctly. In this type of
zoom movement, the zoom lens is fir t set at the long focal
length to proVide a narrow angle of view and, upon cue, is
zoomed to a wide-angle po ition to re eal another object
to accent the plot.
An intimacy with a moving ubject can be achieved by
zooming at the same rate a the ubject is moving either
toward or away from the camera. Thi method keep the
ubject size the same e en though th ubject is in motion.
The effect is heightened b the changing of perspective in
that while the subject ize remain relativel con tant
throughout the sequenc , the background relationship
changes according to the di tance from the ubjecl to the
background. The per pecti e change only because the
distance between the lens and the ubject i changing. The
focal length of the lens is not the c ntrolling factor in de-
termining perspective. The focal length of the lens deter-
mines the angle of view, which pro ide us with the re-
quired width and height of the picture.
The zoom len can also be u ed to introduce peed. A
very fast zoom from a wide angle t a tight hot of a speed-
ing subject will accelerate the movem nt of that ubject.
lnanin1ate objects can be made to appear to move by proper
zoom movements. The changing of imag ize in a given
equence can actually create the illusion of movement.
Zoom Lens Flexibility
There are a number of attachment available for zoom
lenses to increase U1eLr flexibility. Th e attad1D1ents can be
used to flUther change the angl of view, working dis-
tances, color and contrast, as well a protect the lens. One
of the most commonly used front-m unted attachments is
the dose-up lens (sometimes r ferred t as a diopter). TI1ese
attad1D1ents fit on the front of a z om lens, permitting a
doser U1a.I1 normal focusing range, as well as the full use
of U1e zoom. Its prime limitation i that focu ing to infinity
is not possible.
One of the most recent front-molmted attad1D1ents is
a unit to increase the focal length of a zoom. TIUs telephoto
attad1D1ent, while increasing the focal length, may reduce
157
the zoom range whereas it is limited by its front diameter
to a med ium-wide angle.
As an example, a 15-to-1 zoom is reduced to a 6-to-1
because of thi phenomenon. Another front-mounted at-
ta~:hment performs the opposite function. A retrozoom, or
wlde-.angl~attachment, will decrease the focal length; how-
ever, In thi ca e, the zoom range is not affected. An adcli-
tional benefit of the wide-angle attachment is that it reduces
the minimum focu ing clistance.
The m t important reason for utilizing front mounted
attachm nts i that the geometric aperture (f-stop) is not
affect d, degradation of image quality is minimal and a
normal focusing range to infinity is maintained.
On the other hand, rear mounted attachments, such a
range e tender, not only multiply focal lengths, they also
affect aperture and existing aberrations. As an example, a
2X range e tender mounted on the rear of a 25-250mm
f/3.2Iens will double the focal length (5Q-SOOmm) as well
as the a~erture (f/~.4). Aberrations which may not ha e
been.noticeable on ~ are magnified 4X due to the geom-
etry mvol .e?, cr~atin? an image of questionable quality.
When uffiaent light IS available, such as during outdoor
sporting events, ~e iris is stopped down at least halfway
and these aberrations are reduced, generally resulting in ac-
ceptable image .
. While rear-~oun.ted ~lter~ do represent a Ie s expen-
Ive meth d of light filtratIon, It must be pointed out that
they also elongate the back focal distance of a lens to a cli-
mension Y.! the thickness of the filter material. As tolerances
for mounting professional zoom lenses are measured in
hundredths of a millimeter, this extension of the back fo-
~al distance of a zoom may seriously affect its image qual-
Ity. Of cour e, cameras which are manufactured with fil-
ter slots have adjusted flange focal distances which com-
pensate for thi longation. This deviation then demands
that even ~ough a f~ter is not used, a UV or clear optical
flat of eqUivalent thlCkne to the normal filter material
mu t b-: in erted in the optical path in order to compensate
for the Lncrea ed back focal clistance.
Front filter, however, do not require any adjustment
of the back focal distance and are therefore recommended.
If no color filtration is required, a light UV can serve to in-
crea e th " nap" of a picture as well as serve as an inex-
pen ive protective device for the front element of a zoom
len .
158
Cine Zoom Lenses on Video Cameras
Now that .the video medium has progressed to state-
of-~~-art eqUIpment, where gamma and other picture
qualities are controllable enough to provide the "film look,"
cinematographers are fineting a need for a greater variety
of lenses to render the same quality images they have pho-
tographed on film. Unfortunately, prof ional television
equipment manufacturers have not produced many "ex-
treme" type lenses and therefore there is an urge to utilize
the great variety of cine lenses on video cameras.
Cine lenses may be used successfully on black & white
and single-tube color cameras. As mo t professional pro-
ductions would utilize a prism-type camera, we must re-
f~r. to this type o.f mechanism as being limited in its capa-
bility to accept erne lenses. The prism or beam plitter that
breaks up the white light coming from the lens into the
three primary colors requires an elongated back focal dis-
~ce of.a given lens in order to compensate for the glass
m the pnsm. Whereas some extreme cine lenses do not have
this extra back focal length, it i not possible to utilize them
on professional video cameras. Depeneting upon the ize
of the actual prism in the camera, it ha been found that
focal len~ of 15~ and longer can be used successfully
on mo.st ¥-!-mch pnsm-type camera . Extreme wide-angle
and high-aperture lenses carmot be used. Several optical
adapters are currently available to enable you to utilize cine
lenses on video cameras. The users of these devices report
low-quality images in addition to bulkines and high cost,
negating their original concept.
Lens Maintenance
User maintenance is principally limited to keeping
glass surfaces clean. No adjustment hould be made to a
zoom lens except by a qualified technician. As most major
lens manufacturers main tain their own ervice centers or
appo.int service r~p.resen tative , it i best to limit any repairs
to this group. This IS extremely important, as only a trained
technician, who knows the effects of the adjustments and
works with the proper tools and mea uring instruments,
can properly carry out a zoom I ns repair.
Should ~aj.ntenance be required, it is extremely im-
portant to realize that the ervice facility can not rectify the
p:oblem unless it is dearly indicated to them. Prior to ship-
pmg a lens to a service facility, it i essential that the prob-
159
 I .m. be ~ocwnented, clearly indicating all a pect of the
difficulties encountered. If neces ary, a test film, haWing
the problem, should accompany the lens. Term uch a
"the len i n't sharp" or "it doesn't work" hould be
a aided. pecific details h uld be indicated, uch as, "the
lens g soft at a specificfocallength," "the iris blad tick
at fj ?" or "the lens has been dropped" and p ibly " the
le~ ha been immersed in a water." By gi ing these de-
tails, the ervice tedmician will be able to attack the prob-
lem and olve it quickJ ,re ulting in a lower co t to you.
La t but not least, th len hould always be packaged
prop dy. Do not attempt to hip a lens, whether to a ser-
. ice cent r or otherwise, without haVing proper packaging
msulation surrounding it t a depth of at lea t 2". Iu t a
imp rtant, it i essential that the lens be packaged 0 that
th r i ab olutely no m vement of the lens or any part
pa kaged therein. By adh ring to these few ru l ,your
z m I ns should provide you with excellent ervice over
th year.
Lens Formulas
Hyperfocal Distance
Hyperfocal distance of a lens represents a pecial case
f depth of field in whkh objects at infinity, a well as the
near t p ible objects, are photographed with acceptable
~arpn . ~erefore, if a I n i focused at the h perfocal
distance, all Image pain beh een one-half that di tance
and infinity will not e ceed a specific circle of confu ion,
r expr ed more simpl , will be acceptabl sharp.
The f rmula for hyp rfocal di tance (using inche or
fraction there f) i :
F F = focal length of lens
H = -- f = Flstop number
f x Cc Cc = ci rcle of confusion
t.
The circle of confusion for the hyperfocal di tance can
be briefly described a the image of a point ituated out-
id the fused di tance plan that will therefore not form
the image of a point in the film plane, but a blurred circle
of a diameter Cc.
Acceptable harpnes in pa t editions ha been calcu-
lated as a .002 inch image of a point ("Circle ofconfu ion"),
for imag on 35mm film. Because of larger magnification
160
in present-day thea ters, manufacturers have been u ing
.001 inches in recent years, and these new tables follow that
practice (.0006 inches (.015mm) is used in the 16mm tables).
To read depth of field for larger or smaller circles of confu-
ion, use the column under a smaller or larger lens f-stop.
Acceptable sharpnes i affected not only by the geometry
of the cone of light imaging a point object; it is also affected
by:
1. The imaging quality of the lens both on-axi and off-
axi at the plane of best focus.
2. The imaging quality at large and small, a compared
to intermediate iris diaphragm apertures.
3. Diffusion or flar ,whether inten tional or not.
4. The imaging quality of the films and printing meth-
od used (negative, intermediate, and print).
5. Viewing conditi n .
6. Object illumination and contrast.
If for any of these rea on the sh arpnes of the best
image is less than the arbitrarily established norm, .the a~­
parent depth of field will be affected also. If the eXlt pupIl
of the lens, due to a ymmetry, is not the same a the indi-
cated f-stop, the depth of field will be affected.
Because depth of field has no sharply defined limits,
the distances in the tabl have been "rounded off" to fig-
ures compatible with the distance.
Depth of Field
The depth of field of a lens is the range of acceptable
sharpness before and b hind the plane of focus obtained
in the final screened image. It hould be understood that
th determination of depth of field involves a ubjective
sen ation that require taking into account the condi tion
under which the final proj cted image is viewed. The fo l-
lowing two fo rmulas are fo r calculating the depth of field
with the help of the h.ype rfocaJ dis tance and the circle of
confusion.
Depth of Field Calculations
First Calculate the hyperfocaJ distance
(definition abo e)
(The tables are calculated
for Cc = .001 " (.025mm) for 35mm film,
= .0006 (0.15mm) for 16mm film)
161
 Sec nd: Using H, calculate near and
far d pth- f-field Limits
HxS
D camera t near limit
H + (5-F)
H S
DF camera to far limit
H - (5-F)
H = Hyperfocal distance
= Di lance from camera to object
F = Focal length of lens
Depth T taJ = DF-D
Wh n th bj t distance is I than 10 times the lens
focal length, d pth of fi ld i very mall, and tabl are more
appropriat I combined and stated in terms of image mag-
nificati n, rath r than focal length and ubjectdi tance. (See
"E treme I up.")
Depth of Focus
Th depth of focu hould be dearly di tinguished
from the previousl explained depth of field . The depth of
focu i an infinitely small range behind the lens at the fo-
caJ plan within whidl the fiLm is positioned during expo-
me. Thi i mo t critical, particularly with short-focus
len e . If th film moves out of this precise po ition, either
forward r backward, it wUl cause unsharp images pro-
duced by an increa e of the diameter of the cirde of confu-
sion. Th circle of confusion, in other words, is no longer
an acc ptably harp point but a larger circle which i
blurr d . Pr ci e placement of the film in the fiJm apertur
is a mo t imp rtant consideration for motion picture cam-
era d igncr to avoid film buckJing or breakage, or other
mechanical pr blem such as variable pressure plate or
poor regi tration, cau ing displacement of the fiJm behind
the len during actuaJ exposure. Eacll frame mu t be held
securely in po ition and in perfect register in the e act fo-
cal plan and r main absoluteJy motioruess dW'ing expo-
sur. F l' clo e approximation the formula for depth f fo-
cu for a lens at a given f-stop i plus or minus:
foca l length x f- top
Depth of focus =
1000
Lens Angle and Field of View
Field of view may be calculated by ub tituting film
aperture size for image ize; the field of view i then the
object size. (Lens angle rna b calculated with th aid of a
table of tangents or a pocket scientific or Lide-rule calcula-
tor; see tangents table.)
For 2:1 anamorphic Ie , th field or object ize is
double in the horizontal dim nsion.
A = Aperture (height or width) in inch
f = focal length of a lens in inch
Y.!
Tangent Y.! viewing angle = - -
f
The tangent of Y.! iewing angle can be converted to
degrees by con ulting a tangent table. Multiply thi angle
by two to obtain the full iewing angle. For Cinemascope,
or other two times queeze wide screen processes, the for-
mula is imply the aperture divided by the focal length of
the lens, since 2 times \12 qual 1. Other queeze ratios
should use the following f rmuLa:
Y.! A Squeeze Ratio
Tangent Yz viewing angle = - - -- -- --
Using the above sk tch one may calcula t camera dis-
tance, object size, lens focaJ length or image size if any three
are known.
o = object size in front of ca mera
D = distance from obj ct to lens of camera
F = focal length f len LI ed
A = image size
and: a = lens angle when A = film aperture size
o = field of view when A = fi lm aperture size
 Lens Aperture
F-stop or f-number i the ratio of the focal length of a
lens to the diameter of th entrance pupil. (Appro imately
the aperture diaphragm ize in a ymmetricallens).
o T-stop is a mea urc of th light transmission of the lens.
It is related to f-stop b the efficiency of light transmission.
lens which tran mitted 100% of the light ntering it
would ha e the same f- top and T number.
To compensate for backla h in the mechanism, alwa s
t a lens diaphragm by mo ing from the wid t opening
to the desired aperture. nti method takes up any backlash
The e component ar c nn ted together b th foUow- that may be pre ent and pro ide the most accurate setting.
ing ba ic formula: (Reference: 51 PH 22.90.)
a D Lens Displacement When Focused Closer
A F Than Infini ty

and that, in other term, lead to the foUowing four basic d = lens displacement from infinity p iti n
f rm ulae: f = focal length of lens in inches
OxF object size x focal length a = distance focu d on in inches
D =- - ; OJ tance = - - - -- _
aperture size f2
d= -
DxA distance x aperture ize a-f
0=- - ' Object ize = - - -- - - - --
F ' focal length EXAMPLE: The di placement of a SOmm (2 inch) len
focused at 10 feet (120 inches):
o distance x aperture ize
F= - - ' Focallen th = - -- - _ 22 4
a ' object size d = - - = - - = 0.031"
120-2 11
FxO
=- - ; Aperture ize= - -- - - - - - _
o distance Extreme Close-up
In photographin g ubj cts at a d istance closer tha n the
All di mensions mllst be c nv rted to the sa me wli ts: f et, ca mera lens mount sca l will allow, tlu'ee opti ns are open:
inches, meters or mill imeter . (One inch equal 25.4 milli- 1. Wh en availab l , extension ri ng or bellows may be
m ter ; one millimeter equal .0394 inches.) Note tha t D is u d between tile camera lens and the flange.
mea ured to the lens (front principal point). Mo t cameras 2. Supplementary lenses (commonly known a "diopt-
and lens scales are calibrated to the distance from the film er ") may be mOLUlted in front of the len or rewed into
plane (becau e lenses to be m LUlted on the camera are of filter holders on the lens.
van u izes). Thi convention hould pose no problem 3. Lense especiall designed for photomacrography
when the object distance i greater than about 10 times the may be employed. (The term "macro" is 10 ly defined;
lens focal length. (See"E treme Closeup Photograph .") Kodak uses it when th scale i greater than 1:1, while man
len are sold for "macro" for use down to 1:1 or 1:2.
164
Lenses used for general cinematography are d signed and
corrected for ubjects many feet from the camera; "macro"
lenses are corrected for whatever scale they are sold for, and
would be expected to deliver a better image at that scale
than a conventional lens with extension ring .)
The choice between extension rings or diopter lenses
is determined by convenience, with a slight preference for
the use of prim lenses and extension rings. Image aberra-
tion due to clo e focusing of prime lenses and due to the
" inlple len" sh'ucture of diopters is minimized in each
ca e by stopping down to fl8 or f/11. While a macro lens
may be corrected for a larger aperture, depth of field (about
Vioth of an in h at f/8 at scale 1:2) may be a limiting fac tor.
Depth of field at a given f- top depends solely on the scale
factor (copy ratio or image size divided by subject size), not
on the use of extension tubes or diopters, nor on the lens
focal length. Therefore, it is preferable to use a long focus
lens to allow more room for lighting.
Extension of Prime Lens
As the prime lens is mov d forward, less light is trans-
mitted becau the effective I-stop is progressively dimin-
ished by its distance from the film. At a subject-to-lens dis-
tance of about 10 focal lengths (field width of 8" for 35mrn,
or 4" for 16mm) this begins to become noticeable. The table
hows the amount of illumination increase required to
maintain full expo ure in terms of image scale factor.
By convention, most camera lens distance scales are
calibrated at a ubject distance measured from the film
plane becau e lenses of differing sizes are in olved. The
following dose-up tables are calculated on subject-ta-Iens
di tance (to the front "principal point"; for practical pur-
poses, the iris diaphragm, which is not necessarily the cali-
brated diaphl'agm ring).
Diopter Lenses
By definiti n, "diopter" i the measure of the power
of the lens expre ed as the reciprocal of the focal length in
meters (1000 divided by the focal length of the lens in mil-
limeters). The term is commonly used by cinematographers
to refer to supplementary lenses used in dose-up photog-
raphy. The lenses are generally of a weak meniscus form
and are marked with the number indicating the diopter
power: +Y.z , +1, +2, etc.
166
When a prime lens is set at scale focus infinity, and a
diopter lens is mounted in front of it, a subject will be in
focus on the film plane if positioned at a di tance from the
diopter lens equivalent to the focal length of the diopter lens
(2 meters for a Y.z diopter lens, 1 meter for a 2 diopter lens,
etc.). Iwo diopter lenses mounted clo e together may be
used and the power is the sum of the powers of the two
lenses. When two diopter lenses are combined, the high-
est power should be closest to the prime lens. Plus dlopt-
ers should be placed in front of the prime lens with their
convex (outward cW've) side toward the subject. If an ar-
row is engraved on the rim of the diopter lens mOLUlt, it
should point toward the subject.
Highest screen quality results with lower-power di-
opters. It is better to use a longer focal length prime lens
and a less powerful plus-diopter lens than to employ a
higher power diopter on a short focal length prime lens.
Plus diopter lenses shorten the focal length of the prime lens
and change its focus scale. The tables give typical figures
for these factors. Because the prime lens is used "on scale"
it is not necessary to increase exposure for close-up pho-
tographed in this maJmer.
Depth Of Field For Close-up Photography
When the object distance is Ie than 10 times th lens
focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropriately combined and stated in terms of image mag-
nification, rather than focal length and ubject distance. The
difference in near and far depth also becomes mall, and
depth i stated in the table as the total zone of probable
acceptable sharpness. Geometric calculation of depth of
field for asymmetrical lenses (retro, tele, and zoom) i also
to be taken as an approximate guid in these zones, b cause
each has been design d for a specific range whicll mayor
may not include extreme close-up.
167
Extreme Closeup Lens Formulas ally cut in half, although they may be positioned in front
of the prime lens so that more or Ie than half is covered.
They may be compared with bifocals for human vi ion, in
1000
which the eye may focus near and far. They have an ad-
Power in diopters = - - (="P")
F(mm) vantage over bifocals, however, in that they may beJoel/sed
shnrplyon both nenr nnd fnr sl/bjects illll/ltnneollsly.
image size image distance from lens The depth of field of the prime lens is not e tended.
Magnification " m" = - - - The plit-field diopter lens simply permits focusing on a
object size object d istance from lens very close subject on one side of the frame, while a distant
subject is photogra phed normally tlu'ough the lmcovered
Combinin g "diopter" lens with prime lens portion of the prime lens. Generally, the area in between
will not be in focus. There are instance, such as using a
F x 1000
zoom lens with a sma ll aperture at the Wide-angle po ition,
P F = focal length prime lens
F = effective f cal length,
when sh arpn ess may extend all the way from the ultra-
F=
<
- - - millimeters close-up to the distant ubject. The pUt diopter-equipped
• (combinati n)
F + 1000 lens possesses two distinct depths of field: one for the close
P subject (which may be very shallow or possess no depth
whatever), and another for the distant subject (which will
Total depth of field in terms of "m": be the normal depth of field for the particular focal length
lens and f-stop in use). It is important, therefore, to exclude
2C (l+m) subject matter from the middle distance because it will cre-
0I = - -- -
c= dia meter of circle of confus ion
N= f/ number ate a situation w here the foregroLmd is sharp, the middle
distance is out of focus and the distant subject is sharp!
Exposure factor for extended prime lenses: Split-field diopt r lenses require grOtmd-glass focus-
ing to precisely line up b oth foregrOtmd and background
EI(close-up) subjects and visually cl1eck focus on each. This is particu-
E po ure Factor = = (1 + my larly important with zoom lenses, which may require cam-
EI(normal) era movement during the zoom.
Very unusual effects are po sible that would otherwise
N, = indica ted or require two separate hots to be later combined in an opti-
ca librated
cal printer via a matting process. Making such split shots
Lens stop corr cted for m : len stop
in the camera permit viewing the cene as it will appear,
l +m I L= ca lculated or rath r than waiting for both shots to be optically printed
"normal"
onto one fi.Jm.
lens st p
The proper power spli t-field diopt r lens is positioned
log (l+my ] in front of the taking lens on the same side as the n a r ob-
Stop d1ange =6.6 log (1 +m) = [
ject, so that it is sh arply focused on o ne side of the frame.
10g2 The lmcovered portion of the conventional or zoom len is
focused in the usual marmer on the di tant subject. ( ote:
ot all of the fom1ulas are rigorous. Use the "Plus Diopter Lenses Focu Conversion Table" to
Some have very mall facto discarded for practicality. find near and far focusing distances with various power
diopter lenses.) A zoom lens may b employed, either to
Split-Field Diopter Lenses obtain an intermediate focal length not available with con-
Split-field diopter lense are pnrtin/lens , cut so that ventional lenses, or to zoom during the shot. Study the shot
they cover only a pOl·tioll of the prime lens. They are gener-
168 169
t1u'ough t11e focu ing viewfinder at tI1e f-s top to be used for
filming. ..
Th edge of tI1 plit diop ter lens sh0U!d be POSlti.oned,
if pos ibl , 0 that it line up witl1 a straIght edge m tI1e
background, uch a the comer of a room, tI1e edge of a
column or a b okca e. Eliminating tI1e edge may prove
difficult und I' c rtain conditions, particularly witl1 a zoom
lens, becau tI1e edge will hift across tI1e frame slightly
when tl1e len i zoomed. It is wise to leave space between
tl1e for ground and background ubjects so tl1at tI1ey do not
overlap aI1d 0 tI1at each is remo ed from tI1e lens edge.
This will minimize "blending." The split diopter need not
be lined up erticall - it rna be used horizontally or at
an angle t cover a foreground ubject on ~op, .bottom,
either ide or at an angle acro tI1e frame. Lighting rna
be emplo ed to Ii hten or dar~en tI1e b~ckground area
where tI1e plit occurs, to make It less no.ticeable.
plit-field diopter shots cannot be filmed on tI1~ :un.
The require preci ubject placement, camera po ltion-
ing and balanced Lighting to record an acceptable re ult
witl10ut at II tale blur behveen. They have Limited use and
will not replace elaborate etup that require optical print-
ing, proc background projection or mattes. Th.ey may be
used for imple combination shots where tI1~ cm~matog­
rapher i allowed tI1e time required for a prease lineup of
tI1e variou el ment involved.
Diopter and plit-field diopter l ense~ may ~e ordered
cu tom-mad in a compound con truction which can be
more highly c rrected tI1an simple single-lens element.
Such compound lenses consist of two or more :I~men.ts and
are rath I' thick, 0 they require a special retcunmg rmg.
Special Purpose Lenses
Swing Shift Lens
The lairmont wing Shift Lens System consists of a
multi-axi moveable lens board receiver attach ed to a
Ar riflex style PL lens mount by a rubber .bellows. Specially
modified len ar attached to tI1e receIver board by two
captive crew . The a embly i able to move tl1e en.tire lens
in the following directions: tilt up ~d down, wmg Side
to id, hift po ition and focus rIght to left, or up a~d
down. Til ting/ swinging the lens plane alters t11e focus; ~lt­
ing / winging the film p lane alters tl1e shape..By combll1-
ing the ariou parameters of movement, different and
170
unusual effects CaI1 be accomplish ed, uch as increas d or
decreased deptl1 of field, seJ cti ve plane of focus, reposi-
tioning of image wi tI10ut changing placement of tI1e cam-
era, and correction or addition of image di tortion. The fo-
callengtl1s available are 20mm, 24mm, 2Smm, 35mm,
50mm, 60mm, and SOmm.
Panavision 45mm T2.8 Slant-Focus Lens
The plane of focu of tI1is len can be tilted in any di-
rection (induding vertical and diagonal) a well as horizon-
tal by adjusting tI1e rear lens rotating mount.
If tI1e lens focus i t on an object near tI1e center of
tl1e field of view, tl1e plane of focu can be tilted 0 tl1at
objects (left ide of frame and / or right ide of frame) located
along tl1is tilted plane of foeu will al be harp.
If tl1ere is not an obj ct near tl1e center of tl1e field of
view, measure tl1e di tanc to tl1 near and far object and
set tl1e focus at an average between tl1 two distances. The
plane of focus can now b tilted 0 that tl1e two objects will
be brought into foeu . In all ituati n ,an obj ct near tl1e
center of llie field of view hould till be in focus after tilt-
ing llie lens.
Due to llie tilting nature of llii len, it CaIU10t be used
willi a Panaflex follow-focus. For th initial focus and any
change in focus, eye foeusing i necessary. 111is lens accepts
a I.4X Primo extender witl1 negligib le change in perfor-
mance and no change in operation. The foeal length be-
comes 63mm witl1 a maximum aperture of T4.0. If filters
are used willi this len tI1ey should (whenever possible) be
gLass filters in front of the len . If ne ded, tI1e lens does ac-
cept a 40.5mm rear fi lter.
Continental Camera Systems Remotely-
Controlled "Pitching Lens" £/3.9 Optical
Relay
Concept: A system to r motely control a prime lens
t11at i mOlmted at tl1 end of an optical relay tube. ln nor-
mal configuration t11e IS" tub xt nd d wnward from t11e
camera . The prime lens i mounted at right angles to tl1e
tube and can tilt 15° up to 90° down. The entire system ro-
tate 380°. This allows lens Ud1 a ikkor or Arriflex to
get into very small areas. Use of an anamorphic element
between tI1e end of tI1e relay tub aI1d camera allow a
spherical lens to produce an anan10rphic image on film .
171
Because focus i controll d in the relay tube, it is possible
to continuously follow-focus from Y2 incll to infinity, ~us
greatly ext nding the normal focus range of most pnme
lenses. The y tem may also be mounted vertically (as in.a
ubmarin ) or extended traight out in a horizontal pOSI-
tion.
Clear length of relay: 1 "Maximum diameter: 3"
Control of Lens: Control console with built-in video
monitor. Pre ure- nsitive joy tick for pan and tilt opera-
tion. y tern power requirements nov, 220V or 24V DC.
Cameras: Arrifle IIC, orelco PCP90 (video), Mitchell
RT, Lightweight Technicolor Vi taVision equipped with
ikon mount.
Focus: Rem t ly controlled from hand-held unit. Fo-
eu peed i proportional to focus command. . i used for video. S tern I nse are used on the Type B;
Taking Formats : 16mm, 35mm anamorphic,
VistaVision.
Optics: ikon mount through adapter rings can use
a wide a rtment of ikkor and Arri£lex lenses from 7.2
mm to l00mm. peed of sy tern is £/3.9 to f/32. Prime lens
is set wide pen and aperture is controlled in the relay sys-
tem.
Su pension: Standard dolly with small jib arm and
c.C.S. balanced cro arm at camera end of jib. Large tele-
copic billboard cranes and Chapman "Titan" cranes can
be used.
Kenworthy Snorkel Camera Systems
A remote image-taking system with operator and cam-
era compon nt removed from shooting area. The camera
looks into a p ri cope-like optical relay tube that extend
dow nward bel w the camera and ends with a small fron t-
surfac d mirror. Since the mass of the camera with opera-
tor is removed from the shooting area, considerations of
cene staging are concerned only w ith the small end (I-W'
x 1-\14" at the mirror) of the tube. The tilting mirror is re-
motely controU d, as are other functions such as pan, fo-
cus, roll, zoom and iris. The mirror system permits more
intimate h ting (due to its small size) than do add-on
right-angled len peri copes. It al 0 permits tilting up in
con tricted ituation because the mrrror, rather than the
tube/cam ra combination, does the tilting. TIle system al-
lows viewp int in tight quarters reachable from overhead,
or from very low viewpoints or in miniature sets. Pans and
172
tilts are on system nodal point. An add d waterproof tube
permits underwater or transition hot.
There are two systems avai lable:
The Kenworthy ettman Snork I features fast optics
and lightweight, interchangeable formats, and carries a
shorter tube for use on lightweight dolli . The cameras are
butterfly VistaVision, 65mm, and 16mm film and ¥.J" video
cameras. Camera lenses are u ed.
The type BKenworthy norkel i designed for hoot-
ing actors with dialogl.le at moderat lighting level . It car-
ri a longer tube (48" or 66") which p rrnj ts more overhead
clearance for deeper penetration into four-walled sets or
water tanks. This y tern uses 35mm onl : Arriflex, Mitchell
Mark II, Panafle or oth r imilar camera . The Panacam
2 mrn & 50mm T for mm, 13mm T .6 for video. Both ys-
terns can use anamorphic lense . Type B requires a camera
crane.
With both s stem a con ole i u ed with a video
monitor and pan, tilt and lens control .
Dynalens
An optical stabilizing dice mowlted on the camera
optical axis for compensating for image motion due to vi-
bration of the camera.
A pair of gyro sensor detect rapid motion and drive
two gin1bal-mowlted glas plat ,b tween which i a liq-
uid-filled cell. One plate mov ar lmd a vertical axis and
the other around a horizontal axi in a manner which de-
viates the light path opposite to the Vibratory movement,
causing the image to tay till relative t the imag recep-
tor (film or video).
A low-frequency-respon e manually operated poten-
tiometer on the control module adjust the frequency en-
itivity of the unit so controUed panning or tilting may be
done.
The Dynalens is available in 2.3" diamet r for 16mm
film or small video cameras and 3.8" and 8" for larger for-
mat cameras. The maximum u eful angular deviation i
±6°.
173
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH, Of, fIELD , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW CIRCLE Of CONfUSION _ ,001 ' (1/1000")
LENS fOCAL LENGTH : 9,8mm fiELD Of VIEW
HYPER· 1.55' 1.13' O.7S' 0.56' 0.39' (w/projected Image)
S,S6' 6,20' 4,43' 3.10' 2.22'
12.41'
nf.~Wr< 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/5,6 lI S 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 (.S25'x.4461 (.594' )
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2,S 1/4
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
NEAR NEAR fAR fAR (1.676'x.700' )
fAR
~ftEuT~ f AR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR
l' 5-
fAR
l'
fAR
I" I" 0' 32' 0">< 17' 4- 23' 0'
5' 7' 4' 5' 3' 5' 2' 7' 2' INF 65' 0"x27' 2"
6'10' INF INF
15 INF INF INF INF
3 3-
INF
2' 6'
INF
2'
INF
l ' 5-
INF
l' l' l' 0' 25' 7">< 13'10" lB' 5-
6' ,- 5' I' 4' l ' INF INF INF S2'12-x21" 9-
12 367' INF INF INF INF
2' 4"
INF
1'10"
INF
l' 4'
INF
I" 0" 0' 9" 0' 6" 0' 5" 21' 4'x l1' 6" 15' 4"
5' 6" 4' B" 3'10" 3' 1-
INF INF INF 43' 3",0( lB' r
10 52 INF INF INF
3' 0-
INF
2' 4-
INF
I' 9"
INF
l' 4-
INF
I ' 0' 0' 9- 0' 6- 0' 5- 19' 2"x 10' 4' 13'10"
5' 3" 4' 6" 3' B" INF INF INF 39' O"X 16' 3'
INF
9 33' INF INF INF INF
2' 3-
INF
l ' !l"
INF
I' 4" I' 0' 0' 9" 0' 6- 0' 4- 17' O-x 9' 3" 12' 3"
4'10" 4' 3- 3' 6" 2'10" INF INF 34' 6'x14' 6-
INF INF
8 23' B2' INF INF INF INF
I' B"
INF
l ' 3' I' 0" 0' B" 0' 6" 0' 4' 14'11-x B' 1" 10' 9"
4' 6' 3'11" 3' 4" 2' 9" 2' 2" INF INF 3D' 3'x 12' B"
INF INF
7 16' 1- 33' INF INF INF
2' 1-
INF
1"7"
INF
I' 3- 0'11' 0' B' 0' 6" 0' 4' 12' 9"x 6'10" 9' 2"
4' 0' 3' 7" 3' 1- 2' 7" INF INF INF 2S'11-x lO' 9"
INF
6 11' 7" 19' lB4' INF INF INF INF
I" 2" 0'11' 0' B- 0' 6' 0' 4' 10' r x 5' 9' 7' B"
3' 7- 3' 2" 2' 9' 2' 4' 1'11" l ' 6" INF 21' 6-x 9' 0"
INF INF
5 B' 5' 11' 6" 26' INF
2' 1-
INF
l ' 9'
INF
I' 5"
INF
1' 1-
INF
0'11' 0' B" 0' 6' 0' 4' B' 6"X 4' 7" 6' 1"
3' 0" 2' 9" 2' 5- INF INF INF 17' 3"X 7' 2'
INF
4 5' 11' 7' 3" 11' 3" 41' INF INF
I" 3"
INF
l ' 0- 0'10' 0' 7" 0' 6- O' 4' 6' 4'X 3' 5' 4' 7"
2' 5" 2' 3- 2' 0" 1'10" I' 6' INF 12'10"X 5' 5'
INF INF
3 11' 5" 4' 6' 5'10" 9' 3- 92'
l ' 2V,"
INF
I" Vl'
INF
0'11'
INF
0' 9' 0' 7" 0' 5' 0' 4' 4' 3"x 2' 3" 3' 0'
I" 8'1t I' 7'1t" l ' 6" I' 4'12" INF INF INF 8' 6'x 3' 7"
2 2' 4'12' 2' 7" 2'11 '12' 3' 8' 5' B- 21" INF INF

35mm CAMERA DEPTH·Of"fIELD. HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 15mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION ~ ,001- (1/10001
HYPER· fiELD Of VIEW
29.06' 20.76' 14.53' 10.3S' 7.27' 5.19' 3.63' 2.64' 1.82' 1.32' 0.91'
Dr.OT~~~ F (w/ proJecled Image)

1/1 111.4 1/2 1/2.S 1/4 1/5.6 lI S 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
(.S25' .446") (,594-)
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
rfttT~ fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR (1.6Wx.7001
IS' 12' 10' B' 6' 4' 3' 3' 2' l' l' 41'IO"x 22' r 30' 2'
30 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF BS' O'x3S' 6'
11'10' 10' 2' B' 7' 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' l' I" 27' l~"X1 S' l' 20' l'
20 64' 547' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 56' 7"x 23' 8-
9'11- B' 9' 7' 5' 6' 2- 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' l' 20'11' x l1' 3' 15' 0-
15 31' 54' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF
I'
INF 42' S-x l7' 9-
7' 5- 6' 9- 5'11' 5' 1- 4' 3" 3' 5' 2' 8' 2' I- I" 6- 1'2" 0'10" 13'l!'x 7' 6' 10' 0"
10 15' 3' 19' 3' 32' 274' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 2B' 3'X l1'10'
6' 3- 5' 9' 5' 2" 4' 6- 3'10' 3' 2' 2' 6" 2' 0' I' 6" l ' 2' 0'10' 11' l 'x 6' 0" B' 0"
8 II' 0- 13' 0" 1ll' 35' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 22' 7"x 9' 5'
5' B- 5' 3' 4' 9" 4' 2' 3' 7- 3' 0" 2' 5" 1'11' I" 5' 1' 1' 0'10' 9' 9'x 5' 3' 7' 0'
7 9' 3" 10' 7' 13' 6" 21' 191' INF INF INF INF INF INF 19' B"X B' 3"
5' 0" 4' 8' 4' 3- 3'10" 3' 3- 2' 9- 2' 3- 1'10" I' 5- 1' 1- 0'10" ll' 4-x 4' 6" 6' 0"
6 7'7" 8' 5- 10' 3" 14' 3' 34' INF INF INF INF INF INF 16'11"x 7' ,-
4' 3" 4' 'I,. 3' 9" 3' 5- 3' 0' 2' 7" 2' 1- l ' 9' I" 4- 1' 1' 0' 9' 6'11"x 3' 9' 5' 0-
5 6' 0" 6' 7" 7'7" 9' B- 16' 137' INF INF INF INF INF 14' 1-x 5' 11'
3' 6';''' 3' 4- 3' 1'; ''' 2'11" 2' 7" 2' 3' 1'11' l ' 7' l ' 3- l ' 0' 0' 9' 5' 6'x 3' 0' 4' 0'
4 4' 7V,.. 4'11'1r 5' 6" 6' 6" 8'11' 17' INF INF INF INF INF 11' 3"x 4' 8'

3 2' 8 J~"
3' 4 4.
"
1'10';'"
2' 7';'''
3' 6"
9'i<'
2' 6"
3' 91,\"
I' 9'
2' 4'
4' 3'
I" B'/t
2' 1';-
5' l '
l ' 7'
1'11"
7' l '
I' 5'
I' 8"
17'
l ' 4"
l' 5'
INF
l' 2'
I" 2"
INF
0'11"
0'11"
INF
0'10"
0' B"
INF
0' 8"
::~:~ ~ ~: 3' 0"

2' 0"
2 2' l J,~·
I'
2' 2'..... 2' 3'1.' 2' S'lt 2'11' 3' 3' 4' 5" B' 3" INF INF INF
2' 9"x " 6'
5' 7"x 2' 4'
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-Of-fiELD , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW CIRCLE Of CONfUSION = .001' (1/1000")
LENS fOCAL LENGTH: 20mm fiELD Of VIEW
HYPER· 9.23' 6.46' 4.70' 3.23' 2.35' 1.61' (w/projecled Image)
51.67' 36,90' 25.83' 18.45' 12.92'
nf.~~~~~f 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/ 5,6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/ 32 (,825'x.446'1 1.594")
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4

NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR

LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
NEAR fAR fAR fAR (1 .676"x .700"}
fAR
~~tE~~ fAR fAR fAR fAR
10'
fAR
B'
fAR
6
fAR
4 3' 2' 2 41'1O"x ?2' 7" 30' 2-
22 19' 16' 13 INF INF INF 85' 0,, 35' 6-
40 177' INF INF INF INF
9'
INF
7'
INF
5'
INF
4' 3' 2' 2' 31 ' 4', \7' 0- 22' 7"
19 17' 14' 11' INF INF INF 63' 9'x26' 7"
30 72 160' INF INF INF
8'
INF
6'
INF
S'
INF
4' 3' 2' 2' 20'11-x l1 ' 4' 1S' 1-
14' S' 13' 0" 11' 3" 10' INF INF 42' S-" 17' 9-
INF
20 33 44' 89' INF
8' 3-
INF
6'1'·
INF
S' 9"
INF
5
INF
4' 3' 2' 2' 15' 8" 8' 6- 11' 3'
11' 8" 10' 8' 9' 6' INF INF INF 31'10'.< 13' 3-
15 21' I" 25' 36' 80'
6' 6-
INF
5' 8-
INF
4'10-
INF
3'1'·
INF
3' 2" 2' S" 1'11 - l' S" 10' S", S' 8" 7' 6'
8' S" 7'10" 7' 3' INF INF INF 21' 2- < 8' 10"
10 12' 5' 13' 9" 16 4" 22' 44'
4'1\"
INF
4' 3'
INF
3' 7"
INF
3' O· 2' 4" 1'10· l' 4' 8' 4' 4' 6' 6' 0'
6'11" 6' 7" 6' 1" 5' 7" INF INF INF 16' 11", 7' l'
INF INF
8 9' 6" 10' 3' 11' 7" 14' 2' 21' 60'
3' 8' 3' 1- 2' 8- 2' l' I'll" \' 3' 6' 3"" 3' 4- 4' 6'
S' 4',' S' 2- 4'10' 4' 6' 4' I' INF 12' 8'~ S' 3-
INF INF INF
6 6' 9' ,' 7' 2" 7'10' 8'11-
3' 11-
11' 2'
3' 7'
17'
3' 3'
8S'
2'10" 2' S" 2' 0" 1' 7" l' 3- 5' 2">< 2'10" 3' 9-
4' 6',' 4' 5' 4' 2'f INF INF INF 10' 6") 4' S"
5 S' 6- S' 9' 6' 2" 6'10·
3' 3',
8' 2'
3' l {
10'11"
2'10"
22'
2' 6"
INF
2' 2' l' 9' l ' 6" l' 2" 4' 2">< 2' 3" 3' 0-
3' 8'," 3' 7'," 3' S'o" INF INF INF 8' 5-" 3' 6"
4 4' 4" 4' 5'.- 4' 9' S' \'
2' 7'
S' 9'
2' S-
7' 1-
2' 3'
10' 6-
2' '12"
27'
1'10- 1'7" l' 4- 1'1· 3' ,·x I' 8' 2' 3·
2'10" 2' 9',' 2' 8'1," INF INF 6' 3" < 2' 7"
3 3' 2'. 3' 3'. 3' 4 3~" 3' 7' 3' 11 " 4' 5" s' r 8' 4" 42'
2' O'x l' l' l' 6"
l' 6 1~· l' 5' l' 3' 1'1" 0'11'
1' 11 '.,- 1'10''- 1'10"· l' 9', l' 8',' l' 7''- 4' 2-x l' 9"
5 3" 13' INF
2 2' l' 2' ",.. 2' 2" 2 3" 2' 4"" 2' 6',' 2' 11 ' 3' 6-

35mm CAMERA OEPTH-OHIELO, HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW

LENS fOCAL LENGTH: 25mm CIRCLE Of CONfUSION = ,DOl' (1/10001
HYPER- fiELD Of VIEW
80_73' 57 ,66' 40.36' 28.83' 20,18' 14,42' 10.09' 7,34' 5.05' 3.67' 2.52'
nf.~~~~~. (w/prolecled Image)

1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5,6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/ 22 1/32 1.85: 1 AR TV HEIGHT
(,825'><.446") (.5941
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
[~ECE~~ fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR fAR (1.676'><.700")
31' 27' 22' 18' 14' 11' 8' 6' 5' 3' 2' 41'10"x22' 7" 30' 2"
50 131 ' 376' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 8S' 0"x35' 6"
19' l' 17' 5- lS' S" 13' 11 ' 9' 7' 6' 4' 3' 2' 20'11",, 11' 4-
25 36' 44' 6S' 188' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 42' S"x l7' 9-
15' ' "
12' 8- I'll- 10'11' 9'10" 8' 7- 7' 4' 6' 0" S' 4' 3' 2' 12' 6-x 6' 9" 9'0"
15 18' S' 20' 3' 23'10- 31' S8' INf INF INf INF INF INF 2S' S'x 10' 7'
10' S' 9'11" 9' 3' 8' 6" 7' 6" 6' 7' S' 6- 4' 7' 3' 7' 2'10' 2' 0' 10' O"x S' S" 7' 2"
12 14' 1" IS' 2' 17' 1- 20' 7- 30' 72' INF INF INF INF INF 20' 4-x 8' 6-
8' 11' 8' 6' 8' 0' 7' 5- 6' 8' S'l1- S' 0- 4' 3' 3' 4- 2' 8- 2' 0' 8' 4'X 4' 6' 6' 0-
10 11' S- 12' 1" 13' 3- lS' 4- 19'10' 33' INF INF INF INF INF 16'11"x 7' l'
7' 3Yl" 7' '/f' 6' 8' 6' 3' S' 9' S' 2- 4' 6- 3'10' 2' 6- 1'11' 6' 8'x 3' 7" 4' 9-
8 8' 10'h- 9' 3- 10' 0- 11' 1- 13' 3' 18' 0' 39' INF 3' "
INF INF INF 13' 6'x S' 8'
5' 7" S' 5" S' 2'h ' S' 0" 4' 8' 4' 3" 3' 9' 3' 4' 2' 9" 2' 3' l' 9" 4' O'x 2' 8' 3' 7"
6 6' 6' 6' 8W' 7' l ' 7'7" 8' 7" 10' 3' 14'10' 33' INF INF INF 10' l'x 4' 3'
4' 8'h' 4' 7'/,- 4' SII' 4' 3' 4' 0' 3' 9" 3' 4' 3' 0- 2' 6' 2' I' l' 8' 4' 2'x 2' 3' 3' 0'
5 5' 4' S' S'I,' S' 8Y," 6' 1" 6' 8' 7' 8" 9' 11 " 16' SS3' INF INF 8' S'x 3' 6'
3' 9' ,- 3' 9' 3' 7 ~'- 3' 6' 3' 4- 3' \',,' 2' 10- 2' 7" 2' 3' 1'11' 1 7" 3' 3"'x l' 9- 2' 4'
4 4' 2'h' 4' 3'h' 4' S'I,- 4' 7W' S' 0' S' 6' 6' 7" 8' 9" 19' INF INF 6' 8'x 2'10'
2'10',' 2'10 '1,' 2' 9'.',' 2' aw' 2' 7'1,' 2' 6' 2' 3'/" 2' 1',- 1'11" l' 8' l' 4' 2' S'x l' 4' l' 9"
3 3' I'h' 3' 2" 3' 3' 3' 4'1,- 3' 6- 3' 9'.'" 4' 3- 5' l' 7' S' 16' INF S' O'X 2' l'
1' 11 'h' "11 '1,' 1'11" l '10'h' l' 9'4' l' 8' l' 6'1,' l' 4" " 7"x 0'10' l' 2"
2 2' 'h' 2' ~~.. 2' l V,' 2' 1'/,' 2' 2'4" 2'" 3",-
9' 2' 6- 2' 9-
" 5-
3' 4- 4' S-
" l'
9' 8' 3' 3'x l' 4'
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH·OF·FIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE &. FIELDOF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 35mm CIRCL E OF CONFUSION ,DOl" (1/1000")
HYPER· FI ELD OF VIEW
158,23' 113,02' 79.11' 56.51' 39,56' 28,26' 19.78' 14 ,38' 9.89' 7. 19' 4,94'
nl~~~~~F (w/ projecled Image)

II I 1/1 ,4 fl2 1/ 2.8 fl4 fl5 ,6 f/ 8 fill 1/16 fl22 1/3 2 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
(,825" ,446") (,594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2,39: 1 AR
~~fEUT~ FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR /1.676"x ,700"1
38' 35' 31' 27' 22' 18' 14' 6' 5' 29' 10"' 16' 2- 21' 6-
50 73 90 136 434 INF INF INF
11'
INF
8
INF INF INF 50' 8" , 25' 4-
2 1' 7" 20' 6" 19' 0- 17' 4- 15' 4- 13' 11 ' 9' 7' 6' 4' 14'11 -' 8' I- 10' 9-
25 29' 8- 32' 1- 37' 45' 68' 217' INF INF INF INF INF 3D' 3-' 12' 8-
13' 8- 13' 3- 12' 7" 1110- 10'10- 9'10" B' 6- 7' 4" 6' 0- 4' 10- 3' 8" 8'11"'· 4'10" 6' 5-
15 16' 7" 17' 3" 18 6- 20 5- 24' 2" 32 62 INF INF INF INF 18' ' -, 7' 7"

12 11 2" 10'10- 10' 5" 9'11" 9' 3" 8' 5" 7' 6" 6' 7" 5' 5- 4' 6" 3' 6" 7',-< 3' 10" 5' I"
13' 0" 13' 5" 14' 2" 15' 3" 17' 3" 20' 10" 31' 72' INF INF INF 14 ' 6", 6' 0"
9' 5" 9' 2' ," 8' 11" 8' 0- 7' 5" 6' 8- 5'11" 5' 0" 4 2" 3' 4- 5'11", 3' 2" 4' 3-
10 10' 8" 10' 11 ',- 11' 5"
8' 6
12' 2 13' 5" IS' 6- 20' 33' INF INF INF 12' I" A 5' 0'
7' 71 ~ ~ 7' 5'1,- 7' 3- 7' 0'· 6' B- 6' 3" 5' 8" 5' 2" 4' 5" 3' 9- 3' I" 4' 9", 2' 7" 3' 5-
8 8' 5'" 8' 7'," B II" 9' 4" 10' 0" II ' 2" IS' 5" 18' 42' INF INF 9' 7",., 4' 0-
5' 9', 5' B',- 5 7" 5 5" 5' 2'," 4' 1'- 4' 7' 4 3- 3' 9- 3' 3- 2' 9" 3' 6-" 1'11- 2' 6-
6 6' 3- 6' 4" 6' 6- 6 8' , 7' 1- 7'7" 8' 7 10' 3- IS' 3" 36' INF 7' 2"" 3' 0-
4' 10',' 4' 9'," 4' B' ,- 4' 7" 4' 51.,- 4' 3" 4' 0- 3' 9" 3' 4" 2' 11- 2' 6" 2'11'''< l' 7" 2' 1-
5 5 2- 5' 2'" 5' 4- 5' 6- 5' B' ,- 6' 1- 6' 8' 7' 8- 10' , - 16' INF 5'11-' 2' 6"
310' ," 3' 10 ', 3' 9' ," 3 9 3' 7' , 3' 6- 3' 4- 3' 1',- 2' 10 2' 7" 2'3 2' 4-, I 3- l' 8-
4 4' 11 4" 4' 1',- 4' 2'," 4' 3' ,- 4' 5',- 4' B" 5' 0- 5' 6- 6' 9" 9' 0- 21' 4' 9-, 2' 0-
2'11 1jJ" 2'11 - 2'10'\- 2'10 ',- 2' 9'," 2' B' ," 2' 7'," 2' 6" 2' 3' '- 2' 1' ,- 1'10" I' 9-x 0'11 - I' 3-
3 3' '.- 3' 1- 3' 1'," 3 2" 3' 3- 3' 4',- 3' 6',- 3' 9' ,- 4' 4- 5' 2- 7'7" 3' 6-, l' 6-
2' 0- 1'11',- 1'11 "," 1' 11'," 1'10.... 1' 10'," l' 9'," l' 9- l' 8 l' 6 l .t" l' 5" l' 2", 0' 7" 0'10"
2 2' '\{" 2' '," 2' ',- 2' '," 2' 1 ""~ 2' 1',- 2' 2'," 2' 3'1,- 2' 6" 2' 9" 3' 4- 2' 3" I' 0-

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 40mm 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE &. FIELD OF VIEW
HYPER- CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,DOl" (1/1000')
~ol~~l~~F 206.67' 147,62' 103.33' 73.81 ' 51.67' 36.90' 25.83' 18. 79' 12,92' 9.39' 6,46' FIELD OF VIEW
(w/prolecled image)
fl 1 1/1.4 fl2 fl2.8 fl4 1/ 5.6 f/ 8 fill 1/ 16 1/22 fl32 1.85: 1 AR TV HEIGHT
LENS NEAR (.825" ,446-)
NEAR NEAR (, 5941
r~ECEUT~ FAR FAR FAR
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
FAR FAR FAR FAR ANA 2,39:1 AR
FAR FAR
50 40' 3-
66'
37'
76
34'
97'
30'
ISS'
25
INF
22' 17' 14' 10' 8'
FAR
6'
FAR (1.676-x. 700'1
INF INF INF INF 26' 2"'" 14' I" 18' 10-
25 22' 4"
28' 5-
21' 5-
30' , -
20' 2-
33' 0-
18' B-
38'
16'10"
48'
IS' 13' 11' 9'
INF
7'
INF
5'
53' ,- 22' 2-
13' 0-, 7' 0-
77' 775' INF INF 9' 5"
15 14' 0"
16' 2"
13' 8
16' 8"
1~' 1-
IT 6-
12 6-
18'10"
II' B-
21' 2-
10' 8- 9' 6 8' 4- 6'1'-
INF
5' 9"
INF
5'
26' 6-'<1 1' I"
25' 36' 7' 9-, 4' 3" 5' 7"
74' INF
12 11' 4'
12' 8',-
11' 1"
13' 0-
10' 9"
13' 7"
10' 4-
14' 4-
9' 9-
IS' 7-
9' I' 8' 3' 7' 4' 6' 3-
INF
5' 4-
INF
4' 3"
15'10"), 6' 7"
17' 9' 22' 33' 6' 3"" 3' 4- 4' 6-
10 9 6'," 9' 4 ',- 9' 1' ," 8' 10" 8' 5"
169' INF INF 12' 8"x 5' 3-
10' 6' 10' 8" 7'11" 7 3" 6' 7" 5' B"
11' 0" 11' 7" 12' 5" 13' 8" 4'10- 3'1'- 5' 2"x 2' 9"
7' B'," 16' 4" 21' 44' INF 3' 9"
8 8' ',-
7' 7"
8' 5' ,-
l' 5"
8' 8-
7' 3'
9' 0"
6'11 "
9' 5-
6' 7" 6' 2" 5' B- 5' 0- 4' 4"
INF
3' 7"
10' 6"' 4' 5'
5' 10- 10 2" 11' 7- 13' 11- 4' l"x 2' 3- 3' 0"
21 '
6 6' 2"
5' 9'"
6' 3'
5' B-
6' 4 \7"
5' 6','
6' 6,,-
5' 4',"
6' 91)2"
5' 2- 4' 11- 4' 7" 4' 2"
54'
3' B"
INF
3' 2-
8' 4".. 3' 6"
7' 2" 7'10- B'10· 3' ,")( l ' 8" 2' 3"
5 4' 10 ',-
5' 1' ,-
4' 10''-
S 2
4' 9' ....
5' 3-
4' B',-
5' 4 ',"
4' 6',"
5' 6',"
4' 5- 4' 2'," 4' 0-
11' 2"
3' 8"
17'
3' 4-
85'
2' 10"
6' 3-)( 2' 7-
2' 7 )( I' 5-
S 9 ',- 6' 2" 6' 9- 8' 2- 1'10"
3'11"
4 4' I"
310' ,"
4' 1','
3' 10 ',"
4' 1'h"
3' 9',-
4' 2',-
3' 8' ,- 3' 7',- 3' 5' ,- 3' 3 J~" 3' 0"
10' B"
2'10-
22' ,-
2' 6"
5' 2"" 2' 2-
4' 4" 4' 5'.- 4' B',- 5' ,. 2' O-x l ' I" l' 6"
2'11 ',- 5' 9"
3 3 ',-
2'11 ',"
3' '.
2'11-
3' I "
2 10 '{
3 I',·
2'10-
3' 2-
2' 9'.' 2' 8 '.- 2' 7',· 2' 5',"
6'11-
2' 3',-
10' 6"
2' ',-
4' 1 -~ I' 9-
,. 6-, 10'
3' 3',- 3 4',· 3' 6'/2" 1'1"
2 I ' l l',"
2' I~"
1'11 ',"
2' I~"
1'1P',,"
2' 1'1"
1'11',,·
2' ]~ .
1·1H....
2' I"
1'10'," 1'10 '," I' 9'1,"
3'11-
l' 8","
4' 5-
l' 7 ]~"
5' 7"
l' 6' 1"
3' I-x I' 3"
l' 0-,
2' p ." 2' 2- 2' 2'," 2' 4 ~,-
6- B"
2' 6',- 2'10',- 2' 0-, 10
 35mm CAMERA OEPTH-Of-fIELO , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE /I fiELD Of VIEW
LENS fOCAL LENGTH: 50mm CIRCLE Of CONfUSION = .001" (1/1000")
HYPER- FIELD Of VIEW
FOCAL 322,92' 230 ,66' 161 .46' 115.33' 80.73' 57.66' 40,36' 29,36' 20.18' 14,68' 10.09' (w/proJecled Image)
DISTANCE
1/1 .4 1/2 1/4 115.6 1/8 fill 1/16 1/22 1132 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
1/1 1/2.8 (,825")(.446") (.594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2.39:1 AR
fOCUS
{fEET! fAR FAR fAR fAR fAR FAR fAR fAR FAR fAR fAR (1.676"x .7001
43' 4' 41 ' l' 3B' 35' 31' 27' 22' 19' 14' 11' B' 20'11'x ll' 3' 15' O'
50 59' 2' 64' 72' 88' 131' 376' INF INF INF INF INF 42' S'x 17' 9'
23' 2' 22' 7' 21' B' 20' 7' 19' l' 17' 5' 15' 5' 14' 11' 9' 7' 10' S'x 5' B' 7' 6'
25 27' l' 28' l' 29' 7' 31'11' 36' 44' 66' 168' INF INF INF 21' 2"x 8'10'
14' 4' 14' l' 13' 9' 13' 3' 12' 8' 11'11' 10'11 ' 9'11' 8' 7' 7' 5' 6' O' 6' 3'x 3' 4' 4' 6'
15 IS' 9" 16' O· 16' S- 17' 3' 18' 5' 20' 3' 23'10" 31' SB' INF INF 12' B'x 5' 3'
11' 6'4' 11' 5' 11' 2' 10'10' 10' 5' 9'11' 9' 3' 8' 6' 7' 6' 6' 7' 5' 6' 5' O'X 2' B' 3' 7'
12 12' 5'12' 12' 8' 12'11 '12' 13' 5' 14' l' 15' 2' 17' I' 20' 4' 30' 66' INF 10' 1' x 4' 3'
9' 8'12' 9' 7' 9' 5' 9' 21'2' 8'11' 8' S- 8' 0' 7' 6' 6' 8' 5'11' 5' 0' 4' l'x 2' 3' 3' 0"
10 10' 3':" 10' 5'12' 10' 8' 10'11'h' 11' 5' 12' l' 13' 3' 15' 2' 19'10" 31' INF 8' 4'X 3' 6'
7' 9'1,' 7' 8'lt 7' 7'1,' 7' 6" 7' 3Y,' 7' '12' 6' 8' 6' 3' 5' 8' 5' 2' 4' 6' 3' 3'x l' 9' 2' 4'
8 8' 2V;' 8' 3'12' 8' 5' 8' 7' 8'10IJz' 9' 3' 10' 0' 11 ' 0' 13' 3' 17' 7' 39' 6' 8'x 2' 9'
S' 10 ~' 5'10'14' 5' 91'2' 5' 8\;' 5' 7" 5' 5' 5' 21't' 5' 0' 4' 8' 4' 3' 3' 9' 2' S'x l' 4' l' 9"
6 6' m' 6' 2' 6' 2'4' 6' 4' 6' S'lt 6' 8Y,' 7' l' 7' 6' 8' 6' 10' 2' 14'10' 5' O"x 2' l '
4'1 1' 4'10'4' 4'10Y,' 4' 9'12' 4' 8Oh" 4' 7" 4' SW 4' 3' 4' 0' 3' 9' 3' 4' 2' O'x l' l' l' 6'
5 5' l' 5' 1"." 5' 2" 5' 2 ~~" 5' 4' 5' 5JA" 5' 817' 6' 0' 6' 8' 7' 7' 9'11' 4' l'X l' 9"
3'11'12' 3' 11 '14' 3'10'lt 3'10 '1,' 3' 9'4' 3' 9' 3' 7IA' 3' 6'It 3' 4' 3' 1 ~/4" 2' 10' l' 7"x 0'10" l' 2"
4 4' 1'2' 4' iI,4't 4' lV,' 4' 1'1,' 4' 2V,' 4' 3'h' 4' Slfl" 4' 7'1,' 5' 0" 5' 6' 6' 7' 3' 3'x l' 4'
2'lH\' 2'11 Vz' 2'11 1'2' 2'11' 2· 10 31~· 2'10'1.' 2' 9\',' 2' 8 )~· 2' 7 '.~· 2' 6' 2' 3'h' l' 2'x 0' 8' 0'10'
3 3' 'll' 3' '12' 3' 3~" l' 3' lIJz' 3' 2' 3' 3' 3' 4' 3' 6' 3' 9" 4' 3' 2' S'x l' 0"
2 2' 0'
2' 0-
l'l 1'lt
2' '14'
,.,,,,,'
2' V."
l ' 1 H~"
2' 'h'
1'11'It'
2' IJz'
1'l lY,'
2' :tA"
1' 11'
2' 1'14'
l'10Y,'
2' p ~.
l' 9'4'
2' 2 ~'
l'
2'
9'
3':"
l' 8'
2' 6'
0' 9'x 0' 5"
l' 7"x 0' 8'
0' 7"

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 85mm 35mm CAMERA OEPTH-Of.FIElO, HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE /I fIELD OF VIEW
HYPER·
CIRCLE Of CONfUSION - ,001' (1/1000")
Dt.~~Wr., 933.23' 666.59' 466,62' 333.30' 233,31 ' 166,65' 116.65' 84.84' 58,33' 42.42' 29,16' flELO Of VIEW
1/1 111.4 1/2 (w/ pro/ecled image)
112,8 1/ 4 1/5.6 fl8 f/ ll f/ 16
LENS f/ 22 1/32 1.85: I AR TV HEIGHT
OCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR (.825' .446' )
r,FEETj fAR fAR fAR
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAij
(.594' )
fAR fAR fAR fAR NEAR ANA 2.39: ' AR
100 90' 4"
112'
87
118
82'
127'
77'
143'
70' 63 54' 46'
fAR
37'
FAR fAR FAR 11.676"X, 700")
175' 250' 700' 30' 23' 24' 7" ~ 13 3
50 47' 6'
52'10"
46' 6"
54' 1"
45' 2'
56' l'
43' 6"
58'10'
41' 2" 38' 35'
INF
31'
INF
27'
INF INF 49'11'x 20'10"
17' 8'
64' 71' 88' 23' 18' 12' 3' 6' 8'
25 24 4'
25' 8','
24' I'
2511 ','
23' 9'
26' 5'
23 3'
27' O'
22' 7' 21' 9' 20 7"
122'
19' 4'
350'
17' 6'
INF INF 24'11', 10 5'
8'10"
28' 0' 29' 5' 31'10' IS' 9" 13' 6 1" , 3' 3"
15 14 ' 9'
15' 3'
14' 8"
15' 4'.-
14' 6't
IS' 6'
14' 4'
15' 8','
14 ' l' 13' 9' 13' 4"
35'
12' 9'
44'
11'11 '
61' 175' 12' 5', 5' 2'
4' 5"
16' 0 16' 6' 17' 3' 11' I' 9'11' 3' 8" 2' 0
12 1110 ',"
12' 2'
11 9' ,'
12' 2',"
11' 8','
12' 3',-
11' 7"
12' 5' ,'
11 ' 5' 11 ' 2',' 10' 11'
18' 3'
10' 6"
20 2'
9'11'
23' 2 30'11 ' 7' 4"x 3' ,.
2' 7"
12' 8" 12'11' 13' 4" 9' 4" 8' 6' 2' 11'< l' 7"
10 9'10 ',"
10 ".1"
9'10't
10 1' ,'
9' 9','
10' 2't
9' 8',' 9' 7' 9' 5" 9' 2' ,'
14' O'
811'
IS' I'
8' 6"
16' 9' 20' 5' 5'10' < 2' 5'
2' l'
10' 3'" 10 5' ," 10 7',' 10'11' ,' 8' I' 7' 5' 2' 5' I' 4'
7' 11 't
8 8' ,,"
7'11 '
8' 1 ."
1
7'10 ','
8' 1','
7' 9'.' 7' 8'.- 7' 7',' 7' 6'
11' 4"
7' 3','
12' l'
7' ',"
13' l' 15' 3" 4'10"x 2' 0"
l' 9'
8' 2', 8' 3',' 8' 4't 6' 9- 6' 3'
8' 7" l'l1'y l' 0"
7 611 ','
7 ','
6'11 ',"
7' J, 6'10't
7' 1 1 ~"
610',' 6' 9',' 6' 8't 6 71 4"
8'10"
6' 5' ,'
9' 3' 9'10' 11' 0- 3'10·( 1 r
l' 4"
7' 'P4 ~ 7' 2',' 7' 3...• 6' 3' 6' O· 5' 8-
5' 11 ',' 7' 5' ," l' 8'" O'l r
6 6' ','
5'11 ','
6 ',. 5'11 -
6' ,.
5'10',
6 l' ~ ..
510' ,' 5' 9',' 5 8','
7' 7' 2"
5' 7',
7'11 ',·
5 5','
8' 5' 9' 2' 3' 4', I' 5'
l' 2'
6' 2' 6' 2' , 6' 4' 5 3' 5' 0' l' S'x 0' 9'
411 ','
5 S' ','
4'11' ,'
5' ','
411 ','
5' ','
4' 11 '," 4'10't 4'10 11," 4' 9""
6' 4'
4' 8','
6' 8',' 7' O· 7' r 2'10·' I' 2'
l' o-
.... 4 3113 ," 31Pt 3'11't
5' I" 5' 1 1~" 5' 13,' 5' 2',' 5' 3',·
4' 7 14~
5' 5',"
4' 5' ,· 4' 3· I' 2'x 0' 8' O'H)"
....
00
4 ',' 4 '," 4' ','
3'11 ','
4' ',. 3'11','
4' ',"
3'10',"
4' 11/'
3'10',' 3' 9',' 3' 9'
5' 8'
3' 8'
6' O·
3' 6',"
2' 4"x l' 0"
4' 1',' 4' 21.," 4' 3 112" 0' 11·x 0' 6" 0' 8"
4' 5' 4' 7',' "10', 0'10"
 35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF,FIElD, HYPERFDCAl DISTANCE &. FIELO OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH : 100mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000' )
HYPER- FiElD OF VIEW
1292' 922,62' 645,83' 461.31 ' 322,92' 230,66' 161.46' 117,42' 80.73' 58.71 ' 40.36'
nl~~~~~ (w/pro)ecled Image)

1/2 1/8 1/11 1/22 1/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT

1/1 1/1.4 112.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/16
1,825'x,446' ) (.594' )
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2,39:I AR
~~(EUT~ FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR f1.676"x .700"j
92'10" 90' 3' 81' 82' 76' 70' 62' 54' 45' 31' 29' 20'll'X l1' 3' 15' 0'
100 108' 5" 11 2' 118' 128' 145' 177' 263' 674' INF INF INF 42' s"x l T 9'
48' 2" 47' 5" 46' 5" 45' I" 43' 4" 41' 1" 38' 35' 31' 27' 22' 10' S"x 5' B" 7' 6"
50 52' 0" 52'10" 54' 2- 56' I" 59' 2- 64' 72' 87' 131' 337' INF 21' 2'x 8'10-
24' 6' ,' 24' 4" 24' l ' 23' g- 23' 2' 22' 7" 21' 8' 20' 7" 19' I" IT 6" 15' 5" 5' 2"x 2' 9" 3' 9"
25 25' 6" 25' 8',," 26' 0" 26' 5" 27' I" 28' 0" 29' 7" 31' g- 36' 44' 61> 10' 6")( 4' 5"
19 8',," 19' 7" 19' 5" 19' 2" lB'lO" lB' 5" 11'10" 11' l ' 16' 0" 14'11" 13' 5" 4' l"X 2' 3" 3' 0"
20 20' 3 ~. 20' 5'1. 20' 7",' 20'11" 21' 4" 21'11" 22'10" 24' 1" 26' 7" 30' 40' B' 4"X 3' 6"
14' 10" 14' g- 14' 8" 14' 61'. 14' 4" 14' 1" 13' 9" 13' 4" 12' B" 11'11" 10'11" 3' l"X l' B" 2' 3"
15 15' 2'1. 15' 3" 15' 4'/. 15' 6" IS' 9" 16' 0" 16' 6" 11' 2" l B' 5" 20' 2' 23'10" 6' 3"x 2' 7"
11'103/. 10'10'1," 11' 9'/. 11' B'h" 11' 6'1," 11' 5" 11' 2" 10'1 1" 10' 5" 10' 0" 9' 3" 2' S'x l' 4" l ' 9"
12 12' 1'/," 12' 2" 12' 2'1. 12' 3'\" 12' 51.," 12' B" 12'1 11i 13' 4" 14' I" 15' I" 11' I" 5' O"x 2' 1"
9'11" 9'103/. 9'10'/," 9' 9v." 9' 8'," 9' 7" 9' 5" 9' 2v." B'11" 8' 7" 8' 0" 2' O"X l ' I" l' 6"
10 10' I" 10' l'i," 10' 2" 10' 2', 10' 3'. 10' Sv.- 10' 8" 10'11- 11' 0" 12' 0" 13' 3" 4' ,")( l' 9"
7'11 '/," 7f103~" 7'10',- 7' 9' ," 7' 8 '~" l' 7',," 7' 6- l' 3',," 7' \;- 6' 8- l' 7"x 0'10" l ' 2"
8 7" ' '''-
8' '~" 8' 3/l' 8' P/~" B' ". 8' 2'1>- 8' 3V.- 8' 5" 8' 7" 8'10',," 9' 3- 10' 0- 3' 3-x I' 4"
6' 11'1" 6'11'h- 6'11" 6'10',," 6'10 1'," 6' 9'h" 61 8 112- 6' 7'/," 6' 5\7" 6' 3" 6' 0" l' S"x 0' 9" 1'0"
7 7' 'h" 7' 'h" 1' 1" 7' 1'/," 7' 2" 7' 2'1, 7' 3'1." 7' 5'/. l' 8" 7' l lY,- 8' 6" 2'l O"x I' 2"
5' 11'/.. 5'11 '1,. 5'11 '1,' 5'11" 5'10'1, ' 5' 10'1." 5' 91/2" 5' 8'h- 5' 7" 5' 5'1,' 5' 2'h" l ' 2" x 0' 8" 0'10"
6 6' '14" 6' V." 6' 3// - 6' 1" 6' 1'/.. 6' 2" 6' 2'1. 6' 3'1. 6' 5'4" 6' 8" 7' 1" 2' S"X l ' 0"
4'1" /. 4'11'!,- 4'11'h- 4'11'h" 4'11" 4'10'4" 4'101'. 4' 9'1," 4' 8'h" 4' 7 11l' 4' SV," l' O"x 0' 6" 0' 8"
5 5' 1/4" 5' " 4• 5' V," 5' '~" 5' 1- 5' I I'. 5' 2" 5' 2'4" 5' 4" 5' 5'4- 5' BY," 2' O"x 0'10"

35mm CAMERA OEPTH"OF-FIELD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIElO OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 150mm
CIRCLE DF CONFUSIDN • ,001 " (1 / 1DDO'1
HYPER·
DI~~~~~~
2906' 2076' 1453' 1038' 726,6' 519.D· 363 ,3' FIELD DF VIEW
264.2' 181.6' 132.1' 90.82'
(w/ prolecled Image)
II I 111.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/ 4 1/5.6 1/8 1.85:1 AR
1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 TVHEIGHT
(,825' .446") (,594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
~~REUT~
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
FAR NEAR ANA 2,39:1 AR
FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR 11.676'x.7DO")
142' 8"
150 158' 2"
140'
162'
136'
161'
131'
175'
124'
189'
116'
211'
106'
255'
96'
347'
B2'
861'
70' 57' 20'11-< 11' 3" IS' o·
96' 8" INF INF 42' S"x 17' 9"
100 103' .,.
95' 5"
lOS' 1"
93' 7"
lOT 5"
91' 3"
Ill'
8$'
116
84'
124'
78'
138'
73'
161'
65'
222'
51' 48' 13'11-" 7 6" 10 0"
73' I" 412' INF 28' 3"''' 11'10"
72' 5"
75 77' 0" 77'10"
71' 4"
79' I"
69'11"
80'10-
68' 0"
83' B"
65' 6-
BB'
62'
95'
58'
105'
53'
12B'
48' 41' 10' 5-,. 5' 8" l' 6"
49' 2- 174' 431' 21' 2"" B'10"
50 50'10' (
4B'10"
51 ' 3"
48' 4"
51' 9"
47' B"
52' 6"
46' 9"
63' 8"
45' 7"
55' 4"
43'11-
58' 0"
42' 1"
62'
39'
69'
36' 32' 6'11"x 3' 9" 5' 0"
BO' 111' 14' 1", 5'10"
25 24' 9' ,"
25 2',"
24' B',-
25' 3',-
24' 7"
25' 5'.
24' 5"
25' 7',-
24' 2"
25'10','
23'10"
26' 3"
23' 5"
26'10"
22'10"
21' 7"
22' 0-
29' 0"
21' 0" 19' 7" 3' S"~ 1'10' 2' 6"
30'10" 34' 6- 7' 0", 2'11"
20 19'10'.
20' ".-
19' 9'.
20' 2'.
19' 8'.
20' 3'.
19' 7',"
20 4''-
19' 5',"
20 7
19' 3"
20' 9',-
19' 0-
21' 2-
lB' 7"
21' 8-
18' 0"
22' 6-
17 4-
23' .,.
16' 5" 2' 9',< l' 6" 2' 0"
17'10'. 25' 8" 5' 6"' 2' 4-
18 IB 1'.
7'10 ',-
lB' 2"
IT 9'.
18' 2' ,-
11' 8'.
18' 3' ,-
IT 6','
IB' 5' ,"
17' 5"
lB' 8"
17' 2"
18'11 ',"
16'10-
19' 4"
16' s-
20' 0-
15'10" 15' 0" 2' 5"" l ' 4- I' g-
14'11" 20'10" 22' 5- 5' 0", 2' 1"
15 15' I"
14'10'\"
15' I' ,
14'10' ,"
15' 2"
14' 9'"
15' 2'.
14' 8',"
IS' 4"
14' r
15' 5'/,"
14' 5"
15' 8"
14' 2'·,"
15'11"
13'10"
16' 4"
13' 6- 12'11' 2' O"x l ' 1" I' 6"
16'11" 18' 0" 4' l "x I' 9"
12 11'11' ,'
12' ',. 11'11 ';"
12' ''-
11'10','
12' 1' ,"
11'10"," 11' 9' ,"
12' 2',-
11' B' ,' 11' 7'1," 11' 6' II' 3" 11' 0" 10' 7" I' 7"y 0'10" l ' 2'

'.
12' " .- 12' 3'\" 12' 5" 12' 7" 12'10' 13' 2" 13'10" 3' 3"x " 4"
10 9'1"'-
10' ',-
9'11',"
10' ',"
911 '.
10'
9'10',
10' I ' ..
910 '.-
10' 1' ,
9' 9','
10 2',-
9' 8'.
10' 3',-
9' 7',"
10' 4',
9' 6'
10' 7"
9' 3;,- 9' 0" l' 4"x 0' 9" l' 0"
1'11',- 10'10" 11' 3" 2' B"" l' 2"
8 8' ',"
7'11'.
8' ',"
7'11 '"
8' 1'2"
7'11 '.
8'10' ,"
7 11-
o ,"
7' 10' ,-
8' 1',-
7'10"
a' 2'."
7' 9"
8' 3"
l' 0"
B' 4',"
7' 6'," 7' 4" l' l"x 0' 7" o g-
8' 6" 8' 9" 2' 2" 0'11"
 35mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELO HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE & FIELO OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 200mm , CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,001" (1/1000")
HYPER· FIELO OF VIEW
5161' 3690' 2583' 1845' 1292' 922,62' 645,83' 469.70' 322,92' 234.85' 161.46'
I orS~~~~F (w/ prDjected Ima ge)

fll flU 1/ 2 112.8 fl4 fl5 .6 fl8 fI ll 1/16 1/22 1/32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
(,825'x,446' ) (,5941
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NE.AR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2,39:1 AR
rfECE~ FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR f1.676"x .7001
192' r 190' 181l 180' 173' 164' 153' 140' 124' 108' 89' 20'11"x l1' 3" 15' 0"
200 208' 1- 211' 217' 224' 237' 255' 290' 348' 525' INF INF 42' 5->< 17' 9"
98' 1- 97' 4" 96' 3" 94'10- 92'10" 90' 3" 87' 82' 76' 70' 62' 10' 5"x 5' 8" 7' 6"
100 102' O' 102' 9' 104' 0- lOS' 9" 108' 5" 112' 118' 127' 145' 174' 263' 21' 2",( 8'10-
73'11" 73' 6' 72'10" 72' 1" 70'11" 69' 4" 67' 2" 65' 61' 57' 51' 7' 9",( 4' 3" 5' 7"
75 76' 1" 76' r 77' 3" 78' 2" 79' r 81' 8" 84'10" 89' 98' 110' 140' 15'10">. 6' r
49' 6'1." 49' 4" 49' ,/," 48' 8" 48' 2" 47' 5" 46' 5" 45' 2- 43' 4" 41' 3" 38' 5' 2"x 2' 9" 3' 9"
50 50' 6" 50' 8'12" 51' 0- 51' 5" 52' 0" 52'10" 54' 2" 56' 0" 59' 2" 64' 72' 10' 6"x 4' 5"
24'10 '12" 24'10" 24' 9" 24' 8" 24' 6'/," 24' 4" 24' I" 23' 9- 23' 2" 22' 7" 21' 7" 2' 7"x l' 5" 1'10"
25 25' 1'; '" 25' 2" 25' 3" 25' 4' 25' 6" 25' 8Y," 26' 0" 26' 5' 27' 1" 28' 0' 29' 7" 5' 2' x 2' 2-
19'11" 19'1QW' 19'10'/,' 19' 9'/," 19' 8'/2" 19' 7" 19' 5' 19' 2" 18'10" 18' 5" 17'10' 2' O' x l ' 1- l ' 6"
20 20' 1" 20' 1'1," 20' 2" 20· 2 3ll' 20' 3'1," 20' 5Y," 20' 7'12" 20'10'12' 21' 4" 21'10' 22'10' 4' 1",( l' 9"
17' 11 '1." 17'11' 17'10 Y," 17'10" 17' 9" 17' 8" 17' 6" 17' 4' 17' h" 16' 9" 16' 2' 1'10' )< l ' 0" l ' 4"
18 18' ]/.1" 18' 1" 18' 1Vz" 18' 2'1," 18' 3" 18' 4"," 18' 6' 18' 8', ,' 19' I" 19' 6" 20' 3' 3' 8'x I' 6'
14'11'12" 14'II Y," 14'11" 14'10" 14' 9- 14' 8" 14' 6'12- 14' 4' 14' I" 14' 13' 9' l' 6'x 0'10- 1' 1-
15 15' 'h" 15' ]!~.. 15' l ' 15' n ,' IS' 2Y,- 15' 3" 15' 4'" 15' 6" 15' 9" 16' 0- 16' 6" 3' I"X l' 3'
11'1 H~ " 11'11 '," 11'11 '1. 11'11' 11'10'1" 11' 9' .. 11' 8Y," 11' 6'1" 11' 5" 11' 2" l' 2'x 0' 6" 0'10"
12 12' W· 12' 1f2" 12' 3~" 12' 1- 12' 1\,"
11'10'"
12' 2' 12' 2'" 12' 3'. 12' 5' ," 12' 8" 12' 11 'h- 2' 5'x l' 0"
9'11''- 9'l l'.'- 9'11 '/2" 9'11 "'- 9'11" 9'10'/," 9'10 ' .. 9' 9',," 9' 8'," 9' r 9' 5' l' O'X 0' 6" 0' 8"
10 10' II? 10' 1 ~ " 10' '!>" 10' 1,2" 10' 1" 10' n,· 10' 2" 10' 2'" 10' 3',,, 10' 5' .- 10' 8' 2' O'x 0'10-
8' 0- 7'1HI" 7'11 ~" 7'11'." 7'11 '12" 7'11 '. 7' 10~'" 7'10' t" 7' 9''- 7' 9" 7' 7"," 0' 9-x 0' 5' 0'7"
8 8' 0- 8' h I' 8' '," 8' v." 8' \1" 8' J~. 8' 1',," 8' " .- 8' 2'12" 8' 31," 8' 5' l' r x 0' 8"

35mm CAMERA OEPTH -OF-FIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 400mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,001" (1/1000")
HYPER,
20,667'
nrS~~~~F
14,762' 10,333' 7381 ' 5161' 3690' 2583' 1879' 1292' 939,4' 645,8' FIELD OF VIEW
(w/projecled Image)
III fll ,4 fl2 fl2,8 1/4 1/5 ,6 fl8 1111 1/16 fl22 fl32 1.85:1 AR TV HEIGHT
(,825" ,446-1 (,594")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR
rftE~~
NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR ANA 2,39:1 AR
FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR
392' 5"
FAR 11.676"x .700")
389'
400 407'11" 411'
385'
416'
379'
423'
371'
434'
361 '
449'
346'
473'
330'
508'
305'
579'
281'
697'
247'
INF
20'11 ")< 11' 3"
42' 5'" 17' 9"
15' 0"
198' 1" 197' 4"
200 202' 0" 202' 9"
196' 2"
204' 0"
194' 9"
205' 7"
197' 7"
208' I"
190'
211'
186'
217'
181'
224'
173'
237'
165'
254'
153'
290'
10' 5"" 5' 8"
21' 2"x 8'10"
7' 6"
148'11" 148' 6'
150 151' I" 151' 6-
147'10"
152' 2"
147' 0"
153' I '
145' 9"
154' 6"
144' 2"
156' 4"
141' 9"
159' 3'
139'
163'
134'
170'
129'
178'
122'
195'
7' 9'" 4' 3"
15'10"x 6' 7"
5' 7'
99' 6'1," 99' 4"
100 100' 6" 100' 8"
99' _;,"
101' 0"
98' 8'
101' 4'
98' 1-
102' 0"
97' 4"
102' 9"
96' 3"
104' 0-
94'11"
105' 8"
92'10"
108' 5"
90' 5"
112'
87'
118'
5' 2"x 2' 9-
10' 6"x 4' 5"
3' 9"
74' 8',"
75 75' 3',"
74' 7V,"
75' 4'12'
74' 5'12-
75' 6'1,'
74' 3-
75' 9"
73'11"
76' 1"
73' 6"
76' 7"
72'11'
77' 3'
72' 2"
78' I"
70'11-
79' 7"
69' 6'
81' 6'
67' 2"
84'10"
3' 10';< 2' 1"
7'10">< 3' 3"
2' 9-
49'10'12" 49'10' 49' go
50 50' 1'," 50' 2" 50' 3'
49' 8"
50' 4'
49' 6', "
50' 6"
49' 4'
50' 8',,"
49' ',"
51' 0"
48' 8"
51' 4"
48' 2"
52' 0"
47' 6"
52'10-
46' 5"
54' 2"
2' r " l ' 5"
5' 2"x 2' 2"
1'10"
34'l1 Y," 34'11"
35 35' ''- 35' 1"
34'10',,"
35' 1',"
34'10"
35' 2-
34' 9"
35' 3"
34' 8"
35' 4-
34' 6'.-
35' 5''-
34' 4'i'
35' 8"
34' I"
35'11 ',"
33' 9"
36' 4-
33' 2"
37' O'
l ' 9")( 0'11"
3' r x l' 6"
l' 3-
24'11'," 24'11","
25 25' If..• 25' If,"
24'11 "'-
25' ',"
24'11-
25' 1-
24'10',,"
25' 1',,-
2410-
25' 2"
24' 9-
25' 3"
24' 8-
25' 4"
24' 6''-
25' 6"
24' 4"
25' 8"
24' I"
26' 0-
l' 3' < 0' 8"
2' 6-'" I' 1"
0'11'
19'11W 19'11',"
20 20' 'I.'" 20' ,~ . 19'11 \it
20' '12"
19'11 ',"
20' "2"
19'11"
20' 1"
19'10'.'
20' 1"'-
19'10'.
20' 2"
19' 9","
20' 2''-
19' 8',"
20' 3'.
19' 7"
20' 5',"
19' 5-
20' 7"'-
l ' O"X 0' 6"
2' 0-" 0'10"
0' 8-
17'11'," 17'11'1'
18 18' V," 18' 11, "
17'lH~"
18' Ifl'
17'11't,"
18' v,-
17'11 ',"
18' ]1,'
17'11'
18' I"
17'10' ,-
18' 111"
17'10-
18' 2"
17' 9"
18' 3"
17' 8'
18' 4","
17' 6"
18' 6-
0'10" < 0' 6"
I' 9-' 0' 9'
0' 8"
15' 0"
15 15' 0"
14'l 1'h"
15' 'I,"
14 / 11 ~~"
15' w·
14'11', "
15' w·
14'11\\"
IS' W·
14'11 ","
15' 34"
14'11-
IS' I'
14'10'1'"
IS' 1'/,"
14'10"
15' 2'1,"
14' 9-
IS' 3"
14' 8"
15' 4'''-
0' 9"x 0' 5'
l ' 6"A 0' 7"
0' 6-
.....
00 16mm CAMERA DEPTH·DF·FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
C'I
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 8mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000")
HYPER· FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 13.78' 9.84' 6.89' 4.92' 3.44' 2.46' 1.72' 1.25' 0.86' 0.63' 0.43' (w/projected Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 STD & TV
(.380"X.286")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463"x.251 ')
9' 7' 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' l' l' l' 0' 30' 2-X22' 8"
25 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 36' 9-X 19'11-
7' 2' 5' 11" 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' l' l' l' 0' 18' ' -x 13' 7"
15 INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 22' 1-x 11'11-
5' l ' 4' 5' 3' 8' 3' l ' 2' 5- 1'11" 1' 1' O' 9' 0' r 0' 5' 9' r x 7' 3-
8 19' 43' INF INF INF INF " 5'
INF INF INF INF INF 11' 9"x 6' 4"
4' 2' 3' 9' 3' 3' 2' 8" 2' 2" l' 9" l ' 4' l ' 0' 0' 9- 0' r 0' 5' 7' 3"x 5' 5"
6 10' 7" 15' 4" 46' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 8' 9'x 4' 9-
3' 1- 2'10" 2' 6" 2' 3" 1' 10- l ' 6" l ' 2" 0'11- 0' 9- 0' r 0' 5" 4'10'x 3' 7"
4 5' 8" 6' 9' 9' 7' 21 ' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 5'10"x 3' 2-
2' 5V," 2' 3'lt 2' l ' 1'10' l' r l' 4" 1'1' 0'11" 0' 8" 0' 6' 0' 5" 3' r x 2' 8'
3 3'10' 4' 4' 5' 4' 7' 8' 23' INF INF INF INF INF INF 4' 5'x 2' 4'
l ' 5- 0'11 - 0' 6-
2 l ' 9'
2' 4'
l'
2'
8'
6'
l ' 6'1,"
2'10' 3' 4'
l'
4'
3"
9'
1'1'
10' 8' INF
0' 9'
INF
0' r
INF INF
0' 4'
INF ~: 1 ~:~ rl~:
l ' 4V,' l' 3'/" l' 2'/" l' W' 0'1 1' O' 9V,' 0' 8' 0' 6'/,- 0' 5- 0' 4" l' 9"x l ' 4-
1.5 l ' 8V,' l ' 9'1,' 1'11'
l' 1'1"
2' 2- 2' 8' 3'10' 12' INF INF INF INF 2' 2'x " 2'
0'11'1," 0'11' 0'10'1,' 0'10' 0' 9'1,' 0' 8'/" 0' 7'/,' 0' 5'1,' 0' 4V,' 0' 3'/''' l' 2'x 0'11'
1 1' 1' l' lV,' l ' 2' l ' 3' l ' 5- l ' 8V,' 2' 5'
0' 6'1"
5' 0- INF INF INF l' 5-x 0' 9"

16mmCAMERA DEPTH·OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 9.5mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.DOD"l
HYPER·
FOCAL 19.43' 13.88' 9.71 ' 6.94' 4.86' 3.47' FIELD OF VIEW
2.43' 1.77' 1.21 ' 0.88' 0.61 ' (w/prolected imagel
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 STD & TV
(.380"x.286 H
)

LENS NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463'x.251 'I
12' 9'
25 INF INF
7'
INF
5'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
25' 4'x 19'
30'11-x 16'
1"
9'
8' 6"
15 66'
7' 3'
INF
5'11"
INF
5'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
15' 3'x 11'
18' 6'x 10'
5'
1"
5' 8- 5' 1" 4' 5' 3' 9" 3' 0- 2' 5' 1'10'
8 13' r 19' 45' INF INF INF INF
l ' 5'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
0'10'
INF
0' ]-
INF
8' l "X 6'
9'10'X 5'
l'
4'
4' r 4' 2' 3' 9" 3' 3' 2' 8' 2' 2' l ' 9"
6 8' 8' 10' r 15' 8' 44' INF INF INF
l' 4'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' r
INF
6' 1'x 4'
7' S'X 4'
r
0"
3' 4' 3' 1'/" 2'10" 2' 6" 2' 2" l' 6-
4 5' O- S' ]- 6'10' 9' S' 23'
1'10'
INF INF
l ' 3'
INF
0'11 '
INF
0' 9-
INF
0' 6'
INF
4' O"X 3'
4'11'x 2'
0'
8"
2' 7V,' 2' 5V.- 2' 3'12" 2' 1" 1'10- l ' ]-
3 3' 6'/" 3'10" 4' 4" 5' 3- 7'10' 22'
l' 4'
INF
1'1'
INF
0'10'
INF
0' 8'
INF
0' 6"
INF
3' O"X 2'
3' 8"x 2'
3'
0'
2 l' 9'A'
2' 2'A-
l ' 9'
2' 4'
l ' 8'
2' 6'
l ' 6'/"
2' 9';"
l ' 5'
3' 5'
l ' 3-
4' 9'
1' 1'
11' 4"
0'11"
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' ]-
INF
0' 6-
INF
2' O'X l'
2' S'x l'
6'
4"
1.5 l ' 4'1,"
l ' 7'/,'
l' 4'1'-
l ' 8%'
l ' 3V,"
l ' 9'1,"
l' 2'A-
1'11"
l ' 1'1,"
2' 2"
l ' W'
2' 7'12"
0'11"
3' 1-
0' 9'12"
9'11"
0' 8"
INF
0' 6V,"
INF
0' 5"
INF
l' 6"x l'
1'10-x l '
1"
0-
0'11 '/'"
1 l ' 'h'
0'11%'
1' 1-
0'11"
l ' 1V,'
0'10'12"
l' 2'
0' 10'
l ' 3-
0' 9V,"
l ' 4",'
0' 8'lt
l ' 8V,'
0' 7'1,'
2' 4"
0' 6'h"
5' 8"
0' 5V,"
INF
0' 4'/,-
INF
l ' O'x 0'
l' 3"x 0'
9"
8"
....
00 16mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELO, HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE & FIELO OF VIEW
00
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 12mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,0006" (611 0,000")
HYPER· FIELO OF VIEW
FOCAL 31.00' 22,14' 15,50' 11.07' 7,75' 5,54' 3,88' 2.82' 1.94' 1.41' 0,97' (Ill/projected Image)
DISTANCE
1/2,8 1/4 1/5.6 fl8 1111 fl16 1/22 1/32 STo /lTV
111 1/1.4 1/2 (.380"x ,286N )
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1,85:1 Aft
FOCUS
(fEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,463"X ,251 ")
14' 12' 10' S' 6' 5' 3' 3' 2' l' l' 20' l'x lS' l'
25 129' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 24' 6'x 13' 3'
10' l' 8'11" 7' 8' 6' 4" 5' I" 4' 3' 2' 2' l' l' 12' O:X 9' l'
15 29' 46' 465' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 14' 8'x 7' 11'
6' 4" 5'11' 5' 3' 4' 8" 3'11' 3' 3" 2' 7" 2' 0' l' 7' l' 0' 0'10" 6' 5"x 4' 10"
8 10' 9" 12' 6" 16' 6' 29' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 7'10" 4' 3"
5' ,~' 4' 9' 4' 4' 3'11' 3' 5' 2'11' 2' 4' 1'11' l' 6" l' 0" 0'10' 4'10' 3' 7"
6 7' 5' 8' 3" 9' 9' 13' 1" 27' INF INF INF INF INF INF 5'10' 3' 2'
3' 6'/2' 3' 4V,' 3' 2' 2'11' 2' 8' 2' 4" 2' 0' l' 8' l' 4' l' 0' 0' 9' 3' 2' 2' 5'
4 4' 7" 4'10 V,- 5' 5' 6' 3" 8' 3- 14' INF INF INF INF INF 3'11- 2' I'
2' 9" 2' 7'1.' 2' 6' 2' 4'1>' 2' 2' 1'11' l' 8- l' 5' l' 2- l' 0' 0' 9' 2' 5' l' 9-
3 3' 3'\' 3' 5'/,- 3' 8W' 4' l' 4'11 ' 6' 7' 13' INF INF INF INF 2'11' l' 7'
1'10'1>' 1'10' l' 9V,' l ' 8'/,' 1'7' l' 5'1>' l' 4' l' 2' l' 0- 0'10" 0' 8' l ' 7' l' 2"
2 2' PI,' 2' 2'1>' 2' 3'/2- 2' 5",' 2' 8W' 3' 2- 4' 2" 6'11' INF INF INF 1'11' l' 0'
l' 5'll l ' 4'1.' l' 4'1>' l ' 3'1" l' 3- l' 2Y.· 1' 1' l ' 0' 0'10' 0' 9' 0' 7' l' 2'> 0'11 '
1.5 l' 7' l' 7'/,' l' 8' l' 9" 1'10V" 2' V," 2' S'!>' 3' 2' 6' 8- INF INF l' S-x 0' 9'
0'11'/.. 0'11Y>' 0'11'/,- 0'11' 0' 10'/,- 0'10'1.' 0' 9'/2- 0' 9" 0' 8- 0' 7' 0' 6- 0' 9"x 0' 7'
1 l' 'I," l' '1>- l' ]/,- 1'1'1,' l' 1 ~" l' 23/,' l' 4'(,' l' 6'1t' 2' l ' 3' 5' INF 0'11'X 0' 6'

16mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELo, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 16mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,0006" (6/10,000")
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 55,11 ' 39,37' 27,56' 19,68' 13,78' 9,84' 6,89' 5,01 ' 3.44' 2,51 ' 1.72' (Ill/projected Image)
DISTANCE
111 1/ 1.4 112 1/2,8 1/4 1/5,6 1/8 f/11 1/16 1122 1/32 STo & TV
(,380"X,286")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
IFEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (,463' x, 251 ' )
26' 22' 18' 14' 11' 8' 6' 5' 3' 2' 2' 30' 2'x22' 8'
50 539' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 36' 9'x 19'11 '

25 17' 2'
46'
15' 4'
69'
13'
270'
11'
INF
9'
INF
7'
INF
5'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF 1~: J:~ lJ: l~:
12' 0- 10'10" 9' 9- 8' 6- 7' 2' 5'11' 5' 4' 3' 2' 2' 9' O'x 6' 9"
15 20' 7' 24' 3' 33' 63' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 11' O'x 6' 0"
8' 6' 8' 0" 7' 4- 6' 8' 5'10" 5' 0- 4' I' 3' 4' 2' 7- 2' 0' I' 6' 6' O'x 4' 6'
10 12' 3' 13' 5' 15' 8- 20' 36' INF INF INF INF INF INF 7' 4'x 4' 0-
7' 0' 6' 8- 6' 2' 5' 8' 5' I' 4' 5- 3' 8' 3' l' 2' 5' 1'11' l' 5' 4' 9-x 3' 7'
8 9' 4" 10' 0" 11' 3' 13' 6' 19' 43' INF INF INF INF INF 5'10' 3' 2-
5' 5' 5' 2",' 4'11' 4' 7' 4' 2' 3' 9- 3' 3' 2'9" 2' 2' l' 9' l' 4' 3' 7' 2' 8'
6 6' 9' 7' l' 7' S" 8' 8' 10' r 15' 4- 46' INF INF INF INF 4' 4' 2' 4'
4' 7" 4' 5',- 4' 3- 4' 0' 3' 8- 3' 4' 2'11- 2' 6' 2' 1- l' 8' l' 34' 3' 0" 2' 3'
5 5' 6- 5' 9' 6' l' 6' 8- 7'10' 10' 2- 18' INF INF INF INF 3' 8- 2' 0'
3' 8'1.. 3' 7'1>' 3' 6" 3' 4' 3' l ' 2'10- 2' 6' 2' 3' 1'10' l ' 7' l' 2' 2' 5' l ' 9'
4 4' 3'/,' 4' 5'1>" 4' 8' 5' 0" 5' 8- 6' 9' 9' 7' 20' INF INF INF 2'11 -x l' 7'
2'10'1,- 2' 9'1>' 2' 8Y,- 2' 71'," 2' 5'/2" 2' 3'12' 2' l' 1'11 ' 1'7' l' 4' 1' 1' l' ~"X l' 4'
3 3' 2' 3' 3- 3' 4',' 3' 6'Y 3'10- 4' 4- 5' 4' 7' 6' 23' INF INF 2' 2"x l' 2"
1'11 1(, " 1 ' 10 '~' 1'10 1;, " l' 9'A- l' 9' l ' 8' l' 6'( l' 5' l' 3" l' 1'/2- 0'11' l' 2"x 0'11-
2 2' 1- 2' 1'1,' 2' 2- 2' 2",' 2' 4' 2' 6' 2' 10" 3' 4' 4' 9' 9'11' INF l' 5' 0' 9'
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH·OF·FIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE /I FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 25mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6110,000")
HYPER· FiElD OF VIEW
FOCAL 134.6' 96.11' 62 .27' 48.05' 33.64' 24.03' 16.82' 12.23' 8.41 ' 6.12' 4.20' (w/ prolecled Image)
OISTANCE

1/1 fl1.4 fl2 fl2.8 fl4 1/ 5.6 1/ 8 fi ll 1/1 6 fl 22 fl 32 STD /I TV

(,380" .286-)
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463-x .251 1
36' 33' 29' 25' 20' 16' 13' 10' 7' 5' 4' 19' 3' 14' 6'
50 80' 104' 195' INF INF INF INF INF INF INF INF 23' 6'x 12' 9'
21' l ' 19'10' l B' 3' 16' 5' 14' 12' 10' 8' 6' 5' 4' 9' 7"x 7' 3-
25 30' 8' 33' 9' 40' 52' 98' INF INF INF INF INF INF 11' 9'" 6' 4'
13' 6' 13' O' 12' 3' 11' 5- 10' 5' 9' 3' 7' 11- 6' 9" 5' 5" 4' 3' 5' 9'" 4' 4'
15 16'11' 17' 9' 19' 4- 21'10' 27' 40' 139' INF INF INF INF 7' O-x 3'10'
9' 3V,' 9' 'h' 8' 9" B' 3- 7' 9- 7' I" 6' 3" 4' 7' 3'10- 3' 0"
10 10' 9V,- 11' 2- 11' 9' 12' 7" 14' 3" 17' 2" 25'
5' 6"
55' INF INF INF ~:1~:~ ~: lJ:
7' 2" 6'1 0" 6' 0" 5' 5" 4' l'
B 7' 6'h"
8' 6"
7' 4'h"
8' 9- 9' 1- 9' r
6' 6"
10' 6" 12' 0" 15' 3"
4'10'
23' 164'
3' 6"
INF
2' 9"
INF ~: J:~ ~: ~::
5' 9" 5' 7'1,- 5' 6- 5' 4" 5' 1- 4'W 4' 5" 4' 0- 3' 6" 3' 0- 2' 6" 2' 3-x l ' 9"
6 6' 3'/,- 6' 4'1," 6' 7" 6'10'1z- 7' 4- 8' 0" 9' 4' 11' 9' 21' 317' INF 2' 9"x l' 6'
4' 9'4- 4' 9" 4' 7'1,- 4' 6V,- 4' 4- 4' lV,- 3'10- 3' 7' 3' 2- 2' 9" 2' 3' 1'1 1 ~X l ' 5-
5 5' 2'1" 5' 3V.. 5' 4'1,- 5' r S'10'h' 6' 4' 7' l ' 8' 5- 12' 4- 27' INF 2' 4-x l' 3'

4 3'10Y,'
4' 1'1z"
3'10"
4' 2-
3' 9'/,-
4' 3'
3' 8%'"
4' 4V..
3' 53/,"'
4' 6V,'
3' 5-
4' 91/,'
3' 3'
5' 3-
3' O·
5'11-
2' 9'
7' 8'
2' 5'
11' 7'
2' l '
82' ~:1~~ r~
3 2'11 V,-
3' lA"
2'11'
3' l W'
2'10Y,-
3' 13/l'
2' 93)'-
3' 2112"
2' 9"
3' 3."
2' B-
3' 5'/"
2' 6'1,'
3' 8'
2' 5'
3'l1'i,'
2' 2'h"
4' 8'
2' 0'
5'11'
l ' 9"
10' 6' ;: ~:~ gl~
l '11 V l'11 'h- 1'11'. - 1'11- 1'1031, '" 1'10'/,- l ' 9ld' l ' 8.... I' 7'·,- l ' 6- l' 4h" 0' 9"x 0' 7"
2 2' w· 2' v,' 2' ],," 2' l ' 2' p,- 2' 21/," 2' 31/,- 2' 4 ~',' 2' 71/,- 2'l1 Y,' 3'10' O'11'x 0' 6-

16mm CAMERA DEPTH·OF·FIElD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE /I FIELD OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 35mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6110,000")
HYPER·
FOCAL 263.7' 188.4' 131.9' 94.18' 65.93' FIELD OF VIEW
47,09' 32.96' 23 ,97' 16,48' 12.0' 8,24'
DISTANCE (w/prolecled Image)

III fll .4 fl2 fl2 .8 1/4 1/5,6 1/8 fill 1/16 1/22 1/32 STD & TV
(.380"x .286")
LENS NEAR
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET! FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463"x .251 ")
42' 0- 40' 36' 33'
50 62' 68' 81' 107'
28'
207'
24'
INF
20'
INF
16'
INF
12'
INF
10'
INF
7'
INF 1 ~: ~:~ 1~: ~:
22'10- 22' 1- 21' 0-
25 27' 7" 28'10" 30'10"
19' 9"
34' 0-
18' 2'
40'
16' 4"
53'
14'
104'
12'
INF
10'
INF
8'
INF
6'
INF
6'10"x
B' 4'x
5' 2'
4' 6-
14' 2y,- 13'11' 13' 6" 12'11- 12' 3-
15 15'11- 16' 4- 16'11- 17'10" 19' 5-
11' 5-
22' 0"
10' 4-
28'
9' 3-
40'
7'10'
167'
6' 8'
INF
5'
INF
4' 2'x
5' O-x
3' 1-
2' 9"
9' 71{,- 9' 6-
10 10' 4'\- 10' 6Y,"
9' 3'17-
10'10-
9' 'Iz"
11' 2-
8' 8"
11' 9-
8' 3"
12' 8'
7' 8-
14' 4'
7' 1-
17' 2"
6' 3-
25'
5' 5'
60'
4' 6-
INF
2' 9"x
3' 4'x
2' 1-
1'10-
7' 9- 7' 8- 7' 6Y,' 7' 4'/,' ] ' l ilt 6'10"
B 8' 3- 8' 4",. 8' 6- 8' 9- 9' l ' 9' r
6' 5'
10' 7'
6' 0"
12' O·
5' 5-
15' 6-
4'10"
24'
4' 1-
273'
2' 2"x
2' 8-x
l ' 8"
l ' 5-
S'10W 5' 93A- 5' 9- 5' 7 3~" 5' 6' 5' 4- 5' 1- 4'10-
6 6' 1'\- 6' 2';'- 6' 31?" 6' 5- 6' 7" 6'10- 7' 4- 8' 0'
4' 5-
9' 5-
4' o-
12' O·
S' 6-
22'
I' 7-x
2' O-x
l ' 3'
1' 1-
4'11- 4'10Y,- 4' 6\,-
5 5' l V.. 5' 13,, "
4' 93".
5' 2'h'
4' 9'
5' 3'1,'
4'
5' 5'
7 ]~"
5' 7'
4' 4'
S'10'1z"
4' l V,-
6' 4'
3'10"
7' 2-
3' 6'
8' 7'
3' l '
12' 9'
l ' 4,:x
I' 8'x
l ' O'
0'11
3 ' 1 1 ~- 3'11' 3'10'h- 3'10' 3' 9' .. 3' 8'1,'
4 4' 3~· 4' l ' 4' l 'h' 4' 2'1" 4' 3' 4' 4'1z'
3' 6'.'
4' 6'h"
3' 5'
4' 9';"
3' 2'1,'
5' 3'
3' O'
6' O·
2' 8'
7' 9'
l' l'x
l ' 4"x
0'10"
0' 9"
2'11'1,' 2'11 'h' 2'11'1,- 2'11' 2'10'h" 2' 9'/," 2' 9- 2' B-
3 3' V':' 3' W' 3' Ji~" 3' 1'1,- 3' 1)/..' 3' 2'h' 3' 3'1,' 3' 5'/,-
2' 6V,-
3' 8-
2' 5-
4' O·
2' 2y,-
4' 9"
0'10"x
l ' OOX
O· 7-
0' 6-
1'11'. ' 1'11'/,' 1'11'/,'
2 2' ~' 2' W' 2' If..'
l'11'1z-
2' V,-
1'11'1,'
2' 31,"
1'11-
2' l '
1'10';'''
2' 1';"
l ' 10V,'
2' 2'1,'
l' 9'/..
2' 3'/,'
l ' B'II-
2' 4';"
l' 7V,-
2' 7';'-
0' 6'x
0' 8-x
0' 5'
0' 4"
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW )
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 50mm CIRC LE OF CONFUSION = ,0006' (6/ 10,000"
HYPER- FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL 538,2' 384,4' 269,1' 192,2' 134 ,6' 96.11 ' 67 ,27' 48,93' 33.64' 24.46' 16,82' (w/ projecled Image)
OISTANCE
112,8 1/ 5,6 STO & TV
1/1 1/1 .4 1/2 1/4 f/ 8 1/ 11 1/16 1/22 1/32
(.380" ,286")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463"X, 25 1i
45' 9- 44' 3- 42' 2- 40' 3S' 33' 29' 25' 20' IS' 13' 9' 7-, 7' 3-
50 55' 1- 57' S- 61' S8' 80' 104' 195' INF INF INF INF 11' 9-xS' 4-
23'11" 23' 6- 22'11" 22' 2- 21' 1" 19'10" 18' 3- 16' r 14' 12' 10' 4' 9-x3' 7"
25 2S' 3- 2S' 9- 22' 7' 28' 9- 30' 8- 33' 9" 40' 51' 97' INF INF S'10-x3' 2-
14' 7- 14' 5"'- 14' 2'h- 13'11- 13' S- 13' 0" 12' 3- 11' S- 10' 5- 9' 4" 7'11- 2'HFx 2' 2-
15 15' 5",- 15' 7'''' lS' 10 '~" lS' 3- 16'11" 17' 9" 19' 4" 21' 8" 27' 39' 139' 3' S-x l 'l'-
9' 93/'." 9' 9- 9' 7 'J,~" 9' 6- 9' 3"'- 9' W 8' 9- 8' 4- 7'9" 7' 1- S' 3- 1'11-' 1' 5-
10 10' 2'/,- 10' 3V,- 10' 4'1<" 10' Sv,- 10' 9'/,- 11' 2- 11' 9- 12' 7- 14' 3- lS'11- 25' 2' 4-X l' 3-
7'10'/2- 7'10" 7' 9'/,- 7' 8'/,- 7' S'/2- 7' 4W 7' 2- S'11- 6' 6- 6' 0- 5' 5- l ' 6-xO' 2-
8 8' l V,- 8' 2" 8' 3- 8' 4'/,- 8' 6- 8' 9" 9' 1- 9' 7' 10' 6" 11'11- 15' 3- l '10-x l ' 0-
5'11- 5' 9 ~,- 5' 9- 5' 6- 5' 1- 4'10- 4' 5-
6 5'11 '/,-
6' ",- S' 11'.- ~:1~~: 6' 2',- 6' 3'1,-
5' 7JA·
6' 4 ~~· 6' 7'
5' 4"
6'10- 7' 4- 7'11- 9' 4"
l ' 2"xO'10"
l ' 4-XO' 9"
4'11 '11- 4'11'1,- 4'11- 4'10",- 4' 9'1<" 4' 9" 4' 7 ~~" 4' 6'1,- 4' 4- 4' 2" 3'10- 0'11-XO' 8-
5 5' W· 5' :It... 5' 1- 5' 1'12" 5' 2'1,- 5' 3'1,- 5' 4'1<" 5' 7' S'10'1t' 6' 3- 7' 1- l' 2"x O' 7'
3'l W.- 3'11'!,- 3'11 '1,- 3'11- 3'10'/'- 3'10" 3' 9'1,- 3' 8'/2- 3' 6'1,- 3' 5'/2- 3' 2'1,- 0' 9-xO' 7'
4 4' If, " 4' "'- 4' 3//' 4' 1- 4' 1'/,- 4' 2' 4' 3' 4' 4'/,- 4' 6Y2" 4' 9'/2- 5' 3- O'll-XO' S"
2'11'1,- 2'11';'- 2'11';'- 2'11 V,- 2'11 v.- 2'1 1- 2'10'12- 2'10- 2' 9- 2' 8- 2' sv,- 0' 7-xO' 5-
3 3' W' 3' V." 3' .."" 3' v,- 3' 'J,~. 3' 1 ~~· 3' 1',- 3' 2<;'- 3' 3V,- 3' 5- 3' 8" 0' 8-xO' 4-
2' 0" 2' 0- 2'0" 1'11',- 1'11'1,- 1'11 "'- 1'11 ",- 1'1'- 1'10 ]~" 1'10"'- l ' 9 '~- 0' 4-xO' 3-
2 2' 0" 2' 0" 2' 0" 2' II'" 2' If, " 2' '12" 2' ~/4· 2' 1- 2' 1'1,- 2' 2V.- 2' 3'1,- 0' S-xO' 3-

16mm CAMERA oEPTH-Of,FIELo, HYPERFOCAl DISTANCE & FIELD Of VIEW

LENS fOCAL lENGTH: 85mm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006' (6/10,000")
HYPER·
FOCAL 1555' 1111' 178,7' 565,5' 389,9' 277.8' FIELD Of VIEW
OISTANCE 194.4' 14 1.4' 97,21 ' 70,70' 48,61 '
(w/ projected Image)
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/ 2.8 1/4 1/ 5,6 1/ 8 1/11 STO &. TV
1/16 1/22 1/32
(,380-X,286")
LENS
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(FEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR fAR FAR FAR FAR fAR FAR {,463'x, 251i
94' 0-
100 106'10"
91' 9"
109'11-
89'
115'
85'
122'
80'
135'
74'
156'
66'
20S'
59'
342'
49'
INF
41'
INF
33' 11' 4-x8' S-
48' 5- INF 13'10-x7' 6-
50 51 ' 8'
47'10-
52' 4"
47' 0-
53' 5-
45'11-
54'11-
44' 4-
57' 4-
42' 5"
61'
40'
S7'
37'
77'
33'
103'
29'
171'
25' 5' 8'X4' 3-
24' 7'1,- INF 6'11-x3' 9-
25 25' 5'
24' 5'12-
25' 7"
24' 2V,-
25'10"
23'11-
26' 2-
23' 6-
26' 9"
22'11-
27' 6-
22' 2'
28' 8-
21' 3-
30' 4-
19'11-
33' 8-
18' 6-
39'
16' S' 2'lO"x 2' ,-
14'10'1,- 51' 3' S-x l 'lO"
15 15' 1'1,-
14' 9'12"
15' 2'1,-
14' 8'A-
15' 3'h"
14' 7V.-
IS' 5-
14' SW
15' 7-
14' 3-
lS' 10V,-
13'11-
IS' 3-
13' 7"
lS' 9-
13' 0"
17' 9-
12' 5'
19' 0-
11' S-
21' 8-
l ' 8-X l ' 3-
9'11'10- 2' O-X l' 1-
10 10' 3t."
9'11"
10' 1-
9'10W
10' 1'/,-
9' 9'1,'
10' 2'1,'
9' 9"
10' 3-
9' 7'1,-
10' 4'1,-
9' 6-
10' 8w
9' 4-
10' 9-
9' 34"
11' 2-
8' 9-
11' 8-
8' 4' l ' l -XO'10-
12' 8- l ' 4-xO' 8-
7'11 '11" 7'11 '1'- 7'11-
8 8' v,- 8' ~~. 8' 1-
7'10'A-
8' l y,-
7'10"
8' 2"
7' 9V.-
8' 3-
7' 8'1,-
8' 4-
7' 6~~"
8' SlU-
7' 4"'"
8' 8V,-
7' 2'12"
9' 0-
6'10" 0' ,-XO' 8-
6' l H~·
9'7" l ' l -XO' 7'
6'11- 6'11'1,-
7 7' If." 7' '/2" 7' 'A-
6'1'-
7' 1-
S'10'l, -
7' 1'12-
6'10-
7' 2'10-
S' go
7' 3-
6' 8-
7' 4'1,-
6' 61'.- 6' 4y,- 6' lV,- 0' 9"x O' 7-
7' 6'h" 7' 9- 8' 2- 0'11 -XO' 6-
5'11'/'- 5'11';'- 5'11 '/2-
6 6' w/ 6' 'I," 6' '12"
S'l 1'!, '
S' ';.-
5'11-
6' 1-
5'10'/2-
6' 1'1,-
5' 9'1,-
6' 2'/,-
5' 9-
6' 3'1,-
5' 7';'-
6' 4';'-
5' 6'1,-
6' 6V,-
5' 4- 0' 8-xO' S-
6'10- 0' 9-xO' 5-
4'11'1.-
5 5' v."
4'11'A-
5' V,"
4'11'1.-
5' '1,-
4'11W
5' v,-
4'11'1,-
5' 3/.1"
4'11-
5' 2'/,"
4'10"'-
5' 1'11"
4'10-
5' 2';'-
4' 9"
5' 3'1,-
4' 8"
5' 4"'-
4' 6'1'-
5' 7-
0' 6'xO' 5-
4' 0" 4' 0" 0' 8-xO' 4-
4 4' 0- 4' 0"
3'11'1'-
4' 'A"
3'11';'-
4' w·
3'11 '12"
4' 1ft'
3' 11 ~~"
4' 'A-
3'11-
4' 1-
3'10'1.-
4' 1'!,-
3'10"
4' 2-
3' 9'11"
4' 3-
3' 8'12- 0' S'XO' 4-
4' 4'1,- 0' 6-xO' 3-
 16mm CAMERA DEPTH·DF·FIElo, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 100mm CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000")
HYPER· FiElD OF VIEW
FOCAL 2153' 1538' 1076' 768.9' 538.2' 384,4' 269,1' 196.8' 134.6' 97 ,85' 67 .27' (w/prolected Image)
DISTANCE

1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2.8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 1/16 1/22 1/32 STO & TV
(.380" .286")
LENS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
FOCUS
IFEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463'x.251 ' )
183' 177' 169' 159' 146' 132' 115' 99' 80' 66' 50' 19' 3-x 14' 6-
200 220' 230' 246' 270' 318' 417' 779' INF INF INF INF 23' 6-)( 12' 9"
95' 7- 93'11- 91' 6- 88' 84' 79' 73' 66' 57' 49' 40' 9' 7-x 7' 3-
100 104'10" 106'11- 110' 115' 123' 135' 159' 204' 389' INF INF 11' 9-x 6' 4-
48'10" 48' 5- 47' !l" 47' 0" 45' !l" 44' 3- 42' 2- 40' 36' 33' 29' 4' 9'x 3' 7-
50 51' 2" 51' 8- 52' 5- 53' 6- 55' 1- 57' 6' 61' 67' 80' 103' 195' 5-'O"x 3' 2"
24' 8V,- 24' lV,' 24' 5' 24' 2W' 23'11- 23' 6' 22" ' - 22' 2" 21' ,- ,9'1,- 18' 3- 2' 5-x l' 9-
25 25' 3't,- 25' 5- 25' 7' 25'10" 26' 3' 26' 9' 27' 7' 28' 8- 30' 8' 33' 7- 40' 2'11-) l' 7-
14'10'1,' 14'10'/,- 14' 9V,- 14' 8W' 14' 7' 14' 5'/,- 14' 2'h- 13'11- 13' 6- 13' 0' 12' 3- l' 5' l ' "
15 15' 1'1,- 15' PA- 15' 2'/,- 15' 3't,- IS' 5V,- 15' 7'1,- 15'10'1'- 16' 3- 16'11- 17' 9- 19' 4- l' 9- 0'11 '
9'11 '/'- 9'l l V,- 9'1' - 9'10V,- 9' 9'A' 9' 9- 9' 7'1'- 9' 6- 9' 3Vz" 9' 1- 8' 9- 0'11" 0' 8-
10 10' Il" 10' "J!4" 10' l' 10' lV,' 10' 2V,- 10' 3'1,- 10' 4'1,- 10' 6V,- 10' 9'/,- 11' 2- 11' !l" l' 2- 0' 7'
7· lP ~· 7'1117- 7'11 V' 7'11' 7'101l" 7'10- 7' 9lf.- 7' 8V,' 7' 6V,- 7' 5- 7' 2- 0' 9- 0'7'
8 8' '14· 8' v.- 8' J/~· 8' I' 8' 11l" 8' 2- 8' 3- 8' 4- 8' 6' 8' 8V,- 9' 1- 0'11- 0' 6'
5'll'A' 5'11';'- 5'1HI' 5'11 Y,' 5'11 '1,- 5'11' 5'10V,' 5' 9>'\' 5' !l" 5' HI' 5' 6- 0' 7' 0' 5-
6 6' W' 6' If." 6' w· 6' v" 6' 'A- 6' 1'; '- 6' H~" 6' 2';." 6' 3';'- 6' 4¥'- 6' 7' 0' 8- 0' 4-

16mm CAMERA DEPTH·OF,FIELo, HYPERFDCAL OISTANCE & FiElD OF VIEW

LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 135mm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION D .0006' (6/10,000")
HYPER·
FOCAL 3923' 2802' 1962' 1401 ' 980.9' 700,6' FiElD OF VIEW
DISTANCE 490.4' 356.7' 245 ,2' 178,3' 122.6' (w/prolected Image)
1/1 1/1.4 1/2 1/2,8 1/4 1/5.6 1/8 1/11 STO & TV
f/16 1/22 1/32
(.380' .2861
LENS
FOCUS NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR NEAR SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
IFEET) FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR FAR (.463'x ,251")
190' 4-
200 211'
187'
215'
182'
223'
175'
233'
166'
251'
156'
280'
142'
338'
128'
455'
110'
INF
94'
INF
76
INF
14' 3-X l0' 9"
97' 6' 96' 7- 17' 5-x 9' 5"
100 102' 7- 103' 8-
95' 2-
105' 4-
93' 4-
107' 8-
90' 9'
111'
88'
117'
83'
126'
78'
139'
71'
169'
64'
228'
55'
542'
7' l-x 5' 4-
49' 4'h" 8' 8-x 4' 8-
50 50' 8-
49' l V,'
50'11-
48' !l"
51' 4-
48' 3"
51'10"
47' 7-
52' 8-
46' 8'
53'10"
45' 5'
55' 8"
43'10-
58' 2"
41' 6-
63'
39'
70'
36'
84'
3' 6-x 2' 8-
24'10" 4' 4-x 2' 4'
25 25' 2'
24' 9'11'
25' 2'A-
24' 8';."
25' 3'A-
24' 6'A'
25' S'!l'
24' 4Th" 24' 1'h"
25' 8- 25'11-
23' !l"
26' 4'
23' 4-
26'11-
22' 8'
27'10-
21'11'
29' 1-
20' !l"
31' 5-
1' !l"x I' 4-
14'11 V,- 14'11- 2' 2-x "2-
15 15' 3/." 15' l'
14'10'/'-
15' 1'/,-
14'10"
15' 2-
14' 9';'- 14' 8%'
15' 2'1." 15' 4-
14' 6V,- 14' 4'/,-
15' 5'A- 15' 8-
14' 1'h-
16' 0'
13'10-
16' 4-
13' 4-
17' l'
I' O-x 0' 9-
9'11'1,- 9'11'h- l' 3-)( 0' 8-
10 10' W' 10' 'h-
9'11 V,-
10' '12-
9'11%-
10' '1."
9'10'A- 9'10%'
10' l 'A' 10' 1>,\-
9' 9Vt' 9' 8'1,-
10' 2'!l' 10' 3V,-
9' 7V,'
10' 5V,-
9' 5';'-
10' 7'
9' 3'
10'10'12'
0' 8-x 0' 6'
7'11 'A- 7'11 'A' 0'10-X 0' 5-
7'11'A' 7'11 V,-
8 8' '1.''' 8' y," 8' Y..• 8' v"
7'11 '1,-
8' 34"
7'11-
8' 1-
7'10'12'
8' l V,'
7' 9'A'
8' 2'./,-
7' !l"
8' 3%-
7' 8-
8' 4'11-
7' 6' 0' 6'x 0' 5'
8' 6\'l" 0' 8-x 0' 4-
6' 0" 6' 0-
6 6' 0" 6' 0"
5'1131.-
6' '/.. "
5· lH~·
6' v.-
5'11'/,-
6' '12'
5'11 '17-
6' '12'
5'11 V,-
6' :W·
S'10¥.'
6' l V,-
5'10%'
6' l¥o-
5' 9'12'
6' 2'12'
5' 8 ~,' 0' S-x 0' 4-
6' 3'A- 0' 6-x 0' 3-
 ,. . .--.,..,- -,-- -- , .-
VERTICAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH
(Focal Length in Millimeters)
...
C> RANSMITTEO
DR
~ ~ PROJECTED 0.189' 0.l 60' 0.375' 0.500' 0.158' 0.l 86' 0.l51 ' 0.446' 0.594' 0.700' 0.991 ' 0.870'
IMAGE
~ > TV TV TV TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm
ANGLE 'It' 2/ 3" I' tw' ·8 ·16 1.85:1 TV ANA VISTA
(DEGREES) TUBE TUBE TUBE TUBE 1.85:1 AR TRANS
AR

0.5 550 757 1091 1445 460 832 731 1298 1729 203712884 2532
0.7 393 541 780 1039 328 595 522 927 1235 1455 ~060 1809
1 275 378 546 728 230 416 365 649 864 1019 1442 1266
1.5 183 252 364 485 153 277 244 433 576 679 961 844
2 138 189 273 364 115 208 183 325 432 509 721 633
2.5 110 151 218 291 92 166 146 260 346 407 577 506
3 92 126 182 242 77 139 122 216 288 339 481 422
3.5 79 108 156 208 66 119 104 185 247 291 412 362
4 69 95 136 182 57 104 91 162 216 255 360 316
4.5 61 84 121 162 51 92 81 144 192 226 320 281
5 55 76 109 145 46 83 73 130 173 204 288 253
6 46 63 91 121 38 69 61 108 144 170 240 21 1
7 39 54 78 104 33 59 52 93 123 145 206 181
8 34 47 68 91 29 52 46 81 108 127 180 158
9 30 42 61 81 25 46 41 72 96 113 160 140
10 27 38 54 73 23 42 36 65 86 102 144 126
15 18 25 36 48 15 28 24 43 57 68 96 84
> 20 14 19 27 36 11 21 18 32 43 50 71 63
25 11 15 21 29 9 16 14 26 34 40 57 50
30 9 12 18 24 7 14 12 21 28 33 47 41
35 8 10 15 20 6 12 10 18 24 28 40 35
40 7 9 13 17 6 10 9 16 21 24 35 30
45 6 8 11 15 5 9 8 14 18 21 30 2f
50 5 7 10 14 4 8 7 12 16 19 27 24
55 5 6 9 12 4 7 6 11 15 17 24 21
60 4 6 8 11 3 6 6 10 13 15 22 19
65 4 5 7 10 3 6 5 9 12 14 20 1f
70 3 5 7 9 3 5 5 8 11 13 18 16
75 3 4 6 8 3 5 4 7 10 12 16 14
80 3 4 6 8 2 4 4 7 9 11 15 13
85 3 4 5 7 2 4 3 6 8 10 14 12
90 2 3 5 6 2 4 3 6 8 9 13 11
95 2 3 4 6 2 3 3 5 7 8 12 10
100 2 3 4 5 2 3 3 5 6 7 11 9
196 196a
HORIZONTAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL
LENGTH (Focal Length in Millimeters)
TRANS-
-,
Cl
Cl
c::i
~ITTED OR
ROJECTED 0.252" 0.346" 0.5" 0.667 ' 0.209" 0.380" 0.463" 0.825" 1.676" 1.485" 1.912" c
IMAGE o
TV TV TV TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm ~c
ANGLE
(Degreesl
'h"
TUBE
%~

TU8E
1"
TU 8E
l W'
TU8E
-8 -16 1.85:1 ANA VISTA
1.85:1 AR
AR
...
o

05 733 1007 1455 1941 608 1106 1348 2401 4878 4322 5565
0.7 524 719 1039 1387 435 790 963 1715 3484 3087 3975
1 367 504 728 971 304 553 674 1201 2439 2161 2782
1.5 244 336 485 647 203 369 449 800 1626 1441 1855
2 183 252 364 485 152 276 337 600 1219 1081 1391
2.5 147 201 291 388 122 221 269 480 975 864 1113
3 122 168 242 323 101 184 225 400 813 720 927
3.5 105 144 208 277 87 158 192 343 697 617 795
4 92 126 182 243 76 138 168 300 610 540 695
4.5 81 112 162 216 68 123 150 267 542 480 618 ..,
5 73 101 145 194 61 111 135 240 488 432 556 :::::
+
6 61 84 121 162 51 92 112 200 406 360 463
7 52 72 104 138 43 79 96 171 348 308 397
. <a
'"
o '" 0
c::i 0
8 46 63 91 121 38 69 84 150 304 270 347 ~1----+- +-+-+--+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
9 41 56 81 108 34 61 75 133 270 240 309 ~ ~ ~~f:5~~~~~~88~;;
~ 606006000600d
10 37 50 73 97 30 55 67 120 243 216 278 ... 1--- -+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
15 24 33 45 64 20 37 45 80 162 143 184 c::> 00
:>: oN
20 18 25 36 48 15 27 33 59 121 107 138 l:i: :::::
25 14 20 29 38 12 22 27 47 96 85 110 ~ 1----+- +-+-+--+--+--+-+ -+-+-+-+-+--1
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16mm DEPTH of FIELD and EXPOSURE FACTOR
vs.
Magnification or Field of View Circle of Confusion = 0.0006"
Magnl· Field 01 View DEPTH OF FIELD (TOlal: fronl + back. in inches)
flcallon (projecled image) Exposure T-Stop
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 Camera Filters
by Ira Tiffen, ASC Associate Member
Camera fil ters are transparent or translucent optical
elements that alter the properties of light entering the cam-
era lens for the purpose of improving the image being re-
corded. Filters can affect contrast, sharpness, highlight flare,
color, and light intensity, either individually or in various
combinations. They can also crea te a variety of "special
effects." It is important to recognize that, even though there
are many possibly confusing variations and applications,
all filter behave in a reasonably predictable way. This sec-
tion is intended to explain the ba ic optical characteristics
of camera filters as well as their applications. It is a foun-
dation upon which to build through experience. Textual
data cannot fully inform. There is always something new.
In their most successful applications, fil ter effects blend
in with the rest of the image to help get the message across.
Exercise caution when using a filter in a way that draws
attention to i~elf as an effect. Combined with all the other
elements of image-making, filters make visual statemen ts,
manipulate emotions and thought, and make believable
what otherwise would not be. They get the viewer in-
olved.
Filter Planning
Filter effects can become a key part of the "look" of a
film, if considered in the planning stages. They can also
provide a crucial last-minute fix to unexpected problems,
if you have them readily available. Where possible, it is best
to run advance tests for pre-conceived situations when
time allows.
Filter References
Ther are several filter manufacturers who should be
contacted regarding available filter types and nomencla-
ture. Filter of the same name, but of different manufactur-
ers, may not have the same characteristics. The one indus-
try standard is the Wratten system for filter colors. Wratten-
numbered fil ters have defined transmission properties that
are at least cross-referenced by the various key suppliers.
200
Filter Factors
Many filter types absorb light, and this must be com-
pensated for when calculating exposure. These fil ters are
supplied with either a recommended "filter fac tor" or a
"stop value." Filter factors are multiples of the unfiltered
exposure. Stop values are added to the stop to be set with-
out the filter. Multiple filters will add stop values. Since
each stop added is a doubling of the exposure, a filter fac-
tor of 2 is equal to a one-stop increase. Example: three fil-
ters of one stop each w ill need three additional stops, or a
fil ter factor of 2x2x2 = 8 times the unfiltered exposure.
When in doubt in the field about compensation
needed for a filter, you might use your light meter with the
incident bulb removed. 1£ you have a flat diffuser, use it;
otherwi e just leave the sensor bare. Aim it at an unchang-
ing light source of sufficient intensity. On the ground, fac-
ing up a t a blank sky can be a good field situation. Make a
reading without the filter. Watch out for your own shadow.
Make a reading with the filter covering the entire sensor.
o light should enter from the sides. The difference in the
readings is the compensation needed for that filter. You
could also use a spot meter, reading the same bright patdl,
with similar results. There are some exceptions to this de-
pending on the fil ter color, the meter sensitivity, and the
target color, but it's often better than taking a guess.
Filter Grades
Many filter types are available in a range of "grades"
of differing strengths. This allows the extent of the eHect
to be tailored to suit various situations. The grade-number-
ing systems may vary with manufacturer, but genrally, the
higher the number, the stronger the eHect. Unless otherwise
stated by the manufacturer, there is no mathematical rela-
tionship between the numbers an d the strength s. A grade
4 is not twice the strength of a grade 2. A grade 1 plus a
grade 4 doesn't add up to a grade 5.
Camera Filters for Both
Color and Black & White
Ultraviolet Filters
Film often exhibits a greater sensitivity to something
invisible to humans: ultraviolet light. This occurs most of-
ten outdoors, especially at high altitudes, where the UV-
201
absorbing ahnosphere is thilUler, and over long distances,
such as in marine scenes. It can show up as a bluish color
} ity. Opacity (degree of absorption) of a filter is the recipro-
cast with color film, or it can cause a low-contrast haze that
diminishes details, especially when viewing faraway ob-
jects, in ei ther color or black & white. Ultraviolet filters
absorb UV light generally without affecting light in the vis-
ible region.
It is important to distinguish between UV-generated
haze and that of airborne particles, such as smog. The lat-
ter is made up of opaque matter that absorbs visible light
as well as UV, and will not be appreciably removed by a
UV fi lter.
Ultraviolet filters come in a variety of absorption lev-
els, usually measured by their percent transmission at 400
nanometers (nm), the visible UV wavelength bowldary.
Use a filter that transmits zero percent at 400nm for aerial
and far-distant scenes; one that transmits in the ten to thirty
percent range is fine for average situations.
Infrared Filters
Certain special situations call for the use of black &
white or colo r infrared sensitive films. For aerial haze pen-
etration, recording heat effects, and other purposes they are
invaluable. Their color and tonal renditions are very differ-
ent, however, from other film types (consult film manufac-
turers for further details). Various filters are used to reduce
unwanted visible light. Red, orange, and yellow filters, as
used for panchromatic black & white film, can enhance
contrast and alter color. Total visible light absorption, trans-
mitting only infrared, as with the Wratten #87 or #89 se-
ries of filters, can also be useful. The results will vary with
film type and other factors. Prior testing for most situations
is a must.
Neutral-Density Filters
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens open-
ing for sharpness or depth-of-field purposes, or simply to
obtain proper exposure when confronted with too much
light intensity, use a neutral-density (ND) filter. This will
absorb light evenly throughout the visible spectrum, effec-
tively altering exposure w ithout req uiring a change in lens
opening and without introducing a color shift.
Neutral-densi ty fjj ters are denoted by (optical) densi ty
value. Density is defined as the log, to base] 0, of the opac-
202
cal of (and inversely proportional to) its transmittance. As
an example, a filter with a compensation of one stop has a
transmittance of 50%, or 0.5 times the original light inten-
sity. The reciprocal of the transmittance, 05, is 2. The log,
base 10, of 2 is approximately 0.3, which is the nominal
density value. The benefit of using density values is that
they can be added when combined. Thus two ND .3 filters
have a density value of 0.6. However, their combined trans-
mittance would be found by multiplying 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25,
or 25% of the original light intensity.
Neutral-density filters are also available in combina-
tion with other filters. Since it is preferable to minimize the
number of filters used (see section on multiple filters), com-
mon combinations such as a Wratten 85 (daylight conver-
sion filter for tungsten film) w ith a ND filter are available
from manufacturers as one filter, as in the 85N6. In this case,
the two-stop ND .6 value is in addition to the exposure
compensation needed for the base 85 filter.
Gradated ND Filters, or Wedges
Often it is necessary or desirable to balance light in-
tensity in one part of a scene with another, in situations
where you don't have total light control, as in bright exte-
riors. Exposing for the foreground will produce a washed-
out, overexposed sky. Exposing for the sky w ill leave the
foreground dark, underexposed. Gradated, or wedge, ND
filters are part clear, part neutral density, with a smoothly
graded transition between. This allows the transition to be
blended into the scene, often imperceptibly. An ND .6-to-
clear, with a two~ stop differential, will most often compen-
sa te the average bright sky-ta-foreground situation.
These filters are also available in combination colors,
as where the entire filter is, for example, a Wratten 85, while
one half also combines a graded-transition neu tral densi ty,
as in the 85-t0-85N6. This allows the one filter to replace
the need for two.
Gradated, or wedge, filters generally come in three
transition types. The most commonly used is the "soft"
gradation. It has a wide enough transition area on the fil-
ter to blend smoothly into most scenes, even with a wide-
angle lens (which tends to narrow the transition). A long
focal length, however, might only image in the center of the
transition. In this case, or where the blend must take place
in a narrOw, straight area, use a "hard" gradation. This is
203
r ideal for featureless marine horizons. For situations where
an extremely gradual blend is required, an "attenuator" is
used. It changes density almost throughout its length.
Certain types of part clear, part neutral-density ffiters
are called sky-eontrol ffiters. They may have a sharp, not
gradated, dividing line, requiring careful alignment and
choice of lens opening to blend in the edge.
The key to getting best results with gradated ffiters is
to help the effect blend in as naturally as possible. Keep it
close to the lens to maximize transition softness. Avoid
having objects in the image that extend across the transi-
tion in a way that would highlight the existence of the ffi-
ter. Don't move the camera unless the transition can be
maintained in proper alignment with the image through-
out the move. Make all positioning judgments through a
reflex viewfinder at the actual shooting aperture, as the ap- No Filter
parent width of the gradation is affected by a change in
aperture.
Gradated ffiters are best used in a square, or rectan-
gular format, in a rotating, slidable position in a matte box.
This will allow proper location of the transition within the
image. They can be used in tandem, for example, with one
affecting the upper half and the second affecting the lower
half of the image. The center area can also be allowed to
overlap, creating a stripe of the combination of effects in the
middle, most effectively with gr~datedffiters in colors. (See
section on "Gradated Color Filters.")

Polarizing Filters
Polarizers allow color and contrast enhancement, as
well as reflection control, using optical principles different
from any other ffiter types. Most light that we record is re-
flected light that takes on its color and intensity from the
objects we are looking at. White light, as from the sun re-
flecting off a blue object, appears blue because all other
colors are absorbed by that object. A small portion of the
reflected light bounces off the object without being ab-
sorbed and colored, retaining the original (often white)
color of its source. With sufficient light intensity, such as
outdoor sunlight, this reflected "glare" has the effect of
washing out the color saturation of the object. It happens
that, for many surfaces, the reflected glare we don't want
is polarized while the colored reflection we do want isn't.
The waveform description of light defines non-polar-
ized light as vibrating in a full 3600 range of directions
204
Polarizer for reflection control.
around its travel path. Polarized light is defined as vibrat-
ing in only one such direction. A polarizirig ffiter passes
light through in only one vibratory direction. It is gener-
ally used in a rotating mount' to allow for alignment as
needed. In our example above, if it is aligned perpendicu-
larly to the plane of vibration of the polarized reflected
glare, the glare will be absorbed. The rest of the light, the
true-colored reflection vibrating in all directions, will pass
through no matter how the polarizing ffiter is turned. The
result is that colors will be more strongly saturated, or
darker. This effectvaries as you rotate the polarizer through
205

Polarizer for blue sky and Didymium for red enhancement.
a quarter-turn producing the complete variation of effect,
from full to none.
Polarizerslare most useful for increasing general out-
door color saturation and contrast. Polarizers can darken
a blue sky, a k~y appp,cation, on color as.well as on black
& white film/ but there are several factors to remember
when doing this. To deepen a blue sky/ it must be blue to
start with, not hite or hazy. Polarization is also angle-
dependent. A plue sky will not be equally affected in all
directions. Therreas of deepest blue are determined by the
following "rulf of thumb." When setting up an exterior
shot, make a right angle between thumb and forefinger.
206
No Filter
Polarizer for exposure control.
Point your forefinger at the sun. The area of deepest blue
will be the band outlined by your thumb as it rotates
around the pointing axis of your forefinger, directing the
thumb from horizon to horizon. Generally, as you aim your
camera either more into or away from the sun/ the effect
will gradually diminish. There is no effect directly at or
away from the sun. Do not pan with a polarizer without
checking to see that the change in camera angle doesn/t
create undesirably noti~able changes in color or saturation.
Also, with an extra-wide-angle view, the area of deepest
blue may appear as a distinctly darker band in the sky. Both
207
situations are best avoided. In all cases, the effect of the
polarizer will be visible when viewing through it.
Polarizers need approximately 1 ~ to 2 stops exposure
compensati on, without regard to rotational orien tation or
subject matter. They are also available in combination with
certain standard conversion filters, such as the 85BPOL.In
this case, add the polarizer's compensation to that of the
second fiJ ter.
Certain camera op tical sys tems employ internal sur-
faces that themselves polarize light. Using a standard (lin-
ear) polarizer wiUcause the light to be further absorbed by
the internal optics, depending on the relative orientation.
A circular polarizer is a linear one to which has been added,
on the side facing the camera, a quarter wave "retarder."
This "corkscrews" the plane of polarization, effectively
depolarizing it, eliminating the problem. The circular
polarizer otherwise functions in the same manner.
Polarizers can also control unwanted reflections from
surfaces such as glass and water. For best results, be at an
angle of 32 to 34 degrees incident to the reflecting surface.
Viewing through while rotating the polarizer will show the
effect. It may not always be advisable to remove all reflec-
tions. Leaving some minimal reflection will preserve a
sense of context to a close-up image through the reflecting
surface. A close-up of a frog in water will appear as a frog
out of wa ter without some tell-tale reflections.
For relatively close imaging of documents, pictures,
and small three-dimensional objects in a li ghting-eon-
trolled environment, as on a copy stand, plastic pola rizers
mounted on lights aimed a t 45 degrees to the subject from
both sides of the ca mera will maximize the glare-red ucing
efficiency ofa pola rizer on the camera lens. The carnera, in
this case, is aimed straight at the subject surface, not at an
angle. The lighting polarizers should both be in the sa me,
perpendicular orientation to the one on the lens. Again, you
can judge the effect through the polarizer.
Special Effect Filters
The foll owing fil ter types are ava ilable in a wide range
of grades useful in both color and black & white imaging.
111ey ha ve no recommended filter factors, but may require
exposure compensation based on a several considerations.
Filters that lower contrast or crea te fl are, where contrast
and /or light intensity is higher, will do more for any given
grade. Working with light, the more they have, the more
they can do. The same filter, in two different lighting con-
ditions, may produce two different effec ts. With diffusion,
or image-softening filters, hi gher contrast scenes appear
sharper, needing more diffusion, than scenes of lower con-
trast. Diffusion requirements will also va ry with other con-
ditions. SmaUer film formats wiII a llow less diffusion, as
williarge-screen projection. Color may alJow less diffusion
than black & white. Producing for television may require
a greater degree ofdiffusion to survive the transition. These
relationships should cause you to choose exposure and fil-
ter grade based on the situation and personal experience.
Prior testing is always recommended when possible.
Diffusion Filters
Many different techniq ues have been developed to
diffuse image-forming light. Stronger versions can blur
reality for a dream-like effect. In more subtle forms, diffu-
sion can soften wrinkles to remove years from a face. The
optical effects all involve bending a percentage of the im-
age-forming light from its original path to defocus it.
Some of the .e arliest "portrait" diffusion filters are still
in use today - "nets." Fine mesh, like a stocking, stretched
across the lens, has made many a face appear fl aw lessly
youthful. More recently, these can also be obtained as stan-
dard-sized hard optical filters. Nets function through "se-
lecti ve diffusion." They ha ve a grea ter effect on small de-
tails, such as wrinkles and skin blemishes, than on the rest
of the image. The d ear spaces in the mesh transmit light
unchanged, preserving the overall sharp appearance of the
image. Light striking the fl at surface of the net lines, how-
ever, is reflec ted or absorbed. A li ght-eolored mesh will
reflect enough to tint shadows, either making them lighter,
which lowers contrast, or addin g its color while leaving
highlight areas alone. TI1e effect of diffu sion, however, is
produced by the refraction of light that just strtkes the edges
of the mesh lines. This li ght is bent at a differen t angle,
d1anging its distance to the fi lm plane, putting it out of fo-
cus. It happens t11at this has a proportionately grea ter ef-
fect on finer details than on larger image elements. The re-
sult is that fewer wrinkles or blemishes are visible on a face
that otherwise retains an overall, relatively sharp appear-
ance.
_______rII 209

Low Contrast
The finer e mesh, the more the image area covered
by mesh lines, d the greater the effect. Sometimes, mul-
tiple layers are d to produce even stronger results.
Mesh wi a square pattern can produce small four-
point stars fro lights in the scene. Most of the time, this is
not desirable. ost mesh patterns used have a hexagonal
pattern to . e this effect.
As with y filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure
that depth of fi ld dpesn't cause the net filter lines to be-
come visible in the image. Using small apertures or short
focal length I makes this more likely, as does using a
No Filter
Fog Filter
smaller film format. Generally, mid-range or larger aper-
tures are suitable, but test before critical situations.
When diffusing to improve an actor's facial appear-
ance, it is important not to draw attention to the pr~ce
of the filter, especially with stronger grades, when diffu-
sion is not required elsewhere. It may be desirable to lightly
diffuse adjacent scenes or subjects which would not other-
wise need it, to ensure that the stronger filtration, where
needed, is not made obvious.
In diffusing faces, it is especially important that the
eyes do not get overly soft and dull. This is the theory be-
hind what might be called circular diffusion filters. A se-
211
r
Double Fog Filter
ries of concentric . cles, sometimes also having additional
radial lines, are et ed or cast into the surface of a clear fil-
ter. These patte have the effect of selectively bending
light in a somew t more efficient way than nets, in a more
radial orientation This requires that the center of the cir-
cular pattern is gned with one of the subject's eyes, not
always an easy ta k; to keep it sharp. The rest of the image
will exhibit the · ion effect.
A variation the clear-eenter concept is the center-
spot filter. This is special-application filter that has a mod-
erate degree of· ion surrounding a clear rentral area
that is generally 1 ger than that of circular diffusion filters
2U
mentioned previously. Use it to help isolate the main sub-
ject, held sharp in the clear center, while diffusing a distract-
ing background, especially in situations where a long lens
and depth-of-field differentiation aren't possible.
Another portrait diffusion type involves the use of
small"dimples," or clear refracting shapes dispersed on an
otherwise clear optical surface. They can be round or dia-
mond-shaped. These are capable of more efficient selective
diffusion than the net type, and have no requirement to be
aligned with the subject's eye. They don't lower contrast
by tinting shadows, as lighH:olored nets do. These dimples
refract light throughout their surface, not just at the edges.
For any given amount of clear space through the filter,
which is relative to overall sharpness, they can hide fine
details more efficiently than net filters. A more recent de-
velopment involves a minutely detailed series of patterns,
made up of tiny '1enslets," each with a greater degree of.
curvature, with more opt:.ical power, than that developed
by the dimples pJ;eviously mentioned. This produces a
maximum of selective diffusion efficiency for any given
amount of overall sharpness.
The above types of filters, though most often used for
"portrait" applications, also find uses wherever general
sharpness is too great, and must be subtly altered.
Some diffusion filters also cause highlight areas to
flare. They can scatter light, having an effect on lowering
contrast. These are closely related to fog or mist filters.
These include "dot" filters which incorporate small, dis-
crete optical elements of various sizes that selectively dif-
fuse, lower contrast, and cause mild highlight flare. They .
can be very effective in achieving these combined effects.
Sliding Diffusion Filters
When attempting to fine-tune the application of dif-
fusion within a sequence, the ability to vary the strength
of the effect while filming can be invaluable. This can be
accomplished by employing an oversized filter that has a
gradated diffusion effect throughout its length. It is
mounted to allow sliding the proper grade are.a in front of
the lens, which can be changed"on-<:amera." When even
more subtle changes are required, maintaining consistent
diffusion throughout the image while varying the overall
strength, a dual"opposing gradient" filter arrangement can
be used.
213
 Fog and Mi t Filters
A natural og causes lights to glow and flare. Contrast
is generally 10 er, and sharpness may be affected as well.
Fog and mist . ters mimic the effect of atomized water
droplets in the . . The soft glow can be used to make light-
ing more visib . For example, the effect of humidity in a
tropical scene be enhanced. In lighter grades, these fil-
ters can take e edge off excess contrast and sharpness.
Heavier grad can create unnatural effects, as for fantasy
sequences. In g eral, however, the effect of a strong natu-
ral fog is not p oduced accurately by these filters in their
stronger grad , because they are too fuzzy, with too much
contrast. For t, Double Fog or gradated fog filters are
recommended
Gradated og filters, sometimes called "scenic," are
part clear or li t fog, and part denser fog effect. Aligning
the clear or we er half with the foreground and the stron-
ger half with th background will render an effect more like
that of a natur fog, accumulating strength with distance.
Double F s have milder flare and softening charac-
teristics than st dard fog filters, while exhibiting a much
greater effect 0 contrast; especially in the stronger grades.
A very thick n al fog will still allow close-up objects to
appear sharp. will a double fog filter. The key to the ef-
fect is the mu lower contrast combined with a minimal
amount of hig .ght flare.
Mist filte generally produce highlight flare that, be-
cause it stays cl r to the source, appears more as a "halo"
than the more utwardly extended flare of a fog filter. The
. mist filters crea e an almost pearlescent glow to highlights.
The lighter gra es also find uses in toning down the exces-
sive sharpness d contrast of modern film and lens com-
binations with ut detracting from the image.
Low-Contr st Filters
There are y situations, such as bright sunlit exte-
riors, where p opel. contrast is difficult to maintain, and
exposing for ther highlights or shadows will leave the
other severely der- or overexposed. Low-contrast filters
come in two ke types. The first type creates a small amount
of "localized" are near highlight areas wit:hiI1 the image.
This reduces c ntrast by lightening nearby shadow areas,
leaving highli ts almost unchanged. A variation of this
type also incl es a light-absorbing element in the filter
214
which, without exposure compensation, will reduce con-
trast by also darkening highlights. Use this latter filter when
lighter shadows are not desired. In both cases, the mild flare
produced from bright highlights is sometimes used as a
lighting effect.
A second, more recently developed type of filter re-
duces contrast without any localized flare. It uses ambient
light, not just light in the image area, to lighten shadows
evenly throughout. Use it where contrast control is needed
without any other apparent effect on sharpness or highlight
flare.
Star-Effect Filters
Lighting can be enhanced in ways that go beyond
what exists in nature. Star filters create points of light, like
"stars," str-eaking outward from a central light source. This
can make lighting within the scene take on a more glitter.-
ing, glamorous appearance. This effect is usually produced
by a series of thin lines etched into the flat optical surface
of a clear filter.These lines act as cylindrical lenses, diffract-
ing light points into long thin lines of light running perpen-
dicular to the etched lines. Lines on the filter positioned
horizontally produce vertically oriented star lines.
The size and brightness of the star lines produced are
first a function of the size, shape, and brightness of the light
source. You have additional control through the choice of
a particular spacing between the lines on the filter. Gener-
ally these spacings are measured in millimeters. A 1mm
spacing has twice as many lines per unit area as a 2mm.
spacing. It will produce a brighter star for any given source.
Spacings offered generally range from 1mm to 4mm, as
well as both narrower and wider distances for specialty ef-
fects.
The number of directions in which the lines run deter-
mines the number of points produced. Lines in one direc-
tion produce a two-pointed star, just a streak through the
center of the light. Filters with 4, 6, 8, 12, and more points
are available. Although the more common types have a
symmetrical arrangement of points, tl1ey can also be ob-
tained with asymmetric patterns, which tend to appear
more "natural," or less synthetic.
With an 8- or 12~point filter, the many star lines will
tend to overpower the rest of the image, so use them care-
fully.
215
 As with Yfilter that has a discrete pattern, be sure
that depth of ·eld doesn't cause the filter lines to become
visible in the ' age. Using small apertures or short focal
l~gth lenses es this more likely, as will using a smaller
film. format, s ch as l?mm vs. 35mm given an equal field
o! VIew. Gen ally, nud-range apertures or larger is suffi-
oent, but test before critical situations.
Filters f Black & White
Tone-Con 1Filters
. Black & hite panchromatic film records only tonal
diff~ces . een colored objects, which appear as black,
white, or erent shades of gray. Proper rendition de-
pends on yo own desires, and the differences between
film sensitivi to colors and that of the eye. The latter is
due to the fa that most emulsions are more sensitive to
blue, violet d ultraviolet than to other colors. Therefore,
bl~e appears to be lighter on film than it does to the eye.
This can ~ a blue sky light enough to appear a similar
shade of ligh gray as the clouds that are in it, making the
clou~s "disa pear." A more "correct" cloud presence is
obtamed th ugh the use of a yellow filter, such as a
Wratten #8, hich can absorb blue light, darkening the sky
to more close y match what the eye would see. The #8 also
acts as a gen ral compensator for most subjects, giving a
tonal renditi n similar to that of the eye. Deeper colors,
further to the red end of the spectrum, such as Wratten #15
deep yellow, #16 orange, and #25 and #29 red filters, will
produce pro essively deeper and artificially more dra-
matic renditi ns of blue sky.
Remem that, since these filters act on color differ-
ences to prod ce tonal differences, the required colors must
be present. e part of the sky you are recording must be
blue to be affl . Sky sections closer to the sun or nearer
the horizon, e generally less blue than elsewh~. Use of
a gradated n utral-density filter can darken a sky relative
to the foregr und, but will not increase contrast between a
blue sky and the clouds.
Using . for contrast control can be a matter of ar-
tistic prefer ce, or of necessity. It is possible for two dis-
parate colo say a certain orange and blue, to record as
the identical tone, eliminating any visible difference be-
tween them. ilters will lighten objects of their own color
and darken ose of their complement. Complementary
216
color pairs are: green-red; orange-blue; violet-yellow. An
orange filter in the above case will darken the blue and
lighten,the orange; a blue filter will perform the reverse.
A green filter, such as Wratten #11, can be used to
lighten green foliage to show more detail. It may also be
used to provide more pleasing skin tones outdoors, espe-
cially against blue sky.
Any filter used for the above purposes will have a
greater effect if slightly underexposed. Its function depends
on absorbing light of its complementary colors to increase
the proportion of light of colors similar to itself. Exposure
compensation is often needed to allow proper image den-
sity, but the relative difference is reduced by the addition
of light at the absorbed wavelengths through additional
exposure.
Filters for Color
Recording color involves greater knowledge about
light sources than is necessary for black & white imaging.
Sunlight, daylight and exterior lighting at different times
of day,as well as incandescent, fluorescent, and other arti-
ficial sources, all have color characteristics that vary signifi-
cantly. We see images through our eyes only after they are
processed by our brain, which has the ability to make cer-
tain adjustments to the way we see color. White will still
appear white to the eye in various lighting situtations, as
long as we don't have more than one type visible at a time.
Film has no such internal compensation. It is designed to
see only a certain type of light as white - all others will
appear different to the extent of their difference. Filters are
required to provide the necessary fine-tuning.
The following discussion of Color Conversion, Light
Balancing, Color Compensating, Decamired, and Fluores-
cent filters will be better understood after consulting the
section on color temperature and light-source characteris-
tics.
Color-eonversion Filters
Color-eonversion filters are used to correct for sizable
differences in color temperature between the film and the
light source. These include both the Wratten #80 (blue) and
the Wratten #85 (amber) series of filters. Since they see fre-
quent outdoor use, in bright sunlight, the #85 series, espe-
217

d #85B, are also available in combination
utral- density filters for exposure control.
dngFilters
light-bal cing filters are used to make minor correc-
tions in color mperature. These are comprised ofboth the
Wratten #81 ( ellowish) and the Wratten #82 (bluish) se-
ries of filters. ey are often used in combination with color-
conversion fil ers. Certain #81 series filters may also be
available in c~binationwith various neu~al density fil-
ters for exposUre control.
218
No Filter
Sepia Filter
Color-compensating Filters
Color-eompensating filters are used to make adjust-
ments to the red, blue or green characteristics of light. These
find applications in correcting for color balance, light source
variations, different reversal film batches, and other color
effects. They are available in density variations of Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow, as well as Red, Blue, and Green filters.
Decamired Filters
Decamired filters (a trademark of their manufacturer)
are designed to more easily handle unusual color tempera-
219

Split-Field Len
ture variatiothan previously mentioned filters. Available
~ incremen mired shifts (see lighting section on mireds)
m both a re and a blue series, decamired filters can be
readily comb ed to create almost any required correction.
Fluoresce t and Other Discontinuous
Spectra Li ting Correction
~ince fil never actually add color, but only absorb
certam wave ~~ to increase the relative proportion of
others, the 0 ginallight source must include the colors you
want. Some urces are totally deficient in certain wave-
220
lengths, which filters alone cannot add back. This is par-
ticularly true of many types of metal halide lighting. With
other lighting types, such as fluorescent, color temperature
measurements may not provide the correct filter require-
ments since color temperature theory is based on having a
continuous spectrum, meaning light at all wavelengths. It
is possible for a light source to have a sufficient spectral
distribution to emulate a correctable color temperature
when so measured, but its effect on film can be very dif-
ferent. (See section on lighting for additional details.)
Gradated Color Filters, or Wedges
Similar to Gradated NO filters, these filters are also
produced in a wide range of standard and custom colors,
densities, and proportions for many applications. A blue-
to-clear filter can add blue to a white, hazy sky without
affecting the foreground. An orange-to-clear filter can en-
liven a tepid sunset. Color can be added to the bottom of
the scene, as with a green-to-clear filter used to enrich the
appearance of a lawn.
Stripe filters are another type of gradated filter, hav-
ing a thin stripe of color or neutral density running through
the center of the filter, gradating to clear on either side.
These are used to horizontally paint various colors in lay-
ers into a sky, as well as for narrow-area light balancing.
Coral Filters
As the sun moves through the sky, the color tempera-
ture of its light changes. It is often necessary to compensate
for this in a variety of small steps as the day progresses, to
match the appearance of different adjacent sequences to
look as if they all took place at the same time. Coral filters
include a range of graded filters of a color similar to an 85
conversion filter. From light to heavy, any effect from ba-
sic correction.to warmer or cooler than "normal" is possible.
Corals can also compensate for the overly cool blue effect
of outdoor shade.
Sepia Filters
People often associate sepia-toned images with "early
times:' This makes sepia filters useful tools for producing
believable flashbacks and for period effects with color film.
Other colors are sti]l visible, which is different from origi-
~al epia-~oned photography, but these colors appear to be
infu d WIth an overall sepia tint.
Didymium Filters
This type of filter, which ma be called by a trade name
(see manufacturers), is a combination of rare earth elements
~ gla . It comp~etely rerno ~ a portion of the spectrum
rn the orange regIon. The effect IS to increase the color satu-
~tion int~ .ity ~f certain brown, orange, and reddish ob-
J~ts by eliminating the muddy tones and maximizing the
cnrnson. ~d scarlet components. Its most frequent use is
fo~ ~btammg s~ongly aturated fall foliage. The effect is
nurumal on objects of other colors. Skin tone might be
overly warm. Even after color timing to correct for any
unwanted bias in these other areas, the effect on reddish
obj cts will still be apparent.
Underwater Color-correction Filters
. . When filming underwater, the light you are r cording
1 filtered by the water it pas es through. Longer-wave-
length reds and orang are ab orbed until only blue is left.
ll1e. actual effect is determined by numerous factors, such
a bght source ( un or artificial), water quality, and the
water path. The latter i the distance the light travels
through ~e water. In natural ( un)light, this is the depth
o ~ the ubJect from the urface plus the ubject-to-<:amera
distance. For artificial lighting, it is the distance from the
light to the subject to the camera.The longer the water path,
the ~eater the filtering effect of the water. In many cases,
certaIn color-eompensating (CC) filters can absorb enough
horter wavelength to r tore better color balance. The
difference between corrected and w1corrected color can be
dramatic. The use of fa t r-speed films will facilitat th use
f light absorbing correcting fil.ters.
Differences Between Camera
and Lab Correction
It i the job of the lab timer to fine-tune the finished
color rendition of the film . 1lU accounts for variables in
e po ure, print stock and processing. Timing can also be
used to impart certain color effects, both for tandard cor-
rection and pecial situation. The difference i that lab
correction has only the range of colors and densities avail-
able in the film emulsion to work with, and is limited to the
222
range of variation of the printer. These are much more lim-
iting than the multitude of colorants in the real world, and
the number of ways in which adjustments can be made at
the camera. Filtering on the camera brings the lab that much
doser to the desired result, providing a greater latitude of
timing options.
There will be times when counting on the lab is the
only choice. Lab can also produce some unusual effects.
When faced with a low-light situation, in daylight using
tungsten film, it may be necessary for expo ure rea ons to
pull the 85 filter and correct m the printing. When you do
this, however, neutral gray tones will appear slightly yel-
low, even w hen aU else looks correct. This effect can be used
to artificially enhance I u h green foliage color through the
addition of yellow. It may have other uses, but you will not
achieve the same r ult as if you had used the 85 filter.
LL-D
The LL-D (trademark of its manufactur r) was de-
igned to help m tl1e above situation. It require no expo-
ure compensation, and makes sufficient adjustments to fue
film to enable the timer to match the color of a properly 85-
filtered original. It i not an all-arOlmdreplacement for the
85. U e it only where needed for exposure purposes, and
for ubsequentl printer-timed work.
Special Application Filters
Contrast Viewing Filters
Balancing lighting by eye is a matter of experience.
Decisions can be aided through the use of contra t view-
ing fil ters.These are de igned to handicap tl1 eye, with its
mud1 greater rang of apparent densities, to r semble the
range of the varioLls types of film. Use contrast viewers to
judge relative highlight and shadow densiti s. There are
viewers for black & white film, as well as vari LIS viewer
densities for color film. A darker viewer is u ed for slower
film speeds, where you would tend to use brighter light-
mg. Faster film, which can be used in dimmer settings,
would require a lighter viewer. Details can be obtained
from the manufacturers.
 Other Filter Considerations
Effect of Depth of Field
and Focal Length Changes
Standard color filters generally function without
change through variations in depth of field and focal length.
1his may not be true of many of the "special effect" filter
typ . There are no solid rules for predicting the variation
in fil ter effect due to depth-of-field or focal length changes.
There are some things we can expect, however. Let's look
ata fog/mist type filter that causes a light to glow, orflare.
Take the example of a certain grade filter where we can see
that the ratio of light cliameter to glow cliameter is, say, 1:3.
A we view this through a changing focal length, we will
e that the ratio remains the same, although the magnifi-
cation will vary accordingly. So the decision to use a fil ter
of a clifferent grade to maintain a certain appearance at clif-
ferent focal lengths will be based on wanting to change the
ratio, as opposed to any otherwise corresponding relation-
hip. Tests are advisable for critical applications.
Sizes, Shapes, and M ounting Techniques
Filters are available in round and rectangular hapes
in many sizes. Round filters generally come supplied with
metal rings that mount directly to the lens. Frugal filter
users might find it preferable to employ adapters allowing
the use of a set of filters of a single size with many lenses
of equal or smaller izes. Round fil ters also can be upplied
with self-rotating mounts, where needed, as for polarizers.
Th y can be readily stacked in combination. Rectangular
filters require the use of a pecial filter holder, or matte box.
They offer the adclitional benefit of allowing slidability for
effects that must be precisely aligned within an image, such
as grada ted fil ters. In all cases, it is advisable to use a mowlt-
ing y tern that allow for sturdy support and read y ma-
llipulation. In add ition, th use of a lens shade at the ou t-
rmost mounting position (from the lens) will minimize the
effect of stray off-axis reflection .
M ultiple Filter Use
Wh n any ingle filter is not enough to produce the
de ired re ults, u e combinations. Choose carefully, to
minimize the number required. Usually the job can be done
with no more than three filters. Use filters that inclividu-
ally add to the final effect, without canceling each other out.
For example, don't use a polarizer, which can in~ease co!or
saturation, in combination with a low-eontrast filter which
reduces saturation, unless it works for some other reason
(the polarizer could also be reducing reflections, for in-
stance). Generally, the order in which filters are mounted
is not important.
Secondary Reflections
Lighting can cau e flare problems, especially when
using more than one filter. Lights in the image pose the
greatest difficulties. They can reflect between filter surfaces
and cause unwan ted secondary reflections. Maintaining
parallelism between filters, and further aligning the lights
in the image with their secondary reflections where pos-
sible, can minimize tIlis problem. In critical situations, it
may be best to make use of a m atte box with a tilting filter
stage. Tilting fil ter(s) of good optical quality only a .few
degrees in such a unit can clivert the secondary reflections
out of the lens axis, out of the image, without introducing
unwanted clistortion or noticeable changes in the filter's
effect.
Custom (Homemade and Field-Ready)
Filters
There will be times when you need an effect and don't
have time to obtain one ready-made. Certain effects can be
produced that, although different from fact~ry ~ters, can
be useful in a pinch, or for unusual custom Sltuations. et
diffusion effects can be produced as they were originally,
by stretching and affixing one or more layers of stocking
material to the lens end, held in place with a rubber band.
There are also numerous possibilities with a clear filter (or
several) available. Petroleum jelly can cause flare or diffu-
sion, or even some star-like streaks depending on its appli-
cation, to a clear filter, spread with a finger or cloth. The
cllief benefit here is that the effect can also be applied only
to selected portions of the scene. Breathing on a clear filter
can produce interesting but temporary foglike results. Us-
ing cut gels can simulate certain gradated filter effects.
When doing this, be sure to keep the filter close to the lens,
and use larger lens openings, to keep the visible edge as soft
as possible.
 TABLE I: FIlTER COMPENSATOR
Filler Faclors
llna alop
no nil" 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 5 8 10 12.5 16 20 25
22 20 18 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5
20 18 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4
18 16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6
16 14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2
14 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8
12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2
9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8
8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6
7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4
6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1
4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9
4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.6 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
1 .9 .8 .7
.9 .8 .7

NO Filter Selector Chart

Stop for correct exposure 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45 64 90 128 180 256
'to ND
Stops Faclor Trans Filter

1 1/3 1.26 80 .10 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.6 5 7 10 14.3 20 28 40

% 1.6 63 .20 1.1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.5 6.3 9 12.7 18 25 36
1/3 1 2 50 .30 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
stop .40 .9 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.6 5 7 10 14.3 20 28 40
steps
1113 2.5 40
1% 3.2 32 .50 .8 1. 1 1.6 2.2 3.2 4.5 6.3 9 12.7 18 25 36
J 2 4 25 .60 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
I 3 8 12.5 .90 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
one 4 16 6.25 1.2 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
stop 5 32 3 1.5 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32 45
steps 6 64 1.6 1.8 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23 32
7 128 0.8 2.1 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 23
I 8 256 0.4 2.4 .7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16
The columns 10 the left of the " NO Filter" show the filler 'actor bolh numerically and wide aperture to throw the background out of focus: Select the desired lens slop In
Inlens stops and the percentlransmission 01 each. Up to 0.6NO. Incrementsare In 'I> the column under the Indicated slop. and use lhe corresponding NO Filler from the
stop sleps. From 0.6No to 2.4No the increments are In full stops. oensilies may be left shaded column. (For B&W photography. accounl for Ihe factor of any color filler
added: (0.6No plus 0.9No equals 1.5No). II correct exposure Indicates avery small also).
stop beyond the calibration of the lens AND/OR: IIllls desired 10 open the lens to a
 CONVERSION FILTERS FOR COLOR FILMS KODAK COLOR COMPENSATING FILTERS
Exposure Mired Yellow ExpDs.re Magenta Exposure Cyan Exposure
Filler Filter Increase Conversion Shift Pule (Absorbs Increase (Absorbs IncrelSe (Absorbs Incruse
Color Number in Stops· in Degrees K Value Deulty Bill) In Stops· Green) II StDpS· Red) In Stops·
80A 2 3200 to 5500 - 131 .05 CC-OSY CC-OSM 'h CC-OSC '13
Blue 80B 111:1 3400 to 5500 - 112 .10 CC-l0Y 'h CC-l0M '13 CC-l0C '13
80C 1 3800 to 5500 - 81 .20 CC-20Y '13 CC-20M 'h CC-20C '13
800 '3 4200 to 5500 - 56 .30 CC-JOY '13 CC-30M 'h CC-30C 'h
85C .40 CC-40Y '13 CC-40M 'h CC-40C 'h
'/3 5500 to 3800 81
85 .SO CC-SOY 'h CC-SOM 'h CC-SOC t
11:1 5500 to 3400 112
Amber 85N3 12'3 5500 to 3400 112 Red Green Blue
85N6 2% 5500 to 3400 112 (Absorbs ExpDsure (AbsDrbs ExpDsure (AbsDrbs ExpDsure
85N9 32fJ 5500 to 3400 112 Pule Blue and Increase Blue and IncrelSe Red and IncrelSe
85B 213 5500 to 3200 131 Density Green) In SIDps' Red) In Slops· Green) In Stops·
·These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be .OS CC-OSR 113 CC-OSG '13 CC-05B '13
checked by practical test, especially if more than one filter is .10 CC-l0R '13 CC-l0G '13 CC-l0B '13
used . .20 CC-20R '13 CC-20G '13 CC·20B 'h
.30 CC-30R 'h CC-30G 'h CC-30B 'IJ
.40 CC-40R 1!J CC-40G 'h CC-40B 1
.50 CC-SOR 1 CC-50G 1 CC-50B 1'13
KODAK LIGHT BALANCING FILTERS ·These values are approXimate. For critical work, they should be checked
by practical test, especially if more than one filler is used.
Exposure To obtain To obtain Mired
Filler Filler Increase 3200 K 3400 K Shift
Color Number in Stops· from: from: Value
82C 82C 1'13 2490 K 2610 K - 89
82C 82B 1'/3 2570 K 2700 K - 77
82C + 82A 1 2650 K 2780 K - 65
Bluish 82C + 82 1 2720K 2870 K - 55
82C 11:1 2800 K 2950 K - 45
82B 2fJ 2900 K 3060 K - 32
82A 'IJ 3000 K 3180 K - 21
82 Va 3100 K 3290 K - 10
No Filler
Necessary 3200 K 3400 K
81 1!J 3300 K 3510 K 9
81A '13 3400 K 3630 K 18
Yellowish 81B '13 3500 K 3740 K 27
81C "3 3600K 3850 K 35
810 2fJ 3700 K 3970 K 42
81EF 2fJ 3850 K 4140 K 52

230 231
 NOMOGRAPH fOR LIGHT SOURCE CONVERSION

ORIGINAL SOURCE IN K
Exposure Meters
R:~~I~~O CONVERTEO SOURCE IN
T1
T2
10000 by Jim Branch
!ml ~ ~
The usual final adjUSbnent of a motion-picture cam-
1000 era for exposure control is made with the iris cliaphragm
in the camera lens. While this is a very simple adjusbnent,
a great deal depends upon its accuracy. Much thought has
gone into the objectives to be attained by the adjustment
of the diaphragm, and the means to obtain a correct adjust-
ment.
It is recognized that a prim object of expo ure con-
trol in motion-picture photography is to obtain consistent
and uniform image of the principal ubjects. It is ery
II5ll
1I5 important to obtain flesh tone which will be consistent
from one scene to the ne t. It is undesirable to have flesh
lI5C
tones which will be light in one scene, dark in the next with-
81H
--- 810
out reason, and again light in the next scene. Correct expo-
81C _ 818 sure control will provide negatives which are consistent
81A - t
NoftllCr -- r- 81 from scene to scene and can be printed on a very narrow
82A _ 82
range of printer lights.
- 828
82C Modern exposure control is ba ed on the use of a good
IIOll - - - - 82C - 82
- 82C.82A
light meter. The light meter measures the effective inten-
::: _ - 10: sity of the light, taking into account the sensitivity of the
IIlB film in the camera and the expo ure time. The exposure
1lOA -l time is a result of the frames-per-second rate at which the
camera operates, and the angle of the hutter opening. Pro-
fessional cinematographers usually think in terms of 24
5000
frames per second and a 175-d gree h utter, which give a
basic exposure time of \-So second . The light meter combines
all of the foregoing factor to give an answer in terms of the
6000
appropriate camera lens stop.
Light meters are of two types. Some measure the inci-
7000
dent light which illuminates the subject. Others measure
the light which is reflected from the scene. The results ob-
tained from the two di fferent types may be quite clifferent.
!DXI
It is important therefore to under tand the diffe.rences be-
10000 tween the two types.
The nomograph can be used to fmd the aPrloxlrTlate filter tor apamcular arwetslon ~ placJng
~~~~~l~~r:~~ ~rimal SOurce IT 1110 a seccnd source 021 The approximate hlter can Incident Light Meters
These meters are normally used at the location of the
photographic subject. They mea ure the light which is ef-
fective in illuminating the ubject. They give an answer in
232
233
r Exposure meters, in general, are ither analog (with a
term of f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. ll1e camera
lens diaphragm opening i then set to match the effective
intensity of the prevailing illumination.
When the filn: is exposed, the various reflectances pre-
sented by the subject will then each fall into a given place
in the film acc ptance range. For example, a face tone of
~O% r~ectanc will fall into the 30% reflectance position
m the film acceptance range. TIUs method thus provides
consi tently uniform face tones from scene to scene.
. The inci~ent light meter accomplishes its purpose by
domg two.thin . It measures the incident light intensity
at the location of the photographic subject. It also takes into
account the con~itions of illumination geometry; that is,
whether ~e ubJect has front ke light, side key light, or a
back ke Li~ht. The meter combines these factors and gives
an answer m terms of the correct setting for the camera lens
diaphragm.
There are eral makes of incident light meters which
~se a thr e-dimensionallight collector. The hemispherical
light collector allow these meters to perform automatically
the dual function described above.
The incident light meters are normally used at the
po. ition of the principal ubject, with the hemisphere
p~~ted at the camera lens. The hemisphere then acts as the
ffiIDlature face of the subject. All illun1i.nation which will
~e effec~ve. on the ubj ct, including key light, fill light, Line
light, hatr light, e e lights, etc., will be received, evaluated
and integrated b the meter. The meter will then indicate
~rectl~ the correct f- top or T- top for the camera lens. In-
odent Light m ters are particularly usek1l because they may
be u ed on a cene before the principal subject appears.
They mClY al 0 b carried through CI scene, with the hemi-
sphere alway pointed at tl1e cam era lens, to detect uneven
i.1lu~inati n, and particularly hot spots, into which the
subject may m ve during the action.TIUs allows the scene
illumination to b lutably balanced before the principal
subject i CIt hand.
In the ca of outdoor photogrClphy, it is not always
nec~s a ry to take th meter to the location of the principal
sU~Ject. Und r U~1 conditions the illumination is usually
uruform over c nStderable areas. U the illumination is the
same at ubject location and at camera location the meter
may be u ed at camera I cation. Care should be exercised
to point th m ter in the proper direction, as tl10ugh it were
at the ubject locati n.
234
needle) or digital. The introduction of the analog incident
meter with the 3-D light-eollecting hemisphere revolution-
ized the method of determining p roper exposure for the
cinematographer.
Today, a number of comparlie throughout the world
manufacture exposure meters employing the basic incident
type principles in their design, but all due credit should be
given for the invention to Don orwood, ASC, who pat-
ented it, and Karl Freund, ASC, who wa instrumental in
its development. Most incident meter are provided with
suitable adapters so that the rna be converted for use as
a reflected light meter if the occa i n should so indicate.The
reflected light adapter can be used in a ituation where the
cinematographer encounters difficulty in putting the meter
into a position to read either the illuminati n directly on
the subject, or illumination imilar to that on the ubject.
Such a situation, for example, might be encountered when
taking a picture out of the window of an airliner in flight.
The reflected light attachrnent can also be used in other si tu-
ations to evaluate the relative brightness of a background.
Special Effects
When a special effect is de ired, the cinematographer
may use the incident Light meter to first determine normal
exposure for the subject. Then he may then deliberately
modify that value, up or down, to achieve the desired ef-
fect. 111i.s can be done wi th considerable confidence because
the incident Light meter will g ive a firm foundation upon
which to base tl1e desired modification.
Specific Situations
There are some si tuations, occa ionallyencountered
in outdoor photography, which r quire special attention.
1. Unusually light or dark backgrounds are cause for
consideration. When ac ne includes an unusually light
background, the cinematographer may wi h to first use the
meter as an incident ligh t meter to determine the basic ex-
posure for the principal subject in the foregrolmd. Then he
can convert the meter to a reflected Light meter in order to
measure the brightness of the unusual background. The
second reading is then used to modify omewhat the basic
incident light reading. The same procedure could be fol-
lowed in the case of an W1U ually dark background.
235
 2. Outdoor scenes that include a subject in the fore-
ground as well as distant objects, such as mountains, in the
background, usually also include considerable aerial haze,
which may be invi ible or only partly visible to the eye, but
strongly isible to the camera. A frequent photographic
resul t is a recording of the aerial haze overlaid on the scene
background. This would give the appearance of an over-
exposed backgrolli1d. It is recommended that in such a situ-
ation a haze-cutting filter be used to improve the back-
ground . In addition, use the procedure previously de-
scribed for the ca e of an unusual lighting background.
3. Scenes consisting of a mixture of sunshine and shade
areas, with the principal subject in a shade area, can be
handled by: (a) using the meter in the sunshine area, or (b)
opening up the lens by 1h to % f-stop from the meter indi-
cation.
Reflected Light Meters
Reflected light meters can be classified into two
group , according to function. The meters in each group
may give exposure readings which are substantially differ-
ent from those given by the meters in either of the other two
groups. This is due to dilierences in basic principle of op-
eration.
Group 1. These are the meters which are designed to
meas ure the average brightness of an entire scene. Such
meters are usually used at camera location and pointed at
the cene. For a discriminating ob erver, this method ap-
pears to give acceptable results only in the case of a very
limited category of scenes, those which have front-lighting
and a foreground subject of medium tone as well as a back-
ground of medium tone. In other types of scenes, which
include ide-lighting or backlighting, or very bright or dark
backgrolli1ds, or large areas of sky, the exposure results are
questionable. This is because the meter, when used by this
method, is affected not only by the unit brightness of each
portion of the scene, but also by the relative area of each.
Thus a large area of ky would influence the meter to dic-
tate a mall lens aperture whid1 might result in an under-
expo ure of the face of fue principal subject in fue fore-
ground. Any backlight may trike directly into the meter
cell and cause an unduly high reading on the meter. This
also would result in underexposure of fue foreground sub-
ject. Large bright backgrow1ds tend to cause meter read-
236
ings which result in underexposure of foreground subjects.
Large dark backgrounds tend to cause meter rec:dings
which result in overexposure of fue foreground Subject. U
fuis method is used it should be considered only as a very
rough guide, subject to considerable modification accord-
ing to fue experience of the cameraman.
It is interesting to note fuat fuis method is fue one gen-
erally used in fue built-in automatic exposure conh'ol sys-
tems of amateur motion-picture and still picture cameras.
It has been noted by many that fue photographic results do
not meet fue high standards of professional cinematogra-
phy.
Group 2: These are fue spot meters. A spot meter may
be used at camera location and aimed at a selected spot in
fue scene. The effectiveness of the meter is heavily depen-
dent on fue operator's judgmentin fue selection of the spot.
The selected spot must be precisely representative of the
particular combination of elements which compose the
scene. In fue use of such a meter the operator must be par-
ticularly careful when confronted with a scene that presents
strong contrasts between fue selected spot and fue scene
background. An example of such a situation would be a
case where a person in the foreground is in front of a very
light background, such as sky or white buildings, etc. In
such a case fue operator should modify the spot reading
provided by the meter according to his o~n estimate ~f the
situation . When the use of a reflected light me ter IS re-
quired, fue results of determining fue exposure can be
greatly improved by using a "Kodak eutral Test Card."
This card is a piece of sturdy 8" X 10 " cardboard that
is neutral gray on one side and white on fue other. The gray
side reflects 18% of fue light falling on it, and the whiteside
reflects approximately 90%. Also, fue gray side has a pro-
tective lacquer overcoat that r duces specular reflectance
and resists d amage due to fading, fingerprints, soil, etc. To
a light meter, an average scene is one in which the tones
w hen averaged form a tone brightness that is equivalent
to middle gray - a tone fuat reflects 18% of the light illu-
minatingit (fue same tone and reflectance of fue gray card).
When a scene is not average the gray card as a reference
helps you make the proper exposure judgments. A Kodak
Gray Card is manufactured w1der close tolerances to pro-
vide a neutra l gray-side reflectance of 18% ( ± 1% ) and
white-side reflectance of approximately 90%.
237
r
Testing
Small errors may exist in meters, lens calibra tions,
emulsion speeds and development. These small errors w ill
frequently cancel out without w1due harm to the final pic-
hlfe. It is when these errors add up in the same direction
that their cumulative effect is serious. It is wise, therefore,
to test equipment, film and meters under simulated pro--
duction conditions so that errors may be detected and cor-
rected before production begins. It is always a good idea
to "tune up to the variables."
Exposure Meters
Cinemeter II
Type: Hand-held digital /analog incident meter.
Light Sensor. Large area, blue enhanced silicon photo
sensor. Swivel head 270 degrees.
Measuring capability: Direct readout of photographic
exposures in full f-stopsor fractional f-stops. Also measures
illuminance level in footcandles and Lux.
Measuring Range: Direct-reading multiple-range lin-
ear circuit incorporates a high quality CMOS integrated
amplifier whose bias current is compensated against drift
up to 70" C Dynamic range 250,(J()() to one. Digital f-stop:
1/05 to f/90 in \I.-stop increments. Analog f-stop: f/ O.63
to £/36 in ~-stop increments. Photographic illuminance:
0.20 to 6400 footcandles, 2 to 64,(J()() Lux.
Dis play: Vertical digital / analog bar graph which con-
sists of 72 block liquid-<:rystal bars (6 bars per f-stop), that
rise and fall depending on the light intensity. The scale can
be used in three different display modes (Bar, R ooting Zone
and Dedicated Zone), a nd in three different measureme nt
modes (f-stops, foo tcand les a nd Lux).
Display Modes:
'I. Bar mode is similar to a needle-reading meter, ex-
cept that the movemen t is lip and down instead o f left to
right.
2. Fl oa ting Zone mode: a single flashing bar forms a
solid bar that graphica lly indicates the range of illumina-
tion in the scene. It ca n also be used for the measurement
of flickering or blinking sources.
3. Dedicated Zone mode is used to save up to five sepa-
rate measurements.
238
Display Range:
ISO film speed: 12 to 2500 in Y.J-stop increments.
Camera speed: 2 to 375.
Shutter Angle: 45° to 90° in I,.(l (-stop increments,
90° to 2050 in 1;12 f-stop increments.
Filter factors: Y.J f-s top to 7 f-stops.
Resolution: Digital: Y6 f-stop. Analog: 1,4 f-stop.
AcCUIacy: Digital If. f-stop.
Additional Functions: Memory s tore and recal1.
Lamp: Electroluminescent backlit liquid crystal dis-
play.
Power consumption: Operating reading 5 rnA with
backlight on.
Power Source: One 9-\'0It battery.
Dimensions: 6%" X 3 "X HI,"
Weight: Approximately 10 ounces.
Minolta Luminance ft·l °, nl-] O & nt-%o
Type: Reflex-viewing spot-reading automatic/ manual
luminance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1° r.~o in
model nt-YJO) of acceptance.
Viewing System: Focusing through-the-lens reflex
type. Objective lenso85mm f/2.8. Angle of view: Circular
go with central 1° (YJ in model nt-~o ) marked circle. Mag-
nification: 2.96X focused at infinity.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in footlamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range:
Model ft-1 °: 0.01 to 99900 ft-L (0.01 step)
Model nt-1 °: 0.1 to 99900 cd / m 2 (0.1 step)
Model nt- ",0: 1.0 to 99900 cd/m 2 (0.1 s tep)
Display Range: Red (+) LED's a t Ule right o f Ule num-
ber disp lay indica tes lOX and 100X the display reading.
Accuracy: With in ± 4% o f C.LE. standard ± 1 djgit in
last djsplay position.
Screen-flicker accuracy: Within 1% of average lumi-
nance w ith projection cycle o f more than 72 H z and duty
of 7% (projector at 24 Ips).
Analog Output: Output voltage: 1V over full scale.
Output impedance: 10 kiJo-ohms.
Power Consumption: 6 rnA in anaJog mode. Meter
can monitor changes in luminance for a period up to 40
hours.
 Power Source: One 9-volt battery (Eveready 216 or
equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year w ith
normal use.
Dimensions: 2 7A" X 6~" X 41Y16"
Weight: 18lA! ounces, without battery.
Spectra Cinespot 1 0 Spot Meter
Type: Through-the-Iens viewing spot-reading auto-
matic/ manuallwninance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 10 angle
of acceptance.
Viewing Optics: 1.6X magnification, erect system with
focusing e epiece.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illwninance
level in foot lamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range: Low Range D-30 fL (or 0-100 cd /
m 2) reading legible down to O.5fL. High Range 0-300 fL
(orD-1,OOOcd/m2), upper limit may be increased by use of
acces ory lOX or 100X attenuators.
Spectral Response: Within ± 4% (by area) of eIE Pho-
topic Lwnino ity Function.
Accuracy: ± 1% of full scale or ± 5% of reading (which-
ever is greater).
Error Due To Chopped Light: ± 0.5 % at 24 cycles/
second.
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (Eveready 544 or
equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year wi th
normal use.
Dimensions: 5" X 2" X 6.4"
Weight: 15 ounces.
Measuring Range: One million to one (20 f-stops) di-
re~t-reading multiple-range linear circuit controlled by
oucrocomputer.
Display Range: ISO film speed: 3 to 8000 in Y.J stop
increments.
Camera speed: 2 to 360 frames per econd.
Resolution: Digital: 0.1 f-stop. Analog: 0.2 f-stops.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-s top.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Optional electroluminescent lamp for backlit
liquid crystal display.
Power Consumption: Operating (reading) SmA. Data
retention SuA.
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (AS44, PX28L or
PX28).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with
normal use.
Dimensions: SW' X 2W' X 2".
Weight Approximately 6 ounces.
Mild, of tlte material it. tltis sectioll of tlte II/allllal is basic, bllt referellce
sllOlIld be made to 0 011 onuood, A C alld Eastmall Kodak Compallyfor
tlte gray card i"fon1JatiOIl.

Spectra Professional IV
Type: Hand-h Id exposure meter for measuring inci-
dent and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell, computer se-
lected gla filter tailored to spectral response of the film.
Swivel head 270 degrees.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of photo-
graphic expo ures. Al 0 measures illwninance level in foot-
candle and Lux.

240
 Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Camera Drive System
by Edmund M. DiGiulio
ASC Associate Member
Cinema Products Corporation
When recording sound simultaneously with filming,
it is necessary to provide some means of guaranteeing that
the soundtrack will be in perfect synchronism with the film.
In single-system filming, where the sound is recorded di-
rectly on the film in the camera, on either a magnetic strip
or optical sound track, this is automatically accomplished.
In double-system filming, however, speed variations of
camera and recorder, as well as the elasticity of the mag-
netic recording tape, require some positive means of key-
ing the dialogue to its appropriate film frame.
The inclusion on the sound recorder of a second, par-
allel sync or "Pilotone" track is the most common method
in use today. The sync pulse is typically a sine wave of 50
to 60 Hz with an RMS amplitude of approximately 1 volt.
Back in the lab, a "resolver" transfers the sound track onto
oxide-coated sprocketed film stock using the sync track as
a reference so that the transferred sound track will corre-
spond, frame for frame, with the camera negative. Until the
introduction of crystal sync systems, this sync pulse was
derived from the camera by another means.
1£, for example, the camera was being driven by a DC
motor, with some sort of governor control to hold it fairly
accura te at 24 fps, a sync pulse generator geared to the
movement or motor shaft could be employed to provide
the sync pulse output. A cable conducts the sync pulse from
camera to sound recorder. (See Fig. 1.)
An alternate method, used mos t commonly on
soundstages but also on location, was for the camera to be
dri ven by a synchronous motor opera ting from AC mains,
or on location from an AC generator. In this case the re-
corder used the mains or alternator as a sync pulse source
(Fig. 2).
In crys tal drive systems, a crystal oscillator of ex-
tremely high accuracy at (or in) the recorder provides the
sync pulse. The camera is in tum driven by a specially de-
signed DC motor and control circuit which is capable of
operating in exact synchronism with a self-contained crys-
tal oscillator of comparable accuracy (Fig. 3). TI,e crystal-
controlled motor operation is analogous to that of a sync
motor operating in synchronism with AC mains. In the case
of AC synchronous operation, both camera and recorder
are tied to the AC source as a common reference. In the case
of crystal operation both camera and recorder reference to
self-contained crystal oscillators which are so accurate that
the effect is the same as if they had been tied together.
Since the reference is absolute, any number of cameras
can be operated simultaneously, in perfect synchronism,
with a single recorder. The basic advantage to the crystal
drive system, however, is that it eliminates the need for
power cables and any umbilical connection between the
camera and recorder. Most crystal motors commonly in use
today employ some means of indicating when the motor
is nmning out of synchronism. This is usually a beep tone
or a blinking light. nus is a reliable indicator of good syn-
chronous operation and is a corollary benefit.
Time Code
While the cordless crystal drive system guarantees
synchronous operation between camera and recorder, it
does not provide a start mark. Slating, therefore, must be
done either with a conventional clapstick, or by wireless
transmission of start and scene information.
A more promising approach is that of absolute time
reference or "crystal clock." In this system we use an ex-
tremely accurate crystal time-base generator (or clock) ca-
pable of marking the film at regular intervals with a pre-
cise time reference and other pertinent production data. A
similar or identical clock would also be plugged into the
recorder to mark the sound record in identical fashion. It
is only necessary for both crystal clocks to be time-synchro-
nized at the beginning of the day and then be plugged into
the camera and the recorder, so that for the rest of the day's
shooting, the mark made on the film and on the sowld
record would always occur at precisely the same time. The
effect would be the same as if we operated clapsticks at
regular intervals of one second or more during the entire
day. As in the case with crystal-controlled synchronization,
any number of cameras could be tied to one recorder or
several recorders.
The EBU (European Broadcasting Union) proposed
such a time-code system in the early '70s. It involved the
 recording of time information optically on the film in the
form of 16 binary-coded decimal digits per second. In ac-
cordance with this proposal, a number of European equip-
METHODS OF SYNCHRONIZING ment manufacturers designed and offered for sale equip-
CAMERA AND RECORDER ment incorporating the ability to record or read the EBU
time code. This approach did not have much success in the
marketplace, however, as the only function it served was
to permit the automatic syncing of dailies. Accomplishing
this single task did not prove to be cost-effective.
Starting in the late '70s, SMPTE in the United States
began exploring the possibility of recording the SMYrE
SYNC time code that had already been established for use with

IV INPUT I0=0 I videotape, on both picture and soundtrack. By using the

same code that was already a standard for videotape
(uniquely identifying every frame), it was felt that a further
and more important function could be served than just
FIG. I syncing up dailies. By transferring the picture and also the
SMYrE time code from film to tape, one could realize the
tremendous efficiencies of videotape editing and then use
the SMYrE time code as the means of conforming the edit
decisions from the tape to film.
From the first experiments by EBU through the early
efforts by SMYrE, the proposed method for recording time
code in the camera was optical. This approach has the ad-
vantage of being permanent and easily duplicated in the
printing process. This technology is changing rapidly and
the most up-to-date information can be obtained from
manufacturers' representatives.

FIG. 2

SYNC
INPUC
T TelO( @

~
TEMP Cfb
COMPENSATED
FIG. 3 CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR

244 245
 Camera Supports Ba ic kit:
Largest dimension of a disassembled module i 8
feet.
Cranes Transport weight: 2000 pounds with weights
Louma Crane by Samcine Set up: Pedestal 64" x 64"
The Louma Crane is a modular crane which incorpo- Maximum lens height: 16' 6" with typical camera.
rat a rem tel -controlled pan and tilt camera mounting Minimum height: 2' 6"
Reach: 144"
tern. It ma be fitted to any uitable doll ,including
Elemack Cricket, Hornet or Rolls types. Recommended load: 550 pounds
Junior kit
The complete crane, e c1uding individual wei&h ,is
packed in 10 Samcine rigidized cases. Maximum Weight of Transport Weight: 140 pounds
an ingle part is 116 pounds. Maximum height: 108"
Minimum height: Floor (Fulcrum height 36")
In largest configuration, ann withreinforc m n~ tay :
Arm length 26', weight tubes 10' 10". Maximum height of Reach: 120"
Extension kit:
optical axi with limited pan (fulcrum 10' high): 31' 4 W'.
Maximum height of optical axi with 360° pan (fulcrum 8' Transport weight: 100 pounds
4"): 25' 3". Maximum dimension of reinforcement tays: 5'
Maximum height: 24'
Minimum height: Minus 19'4"
8 Y2" wide, 2' 11" above tube axi . Weight excluding dolly,
Reach: 18'4"
990 powlds. Smaller configuration withoutexteJ1Sion stays:
arm I ngth 15' 7" or 3' 5". Maxi Extension Kit:
Maximum angle of tilt upward with 360° panning: 45°; Transport weight: 105 pOlmds
d wnward: 65°. Maximum angle of tilt upward with lim-
ited pan: 60°. . MC 88 Crane
Minimum dimension of an aperture through which Designed exclusively for use with Cam-R~ote.and
crane head will pa whiJ upporting a Panafle camera: other rernote-control de ices. The boom length 15 adJust-
I ' 7 W' wide 2' 3" high. Minimum height of optical axi of able and requires no support cables.
PanafJe camera abo e under-side of platform: 7 Y4". Boom lengths:
Th Louma Crane command console con ists f an Short boom: 10'
electronicall -operated rem te camera pan and tilt tern Medium boom: 18' 6"
op rated b two handl actlya if it were a regular Long boom: 22' 6"
geared camera head Like a Panahead, Sarncine M~y. or
Worrall. The command cent r incorporates a televi JOn Nettman Cam-Remote by Matthews
monit r connected to th TV vi wfinder system of the cam-
era. A econd closed-circuit TV camera is used to relay lens A remotely controlled head for film and television
calibration information to the focus assistant, who is able production cameras. Th head is precisely controlled over
to remotely control the focu ,aperture and zoom (if fitted) a continuous 360° range in both pan and tilt. All lens func-
functi n of the lens. tions are controlled via powerful and accurate motor . The
system can be used on camera cars, lighting grids by
The Crane by Matthews Matthews, the MC88 Crane or any other production cranes.
U er friendly controls emplOying "Worrall-type" hand
Portable foldin<> cran tern. Can be mounted on wheels or joystick system are provided for the operator.
thr types of wh~: pneumatic, hard, or flotation. (Spe- The head is normally controlled via cables but may be con-
cial track i a ailable.) trolled via a serial Link y tern.

247
Chapman-Super Nova Mobile Crane Boom Length fully extended: 30' 11
Location and stage crane. Max Length Boom & Chassis: 37' 4"
Width: 7' 7" (232 em) Tread: 6'4"
Length: 20' (589 em) Wheel Base: 13' 10"
Length with battery pack: 21' 6" Maximum Speed (batteries): 12' per sec
Minimum Height 9' 3" (282 em) Minimum Turn Radi us: 23'3"
Lens Height (without risers): 27' (823 em) Maximum Lifting Capacity: 1,500 Ibs.
Drop Down: 8' (244 em) Mercury Balancing.
Maximum Reach: 173" (526 em) Automatic leveling system, Patented Feathering valves.
Maximum with U ' extension: 29' 3" (884 em) Six-wheel drive, six-wheel steering.
Traveling Weight: 28,500 lbs.
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 23' (701 em) Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile Crane
(with h draulic riser): 27 (823 em) Location and stage crane.
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 2' 7 ' Max. Lens Height: 19' 5"
Boom Length fully extended: 30'11" Maximum Reach Beyond Cha is: 18' 9"
ax Length Boom & chassis: 37' 4" Vert. Travel of Boom abo e grnd.: 15' 5"
Tread: 6' 4" Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: lOS'
Wheel Ba : 13'10" Chassis Width: 77.5"
Maximum Speed (batteries): 12' per sec Tread: 6' 4"
Minimum Turn Radius: 23' 3" Wheel Base: 10' 6.5"
Maximum lifting capacity: 1,750 lbs. 860 DC Ampere hours a ailable.
Mercury Balancing Automatic leveling system. Mercury Balancing.
Pat nted Feathering valves. Patented Feathering valves.
860 DC Ampere hours available. Maximum lifting capacity: 1,700 lb .
Two 72-volt ysterns used in series or paralleled, total Chassis Length: 15' 11"
144 volts. Minimum Chassis Height: 8' 4"
Six wh el drive, six wheel steering. Traveling Weight: 19,500 Ibs.
Maximum Speed (batteries): 12' per sec
Chapman-Titan II Mobile Crane Minimum Turn Radius: 21' 2"
Location and stage crane. Four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering.
Width: 7' 7" (232 cm)
Length: 20' (589 em) Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane
Length with spare tire: 21' 5" Lens Height: 16' 2"
Minimum Height: 9' 3" (282 em) Maximum Reach: 14'6"
Lens Height (without risers): 27 (823 em) Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 12'2"
Drop Down: 8' (244 em) Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 3' 0"
Maximum Reach: 173" (526 em) Chassis Width: 4' 0"
Maximum with 12' extension: 29' 3" (884 em) Chassis Length: 7' 10"
Traveling Weight: 26,000 Ibs. Minimum Chassis Height: 5'8"
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 23' (701 em) Maximum length boom + chas i : 19' 4"
(with hydraulic riser): 27 (823 em) Crane operating weight: 7,2001bs.
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 3' 7" Tread: 44"

249
 Wheel Base: 5' 7" Max. horizontal readl (w / extension): 38"
Maximum Speed: 11.2' per c Chassis length: 64"
Minimum turn racUus: 7' 9" Chassis width: 38.75"
Maximum lifting capacity: 1,500 Ibs. Minimum Cha i height 41"
Weight 1,450 Ib .
Chapman-Electra I Stage Crane Crab or Conventional steering.
Lens height 11' Electric drive, full 24 hours of use with each charge.
Minimum height ground Dual rocker y tern, three point suspension.
Reach: 7'
Max. reach (with 3' ext n ion): 10' Elemack Cricket Dolly
Cha is width: 41" Convertible three or four wheel dolly with center hy-
Cha i length: 81" drauJic pedestal.
Minimum chas is height: 4' 10" Ba ic Unit (Collap ed ize): 25W' x 25W' x 25W
Weight: 3,000 Ib . Lens height: 5' 11"
Maximum lifting capacity: 1,5001b . Low lens height: 3' 11"
Minimum turning racUu : 7' 3" Lifting capacity: 260lb .
*Equipped with soLid wh eL only. Width (wheels spread: 27 'l'16"
Minimum Tracking Width: 17"
Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage Crane Weight: 300 Ibs.
Lens height: 14' Crab or Conventional steering.
Maximum reach: 14' 6" Accessories: Electro hydrauJic Lift drive.
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 10' Several configurations of mini cranes.
ert. Tra eI of Boom below grnd.: 2' Seats and brackets; running boards.
Chas is width: 44" Curved and straight track ections in two gauges.
Cha is length: 7' 3" ArticuJated boge wheels for track use.
Minimum cha i height 5' 3.5"
aximum length boom & chassis: 16' 9" J. L. Fisher Crab Dolly
Crane operating weight: 5,600 lbs. Four-wheel dolly.
Tread: 40"
Wheel base: 5' Chassis wid th: 30"
Maximum speed: 9' 9.6" per sec. Olassis length: 67"
Minimum turn racUus: 6' 3" Weight: 446 Ib .
Maximum Lifting capacity: 1,500 lbs. Max. Height: 61 "
Max. Height (w f low level head): 50"
Min . Height: 14"
Dollies Min. Height (for storing or shipping): 20"
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly Min. Height (with low level head): 3"
For indoor or outdo rue. For television or motion Elevation: AC, DC, or manual.
picture productions. Camera mount ahead of wheeJs.
Full crab-brake in rear wheels.
Lens height (w/ 0 added risers): 9' Four or two wheel lection for crab or steering hots.
Low lens height (with e tension): 22" Solid or pneumatic tir .
Lifting capacity: 900 lbs.

251
FGV Panther Camera Stabilizing Systems
Column drive may be operated manually or its ascent
and descent phases may be stored and recalled using built- by John Jurgens
in computer memory. Cinema Products Corporation
Minimum size for transport
Length: 29" (73.6 em) Modem camera stabilizing systems enable a camera
Width: 26.8" (68 em) operator to move about freely and make dolly-smooth
Height 28" (71 em) hand-held shots without the restrictions or the resultant
Total weight for transport: 260 lbs. (118 kg) image unsteadiness encountered with prior methods.
Maximum tracking width: 24.4" (62 em) These systems transfer the weight of the camera unit to the
Minimum tracking clearance: 14" (36 em) operator's body via a support structure and weight distri-
Minimum Battery performance per butionsuit. This arrangement frees the camera from body-
charge, column moves: 200 motion influences. It allows the camera to be moved by the
Max. load llSing column drive: 5511bs. (250 kg) operator through an area generally defined by the range
Max. w / column retracted: 1,763.7Ibs (800 kg) through which his arm can move.
Input voltage tolerance: 18-28 V Camera smoothness is controlled by the "hand-eye-
Maximum power consumption: 24 A brain" human servo system tl1at we use to carry a glass of
Battery unit specifications: 24 V 9.5 Ah water ar?und a room or up and down stairs. Viewing is
Charge cycle standard charger: 10 how's accomplished through the use of a video monitor system
~at displays an actual through-the-Iens image, the same
Charge cycle charge/ballast unit: 5 hours
l~ag~ one would see when looking through a reflex
Max. lens height (Arri 35 BL
on Sachtler Studio Head): 74.8" (190 em) vlew~der. The advantage of these camera stabilizing sys-
Min. lens height (35 BL on Sachtler tems 15 that the camera now moves as if it were an exten-
Studio Head+adapter): 17.7" (45em) sion of the operator's own body, controlled by his internal
Column range: 27.6" (70 em) servo system, which constantly adjusts and corrects for
Max. lens height w /Super-Jib (35 BL body motions whether walking or running. The camera
on Sachtler+5Ocm Bazooka): 118" (300 em) ~oves an~ glides freely in all directions - panning, tilt-
Max. lens height w /Lightweight-Jib mg, boommg - and all movements are integrated into a
(35BL on Sachtler Studio Head): 106" (270 em) single fluid motion which makes the camera seem as if it
Kombi-Wheels for track or floor use. were suspended in mid-air and being directed to move at
Program stores LIp to 5 drive sequences. will. These camera stabilizing systems turn any vehicle into
Integrated battery maintains program memory. an instant camera platform.
Continuously variable speeds. As with remotely controlled camera systems, servo
Modular quick-change circuit cards. controls may be used for control of focus, iris and zoom on
the camera lens.

Cinema Products Steadicam

(Universal Model III)
The Steadicam system consists of a stabilizing support
arm which attaches at one end to the camera operator's vest
and at tl1e other end to a floating camera mounting assem-
bly which can accept either a 16mm, 35mm or video cam-
era. The comfortable, adjustable, padded, close-fitting cam-
era operator's vest is an effective and sophisticated weight
252 253
distribution system. It transfers and distributes the weight
of the Steadicam ystem (including camera and lens) across
the operator's houlders, back and hips. The arm mOWlt-
ing plate may be quickly reversed to mOWlt the stabilizer
arm on the right or left ide of the front plate.
The stabilizer support arm is an articulated support
system which parallels the operator's arm in any position,
and almost completely cOWlteracts the weight of the cam-
era y tems with a carefully calibrated spring force. The
double-jointed arm maximizes maneuverability with an
articulated elbow hinge, which frees the arm to move 380
degrees horizontaJly from the elbow. One end of the arm
attaches to either ide of the vest front plate, allowing the
operator to change for left- or right-handed operation. A
free-floating gimbal connects the stabilizer support arm to
the camera mOWlting a sernbly.
The camera mounting assembly consists of a central
support p t, aroWld which the individual components are
free to rotate as needed. One end of the post supports the
camera mounting platform, while the other end terminates
in the electronics module. The film or video camera can
rotate 180 degrees to left or right on its platform. The video
monitor is attached to a pivoting bracket which may al 0
slide up, down or aroWld the post. There are scale mark-
ings on eacll of the components so that adjustments for
various mod of hooting may be documented and re-
peated. The video viewfinder monitor features a kinescope
tube of high brilliance with multiple layer coatings to elimi-
nate reflection and permit viewing in swllight. An elec-
tronic level indicator is visible on the CRT viewing screen
in the bottom of the picture area. Electronically generated
frame line can b adjusted to accommodate any aspect
ratio. Positions of the components may be reversed to per-
mit "I w mode" configuration. The Steadicam unit is in-
ternally wired to accept wireless or cable-controlled remote
servo systems for lens control. A quick-release mechanism
permits th op rator to divest himself of the entire
Steadicam wut in emergency. A 12V/3.5A NiCad battery
pack mounts on the electronics module to supply the
viewfinder system and film or video camera.
Panavision Panaglide
The Panavision Panaglide system is an integrated sta-
bilizer system incorporating specially lightened cameras:
3Smm Panafle for ync sound, 3Smm Pan-Arri for non-
254
sound, 6Smm Hand-held Refle x and 16mm Pana flex
Elaine; a Panacam model supports a video camera.
The support consists of a reinforced padded vest to
which an adjustable articulated suspension arm is pivoted.
The arm uses either a pneumatic/spring or a spring/cable
shock-Cibsorbing system. A vertical telescoping staff at-
tached to the suspension arm carries a camera platform on
one end and an electronics/battery unit on the other. The
unit can be inverted, with the camera mounted either at top
or bottom of the staff. All swing joints and spring tensions
are adjustable.
The viewfinder uses video reflexed from the camera
lens, a 3W' high brightness monitor, flexibly positioned for
convenience, and superimposed frame lines. Image can be
electronically deanamorphosed or can be reverse-scanned
for over-the-shoulder shooting.
The Panaglide also features remote focus and iris con-
trols; illuminated level indicator; 24V battery; crystal sync
or variable camera speeds; digital fp and footage counter;
and a quick-release vest for safety of operator.
Aerial Mounts
Continental Camera (Door, Belly and Outside
mounts)
Door mounts for video/16mm/3Smm are Master &
Magnum moWlts (cameras up to 30 lbs) and the Magnum
Elite (cameras up to 100 lbs). Belly mOWlt can accommo-
date cameras up to 40 Ibs; 1800 field-of-view, tilts up 100,
down 90 0 . Can be mounted with camera looking fore or aft,
and will accommodate zoom lenses, though useful only at
wide-angle portion of lens. Huffy mount is a belly mount
for cameras up to 100 lbs; will allow 1600 field-of-view. Both
belly mOWlts attach to skid tubes of Bell206/206L helicop-
ters, fitted with standard or high skids. Outside mOWlt at-
taclles to Hughes 500 C or D model helicopters; must be
flown with specially qualified pilot. 337 FAA inspection
required for belly moWlts, STC approvals for door moWlts.
Also unique body stabilizer, remote head a nd periscope
lens.
Gyrosphere (Gyro-Stabilized)
Two Gyrosphere systems were built in the mid-80's
using earlier Wescarns as their starting point; the extensive
255
r
upgrade and red sign work represented many "firsts":
Vertical refer nce gyros to automate ability to hold level
horizon; integra tion of the Speed Aperture Computer with
an aerial y tern; improved stabilization and camera steer-
ing enabled faster and more accurate pans/ tilts with less
lag; improved ergonomics with hand-held joysticks; prime
lens capability. Mixed analog and digital electronics. Ver-
tical slit curved plexigla window.
Camera: Modified MitcheU Mk 2 (3-36 fps) with
underslung XR-35 magazine. Also available with Elllpirejlex
VistaVision camera from ILM (2-48 fps) or Vistacam from
BCS (2-48 fp ).
Spacecam (Gyro-Stabilized)
Unique gyro-s tem using heavier gyro wheels spin-
ning at greater RPMs. Patented powered main cardin-joint
allow more responsive and faster pans/tilts. Digital elec-
tronics allow many abilities (i.e., dutching in sync with
helicopter turns). The lens looks through a windowless
port. Unique brackets for modified Hughes 500 helicopter
includes nose po ition as well as sides; unique nose and tail
position brackets for JetRanger helicopters.
Cam ra: custom built light-weight body and magazine
utilizing Mitch II C movement (0-36 fps), as well as modi-
fied Mitchell Mk 2 (0-60 fps); VistaVision (0-90 fps) and
Showscan (0-72 fp ). AU cameras incorporate patented
SpaceCam fiberoptic video assist system with superior low-
light capability.
Tyler Camera (Door and Nose mounts)
Middle-Mount II for video/16mm/35mm; Major-
Mount for Arri 35-3, Arri BL or Mitchell Mk 2 (with spe-
cial horizontal magazine adap ter), as well as larger formats
up to Imax. Tilting nose mount (35mm/16mm/video) can
be used with prime lenses for Arri 35-3 as wide as 9.8mm.
Til ts from up to include rotor blades to upside-down / rear-
ward; also can be mounted with camera looking aft. Do s
not accommodat zoom in 35mm, but allows zoom (if lim-
ited to wide end of lens) for video/16nuncameras. Attaclles
to no e of B U206/206L helicopters fitted with standard or
high skid; can be fit to A-Stars/Twin-Stars if aircraft owner
has special adapter brackets installed. Available large for-
mat tilting no -mount for cameras up to Imax; same tilt
range a standard nose mount; designed to attach to skid
tubes of Bell206/206L helicopters, fitted with standard or
high skids. FAA SIC approvals for all mounts. Also unique
crane-mount, gyro-stabilized boat mount and jib arm. Ex-
terior gyro-stabilized mount allows fast pan/ tilt rates, fast
lens changes; uses Arri 3 with custom 1000' top-loaded
magazine allowing low lens position for on-the-ground
applications. Tilt range to inverted 90 degrees. Color video
tap as well as bore-sighted video camera for low-light view-
ing. The lens looks through a windowless port. Ability to
lock off camera to mimic "banking horizon look" of nose
mount.
Wescam (Gyro-Stabilized)
The original (early 1960's) gyro- tabilized camera
mount. Current generation features all digital electronics
with unique abilities and may be remotely operated at the
end of a 500' cable or by radio link. The lens looks through
an optically flat anti-reflection coated gla window which
tracks with the lens during pans/tilts. This patented win-
dow system minimizes internal reflections from back or
side light; also permits use of polarizing filter, not possible
with curved plexiglass, which creates a rainbow of inter-
ference lines. FAA src approvals for all mounts. 120 Video
units worldwide on Goodyear blimp, etc. Unique mount-
ing brackets for Super Puma, MBB-l05, 206L and Huey
helicopters, as well as boats. Also specialized track for on-
the-ground moves up to 26 mph using radio link control.
Camera: Modified Mitchell Mk 2 (1-60 fps) with
underslung Arri BL magazine . Also available with
EmpireJIex VistaVision camera from ILM (2 - 48 fps) .
 Preparation of Motion Picture
Camera Equipment
Marty '6llstein,
Michael Hofstein & Tom 'Frisby' Fraser
All motion-picture camera equipment must be peri-
odically inspected and maintained to insure proper perfor-
mance in production. Camera rental facilities employ
skilled tedmicians to service and repair equipment after
each use. Once the equipment leaves the rental house, how-
ever, the camera crew must service that equipment
throughout the production. The camera assistant must be
prepared with the right knowledge, skills, tools, and refer-
ence materials to properly maintain all equipment in the
camera package.
The following is a list of procedures for the prepara-
tion of camera equipment needed to photograph a motion
pictur . It is the responsibili ty of the camera a sistant to
assure that all equipment and supplies needed and re-
quested by the director of photograph y are present, in
working order, at the start of production.
Inventory
1) Basic equipment, from the ground up: Spreader, hi-
hat, tripods, tripod head, camera body, batteries, all nec-
essary cables, magazines (small & large), lenses and hous-
ings, zoom motor and control, follow-focus unit, matte box,
filters and holders, changing bag.
2) Additional acces ories often requested by the direc-
tor of photography: Adapter plates (quick-release, dove-
tail/ balance, riser, tilt); speed control (for HMllights, TV
monitors, or other requirements); set of hard mattes, eye-
brow, French flag; hand-held accessories (matte box, fol-
low -foc us, shoulder pad, viewfinder, magazines);
viewfinder extender, leveler, heater; bameys, rain shields;
obie light, 'assistant' light; videotap, monitor, recorder.
3) Supplies to be purchased by the production com-
pany: Raw stock, camera reports, film cores, empty film
cans, black labpack bags, labels, cloth camera tape, paper
tape, lens tissue, lens cleaning solvent, cleaning swabs, or-
aI}gewood sticks, slate, spare camera fuses, rags, air cans,
felt markers, grease pencils, pens and pencils, chamois,
chalk, disposable batteries.
Invoice Check
Examine the rental invoice or work order, and confirm
that all equipment ordered by the director of photography
is included. Make sure that all upport accessories and sup-
plies needed by the assistants to properly perform their
tasks are also included. When the equipment is first re-
ceived, use the rental invoice to check that all equipment
and supplies that have been ordered and billed for have
indeed been delivered. Confirm that the serial numbers
listed on the invoice matcll those engraved on the equip-
ment.
Equipment Checkout
Set up and test acll piece of equipment to determine
whether it is in working order. Label each case with cloth
tape and marker. When a case is not being used, keep at
least one latch locked to prevent an accident. Start from the
ground up and build the camera system. Thoroughly clleck
the entire package for completeness, compatibility, and
proper functioning. The equipment should be clean and
properly lubricated. Immediately return any piece of equip-
ment that does not perform to your satisfaction.
The follOWing li t suggests standards by which to
judge each piece of equipment. They are to be used in con-
junction with the appropriate camera operation manual.
Some of the proced ures described, such as testing the
flange focal depth or magazine clutch and brake tension,
require specialized test equipment. If the test equipment is
not available, or .if you encounter any other questions or
problems, speak to the camera teclmician who pr pared the
package at the rental house. It is likely that he has per-
formed the tests himself and can give you the resul ts.
1) Spreader
a) Runners slide smoothly and lock in all positions.
b) End receptacles accommodate the tripod points and
spurs, and hold them securely.
2) Tripods
a) Each leg extends smooth!y and locks in all positions.
259
 b) Top casting accommodates the base of the tripod
head (flat Mitchell, ball, or other).
c) Hinge bolts that attach each leg to the top casting are
adjusted to proper tension: each leg swings easily
away from top casting and remains at selected angle.
d) Wooden tripods (baby, sawed-off, standard): Legs
are solid and have no splits or breaks.
e) Metal or fiber tripods (baby, standard, 'two-stage'):
Legs are straight and have no burrs or dents.
3) Tripod Head
a) Base (Mitchell, ball, or other) fits and locks into tri-
pod topcasting.
b) Ball base (only) adjusts smoothly and locks securely
in any position.
c) Camera lockdown screw fits into camera body, dove-
tail base with balance plate, riser, or tilt plate;
OR
d) Top plate of head includes a quick-release (touch-
and-go) base, which accommodates a quick-release
plate that bolts to camera body or any of the adapter
plates.
e) Eyepiece leveler bracket and frontbox adapter on the
head accommoda te the leveler rod and frontbox be-
ing used.
f) Friction or fluid Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers lock securely in all positions.
3. Both drag knobs easily adjust the tension of move-
ment from free movement to the tension required
by the operator.
g) Gear Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers engage properly (gears may
move under stress).
3. Gears shift smoothly between low and high
speeds.
4) Camera Body
a) Accommodates and locks securely to tripod head,
balance plate, riser, tilt plate and shoulder pod with
camera lockdown screw.
b) All rollers move freely.
260
c) Camera interior is clean - no emulsion buildup or
film chips.
d) Camera oil and grease has been applied to lubrica-
tion points as recommended by camera manufac-
turer. Clean off any excess.
e) All fuses are intact and properly seated. Carry spare
fuses.
£) Movement of the shutter, pull-down claw, and reg-
istration pins is synchronized. Check by carefully
scribing a frame in the gate, then inching the motor
back and forth manually. The film should remain
stationary as long as the shutter stays open.
r g) Movement of shutter and mirror is syncluonized.
(Check o nly on certain cameras, including
Panavision.)
h) The "glow" that illuminates the ground glass is syn-
chronized with the shutter - the light turns off be-
fore the shutter opens the gate. (Check only on cer-
tain cameras, incl uding Arriflex.)
i) Camera speed holds steady at all speeds required for
the production. Thoroughly test all speed control ac-
cessories being used in camera package.
D Pitch and loop adjustments operate properly (certain
cameras).
r
5) Aperture
r a) Film gate has the correct aspect ratio.
b) Gate is clean and properly seated. To confirm this:
1. Remove the gate and pressure pad.
2. Clean both with a chamois, and if necessary, a
proper solvent.
3. Clean channels and holes with an orangewood
stick.
c) Flange focal depth is set to manufacturer's specifica-
tions. Confirm by measurement with depth gauge.
d) Plastic gels have been removed from the gel holders.
6) Batteries and Cables
a) All batteries and cables are compatible - male pairs
with female, the number of pins in connectors match.
b) Batteries hold charge and cables conduct properly.
Check with voltmeter.
c) Camera motor runs film steady at desired speed
while under the load of all other current drawing ac-
261
 cessories required for the production. The e may in-
clude a zoom motor, a sistant light, video tap, eye-
piece heater, and viewfinder "glow." Check with
each battery.
7) Lamps
Lamps that require bulb may include an out-of-sync
monitor lamp, running lamp, start-marking lamp
(older cameras), and others. All lamps must light at the
proper time. Replace all defective bulbs.
8) Variable Shutter
Mechanism operate through the full range of open-
ing . Set hutter at opening elected by the dir ctor of
photography.
9) Viewfinder
a) Ground glass is prop rl y sea ted. Ground glass depth
is within manufactur r's pecifjcations. Check with
portable collimator.
b) The image is clear and dean. U necessary, remove
ground glass and carefully clean with proper solvent
and lint-free lens tissue.
c) Ground glass i marked for the aspect ratio re-
quested by the director of photography.
d) E epiece focuses easil to the eye of the operator (ad-
just diopter until the grains of the ground glass ap-
pear sharp).
) Viewfinder extender fits properly between camera
body and eyepiece. Magnifier and ND filter operate
properly.
f) Viewfinder extender I veUng rod attaches ecurely
to extender and to bracket on tripod head. Rod ex-
t nds smoothly and I cks in all positions.
g) Viewfinder illumination, or "glow", is syndl.ronized
with the hutter.
10) Lenses
a) Each lens and lens housing is compatible with - and
seats securely in - the mount in the camera body.
b) Front and rear elements are clear and clean, free of
large chip and scratch , or any fingerprints or dirt.
Blow off loose material with a blower bulb, clean off
262
grease with lint-free lens tissue and proper lens clean-
ingsolvenl
c) Iris leaves are flat and fall properly in place as they
are closed from the full open position.
d) Follow-focus assembly mounts properly. Focus gears
thread properly on the lenses.
e) Lens focus distance markings are accurate. (See Lens
Focus Calibration.)
11) Zoom Lens
a) Zoom mechanis m is aligned properly and tracks
smoothly.
b) The cross-hairs on the ground glass remain centered
on a point throughout the zoom.
c) Lens focus distance markings are accurate at aU fo-
cal lengths. (See Lens Focus Calibration.)
12) Zoom motor
a) Motor mounts securely and threads properly on the
lens.
b) Zoom control unit operates motor smoothly at all
speeds.
c) All cables connecting the camera, zoom control and
zoom motor conduct properly when checked with a
voltmeter.
13) Lens Housing
Distance and f- top strips fit properly and match the
markings on the lens.
14) Filters
a) Both surfaces of each filter are clear, clean, and free
of major flaws.
b) Filters are the proper size:
1. Filters cover entire image area of each lens being
used.
2. Filters fit properly into filter holders - on lens,
lens housing, matte box, filter tray, or separate
holder.
c) Filter mounting accessories accommodate all lenses
used, and mount the number of filters on each lens
required by director of photography.
d) Rotating mount for polarizing filter turns moothly
and locks in any position.
263
•
e) Sliding mow'll for grad uated filters rnovessmoothly
and locks in any position.
f) Prepare labels fo r each filter (tape or velcro) for dis-
play on the sid e of the maUe box.
15) Matte Box
a) Mounts secu rely to came ra bod y and extends
smoothly along the supporting rods.
b) 0 light passes between the maUe box and the lens.
If necessary, acquire additional rings, filter trays or
rubber 'doughnuts' to block light leaks.
16) Magazine
a) Fits snugly into the camera body.
• chart should fill the frame as much as possible.
b) Magazine doors fit and lock securely.
c) On co-axial magazines, label each "Feed" and "Take-
up" d oor wi th tape.
d) Throat, film channels, and interior are clean, clear of
dust or film chips.
e) Loop adjustment operates properly (certain ca m-
eras).
f) Magazine gear timing is properly adjusted - film
runs smoothly and quietly through the magazine.
g) Clutch tension and friction brake tension have been
measured with the proper tools and are correct.
17) Video Assist: video camera, monitor
and recorder (optional)
a) Video camera (or tap) mounts securely on the cam-
era body.
b) All ca bles a re compatible and operate the tap, moni-
tor and recorder.
c) The iris and foc us con trols adjust sm oothly and pro-
duce an adeq uate image on the monitor.
d) The image can be centered on the m onitor so that the
entire film frame is visible and level.
Lens Focus Calibration
(see "Photographic Testing and Evaluation")
1) Prime Lenses
a) 400101 o r wider: set camera a t 3 feet (yom Focus
Chart. Focus lens visually, compare wi th lens dis-
264
tance markings. For more critical testing, shoot film
tests of each lens.
b) Longer than 4Omm: set camera at 7 feet.from Foc~
Chart. Focus lens visually, compare With lens diS-
tance markings.
c) J'Jllenses - focus on distant object to test sharpness
atlllfinity. .
2) Zoom Lenses: Use calibration procedure descnbed fo r
Prime Lenses, and repeat for several focal lengths - at
3 feet for the wide end, 7 feet for the long end, and a
distant object to test infinity for both ends.
3) Note: Other Iens-to-chart distances may be used, as long
as the selected distance is marked on the lens barrel. The
4) When the eye focus differs from the scale focus:
a) Consistent from lens to lens
1. Check ground glass seating and depth measure-
ment.
2. Check lens mount.
3. Check measurement technique and tape measure
for accuracy.
b) Single discrepancy
1. Return lens for collimation.
2. If needed immediately, encircle lens barrel with
chart tape and mark the correct distances.
Scratch Test
Run a scra tch test for each magazine to determine if
the re are any obstructions in the came ra o r magazine
mechanism that might d amage the fUm. Load a short end
of virgin raw stock in the magazine and thread it through
the camera. Tum on the ca mera motor and run the film
throug h for several seconds. Turn off the motor. Rem~ve
the film from the take-up compartm ent o f th e ma gazme
withollt unthreading the film from the ca mera. Examine the
film w ith a bri g ht li g ht and mag ni fy ing g lass. If a n y
sc ratches or oil spots appear on the emu lsion or base, mark
the film, still threaded in the cam era bod y, wi th a fe lt pen
at the following points:
a) where it exits the magazine feed rollers;
b) just before it enters the gate;
c) just after it exits the gate;
d) where it en ters the magazine take-up roU~. .
Then carefully unthread the fi.l m and examme It to
determine where the damage originates. Once the problem
265
area h~s be n .identified, ch ck that area for dust, film chips,
emulsIon buildup, or burrs. Remove burrs with emery
paper, and any removable ob tructions with an orange-
wood stick.
. Make periodic scratch tests on magazines and camera
durmg production to avoid damage to the negative.
Steadiness Test
Test teadin fcamera movement by double-expos-
ingimage.
1) Prepare chart: irnple cross of one-inch white tape on
black card.
2) Mark tart frame in film gate with feH pen.
3) Roll 30. ~nd of the chart at 50% exposure.
4) Backwmd film, or rewind film in darkroom, to place
tart fram back in film gate ( 0 as to thread on the
same perforation).
5) Off t chart by th width of the tape, and double-
expo chart.
6) Proc and project to evaluate steadiness.
Daily Preparation for Shooting
1) Clean th aperture. Suggested methods:
a) Pull the aperture plate and clean with proper solvent.
b) Remove th lens and blow air through the lens port
with blow r bulb.
c) Sight through the lens (po ible with a lens 40mrn or
longer).
d) Remove hairs and dust from the gate with an orange-
wood tick.
2) Warm up th camera:
a) Run th camera for several minutes wi thout film.
b) In cold ituations, run the camera for the amount of
time it would take to run one full magazine through
the camera at stand ard speed .
3) Load proper film tock in magazines.
4) Prepar late and camera reports.
Film Tests
(See "Photographic Testing and Evaluation.")
Film te .ts c:re r~quested by the director of photogra-
phy. FoUowmg IS a list of tests that may be useful in prepa-
ration for a production. A standard gray scale and color
266
chip chart are often used for such tests, as well as models
tha t resemble the subjects of the film to be photographed .
1) Lens sharpness and color balance (particularly im-
portant if lenses of different manufacturers are used on the
same production): Test each lens to ensure consistent sharp-
ness and color balance when lenses are changed. Photo-
graph the identical subject with each lens and compare on
a one-light print.
2) Film stock and ernul ion batch: Test each different
film stock and emulsion batch to be used on the produc-
tion for color balance and expo ure latitude.
3) Laboratory Processing: normaJ, forced, flashed. Test
processing at film laboratory seJected by the production.
This is particularly important for determining the degree
of forced processing or f1a hing that i desired.
4) Filters: Test the effects of various filters on chosen
subjects to facilitate a seJection of filters for the production.
5) Lighting:Test the look of new lighting instruments,
color gels, and diffusion material on seJected subjects.
6) Makeup: Test makeup on actors under the lighting
conditions planned for the production.
Tools
A proper set of tools and supplies is essential to the
preparation and maintenance of motion-picture equip-
ment. Although the production company should provide
the expendable suppLies, a camera assistant's personal set
of tooLs should include most of the following items:
blower bulb - large (6")
lens brush - camel's hair or ft sable (1"; use only for
lenses, keep capped)
magazine brush - stiff bri ties (1"-2")
lens tissue - lint free
cotton swabs
lens-cleaning solvent
50' flexible measuring tape
lighter fluid
scissors - straight blade, blunt tip (2")
tweezers forceps - curved dis ecting forceps or hemo-
stat
ground glass puller
ARRI SW2 - 2mm hex (for variable shutter)
magnifying glass
267
 small fla hHght insert slate
orangewood sticks color illy (gray scale and color chip chart)
tape: gray card
cloth (1 ") black, white, and colors electrical adapters:
paper (W') white, colors V-ground plug adapter
chart (YJ6") white - for lens barrel markings screw-in socket adapter
velcro - (1 ") white, male & female WD-40oil
chalk - thick, dustless assistant light
felt marking pens compass
' rite-on / wipe-off' pens for plastic slates depth-of-field charts
powder puffs (to clean rub-off slates) depth-of-field calculator
grease pencil - black and white footage calculator
pens and pencils circle template (for cutting gels)
film cores extra power cables
camera fuses magnetic screwdriver
multim ter variable-width screwdriver
soldering iron wooden wedges (to level camera)
16-gaug solder small mirror (to create a highlight)
solder wick desoldering spool dentist's mirror (aids in cleaning)
folding knife alligator clips
emery paper (600 grip - ferric-oxide coated) graphite lubricant
razor blad (single-edge industrial) 3h" x 16 bolt - short and long
rope - nylon line (%" x 10' long) 2 one-inch C-c1amps
camera oil black automotive weather stripping
camera grease small wooden plank (for mounting camera)
oil syringe and needle (one fine, one wide)
bubble level - small, circular The Camera Assistant
ATG-924 (snot tape)
black cloth - 2' quare The position of camera assistant requires a wide range
set of jeweler' crewdrivers of skills. The assistant must have technical knowledge of
set of hex wrenches (Y.!2" - ¥t6" and metric) the camera, lenses, and a myriad of support equipment. He
combination pliers (6") or she must be physically fit, capable of total concentration,
needlenose pliers (6"), miniature (1") and be able to retain a sense of h umor under stressful con-
crescent wrench (6") ditions.
vice-grip pHer (4") diagonal cu tters (4")
wire stripp r (4")
screwdriver (\1;", ¥t6", W', 51\6")
Phillip scr wdrivers #0, #1, #2
Arri screwdriv r #1, #2, #3

Optional Items
Addi tional tool are often useful- each assistant col-
lects hi or her own personal set. Following is a list of op-
tional items that many have found to be valuable.

268 269
 Putting the Image On Film
The ection on "Expo ure" together with the adjacent
table i intended as a quick-reference conden ation of
material explained in more detail in ''Lighting,'' "Pilter ,"
and el where in the manual.
Exposure
Most e posure meter incorporate some sort of calcu-
lator; some imple, ome sophisticated. An exposure meter
mea ures amOLmts of ligh t, ei U,er incident or reflected . The
calculator helps you decide how to use U,e measurement.
There are ix specific ariables entering the calculation:
Variables: Expressed as:
Film exposu re index El, ASA/ISO
amera Speed FPS (frames per second)
h utter Opening Degrees
Lens Aperture T- top
Fil ter Filter factor
Light Meter reading:
Footcandles
Foot Lamberts
T-Stops
TI'e "1" stop number i defined as being the true "f"
t P number of a lens if it completely free from all reflec-
tion and absorption 10 . The T (transmission) nwnber
r pre nts the f-stop numb r of an open circular hole or of
a perf ct lens having 100% a ·ial transmission. The T-stop
can be considered as U,e" ff ctive" f-stop . rt is from this
conceptthat the m ean s ari e for sta.ndardiza tion of T- top
ca libration. T-stops are calibrated by measuring the light
int nsity electronicall y at th focal plane, whereas f-stops
ar caJclLlated geomeh·icall y. Thus f-stops are based on the
light U,at enters a lens. T- tops a re based on U,e intensity
of U, light that emerge fr m U,e rear of U,e lens and forms
the image.
There is no fi ed ratio, however, between T-stop and
f- t P which applie to all lens . The difference actua lly
r presents light losses within U,e elements of a given lens
du to reflection from the gla -air urface and from ab-
orption wiUlin the gla itself. ConsequenUy, thi factor is
variabl and cannot b incorporated into an expo ure
meter, since the meter must flmction in connection wi th
many cIilierent lenses calibrated in both f-s tops and T-stops.
Many cinematographers do not Lmderstand why lens
and exposure tables are presented in f-stops wh n all pro-
fessional cine lenses are calibrat dinT-stops. The f- tops
are required for all calculations involving object-image re-
lationships, such as depth of field, extreme d se-up work
with extension tubes, etc. Such tables are based on the size
of the "hole" or diameter of the bundle of light rays which
the lens admits to form the image. The diameter of the f-
stop will normally be the same for all len es of similar fo-
cal length set at the same aperture. The T-stop, however, is
an arbitrary number that may result in the same T-stop
setting varying in aperture diameter with cIilier nt len es.
It is recommend d that all professional cine I nses be
calibrated in both T-stops and f-stops, particularly for color
work. T-stop calibration isespecialJy important with zoom
I nses, the highly complex optical design of which neces-
sitates a far greater number of optical elements than is re-
quiredin conventional lenses. A considerable light loss .is
encountered due to the large number of reflective optical
surfaces and absorption 10 e. A zoom lens with a geo-
metrical rating of f/2, for example, w ill transmit consider-
ably less light than a conventional fixed focal length lens
of similar rating with fewer elements.
Exposure tables a r generaIly based on "effective" f-
tops, (which are, in fact, T- top ). Small variations in emul-
sion peed, processing, expo ure readings, etc., tend to can-
cel out. Cinematograph r hould shoot tests with their
particular lenses, meter, ligh t and film to find b t combi-
nations for optimum results.
Other variables, sud, a direction and contrast of the
light, are factors ca.lculated from the experienc of the cin-
ematographer, aided by sud, things as photospheres and
spot readings. Finally, manipulation of all th ab ve, plus
off-normal negative processing to achieve a desired "1 0k,"
is from the mind of the cinematographer.
The laboratory and choice of film are do ely tied to
exposure. It is important to keep exposure within limits
satisfactory both to the elected film and to the printing
range of the laboratory.
The tables will aid exposure calculation for meters
which lack settings for some of the factors or will aid in
calculating constant exposure control when one factor ar-
ies from another.
271
Incident Key LightlT-Stop 200 160 125 100 80 64 50 40 32 25
(Foot candles)
12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100
EI/ASA 2000 1600 1250 1000 800 650 500 400 320 250
T·stop
16 20 25
32 40 50 64 80 100 125
1.4 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 25 32
40 50 64 80 100 125 160
25 32 40
50 64 80 100 125 160 200
1.6 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
1.8 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250
2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320
50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400
2.2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25
2.5 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500
2.8 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650
100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800
3.2 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50
3.6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
4 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290
200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
4.5 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100
5 16 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
5.6 20 25 32 40 50 64 80 100 125 160 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250
6.3 25 32 4050 64 80 100 125 160 200
7.1 32 40 5064 80 100 125 160 200 250 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100
8 40 50 6480 100 125 160 200 250 320 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160
800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500
9 50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400
10 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
11.3 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
12.7 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800
14.2 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
16 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
18 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
20 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 column 10. the right (one ASA step lower) on the incident light table. For
22.6 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 exposure Indexes less than tabulated (which are uncommon at this lime)
find the column which is ten times Ihe desired Index and multiply Ihe Iighl
Most cinematography IS at 24 Irames per second. The table is calcu- by ten. Example: For EI 10. use the column under E1100. For exposure at
lated lor loot candles incident light on a lully lighted subject at 1/50 T stop 2. multiply 50 by 10 and the light level desired will be 500.
second exposur.e (172.8: precisely. but 170 0 to 180 0 varies Irom this by
less Ihan a printer POint lor normally processed color negative). For
photography at 1/60 second (30 lrames per second. 180 0 shutler; or 24
Irames per second. 144 0 shutler). use one·third wider lens stop or one
272 273
T-Stop Compensation for Camera Speed 60 76 96 120 150 192 240 300 384 484
(constant shutter) 225 285 360 450 562 720 900 1125 1440 1815
.9 .8 .7
1 .9 .8 .7
fps 6 7.5 9.5 12 15 19 24 30 38 48
1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
ft/min 22.5 28 36 45 56 71 90 112 142 180 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8 .7
4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9 .8
5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1 .9
5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1
6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4
9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8 1.6
10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2 1.8
11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2 2
12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2 2.8
18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6 3.2
20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4 3.6
23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5 4
25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5 4.5
28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11 10 14.3 12.7 11 10 9 8 7 6.3 5.6 5
32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7 11
36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3 12.7
40 36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16 14.3
45 40 36 32 28 25 23 20 18 16
 Shutter Angle/f.p.s./T-stop change
(for 24 or 30 f.p.s. projection)

f.p.s. 24 22 20 19 18 16 15 14 12 9.5 7.6 6. 4.8(5) 3.8(4) 3 2.4

f.p.s. 30 27 25 24 22 20 19 17 15 12 9.5 7.6 6. 5(4.8) 4(3.8) 3
Exposure change
in T-stops 0 lia % 1 1% 1% 2 211a 2% 3 311a
Maximum
Shutter
235 ° 215° 196° 188° 176° 15]0 147° 13]0 118° 93 ° 74° 59° 47° 3ye 29° 24°
200 183° 16]0 158° 150° 133° 125° 117° 100° 79° 63 ° 50° 40° 32° 25° 20°
180 165° 150° 143° 135° 120° 113° 105° 90° 71 ° 57° 45° 36° 29° 23 ° 18°
170 156° 142° 135° 128° 113° 106° 99° 85° 67° 54° 43° 34° 27° 21 ° 17°
150 138° 125° 119° 113° 100° 94° 88° 75° 59° 48° 38° 30° 24° 19° 15°
140 128° 11]0 111 ° 105° 93° 88° 82° 70° 55 ° 44° 35° 28° 22° 18° 14°
135 124° 113° 107° 101 ° 90° 84° 79° 68° 53° 43° 34° 27° 21 ° 17° 14°

II it is desired to slow the camera without varying the lens Slop but
maintain constant exposure:
If It Is desired to reduce exposure without varying the lens stop:
If It is desired to reduce the exposure time per frame
without reducing exposure:
This lable gives shutler angles in one-third Tstop exposure intervals (bold
columns) as well as for some camera speeds in less Ihan one-third stop
intervals.

Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting

©David L Quaid ASC
Common Using existing fluorescenl lighting unfiltered Filtering fluorescent lighlS to
fluorescent lights match pholo lights
(See 'page 242· Camera flIlers Pholo lamp filters Camera filter: None Camera flIter:
lor comprehensive (Kodak or eqUivalent) (Rasco Cinegel or equivalenl) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: #85
lisling) or reversal) Oaylight film: None
3200K flIm - 5500K film ~ 3200K - 5500K
EI EI EI To match 3200K EI To malch 5500K EI
Cool white CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Fluorfilter Minusgreen
+#81A 2f: 213 + Plusgreen 2fJ +Third blue + Y2Minusgreen 0 0
+ CC05M + Quarter blue
+#858 + 'l4Plusgreen
Cool white deluxe # 85C # 82C Half blue MT54 Sun '12 CTa - Quarter blue
+ CC05M % + CC05M 1'1: + 'l4Plusgreen '!J + Eighth 81ue + '/,Minusgreen '13 + 'l4Minusgreen 0
+ Eighth blue + UV Filter +Quarter blue + Eighth blue
Warm white CC30M CC508 Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen - Half blue
+#81EF '13 + CC15M 121: + Plusgreen 0 + Y2Plusgreen + '/,Minusgreen '!J + Minusgreen 1fJ
+Quarter blue +Sun lie CTa +Sun '14 CTa + Eighth blue
Warm white deluxe CC10M # 808 'l4Plusgreen Sun Y2 CTa '/,Minusgreen Full blue 50 -
+#81 % + CC05G 12/ +Quarter blue '!J + UV Filter 0 + Y2Minusgreen '13
+ UV Filter
 Balancing Daylight Windows on location Interiors
Emulsion Exposure Camera
Balance Index Filler Photographic lights/Filler Practical/Existing Lights/Filters Window Fillers

Balancing Interior to Daylight

3200K Daylight 85 Neg. 3200K/Full Blue 50 or Dichroic Tungsten/Full Blue 50 NO as required
85B Rev. White lIame arc/Y-1 Cool White Fluor/Minus green
HMI. CID/Y· l"
Daylight Daylight None

Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K

3200K 3200K None 3200K INone TungstenlNone CTO or Sun 85
Yellow lIame arc/YF10l Cool White Fluor/ plus NO as required
HMI. CID/Y· 1+MT2" Fluor filler + '12 Minus green
AC dlscharge/

Balancing to Match Existing (Ambient) Interior lighting

Cool White Fluorescent
3200K 3200K CC50R- 3200K Full Blue 50 Cool White Fluor/None Plus green
+ #81A + Third Blue
+ Plus green
+CC05M
+ Quarter blue
·1713 stop +85B
+ 'I. Plus green

Daylight Daylight CC30M White Flame ArcE'US Green Tungsten/same as

·2,/3 stop _ liMI. CID • + Third Blue Photo 3200K plus NO as required

Other AC Discharge Commercial lighting-see pg 242 for filters

Tungsten
See " Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K" above. This would be an unusual situation. Either accept the difference between 3200K
and ambient lighting or drop voltage on 3200K photo lamps and add lieeTa to 5500K lighting. Inefficient electrically.

•HMI and CID may vary. See PO 218 and check with 3C meter.
 The Cinematographer
and the Laboratory
Laboratorie routinely use the film manufacturers'
recomm nd d p ciIications for processing, modifi d to
meet their particular equipment. (TIle entire sy tern - typ
of film , manufactmer ' EI recommendation, laboratory
printing and proc ing range - is calibrated to produce
a plea ing rendition of fully lighted flesh tones lmder nor-
mal projection condi tion .) In addition to producing nor-
mal r ult n the creen, rna t laboratorie can on request
mod.i£y the r n re ults to produce a particular eHect or
look.
Printer Points
TIle laboratory c ntrols print density and color balance
b increasing or decreasing the intensity of each primary
color of light in t p called printer points. Since the de el-
opment of the B & H model C printer most manwactmers
have tandard.ized on a range of 50 light points in 0.025 Log
E incr ments. In addition to the light points each printer
usually aloha 24 trim settings (0.025 Log E) , giving an
available total of 74 lights.
The ideal etting for scene-to-scene timing would be
at m.id-scale (Trim 12 + Tape 25 = 37 lights). In actual prac-
tice th a ailable range is considerably less. Printer lamp
are usually operated w,der their rated voltage. TIlls reduces
the light inten ity in all three colors. For example, lower-
ing the voltage from 120 to 90 volts on a BRN 1200-watt
lamp results in a relative change in printer points equal to
minu 12 R d, 13 Green, 17 Blue. The trims are usually used
to balance the printer for a given print film emulsion. A
typical emulsion might require 16 Red, 13 Green, 10 Blue,
or in t rm of the idea l, p lus 4 Red, plus 1 Green, minus 2
Blue. Oth r factor influen cing the available printer points
are the op rating peed of the printer, and the use of neu-
tral-den ity fi lter in the individual charmels and the main
light bam.
TI,e sum of the e variables explains why a given nega-
tive might be printed Red 28, Green 29, Blue 22 at one labo-
ratory and R d 36, Green 32, Blue 36 at another laboratory
to produce matched prints. It is important to understand
that printer point relate only to how the printer exposes
film. A one-stop .30 Log E change (12 printer points X .025
Log E) is equal to a one-stop exposme in the camera only
if the film in the camera has a gamma of approximately 1.0.
The current negative films, both black & wh ite and color,
have gammas of approximately .65. Therefore, in correlat-
ing camera and printer expo me, one s top equals 2f.I x 12 =
8 printer points per stop.
Exposure Reporting
It has become the normal practice for labora tories to
furnish "one light" ra ther than timed daily rush prints. TIlls
does not mean that all negatives are printed at the same
light points. The laboratory establi he a day exterior, day
interior, night exterior and night interior light for a cinema-
tographer when he / she starts a pictlUe, based on testing
or on the first few days of shooting. Each laboratory estab-
lishes it own method, but basically alI try to keep usable
negative within the 1 to 50 light point scale. Eastman Kodak
proposes the LAD (Laboratory Aim Density) sy tern, which
keeps the printer scale constant by adjusting printer trims
to compensate for proces and stock variables, and places
a "normal" scene atm.id-scale. (Laboratori do not neces-
sarily agree on the numerical val ue of the preferred m.id-
scale light point, but this is not critical as long a you know
whidl system your laboratory uses.) Coni renee with yom
laboratory technician will estabLish method that fit your
style of photography. AIter that, variation in your exposure
will show as variation in the den ity of y m dailies. Bear
in mind that if subject matter or tyle of photography re-
quires a solid black in any area of the print, exposure must
be kept at center of the printer scale or higher.
Negative raw stock from different manufac tLu'ers may
or may not have the same base density, maximum d ensity,
or density /exposure ch aract ri tic ("curve shape"), al-
though these differences are u ually s mall. A rush print
made by the LAD conh'ol method sh w the d ensity and
color ratio at mid-scale on the print r. N ga tive from two
manwactlUers, both exposed correctly, mayor ma y not
look the same at this printer point. If nece ary, an adjust-
ment to the printer point may be made for the difference
in raw s tock and this new light point us d for printing dai-
lies on the subject.
Special Processing
If special processing is requested: a conf~rence with th.e
laboratory r presentative and expenmentatlOn (or expen-
ence) is desirable. If special processing is requested, or the
cinematographer is using high or lo.w exposure for effe: t,
it is desirable to test the effect by gomg through the entir:
release-print technique, including ~e interpositiveldupLi-
cate n gative generations, ~d to vIew the res0t as. nea:ly
as po ible under the anbapated release-prmt vIewmg
conditions. (Don't ignore the fact that most pictures are also
released in one of the television formats.) If the scene to be
photograph d will be used in an optically ~rinted special
effect, it is wi to confer with the appropnate speaal-ef-
fects people.
Release-Printing Procedures
Aft r th picture negative and soundtrack negati~e
have been a mbled in their final form, the laboratory Will
anal ze the pictur negative fo~ scene-to-scene ~,o~or ~d
density variations and make a pnnt known as the first trIal
composite." As many trial prints are. made .as a:e necessary
to re olve all printing data. The final trIal IS al 0 ~ften
known as an "answer print." With the data thus obtamed,
one or more intermediates are printed and from these the
relea e prin are made. Modem film to~ used to n:'ake
the interm diat p itive and intermedia te or d~plicate
negatives are of cellent quality, but they do en~ail ad~ed
printing generations. The appearance of scenes m~olvmg
effects uch a ff-normal film exposure or processmg can
suffer if th Yexc ed the extremes the system can handle.
(See also "T sting and Evaluation.")
Color Reversal Films
Most f the above al 0 applies to color reversal film ;
however, color rever al film are now usually used only
when it is intended to project the original. Exposure lab-
tude is short compared to that of color negative films .
Proper e po ure is ther fore critical in order to keep all
scenes at a usabl density.
282
Black & White Negative
and Reversal Films
The above also applies to black & white reversal films.
Black & white negative films, however, are an exception.
Both their contrast and density can be more strongly af-
fected by developing time than color negati e films. While
there is much more latitude in expo ure with black & white
negative films as compared to color negati e films, both
grain and acutance are affected by expo ure ariation.
De iation from the manufacturer' recommended EI (ex-
po ure index) should be tested and evaluated.
Forced Development of Color Films
With the color films mo t comm nl used today, it is
po sible to compensate for under po ur by extended
development or "pushing." Similar to the principles of tra-
ditional black & white nsitometry, forced development
of these color films increases thcir contra t, grainin and
the fog level.
Therefore, forced development can n er ield the
same image quality possible when film ar expo d and
processed strictly according to the manufacturer' recom-
mendations. In many instances, however, the image qual-
ity obtained with underexpo ure and erdevelopment is
entirely satisfactory, and a cinematograph r may want to
take advantage of this fact when hooting w,d r adver e
light conditions. What "pushing" mean, in Hect, is that
the cinematographer can delib rately und rexpose the film
(sometimes by as much as two stop) and requ st that the
laboratory compensa te in devel pment.
Witl, the introduction of high- p cd co l r nega ti ve
emulsions, there is less ca ll for pushing the moderate speed
films, except for a specia l "look" or w h n underexposure
i unavoidable and high-speed negative i not at hand. It
is possible to push one stop in dev lopment withou t ap-
preciable loss in image quality. Th scenes produced in this
manner can be intercut wi th scenes exposed and processed
normally.
Ifealor negative is pu hed two top in development,
the increase in the graininess and th fog lev I is ubstan-
tial, but the results are acceptabl for scenes in volving
night-for-night photography or available-light photogra-
phy under exceptional circwnstanc .
283
 Extending development beyond two stops does not
appr ciably contribute to the image; rather, it increases the
grain and fog level and should not be attempted even as
an emergency measure. It should be realized that with color
film the sensitometric balance of the three emulsion lay-
ers is only achieved with normal processing and that forc-
ing the development does not accomplish a true compen-
sation for underexposure. Forced development does not
result in a substantial increa e in Exposure Index of the
negati\ e as measured by accepted scientific methods. ev-
ertheless, it cannot be denied that the technique proves to
be of some practical value if it brings the underexposed
negative into an acceptable printing range.
Reversal films, unlike negative, derive their projection
density from the camera exposure. Forced proces ing of
underexposed film can bring up the projection density to
normal. Eastman Ektachrome Films 7240 and 7250 and
Fujicolor RT8427 and 8428 (all tungsten balanced), as well
as Ektachrome 7239 and 7251 (daylight balanced) can be
"pushed" one stop with acceptable results. In emergency
situations they can be pushed up to three stops with some
10 s in quality. The ability to underexpose these films and
till obtain on film a usable image should by no means be
regarded as a suitable substitute for additional lighting
when it can be provided.
If a cinematographer anticipates the need for deliber-
ate underexposure during a production, he or she should,
if possible, shoot careful tests in advance using the same
emulsion to be used for the production and have them pro-
ces ed by the lab that will be processing the production
film . The results can then be analyzed with the help of a
labora tory representative. Needless to say, underexposed
rolls should be clearly marked with instructions a to how
much they should be pu hed when they are sent to the labo-
ratory.
Flashing
Flashing may be de cribed qualitatively a subjecting
the negative film to a weak, controlled uniform fogging
expo ure prior to development either before, during or af-
ter photographing the desired subject. There is no measur-
able difference in the effect iJ the .flashing takes place be-
for or after the principal expo ure. As a result, because of
arious unfa arable factors ( uch as not being able to con-
trol the time interval between the flash exposure and the
time that development will actually take place, and not
knowing the actual conditions ofphotography in advance),
pre-flashing is generally avoided in favor of post-flashing.
Simultaneous fla hing during actual photography by
means of a special device attached to the front of the cam-
era lens is described under ''VariCon.'' A device called a
"Panaflasher" can also be used for simultaneous fla hing on
Panavision cameras. The Panaflasher can be used pre- or
po t-exposure.
Since color negative consists basically of three emul-
ion layers sensitive to red, green, and blue light, the pec-
traIcomposi tion of the ligh t used for flashing can be a neu-
tral equivalent to tung ten light (3200K) or daylight (5500K)
which, depending on the film, would affect all three emul-
sion layers equally. The fundamen tal reasons for using a
neutral flash are to reduce the contrast of the image and to
increase shadow detail. This effect is accomplished because
the flashing exposure affects principally the shadow region
of the negative image.
Another reason for flashing is to adtieve certain cre-
a ti ve effects by using a non-neutral flashjng exposure
which would then alter the normal color rendition of the
developed negative.
Flashing is also u ed ometirnes to reduce contrast of
po itive or reversal films wh .11 uch films are to be used
for special effects duplication purposes, such as projection
backgrounds or aerial image compositing with animation.
VariCon Adjustable Contrast Filter
The Arri VariCon is a compact, variable contrast-con-
trol sy tern which quickly and easily slides into the dual
filter stage closest to the lens of any regular 6.6"X 6.6" matte
box. The VariCon differs from low-contrast filters in that it
provides for a contin uou ly adjustable contrast over the
entire ph otometric range of the film without any loss of
resolution, and without any effect on the highlights. It dif-
fers from standard fla hing (pre- or post-exposure) of the
n gative in the lab or in the film camera magazine in that
it adds a controlled, even amount of light during the expo-
sure, and permits the cinematographer to set the desired
contrast reduction while observing the resuJt in the
viewfinder, in relationship with the actual scene to be pho-
tographed. The VaTiCon al 0 provides for coloring of
285
r
'hadow a reas in the image without affecting the highlights. 12V or 24V batterie . (Cables for 24V batteries are avail-
Thi featurecanbe veryh lpfulinsituation when xtr me
able only through sp cial order.)
con tra t com pres io n would result in extrem color Power consumption: 96 Watts (SA @12V, 4A @24V)
d aturation.
Dimensions:
Th tem con i ts f a light ourc , the VariCon Upper light urce: 9 X 2 X 1.75 inch
CIa Emitter, the 6.6" 6.6" ariCon frame that h Id the
Slide-in emitter eetion: X 6.5 X 0.5 inch
Emitter (with a built-in lo t for an ND filter), a digital meter
Weight:3Ib.
for pred sellino- of contra t ranges, and a dual-level out-
put Power uppl . WiUl th ariCon placed in the 6.6"X
6.6" ta e clo t to the leI ,it will co er virtually all wide-
angle and long focal-length prime lenses, and mo t zooms.
ith the ariCon in po ition a nd witched OFF, it will not
aff ct image quality or r quire f- top compen ati n.

Adjusting the VariCon

VariCon' contra t-rang adju tment is impl : turn
a ing le control knob (located on its left sid ), or turn a
ing le fl exible extension haft that plugs directly into the
Vari n ju t above the ontrol knob, to adju t contra t up
r down. The amOlmt of conh'a t reduction ca n been
through Ule finder, or be mea ured via the digital m ter for
a curacy and repeatabili ty. t the meter for the camera's
f- top, the film stock's e po ure inde ,and Ule r qui red
contra t range in va lue l4 ,Y2, 1,2,3, 4 or 5. ( value of 1 is
equal to 20°/0 f1a rung.) The eff ctive range of ariC nco\,-
r ituationsfromFl..lwithSOO AtoF22withl00 S .
Olanging the colorati n of the ariCon is don with
a 0- I placed in the ariCon' lide-in gel filter holder.
Ii ht nsor built int the ariCon works in conjunction
wiU, the meter to compensate for the light reduction of Ule
el filter. ariCo n ca n al 0 b u ed in conjuncti n \ ith
o th r filter to enhance Uleir effects.
aTE: When usin g th VariCon, exposing th g ray
ca l I late with Ule Val'icon wi tched ON is recomm nded;
it' helpful for Ule lab tim r.
Lens Coverage:
Standard Aspect Rati
Zoom len cs: 1 mm on lip
Prime lens : lOmm, 12mm, 16mm on up
up r 35 peet Rati :
Zoom len : 20mm on up
Prime len : 12mm, and 16mm on up
Power urces:
aricon ha two SO , 12 'BRL' U hio halogen bulb,
pow red b 110 C throu h a 12 C adaptor, o r from
286 287

Photographic Testing and
Evaluation
b Fred Detmers
Ph tographic testing and experimenting aid th cin-
rapher in evaluatin equipment, new film and
pr ing, and techniqu f lighting. This article i in-
t nded a a checkli t and bri f on the techniqu of t ting
and valuation.
Eadl f the fact r in creating a photographic image
relat t several other factor; it i important in eva luation
to var one factor at a tinl ,and conti nuall to compa r ,
wh n po sible, with a known resuJt. In this way, a bank of
information i acquired w hich can be drawn on and ex-
panded .
Before proceeding to photograp hic testing it is n ces-
sal' to stablish the condition Lmder which the te twi ll
be eva luated. It i of no value to photograph a test and then
vi wit Lmder anything l than first-elas conditions. ta n-
dard and recommended practice have been set up by the
MPTE and A 151, and te t film are a ailable fr 01 the
MPTE for evaluation of pr jection conditions. If the e
conditions are not optimum, the value of the test i com-
pr mised. ser of 160101 and upcr hould be particu-
larl alert to thi condition b ause there are 0 man ub-
tandard projector and len in use.
Thr ugh adaptation and fatigue the eye can change its
n iti ity to color, densi ,or ubjective harpn . When
p ible use two projecto and two screens. ake dir ct
c mpari n rather than ubjective evaluations. Lf in doubt,
witch fi lms on the two pr jector and re-eval uate.
om of the te ting r ferred to below may be per-
fo rm d n black & w hjte film even if the subject is to b
color, th reby aving ome of the cost. If the te tim dlani-
ca l rath r than photographic, th nega tive it elf may be
projected f r evaluation in tead of going to a print.
1. Equipment
. teadine check: Particularly when compo ite
photography is contemplated (but valuable in any ca e), a
heck for image teadin . advisable. The ubj t mat-
t r ma be imple; for instance, a black background with a
simple cross made of adh ive tape. Phot~graph 20 or .30
c nds of the cross, cover the lens, backwmd to the begm-
ning uncover the len, offs t the dlart by the wid th of the
tape: and double-expo the chcu:t. Ally LLI1Steadin will
readily show between th offset lines (Do not re-tt:r~~d on
a differe:lt perforation - thi introduces the p Ibihty of
unstead perforations and compromises the cam ra t t.)
After photographin and proces ing this.and befor pro-
jecting, e amine the negati e for perforahon damaue and
scratches.
B. Optical: Lenses h uld have been calibrat d at the
fact r or by the distribut r for e po ure and focu an~ ~he
distributor should hav ch cked the growld gla p ItIon
wi th r ference to the film plane. [f you trust your uppl!er
th r is no need for exten ive t ting. If, h owe er, the eqUl p-
m nt is unfamiliar or it i n e ary to field te t th quip-
ment, foUowing are suggested procedmes:
1. Focus an d ground gla / film plane:
(a) et up a focu / definition chart (obtajnable from
camera equi pment suppliers) with center and comer ~ar­
g ts; et up at a distance from the camera corr ponding
to a sca le-calibra t d di tance, filling the aperture a much
a p ible. Check the e e focus ver u scale focus. Rep at
for each lens. Repeat at a O1jd-distance (15 to 25 feet) ale
calibrati n. With a zoom lens, check at eral zoom t-
tin.
A consistent discrepanc uggests either ground gla.
or index error. A discrepan on one ~ens ugg . ~ err~r m
the tting of the ale ring. (When usmg Panavi I n Wide-
angle lenses, read and foU?" the ~anavision in tructio.ns.)
In ei ther case, photographic or colhmator tests ar r qwred
to confirm the source of error. (If yo u have a r ntal or a
n wlyacquiredcam ra/ len , send it/ them back for cor-
r ction.) .
(b) Set up the d finition chart at a scale dl ta nc clos-
t to filling the fram . Lf the index and/or focus. calc nngs
ar provided with secon?ary index ~narks for adjustments,
u these marks as a gwde; otherWise: ..
On a piece of tap on th index, make fom additIOnal
temporar marks at equal in.tervals ab~ve and below the
inde . pace the marks to indicate 0.001 Ul travel of the lens
for adl inter al ( e "Len Formulas"), and label tho e
away from the film "plu " and those closer t th film
II minus."
r
At a wide-open aperture, using either the temporary
mark or the permanent econdary mark mentioned
abov , photograph a hort take (just enough to get up to
peed) at each index mark: "plu ,"" ," "minus." Develop
and amine with a lOX magnifier. The expo ure hould
be noticeably harper than the plus or minus. If it is not,
repeat the test to confirm.
Check all lenses, and check also at another mid-dis-
tance (say 15 feet), alway at a scale-calibrated mark. If any
len icon istentl " off the mark" or if there is a pattern of
failure between lenses, end the camera/len e back for
recalibration or, in the field, be guided by the focu te t
re ult .
2. Sharpness (See al "Lens Selection."):
Becau sharpness is a ubjective judgment ba ed on
th ompo ite of resolution, acuteness, con trast, flare and
ab rratio~, a fu ll test of each len wo uld encompas pho-
tography m a number of different ituations. A imple com-
pari on may be made betwe n lenses, however, by photo-
graphing a definition chart and a simple scene with each
lens and comparing them with identical expo ures made
with a len of known photographic performance.
(a) The definition chart hould preferably be one made
f r lens testing (available from camera supply distributors)
and hould have targets in the comers as well as in the cen-
ter. E posure hould be made at a wide-open aperture, a
mid-aperture (one at which ou would be most likely to
photograph interiors), and at a very small aperture, each
lighted for normal expo ure. The wide-open expo ure
h uld how up aberration and distortion, particularly in
the corn rs, should they be present. The small aperture
exp me will tell you (in compari on with the " mid-aper-
ture" exposure) if there is lower definition becau e of dif-
frac ti n; a lac k of definition at wide-open or small apertul"es
can affect apparent deptl1 of field as well as intrinsic harp-
n A. Testing new film stocks:
(b).The te .t cene should include a whi te area, a light
area (With detail uch as lace), and a dark area with detail,
a weB a a person or object howing detail in mid-tones.
There hould be a normal expo ure and one each one top
over and underexposed. When printed alike in the mid-
ton and compared, this will how up contrast, and if the
lens ha a tendency to flare, the overexposed scene will be
flatter than the normal and will how flare from the white
290
area into the surrOlmding area. Care hould be taken not
to exceed the printer cal .
(c) Compari on of (b) normal exposure with a like e -
po ur made with a known lens i a subjecti e harpness
t t.
3. Expo ure (T- t p), color hift
Photograph a h rt I n h of film of a o-ray al at the
me T-stop and illumination with each lens. Th n gative
gra ale rna be read with a den itometer, if available, to
det rmine tuuformity. If a print is made of the negati e it
may be projected to e if t11 re i a color hiFt b tween
len . In most instance mall difference in col r can be
corrected in printing and will affect only t11e ru h print. If
yOll ar photograplling n reversal film, yOll may wi h to
u color correcting filt I to balance t11e lenses.
II. Laboratory/Process/Printer Scale/
Emulsion Batch
Generally the e test hould be comparative. We
hould compare for harpness, gra in, contra t, detail in
highlights and shadow a nd off-color highlight or had-
ow . Prints should be made for best appearance in face
and / or mid-tones and comparative prints should be made
to match in these ton gra ale included in th ene
. helpful.
Comparative t hould be made at t11e same T- top.
Where an expo. ure range is made, e po ure h uld be
aried witl1 hutt r and/ r neutral densit filt rs.O ar
fiIt hould be 1I ed to ub titute for neutral den ities 0
t11 same number of filt r are always in place. WhiJ the
cen u ed above for Inc mpari ons can al 0 b u ed in
U1 tests, it is helpful al t include a high-key and a low-
k y cene.
Photograph a rang of expo ures of each c n from
the new film and on a known film, from normal to pi u and
minus 2 lens stop . If fore d prace ing is intend d ( ee
below) add a set at minus 3 top .
291
B. Testing for off-normal processing Varying both without conference between U1e cinematog-
(including push processing and rapher and laboratory technician can only lead to confu-
flashing): sion. If the desired effect can only be achieved by off-nor-
mal printing or negative proces ing, it i advisable to go a
1. Beca u th re are now three variables - exposure, step further and evaluate the re ult after making either a
flash Ie el, and d veloping time - tmless a wide range of duplicate negative or a CR1 to simulate release-print con-
combinations i budgeted, it might be well to separate tests ditions. The result should then be viewed with as Large a
for fla h and proces ing, observe the result, and then con- screen magnification as is anticipated, for the release print
fine tests of combination to levels likely to be useful to the If television use is anticipated the result hould also be
desired look. lwa compare to a normally exposed and viewed under television conditions.
developed ene.
2. Before committing to forced developing, compare
with a properly printed, underexposed, normally devel-
oped take. In ome instances, the only thing forced de el-
oping does i raise the printer points.
3. ake a print of a minus-one-stop exposed, "push
one" developed take at the ame lights as the normally
exposed, normally developed take. Comparison will how
just what i accomplished by "push-one" developing.
4. If the d ired look is obtained but the print is made
below printer point 10 or abo e 40, be cautious because you
have Limited your latitude.

C. Testing a new emulsion batch for

compatibility:
If the new emul ion batch is incompatible, it is more
Likely to be 0 in off-normal densities or processes. Follow
the same general procedure as in testing a new film; the
exposure range need not be as great. If the printer lights
vary 2 or 3 points between scenes photographed the same
on the two batches of emulsion no harm will be done. If
there i a marked difference in shadow or highlight color
when face match, caution is warranted.

III. Visual Effects: Lighting, Filters,

Image Modification
This i a subj ctively judged area in which the cinema-
tographer and laboratory teclmician must work together
cIo ely. Unle ba ed on experience, it is ad visable to start
with a print at center scale. If the visual appearance is then
not correct, the decision can be made whether to vary the
photographic conditions or vary the printing conditions.

293
 Emulsion Testing
by t ven Po ter, ASC
Calibration
1. Th 'ba i ph I ical nahlfe of the film tock (i .e., how
much del it. ther i in th ncgative without an e po ure)
mu tbccalibrarcd. If ouar goingtotestoruseotl1 rfilm
toc~ and / r pr ing techniques the e hould al ' 0 be
cal ibrated at thi time.
Th lab hould proce a hart length of une 'po ed
ncgativc. If th negativ i going to be pushed or pulled r
flashed , th p cial treatments should be done in the p ro-
cribed Wel at thi - time a well. You ca n measure the spe-
cific den iti f the ba densi t plus fog level on a den-
itom t I' for r fer nce. (Thi reference can be used later if
therc is an mul -i n hangc, lab change or just as a simple
check on your tandard emu l ion.)
We know tl1at thi pecific den ity will be used to re-
producc a bla k tonc on the fina l print. If t1u density on
thc nega ti vc is not printed deep enough to reproduce a
desirabl black on the print stock t11ere w ill be no black
tonc in th fu1al print and tile image will be appear to have
been wlder p ed . If thi i tl1e ca e tile images ca n al
develop a grainy appea rance and w ill not dupe well.
At tlu point au have a piece of wlexposed processed
ne ative t1lat r fI ct an y pecial proce sing tedlluque
done t that negativc. You hould al a have noted refer-
ence d nsi ti f that nega ti ve. This lead us to til second
part of the t t.
2. In order to d etermine the pecific amount of light
needed to print your test negative to a de irable black tone,
we must test the print stock and any printing techniques
(£la lUng the print stock, E R, bleach uppression or opti-
cal printing, for example). Thi i done by printing your
piece of W1exposed processed film t k at a succe ion of
printer lights increasing by 2 to 4 points of d nsity (8 printer
points equals 1 stop, 4 points equal \12 t p, etc.). If you are
planning to use any unusual printing techniqu or print
processing techniques, the hould be applied at this point.
Any subsequent printing for th e ri of tests hould
ha e these techniques appli d a well.
A trick that I have often u d to h Ip me judge my
optimum black density i to punch a hole in the negative
with a ingle-hole paper punch (n t in the center of the
frame) before it i printed. This will giv au a reference to
zero density in the frame, which can help determine the
optimal vi ual black tone that you want. Your desired black
tone will never be a black a the p rtion printed through
the hole, but the reference h lp t d termine what den ity
you will want to adueve with our proce ing and print-
ing techniques.
If your lab has trip projectors w luch the use for tim-
ing proposes, this is a very good way to iew these te t .
Two identical prints can be made which can be viewed ide
by side on these projectors, allowing you to tudy th re-
sults and compare different den iti . If n trip projectors
are available,the length of each exposure hould b enough
to allow you time to view it uffici ntly n the screen dur-
ing projection.
Once you have determined which density you would
Like to represent black in yo ur final print, it should be read
on the densitometer and used for latcr reference. You can
also read the densities of each I vel of printer Lights to see
where reciprocity sets in, although thjs i not actually nec-
es ary because this density will probably be d eper tl1an
you will achlally be printing at.
A test for no-density print highlight. can also be done
at this time by printing a piece of paqu I ader at the de-
termined printer Lights and reading th r ulting density.
The difference between your chosen black density and tl1e
re u1ting wlute density will determine the d ynanuc range
of the print stock. In ord r to d t rmine the peed and
working range of your nega ti ve in rela tion to tl1at print
tock, furfuer testing is nece sary.
 You ho uld now have a op timum black density and a
rcferen to the printer lights that it will take at yo ur lab to
resuJt in tha t density w ith you r dlOsen nega tive s tock. Thi
include an LUlU ual proce ing methods and any varia-
tion in printing t clu1ique - tha t you dlOO e to use. Thi
bring u to the third part of the test.
. Thi will b the fir t camera test which will deter-
mine the \V rking p d or e po ure index (El ) that will
allow y u t judge the exp ure nece ar to represent the
valu that ar ph t graphed a normal tones on the final
print when that print i made u ing the recommended
den ity d termined b th fLr t two parts of th tests. You
must determine the am unt of light that it will require to
pI' ~er! . ph t graph a mid-gray tone when the negative
1 pnnted t th benchmark density.
Th re are v ral pain worth mentioning at this tage
about t tina meth d . Everyone has their own method of
mea urin lightvalue .Thereareprobabl a man meth-
od a th re a r p pi taking e. posure reading . If our
meter and meth of reading \ orks for you it i correct.
I pref I' to u a linolta 1° pot meter and take my
neutra l r ading ff of a nicolor Permanent Gra Card. I
~eel that thi illv me a consistent and accurate way of judg-
Ulg n t nl the light falling o n a ubject but the reflectance
of that ubje ta welJ.lalso like to vary the amowlt of light
falling on th ubj t rather then changing the T- top on the
len . Thi giv me a more accura te serie of e po ure
becau e there i no I' liable wa to vary the stop by frac-
tions, due to the variable and tolerance of the lens iris.
Lighting f r the e te ts requires flat, even illumination
over the urfac of the ubject, similar to copy lig ht (light
from two ide f the ubject at a 45° angle from the canl-
era) . Th 01 I' temperatme of the light hould be as dose
to 3200° Kel in po ible except in te t of day lig ht film ,
when 5400° K Ivin hould b u ed.
If yo u flr pla ning to use filtratio n, s uch as diffusion
of orne kind, th filter should be used in all ubsequent
te t , b cau e me of these filter can have some light-
absorption qualitie . Even though this effect will be very
slight, it can aff ct the resuJt of your tests by as much a
two-third of a t p.
Make a eri fexpo ures of an .. x 10" gray card and
a face with n utrfll kin tone at a erie of stops based on
va riation in the manufacturer's recommended exposure
inde . tart th ri a t one stop under the £1 and increase
the exposure by one-third of a top until yo u reach one stop
over the recommended speed.
For in stance, if you we re t ting Koda k' 5296, the rec-
ommended speed is 500. You w uld ta rt yom test a t an
E1 of 1000 and proceed to an EI of 250 in one-third - top in-
crements, resulting in seven diff rent po meso
Remember, don't vary th T-stop. Change the amount
of light to give the proper e po ur at th T- top you are
usin a .
Print the negative at the b nchmark d n ity arrived at
in th second part of the t t, adjustin the printer ratio
(color balance) to reproduce an utral ra . Read th print
density of the gra , in each e pure. proper mid-gra
print density for theater viewing h uld be R/ 1.09 G / 1.06
& B/1.03 ( tatus A filters).
Vie\ the print to deterrnin \·vhich print is dosest to
that recommended den ity. L k car fuIJ at the quality of
the color balance of th kin t n in relati n to the gra
card. If an emulsion cannot I' produce kin tone properl
when the gray card i printed c IT tl ( I' vice versa), this
i a good indication that there ar pI' blerns with either the
emulsion or the lab processe that ha taken plac . If this
is the case, when the skin tone are printed proper! in the
final print there w iIJ alwa b pI' blem ctting the proper
color balance in the hadow .
The print tha t is cho n a th btl' pre entation of
the gray card and skin tone will b c me th mid-point in
thedynamicrangeof om negati . h ckwhichexpo ure
index was used for tl1i test. Thi EJ wi ll b c me your em-
pirica l e muls ion speed . M st fte n [ha e fund that the EI
that is derived w ill be within on -third of a s top of the
manufactLLrer's recommended p ed, unJ some fo rm of
processing modification i u ed ( uch a pu h o r pull pro-
cessing).
4. This is the part of th tc ting proce tllat will dete r-
mine the usable d ynamic ra nge f your nega tive w hen ex-
posed, processed a nd printed u ing th informa tion ga th-
ered in the prev ious te t .
Make a series of expo ure u in a Macbe th Color
Checker color dlart, an 8YiO" gray ard, a mall gray cale
and a face Witll neutral kin tone. Mount til color chart
vertically with ilie gray ca rd in tile middle a nd the cale
vertica lly next to the gra card, all on one piece of ca rd.
MOWlt tllis card on a grip stand and place it over tile head
of the model. This allow y u to fi ll tile frame with tile card
and then tilt down to ee the face. hoot the chart and the The expo ure difference b~tween. fir t h~dow det~il
face each for a minimum of ten seconds (more if you can and last highlight detail and U,etr relabon to mid-gray ~vJ11
afford th film) so that au will ha e enough time to tud determine the empirical d ynamic range of the negabve,
the r ult on the reen. If you are comparing emulsion proc ing and printing combination.
or proce ing technique, repeat these te ts for ead, varia-
tion .
Conclusion
U ing U,e EJ that au deri d from th la t test, start
the serie of exposur at norma l and lmder xpose succ s- H i importan t to rememb r that th e t~s t are not
sively lll1til you r ach five stop underexp d. Do th scientific but empirical. They are mea~'t to tram yo ur ~ye
arne w ith overe po ure. to the d ynamic range of yo ur em ulSion LlJ:der ",:orkmg
condition . The te t hould b a good working reterence.
Fore ampl : In fact I ha ve often taken frame of each exposure and
mOlll1ted them in lide mOlll1ts for vie\ ina on the t if J
First ries Second Series want t knowe actl where to place a specific tone on the
n rmal n rmal scale a that it will be repres nted exactJ a I want in the
1 top under 1 top over final print. To do thi you wi ll ne~d a s.mal.1light box pr p-
1 Y1 tops w,d I' 2 tops over erly color-correct · d and with an 11 IllffilI1ahan of 425 F +/
1 2A stops under 3 slops over
-10%.
2 stops und er 3 Y1 tops over H is most imp rtant to learn to tru t O Uf eye raU,er
2 Y1 tops under 3 2A tops over than rei ing on to many exp ure reading . These t ts
2 2A top under -! top over should give au a better under tand.ing f.tl:e resul of
.., t P under of Y1 tops a er exposing, proce ing and pril:'ting our ongtnal :am ra
tops under 5 top over negative 0 that au can predict acU what U,e tffiag
t ps tll1d r
you make will look like. With thi knowl. ~g au hould
be able to make more can istent dramahc trnages to help
The u e of w, e n incremen t of expo ure is based on tell U,e tory of your motion picture.
experienc . I know that the fir t shadow d tail wiU fa ll
somewh re wi U1.in th range of2 and 3stop lll1derexpo d
and that the last h.ighlight detail will faU b tween 4 and 5
stops over. I also kn w from e perience that th increments
between 1 and 2 comprise ery useful shadow densities to
have a v' ual referenc to.
Print these t t again at the benchmark densitie .
View th \ ark print to mal< ur U, color ratio are cor-
rect. If po ibJe, at thi point an interpositiv ,d upe nega-
ti ve and fi nal print h uld be produced u ing any special
printing technique intended for the final release (such a
ENR or fla hing the in terpositiv ). This w ill allow you to
view th r ults a they would be iewed in the theater. If
thi is n t po ible, enough useful information can b
learned b vi wing th work print.
Wh n ou view the r ults pr jected, either in motion
or on trip projector, you will b gin to ee the effects of
expo ure on different tones and colors. If yo u are compar-
ing differ nt emul ions or proc ing tedmiques, U,e re-
ults should be view d side by ide for prop r comparison.
 16mm FOOTAGE TABLE 16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
24 F.P.S. Sound Speed (1 foot = 40 frames) 25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed
SECONDS MINUTES (1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
<on
c
z: ....
<on
<on
c
z: ....:::IEen ....
en
..... ....
<on
.....
..... :::IE ..... ::>
......... ::> ..... en en
....
<on
....
en
.... ....
........... ....
0 0
z: Q
....
en Q en
..... ....
<on
....
en
....
e.>
....... ...""
c:e
....
e.>
....... ...
c:e
IX
i! ....... z:
i!
z:
.....
.... :::IE
z:
.....
.... :::IE ::> :::IE
.....
::> :::IE
........... ........... ...""
<on <on 0 0 I- I-
....
e.>
<on ....... ...
c:e
IX ....en .......
e.>
...
c:e
IX
z:
i! ...""-
c:e :!:
:::IE
c:e
1 24 31 18 24 1 36 31 1116
2 1 8 32 19 8 2 72 32 1152 1 25 31 19 15 1 37 20 31 1162 20
3 1 32 33 19 32 3 108 33 1188 2 1 10 32 20 2 75 32 1200
4 2 16 34 20 16 4 144 34 1224 3 1 35 33 20 25 3 112 20 33 1237 20
5 3 35 21 5 180 35 1260 4 2 20 34 21 10 4 150 34 1275
6 3 24 36 21 24 6 216 36 1296 5 3 5 35 21 35 5 187 20 35 1312 20
7 4 8 37 22 8 7 252 37 1332 6 3 30 36 22 20 ~ 225 36 1350
8 4 32 38 22 32 8 288 38 1368 7 4 15 37 23 5 7 262 20 37 1387 20
9 5 16 39 23 16 8 5 38 23 30 8 300 38 1425
9 324 39 1404
9 5 25 39 24 15 9 337 20 39 1462 20
10 6 10 40 24 10 360 40 1440
10 6 10 40 25 10 375 40 1500
11 6 24 41 24 24 11 396 41 1476
11 6 35 41 25 25 11 412 20 41 1537 20
12 7 8 42 25 8 12 432 42 1512
12 7 20 42 26 10 12 450 42 1575
13 7 32 43 25 32 13 468 43 1548
13 8 5 43 26 35 13 487 20 43 1612 20
14 8 16 44 26 16 14 504 44 1584 14 8 30 44 27 20 14 525 44 1650
15 9 45 27 15 540 45 1620 15 9 15 45 28 5 15 562 20 45 1687 20
16 9 24 46 27 24 16 576 46 1656 16 10 46 28 30 16 600 46 1725
17 10 8 47 28 8 17 612 47 1692 17 10 25 47 29 15 17 637 20 47 1762 20
18 10 32 48 28 32 18 · 648 48 1728 18 11 10 48 30 18 675 48 1800
19 11 16 49 29 16 19 684 49 1764 19 11 35 49 30 25 19 712 20 49 1837 20
20 12 50 30 20 720 50 1800 20 12 20 50 31 10 20 750 50 1875
21 12 24 51 30 24 21 756 51 1836 21 13 5 51 31 35 21 787 20 51 1912 20
22 13 8 52 31 8 22 792 52 1872 22 13 30 52 32 20 22 825 52 1950
23 13 32 53 31 32 23 828 53 1908 23 14 15 53 33 5 23 862 20 53 1987 20
24 14 16 54 32 16 24 864 54 1944 24 15 54 33 30 24 900 54 2025
25 15 55 33 25 900 55 1980 25 15 25 55 34 15 25 937 20 55 2062 20
26 15 24 56 33 24 26 936 56 2016 26 16 10 56 35 26 975 56 2100
27 16 8 57 34 8 27 972 57 2052 27 16 35 57 35 25 27 1012 20 57 2137 20
28 16 32 58 34 32 28 1008 58 2088 28 17 20 58 36 10 28 1050 58 2175
29 17 16 59 35 16 29 1044 59 2124 29 18 5 59 36 35 29 1087 20 59 2212 20
3Q 18 60 36 30 1080 60 2160 30 18 30 60 37 20 30 1125 60 2250

300 301
 16mm FOOTAGE TABLE 35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed 24 F.P.S. Sound Speed 11 foot = 16 frames)
(1 foot = 40 frames) SECONDS MINUTES
SECONDS MINUTES
en
Cl
z: ...
en
en
Cl
z: ... .......
en
en
.......
en

en
Cl
z:
en
~
en
Cl
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en
~
en
....
~ en
~
en
~
I-
en
~
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e.>
en
.......
... ... ... ... ... ...
"-
:E
...:
cc:
e:>
e.>
en
....... :E
...:
cc:
::::>
z:
~
.......
... ::::>
z:
:E
..........
Cl I- :EO Cl I- :EO =:I I- :EO =:I I- :EO
z: z:
.... ....c .... ....c
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ <: ~ <:
.... .... 1 1 8 31 46
en
~ ~ I: W
en
~ I:
:IE ~ I:
:EO ....
w
....
I:

2
8 1 90 31 2790
3 32 48 2 180 32 2880
1 0 30 3'1 23 9 1 44 38 31 1393 24 3 4 8 33 49 8 3 270 33 2970
tT 2 1 20 }t: 23 39 2 89 36 32 1438 22 4 6 34 51 4 360 34 3060
2 10 24 29 h 3 134 35 ;33 1483 21

Ii
11 ,3 5 7 8 35 52 8 5 450 35 3150
~ ~;~:;
3 0 25 19 t 4) 179 33 1528 19
3 30 26 9 / ~ . 224 31 !IIJ: 1573 17 6
7
9
10
36
8 37
54
55 8
6
7
540
630
36
37
3240
3330

~~ Illi l'
4 20 i i iI 26 269 29 H 1618 15 8 12 38 57 8 720 38
l~::.:i;::
5 10 li1! 27 314 27 iii!
26 ;8;;
1663 13
9 13 8 39 58 8 9 810 39
3420
3510
6 0 :~! 28 19 ~; 8 , 359 1708 12
I~':): 6 30
';=,; 29 9 ; 9 404 24 ;,3~, 1753 10 10 15 40 60 10 900 40 3600

11
12
7
8
9
20
10
0
,t 29 39 !,O 449
30 29 11 494
·42 31 19 12 539
22 '4€t
20 41
18 42
1798
1843
1888
8
6
4
11
12
13
16
18
19
8 41
42
8 43
61
63
64
8

8
11
12
13
990
1080
1170
41
42
43
3690
3780
3870
13 9 30 43 32 9 13 584 17 43 1933 3 14 21 44 66 14 1260 44 3960
14 10 20 44 32 39 14 629 15 44 1978 1 15 22 8 45 67 8 15 1350 45 4050
15 11 10 45 33 29 15 674 13 45 2022 39 16 24 46 69 16 1440 46 4140
16 12 0 46 34 19 16 719 11 46 2067 37 17 25 8 47 70 8 17 1530 47 4230
17 12 29 41 35 9 17 764 9 47 2112 35 IS' 27 48 72 18 1620 48 4320
18 13 19 35 39 18 809
t~
8 48 2157 34 19 28 8 49 73 8 19 1710 49 4410
19 14 9 36 29 19 854 6 49 2202 32 20 30 50 75 20 1800 50 4500
,20 14 39 59; 37 19 1?0 ; 899 4 ~O 2247 30 21 31 8 51 76 8 21 1890 51 4590

.~
29 5;1\ 38 8 944 2 !~i 2292 28

I i!
22 33 52 78 22 1980 52 4680
19 ~? 38 38 989 0 ~2; 2337 26 23 34 8 53 79 8 23 2070 53 4770
~;~; ~!j~
9 39 28 1033 39 2382 25 24 36 54 81
:24l 17 24 2160 54 4860
39 40 18 1078 37 2427 23 25 37 8 55
35 55;
~::
"

25 18 29 55 41 8 ,25 1123 2472 82 8 25 2250 55 4950

21
26 39 56 84 26 2340 56 5040
26 19 19 56 : 41 38 26 1168 33 I 56 2517 19 27 40 8 57 85 8 27 2430 57 5130
27 20 9 51 42 28 27 1213 31 S7 2562 17 28 42
28 20 58 87 28 2520 58 5220
39 58 43 18 28 1258 30 58 2607 16
29 21 29 59 44 8 29 1303 28 59 29 43 8 59 88 8 29 2610 59 5310
2652 14
30 22 19 60 · 44 38 30 1338 26 60 2697 12 30 45 60 90 30 2700 60 5400

303
 3Smm FOOTAGE TABLE 35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed 29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
11 foot = 16 frames) (1 fool = 16 frames)
SECONDS MINUTES
en
en ....
SECONDS MINUTES
....::Een ........
en en en
C>
z ....::Een C>
z .... .... ....::Een
... .......... ...""< ... .......... ...<2
CI
(.)
CI
(.)
::>
:: .......... ...<
::E :::>
z ...... ...""
I-
<
...,w
cn en ::E "" :E ..... ::E
w c
1 1 9 31 48 7 1 93 12 31 2906 4 ........
W IX:

2 3 2 32 50 2 187 8 32 3000 14 r'31 58 1 1 112 6 31 3484 0

3 4 11 33 51 9 3 281 4 33 3093 12 1232 59 15 2 224 12 32 3596 6
4 6 4 34 53 2 4 375 34 3187 8 10 I:';,aa 61 13 3 337 3 33 3708 13
5 7 13 35 54 11 5 468 12 35 3281 4 8 -~,34 ' 63 11 4 449 9 34 3821 3
6 9 6 36 56 4 6 562 8 36 3375 6 i3~ 65 9 iLP 561 15 35 3933 9
?tf ~:~ '11

~Ini
7 10 15 37 57 13 7 656 4 37 3468 12 7 :; fL 674 5 ".~_~-'" 4045 15
.8 12 8 38 59 6 8 750 38 3562 8 13 5 ;7 786 11 37; 4158 5
9 14 1 39 60 15 9 843 12 39 3656 4 15 3 ." 8 899 2 38 4270 12
10 15 10 40 62 8 10 937 8 40 3750 "g. 16 14 '39 73 19 1011 8 39 4383 2
11 17 3 41 64 1 11 1031 4 41 3843 12 10 18 12~O 74 15 10 1123 14 40 4495 8
12 18 12 42 65 10 12 1125 42 3937 8 11 20 13 11 1236 4 41 4607 14
13 20 5 43 67 3 13 1218 12 43 4031 4 11 22 11 12 1348 10 42 4720 4

I~:
14 21 14 44 68 12 14 1312 8 44 4125 9.13 1461 1 43. 4832 11

~~~: ~~~~ l~~~t ~~~~

15 23 7 45 70 5 15 1406 4 45 4218 12
16 25 46 71 14 16 1500 46 4312 8 ;
17 26 9 47 73 7 17 1593 12 47 4406 4 ti · 30 04if 86 3 16 1798 3 46 5169 13
18 28 2 48 75 18 1687 8 48 4500 rt 31 13 4T 88 1 17 1910 9 47 5282 3
19 29 11 49 76 9 19 1781 4 49 4593 12 18 33 11 4a 89 15 18 2023 o 48 5394 10
20 31 4 50 78 2 20 1875 50 4687 8 19 35 9 4~ 91 13 19 2135 6 49 5507 0
21 32 13 51 79 11 21 1968 12 51 4781 4 20 37 7 tOO 93 1120 2247 12 50 5619 6
22 34 6 52 81 4 22 2062 8 52 4875 git, 39 5 'S!r i 95 8 -: ~1 2360 2 51 5731 12
23 35 15 53 82 13 23 2156 4 53 4968 12 g~ ;; 41 3 :1~· 97 6?2) 2472 852\ 5844 2
24 37 8 54 84 6 24 2250 54 5062 8 231 43 1~3': 99 423 2584 15 53 ' 5956 9
25 39 1 55 85 15 25 2343 12 55 5156 4 n 44 1554 101 224 2697 5 54 6068 15
26 40 10 56 87 8 26 2437 8 56 5250 25 46 1355 103 o 25 2809 11 55 6181 5
27 42 3 57 89 1 27 2531 4 57 5343 12 26 48 11'56 104 14 26 2922 1 56 6293 11
28 43 12 58 90 10 28 2625 58 5437 8 27 - 50 951 106 12 27 3034 7 57 6406 1
29 45 5 59 92 3 29 2718 12 59 5531 4 2& 52 7 i,~Jl i 108 10 28 3146 14 58 6518 8
30 46 14 60 93 12 30 2812 8 60 5625
54 5 'eWi 110 829 ' 3259 4 59 6630 14
56 3~i 112 6 : ~O;! 3371 10 i ~a 6743 4
65/70mm FOOTAGE TABLE CIO N co
-
<.0 ..". <.0 N
N T"" C") ..". <.0 en en
.....
24 F.P.S. SOUND SPEED
(1 foot = 12.8 frames)

c;:)
SECONDS
c;:) c;:)
MINUTES
c;:)
-
Q
N .....
\0 a
C")
\0
..".
a
<.0
a
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a
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N
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C ~ ::E c ~ ::E :::l ~ ::E :::l ~ Q) Q) Q)
~ w < ~ LU < z: w < z: LU < E E E
W W = W W = ~
w = ~
w =
v.l ~ ~ c;:) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~
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co
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N
N co <.0
en
u...
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\'1) 1 11.2 ~1;. 58 1.6 ;\!J; 112 6.4 ',~~ ;
C') ..". a .....
<.0 co
3487 6.4 Vol
N

'~i 3 9.6 32 60 0 ,2 225 0 3600 0 CI

W co
II II II
3 5 8.0 3S 61 11.2 a 337 6.4 SSt 3712 6.4 W
CIO
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to
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N
r-- 00 00 0
0
ICL. u... u... u...
4 7 6.4 34 63 9.6 4 450 0 34 3825 0 Vol
5 9 4.8 35 65 8.0 5 562 6.4 35 3937 6.4 <
=
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N to "f"
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N \0
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6 11 3.2 36 67 6.4 6 675 0 36 4050 0 ::E

7 13 1.6 37 69 4.8 7 787 6.4 37 4162 6.4 < Cl
z: ~ C') co
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8 15 0 38 71 3.2 8 900 0 38 4275 0 ~

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9 16 11.2 39 73 1.6 9 1012 6.4 ,39 4387 6.4 ::E ::;) c;:)

10. 18 9.6 40 75 0 ;10 1125 0 t40; 4500 0 - J CI = N ;;'!: ~ ~

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= W
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to
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:~i;i 20
22
8.0
6.4 f~
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6.4
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4612
4725
6.4
0
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-I !;;c < Q

13 24 4.8 80 8.0 t3 1462 6.4 4837 6.4

CO
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14 26 3.2 44 82 6.4 14 1575 0 44 . 4950 0 w

15 28 1.6 45 84 4.8 15 1687 6.4 45 5062 6.4
z:
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N ..".
N

16 30 0 46 86 3.2 16 1800 0 46 5175 0 CO

17 31
18 33
11.2
9.6
47 88
48 90
1.6 17
0 18
1912
2025
6.4
0
47 5287
48 5400
6.4
0
Q
W
CI
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}9 35 8.0 49 91 11.2 19 2137 6.4 49 5512 6.4 ~ ..... N to ~'" ~
u... ~'"
20 37 6.4 50 93 9.6 :20 ~ 2250 0 50 5625 0
Q
Q
CIO C") ..".
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N
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L&..
~t; 39
1 ~~iI 5737
4.8 51{ 95 8.0 II II II

6.4 ~I~r
2362 6.4 6.4 ~ ~
,~~ ; 41 3.2 52 ; 97 2475 0 .•• " 5850 0
~ ..... ..... N C") to 00 00 00
u... u... u...
23H 43 1.6 53 : 99 4.8 23 2587 6.4 531 5962 6.4 .....
24 45
25 46
0
11.2
54 101
55 103
3.2 24
1.6 l~5
2700
2812
0 54' 6075
6.4 55" 6187
0
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26 48
27 50
9.6
8.0
56 105
57 106
0 26
11.2 27
2925
3037
0 56 6300
6.4 57 6412
0
6.4 - ~ ~ ~ ~ ;;'!: ~
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28 52 6.4 58 108 9.6 28 3150 0 58 6525 0 ~
c;:)

29 54 4.8 59 110 8.0 29 3262 w CI \0 a..... .....

\0 a aC") a
6.4 59 6637 6.4 c;:) z:
C
N to
~o 56 3.2 60 112 6.4 ~o 3375 0 6Q 6750 0
 35mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS
(1 Ft = 16 frames)
RAMES
PER SEC 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 22 24 32 48 64 96 120 128
SEC
5 0'+ 5fr. 0+ 10 1+4 2+ 8 3+ 12 5+ 0 6+4 6+ 14 10+ 0 15+ 0 20 +0 30+ 0 37+ 8 40+ 0
10 0+ 10 1+4 2+ 8 5+0 7+ 8 10+ 0 12+ 8 13+4 20 + 0 30+ 0 40 + 0 60+ 0 75 + 0 80+ 0
15 0+ 15 1+ 14 3+ 12 7+ 8 11+4 15+0 18+ 12 20+10 30+ 0 45+ 0 60+ 0 90+ 0 112+ 8 120+0
20 1+4 2+ 8 5+ 0 10+ 0 15+ 0 20+ 0 25+0 27+ 8 40 +0 60 +0 80 +0 120+0 150+ 0 160+ 0
30 1+14 3+ 12 7+8 15+ 0 22+ 8 30+ 0 37+8 41+4 60+ 0 90+0 120+ 0 180+ 0 225+ 0 240+ 0
60 3+ 12 7+ 8 15+ 0 30+ 0 45 + 0 60+ 0 75+ 0 82 + 8 90mb
:;::::::::::=::::::::::::::::-;.:.
120+ 0 180+ 0 240+0 360+ 0 450+ 0 480 +0

65mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

(1 Ft = 12-4/5 frames)
FRAMES
PER SEC 1 2 4 8 12 16 20 22 24 32 48 64 96
SEC
5 0'+ 5fr. 0+ 10 1+7 3+ 2 4+ 9 6+3 7+10 8+8 12+6 18+ 10 25+0 37+ 6
10 0+10 1+7 3+ 2 6+3 9+ 5 12+6 15+ 8 17+2 25+ 0 37+ 6 50+ 0 75 +0
15 1+ 2 2+4 4+9 9+ 5 14 + 1 18+ 10 23+6 25+1 37+ 6 56+3 75+ 0 112+6
20 1+7 3+ 2 6+3 12+6 18+ 10 25 + 0 31 +3 34+5 50+ 0 75+0 100+0 150+0
30 2+ 4 4+ 9 9+ 5 18+ 10 28+ 4 37+6 46+11 51+7 75+ 0 112+ 6 150+0 225 +0
60 4+9 9+5 18+ 10 37+ 6 56+ 3 75 + 0 93 + 10 103+2 ................ . . .. 150+ 0 ~25 + 0 300+0 450 + 0
 3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS
APPROX . 180 0 SHUTTER - FOR STATIC SCENES
For 90· Sweep With Various Camera Speeds and Oifferent Fo ca l Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f. p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Take 23 Seconds 10 Pan 90 " Sweep
FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS IN MM
CAM ERA 18 to 20 25 to 28 35 40 50 75 85 100 150 180 300
SPEEO
FRAMES PANNING SPEED
PER/ SEC. Unshaded Numbers : SECONDS Shaded Numbers: MINUTES
/"'" 1.5 -""-"" '\t"2.0 ,,' 2:5 3.0 -"""'"
4.0 _-,co '-',_,_ ""' S.O l /iMM
8 27 45 55 60
12 18 30 36 42 54 70 1;5 2.0 2.5 T: 3.5 r ~.o .
16 13 23 27 32 41 55 70 1.5"'' ' ' ' ' '-' 2.0 ',; i: 2.5 -~""',"l,g,5-""}:'
20 11 18 22 25 27 43 60 70 1.5 ""- ',,, 2.0 3.0
24 9 15 18 21 23 36 50 60 80 \91.5- %2.5:"
32 7 11 14 16 20 27 38 45 60 75 1 /! 2.0
48 4.5 7.5 9 11 13 18 25 30 40 55 75
60 3.5 6 7 8 II 14 20 24 32 40 60
75 3 5 6 7 9 12 17 19 26 35 50
90 2.4 4 5 6 7 10 14 16 21 29 40
120 1.8 3 4 4 5 7 10 12 16 22 30
150 1.4 2.4 3 3.5 4 6 8 10 13 17 25

3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS IN DEGREES PER SECOND

(For Static Scenes) Approximately 180 0 Shutter
For Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f.p .s. with 50mm Lens Should Be Panned 3.6 0 Per Second or 36 0 in 10 Seconds, etc.
LENS FOCAL 24 f.p.s. 60 f.p.s. 80 f.p .s. 100 f.p.s. 120 f.p.s.
LENGTH: mm
17 9.9· 25.0" 33.3" 41.6 · 49.9'
25 7.0 · 17.5' 23.3 · 29.1" 34.9"
28 6.3' 15.7" 20.9' 26.1' 31.3 '
32 5.5· 13.7 " 18.2' 22.9" 27.4 "
35 5.0· 12.7" 16.9 · 21.1 · 25.4 •
50 3.6~ 8.7" 11.7 · 14.6· 17.5·
75 2.4 · 6.0" 8.0· 9.9· 12.0'
85 1.7" 4.3' 5.8· 7.2· 8.7 '
100 1.5 · 3.9' 5.2· 6.4· 7.7"
125 1.3 . 3.3 · 4.3· 5.4 · 6.5'
150 1.1 . 2.8" 3.7 " 4.6" 5.5'
180 0.95· 2.4 ' 3.2· 4.0' 4.7"
300 0.58 · 1.5" 1.9 · 2.4 ° 2.9"
500 0.36 · 0.64 " 0.9· 1.07 · 1.3'
 Light Sources
o
o
U')
o
00 =
oci
and Lighting Filters
I----

ClLOLOLOOO by Richard B. Glickman, Consulting Engineer

LO O'l .0 N M «:i AS Associa te Member

Th advent of faster film has dlangcd many of the

Cl
<.0
Cl
O'l
rules for well-establi hed lighting techniqu . Feature-film
photography is now ro utinely accompli h d in "natural
lighting" ituation, and night cenes are photograph d
LO Cl Cl o LO
with onJy the light available from treet Iightinu and hop
LO 00 Cl
...... N N window. The p ed of the e new emw ion has made
po ible a new degree of reali m, and greater freedom in
- selecting loca tion for photography.
o Quality photography still d mands con istent lighting.
-
Cl Cl Cl LO Cl
o N <.0 00 O'l N
Consistency often d pends on CIJl und ers tanding of the
characteri tics of various tight OlU"ces. Light Ou rces may
be mixed in any lighting situation, so long a care is taken
00 Cl LO Cl LO
...... LO <.0 00 O'l to appl the appropriate Wtering to ensure a consi tent
color balance. The folJov.ring ecti ns \-vill deal with tho
requiremen ts.
N 00 Cl N
...... q <.0 r- Th u e of lighting filters, formerly re tricted to a few
blues and am bers, ha now advanced to the point wh r
relatively refi ned adju tments ca n be made in the specb"a l
energy output of the wide vari ty of SO lU"Ces. The use of thi
..
00
CO'"
..,
CO
z: ......
more sophistica ted range of ligh ting filters has been made
practicaJ by the dev lopment of convenient color tempera-
~
o N
ture meter that produce relativel sophisticated informa-
U
<oJ tion about light SOlU"ces.
en
."
Th actuaJ lighting of a cene i an arti tic proc
~

E '"
.= N
...... 00
...... which i be and the ope of thi work. Tho artistic de-
E e
:::I
cision involve many considerati n , SUdl a the typ f
z: story being told, the d ired mood and the e motional con-
'"
C"") "g

...'"
"g Cl
...... LO
...... Cl
N
LO
N
Cl
M
tent of the material. The cinematographer's ffo rts i.n those
.::
."
directions, and the specific tools he or he us s, are the hall-
C
:::> marks of the work of an given inema tographer.
N LO 00
...... ............ Characteristics of Light Sources
The predominance of location photography mak a
o o o o o 0 basic und rstanding of typically encOlUltered Iigh tsource
=
M =
< .0
o
O'l =
N
......
= =
LO 00
............ essential. Particula rly important, due to their widespread
use, are the AC endo d arc discharge lamps uch as HMf-
types. Today's cinematographer must have a grasp of the
basic operational characteristics of these light SOLUTes.
312 313
 COMPARISON OF SOME TYPICAL Comparison of Photographic light Sources
COMMERCIAL/ INDUSTRIAL LIGHT Correlated
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS Color
Tellperalare
Description (al raled Mired
Correlated Efficacy
Yollage) Value tallens/wall
Color Color Incandescent
Temperature Rendering Efficacy
Standard and tungsten I
Description (OKelvin) Index (t umens/Walt)
halogen 3200K 313 26
Fluorescent Types CP gas filled 3350K 299 32
Daylight 6500 79 60 Photoflood 3400K 294 34
Design White 5200 82 50 Daylight blue photoflood 4800K 208
Cool White 4300 67 70
Deluxe Cool White 4100 86 50 Carbon arc (225A Brute)
Natural White 3700 81 45 White flame, Y-1 filter
62 70 5100K 196 24
White 3500 " " no filter 5800K 172
Warm White 3050 55 70
Yellow flame YF 101 filter 3350K 299
Deluxe Warm
White 2950 73 45
Incandescent 2700 90 35 ' Xenon, high pressure DC short
Mercury Vapor arc 6000K 167 35-50
Types
Clear Mercury 5900 17 50 'Metal halide additive AC arc

~
White Deluxe 4000 45 HMI 5600K
62 70 179 80-102
Warm Deluxe 3500 CID 5600K 179 80
Metal Halide CSI
Additive Types 4200K 238 85
Multi-arc Tw ; Metal .Need flltenng for color photography.
Vapor 'w 5900 65 80-115
Metalarc CTW 3800 70 80-115
High Pressure u of thi figure reveal th envelope' configuration b
Sodium imply knOWing that th code letter as: ociated \ ith the
Lucalox'w 2100 25 80-140 lamp de ignation are the dimen i nal descripti e data.
Lumalux'w
. ~e follOWing e ampl ar ffered to darify thi de-
scnptrv process:
For" del"i1ed explanation of the p"ramelers of Correlated Color a.) R40 - This is a reflector flood ("R" type envelope),
Temperature, Color Rendering Index and Efficacy, reference should be wh ich j 4%ths of an inch in diameter.
made to page 319. b.) PAR 64 - The de ignation "PAR" refer t the
sea led beam lamp type (Parabolic Al uminized Reflector)
In thi ection, a wid rang of photographic, comm r- whidl i ''%ths of an inch in diameter.
cia l and indllstriallioht llrce will be dealt with in some
d tail. The accomp~ying tabl gi e the reader a brief idea c.)QlO00PAR64-Thi i theenvelopeas in(b.),but
the "Q" designates a tung ten halogen lamp of] 000 watt
of th range of characteristics to be encountered.
inside. ("Q" is a hangover from the early da of tung ten
halogen when these lamp were referred to a Quartz Io-
Physical Characteristics of Light Sources din .)
Figure 1 shows the various lamp envelope configura- . d)QlO00T3-Atun ten halogen lamp, 1,000 watts,
tior and the designations that are common t them. The WIth a tubular envelope Y. tl of an inch in dianleter.

315
 Another important element in the construction of
lamp is th ba ing. Figure 2 shows the mo t comm n ba e
arrang m nt u ed on incande cent-type lamps (al 0 ap- Me Canc;t SC 8~v l)C hv sc PI QCP,

plicabl to c rtain di charge types). This figure can be help-

ful in e tablishing w hether a particular lamp can be mat d
to a given fi ture.
I .... Sc
Mog PI

s
T
T
G
G
o PAR Rtet RSC

t~
Figure 1. Lamp envelo pe configurations.

Color Temperature
C lor t mperature describes the actual temperature of
a "black bod radiator" and thereby completely defmes the MSP EMfP M[P
ST JP
p tra l n rgy di tribution (SED) of the object. When the
object becom luminous and radiates energy in the visible
portion of the pectrum, it is said to be incande cent. Sim- Con<!
DC'"
""""" ....
OCJUIlle..c:ontac:1 ba.,enel c ~ .
MogSC
Mog"
....... ..,ow
............
..........-.'
ply sta ted, thi mean that when an object is heated to an DCPt double-contact pretocus candIAbf. M09 Pt
,
--
EM" vctended mogul end PJO"V MS "..,..Iuresu. .
appropriat temp rature, some of it radiated energy i Iem.ole~locl (Wlth I.f.-..c.~)

. . ..,
Me .....am (1Ibo lfu·LJx: ~t!..... sa. .)
i ible. .... sc ..-...",ew MS'
......
The c lor temperature is usually de cribed in terms of
degr e K Ivin. TI,i simply refers to a temperature cale,
......
.... Pt

.... 2'
medium Drposl
medLm prelocus
medium sa-wted
medium two P'"
Rec1ASC
RM2P
RSC
ftet. . . . . recnsed "'91& conlact
""'lY'ICIU'Illwapn
''"'Met 1Ing6e contact
1.110"IW1g111!1 COOI.CI recesMdI
ME' mogul end prong S ~l:.l~e

like Fahr nhei t or C ntigrade (Celsius). It is in fact the ab- (also e:l:lenaed mogoIltnd prongl SC Bay Iingk!-COr\lact ba)'Clr'*l canoetabfa

olute ntigrad (Celsius) sca le, w hich is the temperature

SCI PI ..-,gl&-conlllCl prelocus
in d gre entigrade (Celsius) plus 273 degrees. Sf Klew term.,,,.l
TB2P Ilubeam two P'"
Wh n m tal is gradually hea ted, the first visible color TI IrulOCUS (alSO lour PM\)
TLMS T,u-L.ac IYW'IlIIluf. lCfew
is "dull ch rry red." As the temperature is raised, it vi u- (alSO' RW\l.lute sclew ......'h ,.terence ~I
\Yedgl! wt!Oge
ally b c m " ra ng ," then "Yellow," and finally "Whi te" 28 IwO bullan
two P'" .. ;q••
hot. Th actual eff ct of increa ing color temperature on the
2PAG
2PAGC
2PM
two PI""glAil.(cetamc
two PI" mn.lure
t:OYIlt1

p ctral n r y di tribution i best seen in Figure 3. ZPP

3P
two pri pretoc:ut:
lIY" prong
Sh'ict! p aking, tungsten filament are not true black Nol.. R 1AClCIi1" ~ '.once p(lll"il IOf 1..Cl. ·Nol. bMaw
fAR - a, 0 531 It'lCfl OIarnelet1
bodie . H wever, from a practical standpoin t, both stan-
dard incand scent lan,p and tungsten halogen typ can Figure 2. Common incandescent lamp ba es (not to calel.
be con id r d.
 One f th m t important characteristics of incandes-
cent radia tor is that they have a con tinuous spectrum . Thi Correlated Color Temperature of
:nean tha t n rgy i bing radiated at all the wavelengths Typical Light Sources
1I11ts p ctrum. alar temperature is only properly applied
to radiatin s Ul'ce that can meet this requirement. Th re- Artificial Light
fore, for xampl , th application of the term "color tem-
perature" to d rib the color of fluorescent tubes is incor- Source Minds
rect f r the f 1I0wing r asons: Fluorescent lamp do not Match flame HOOK 588
ha econtinu u pectra,andfluorescentlampsdonotemit candle flame 1850K 541
vi ible radiati n due to incandescence (because of th ir Tungsten-gas filled lamps: ~amera filter
temperature). Ln practice the term i applied to many th r 4Q-looW 2650·2900K 828 (looW) 317-345
ource . When it i applied to the e non-incandescent 2OO-500W 2980K 82A 336
urc , it r aJl ref rs to "correlated color temperature." l000W 2990K 82A 334

Daylight
:>
Cl Sunlight:
a: Sunrise or sunset 2000K 500
w
z One hour after sunrise 3500K 286
w
o Early Morning, late Afternoon 43001< 233
w
~ Average noon, (Wash. D.C.) 5400K 185
a
~
Midsummer 5800K 172
a: Overcast sky 6000K 167
Average Summer Daylight 6500K 154
Light Summer Shade 7100K 141
Average Summer Shade 8000K 125
100 400 700 1000 1300 1600
Partly cloudy sky 8000
.. ullra,vlolel infra-red ~ -10000K t25-100
'-v---J Summer skylight 9500
visible spectrum WAVELENGTH (nm) -30000K 105-33

Figure 3. Rela live radianl energ distribution for ources at various color
tempera tu res.
Correlated Color Temperature
Th term corr lat d color temperature is used to ind i-
cate a vi ual match wher the o urce being described i not
a black body radiator. The term is oftenabu ed, an example
being its app licati n to uch light OlUTes as mercury va-
por lamp .
Fro//l n photo~mphic stnndpoint, the correlnted color tell1-
pemtllre mn be ex/re//lely //Iislending. It is important to ke p
in mind that it nnotation are visual. It i a l1LLmber to
be app roached with treme caution by the cinematogra-
ph r.
Sunlight should not be confused wilh day light. unlight is the light of
the un only. Day ligh l is a combi nation of sunlight and sky light. These
va lu es are approxi mate s ince many factor affect the Correlated Color
Temperature. For co ns is te ncy, SSOOK is co ns idered to be Nominal
Photographic Day light. The difference between SOOO K and 6000K is only
33 Mireds, the same photograp h ic or vi ual difference as th at between
hou sehold tugsten ligh ts and nOOK pholo lamps (the approx im ate
equivalent of II. Blue or 'Ai Orange lighting filte rs).
The MIRED System
When dealing with unlight and incandescent sources
(both standard and tungst n haLogen typ ), th MIRED
system offers a convenient m ans for d aling with the prob-
lems of measurement when adju ting fr m on color tem-

318
 - '
perature to anoth~. This system is only for sources that can
truly be described as having a color temperature. The term
MIRED is an acronym for Micro Reciprocal Degrees. The
MIRED number for a given color temperature is deter-
mined by using the following relationship:
1,000,000 [10" ]
MIRED Value = = -
Color Temperature (degrees Kelvin) ;.K

As a convenience, refer to page 323, which is a quick

reference for determining the MIRED values for color tem-
peratures between 2000K and 6900K in 1QO-degree steps.
Filters which change the effective color temperature of
a source by a definite amount can be characterized by a
"MIRED shift value." This value is computed as follows:

MIREDSruftValue= ( [~] - [;] )

Tl = Kelvin temperature of the original source.

1'2 = Kelvin temperature of the original source as measured
through. the filler.

MIRED shift values can be positive (yellowish or mi-

nus blue filters) OJ; negative (blue or minus redl green fil-
ters). The samefilter (representing asingle MIRED shift value),
applied on light sources with different color temperatures, will
produce significantly different color temperature shifts. Occa-
sionally, the term I>ecamireds Will be found in use for de-
scribing color temperature and filter effects. I>ecamireds is
simply MIREDs divided by 10.

C~lor Rendering Index

The Color Rendering Index (CRl) is used to specify.the
stated characteristic of a light source as it might be used for
critical'visual color examinations such as in color match-
ing or inspection of objects. The CRI is established by a stan-
dard procedure involving the calculated visual appearance
of standard colors viewed under the test source and under
a standard illuminant. The CRI is not an absolute number,
and there is no particular relative merit to be determined
by comparing the CRIs of several sources.
The CRI is ofimportance photographically only when it is
between 90 and 100. This is accepted to mean that such a
source has color rendering properties that are a commer-

320
 (")0>
",0
~O 00>
0-0 ",Ul
g", <0
::0

'"
n £~

EXA PlES OF MIRED SHIFT VALUE (FILTER) EFFECTS

Initial Source Filtered Source
Filter ' °Kelvin
oK Mireds Mired Shift Mlreds oK Change
10,000 100 +112 212 4720 5280
6,000 167 +112 279 3600 2400
5,000 200 +112 312 3200 1800
2,600 385 -21 364 2750 150
2,900 345 -21 324 3090 190
3,200 312 -21 291 3440 240

Mired Values of Color Temperatures from 2000-6900 0 K

oK +0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
2000 500 476 455 435 417 400 385 370 357 345
3000 333 323 312 303 294 286 278 270 263 256
4000 250 244 238 233 227 222 217 213 208 204
5000 200 196 192 189 185 182 179 175 172 169
6000 167 164 161 159 156 154 152 149 147 145
VJ
~

- ~--
 ,....-- ---,.---,- -.------,r - -- . -- ' 120,OOO
cial match to th reference source. For example, the HMl
lamps have a eRl of 90 to 93, referr d to the 055 tan~ard
ill uminant (055 i th artificia l match to standard dayligh t
of 5500K). I 90 ,000

Spectral Energy Distribution

TIle pectral energy distribution (SED) is the standard 60,000
means for exhibiting the relative amOtmts of energy being
radiated by a source a a ftmc tion f wav leng th. This is
sometimes called the spectral power distribution (SPO). 30,000
The visible pectrum (see Fig. 4), which is also the use-
ful phot graphic spectrum, compri es the energy who e
wavelengths ar between approximately 400 and 700 na-
nometers (run). Wavel ngths shorter than 400 nm are in the Angl e from centerline
ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and tho e longer than
700nm are in the infrared regiort . Figure 7. Luminaire intensity distribution-rectangular.
The electromagnetic radiant energy spectrum IS
hown in Fi!!Ur 4. The SED for a lamp at 3000K is shown
A
in Figur 5. c rnpari on of the spectra l energy distrib.u-
tions of 3200K, natura l daylight and a carbon arc (whlte
flame carbon) can be seen in Figure 6.

Illumination Data
The purpose of this section is to explain simple gen- 60 °
eral rule for dealing with illtU11ination da ta. In particular,
it will provide the means for interpreting data offered by
manufacturer and for interpolating readings ba ed on
measurements made by the cameraman.
1. Lighting Quantities - Intensity 20°
0°
20 °

Intensity i mea ured in units of "candelas." An ear-

lier term for thi i candlepow r. ormally, a value for can-
delas is also accompanied by directional information. In
former times the ~l ten ity on axis was referred to as center
beam candlepower.
The uniqu property of intensity relative to the source
of light in a given direction i that it is not dependent on
distance from th source. The intensity is the same no mat-
ter how fa r away. The only restriction is that it has reduced
accuracy if m a urements are made closer to th source
than apprOximately ten times the maximum diameter of the
lighting unit. For example, for a 12 fresnel lens spotlight,
the intensity figures are only accurate at a distance greater
than about 10 feet.
Figure 8. Luminaire intensity distribution-polar.
There are two ways that the intensity information is
normally shown. Examples of these are sho~ n in F!gw'es
7 and 8. The only difference between these IS that U1 one
case the data is presented in a rectangular coordinate for-
mat, and in the other polar coordinates are used. Most light-
ing manufacturers supplying instruments to the motion-
picture ind ustry tend to presen t their data in a rectangular
format. The polar presentation is more likely to be enCOlm-
tered with commercial / indllStrial type fixtures.
Where the intensity distribution of a lighting source
is known, the illumination produced by the unit can be

324 325
calculat d u ing the inverse quare law. This is expressed
a foll ow :
intensity (candelas)
TIIumination (f t candle) = - - - - - - - - -
D~(D = distance in feet)
Intensity (candelas)
IllLUnination (Lu -) = - - - - - - - - -
IY(D=distance in meter )
(E ample: fiture is described a ha ing a center
intensity ( r cent r beam candlepower) of SO,OOO Candelas.
hat i th illumination at 25 feet? What i the ilIumina-
tionat10m t ?
SO,OOO SO,OOO
(a) at 25 f t = - - - = - - - = 0 footcandles
25 25 625
SO, 0 50,000
(b) at 10 meter = - - - = - - - = 500 Lux
10 10 100
2. Lighting Quantities-Coverage
Alili htin fixtur ha e a lighting distribution which
ma be vi ibl a pr jected on a flat wall. Often this is ex-
pres ed a -hown in Figure 9 and defined a an illumina-
tion distribution urv . The important standard measuring
points f r uch a di tributi n are as follow:
B am overage: This i de o'ibed a the limit of the
area covered to within 50'}:. of the maximum intensity.
Field verage: Thi i described as the area covered
within 10% of the maximum intensity.
f the two ar a de cribed above, the beam coverage
is the mar important photographically. It de cribes the
arca that i illuminated at a level that is not lower than 1
stop down from th center intensity. The assumption is
mad, wh re a illgle distribution is shown, that the di tri-
bution pattern i entiaUy circular.
al ulatin ov rage from Beam Angle: The follow-
ing e pr i nail w th computation of the coverage di-
ameter (W) fran di tance (D) and a given beam angle
(Refer to Figure 10). Th _pr sion is:
W = 2 . (0) , [Tang nt (If! Beam Angle»)
Ma xim um Intensity
50 ~. of MaXimum
IntenSity
10·. of
----jr----t--_ _-'--_ _--+ --o--Maxlmum Intenslly
Beam Coverage
- Field Coverage
Figure 9. Definition of inlensit di tribulion curve.
(Example: For a distance f SO f t and a known beam
angle of 26 degrees, what i th coverage diamet r of the
beam (50% of the center)?
D = SO feet; Beam Angle = 26 degr
~ Beam Angle = 13 degree
Tangent of 13 degre = .231
W = 2 x SO x .231 = 100 x .231 = 23.1 f
3, General Comments on Calculations
Most manufacturer are now offering both candela
information and angular coverage. This is actually uffi-
dent information to make om approximations of what to
expect from the lighting fixtur u ing the procedure out-
lined above.
In the event that it is nece sary to convert fj'om foot-
candles to lux, the value of footcandles h 1I.Id be multiplied
by 10.8. To convert lux to footcandle ,d ivide lux by 10.8.
Usually, lux va lues w ill b a 0 iated with distances
measured in meters, and footcandles w ith di tances mea-
ured in feet. 1n the case of the illumination calculations
above, the use of feet or meters a th units of distance will
au tomatically yield illumination va lue in footcandle or
lux resp ctively.
327
 0 ~I been scattered and filtered in the ea rtll's atmosphere. Since
tile shortest wavelengths are the on s I a t fi ltered by the

'2 BEAM ANGLE TW

atmosphere, this results in the blue sky. Figure 11 repre-
sents the spectral energy distribution for th u.n compared
to a 5400K source.
Dayljght conditions are highly varied, from a photo-
graphic viewpoint, based on til loca l atmo pheric condi-

1 tions, location on tile earth, tim f year, hour of tile day

and the amOlmt of almo pheric pollutan that ma be
pre ent. brief summar of me of th po ibilities i
presented on page 319.
Figure 10. Definition of tenn for calculating coverage.
In addition to color t mperatur variati n ,the degree
of diffu ion in daylight varies from the lea t to tile m t
TANGENT FUNCTION diffuse lighting conditions that can be experienced.
LeastD.iffuse-lnclearcl udl unJight,the unas
Angle Tangent Angle Tangent Angle Tangent Angle Tangent th main lighting ource (ke ) i truly a point. This pro-
duces tile hardest, most distinct hadow . The incident light
1 018 12 213 23 .425 34 675 Ie el from tile sun on uch a da can be a mucll as 9,500
2 035 13 231 24 .445 35 700
3 052 14 249 25 466 36 727 footcandJes. The k light contribution (fill) i about 1,500
4 070 15 268 26 .488 37 754 footcandles. This produces ali hting ratio of about 7:1 (key
5 088 16 287 27 .510 38 .781 to fill).
6 105 17 306 28 .532 39 .810 Lighting control in the e ituation may require
7 123 18 325 29 .554 40 .839
8 141 19 344 30 .577 41 .869 booster lighting or the use f c rtain grip d vices such as
9 158 20 364 31 .601 42 .900 large overhead scrim .
10 176 21 384 32 .625 43 .933 Most Diffuse - A completel 0 er a t day is e en-
11 194 22 404 33 649 44 .966
45 1 DOD
tially shadowless lighting. The entir ky, horizon to hori-
zon, becomes the light source. The incid nt level may be
as low as 200 footcandJe .
Photographic Light Sources
The urc overed in thi section include the mol'
familiar man-mad t p ,such as incandescent, carbon arc 54000K. __ - ~
and A arc di charge lamp a well as an expo ition on ,,'
. . ... ....- .... ,
natural daylight. .-
The gcn ral characteri tics of each type ar~ d .t.ineated
in moderat detail, including spectral energy distnbutJ n
/sun ~,
"", ...
and electrica l characteri tics. In addition, any special con-
siderations for th cinematographer are carefully not d.
>-
OJ
( "-
.Wc
Eacll ub- ecti n on a particu.lar cia s of light ource closes OJ
with detailed information on fi ltering the source. OJ
>
1-1ii
atural Daylight Qj
IX:
atural da light, on a clear day, is the urn of unlight
and sk light. Th unlight is directly from the sun, who e 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 nm
surface i ab ut 6,000K. Skylight i from unlight that has
Figure 11. Similarity of su nlight to a theoretical 5400 K light ource.

328 329
Filters for Control of Natural Daylight ti c films or as rigid acry li c s he t . Normally they can be
family of material, mos tly on polyes ter p ia tic- ob tained in densities whidl reduce the incident light by Y2,
ba ed film, a re made for light control in tllC C situati ns. 1,2, or 3 s tops (ND.1 5, NO.3, NO.6, and NO.9).
The are normal! uppli d in roll that are from 48 to 58
inchc widc (122 to 1-/.7 em). In addition, the 85, and 03, Combination Filters
06 and 09 t pare al 0 available as rigid aa lie pan- Combinations of 5 and n utral d n ity r CTO with
el , u uall -/. b f et in ize (1.22 x 2.+1 meters). n utral density are also available. TI1e are utilizcd to re-
Refer nce should bc made to page 323 and 27 in duce tl1e number of material which mu t b in tailed in
readin thi tion. Pag 23 Ii ts the l\iIIRE0 hift alu order to accomplish both the con e ion and the reduction
for the variou matcriaIs, and tl1cir effect on urc of hvo of lighting level.
differcnt color temperatures. Page 27 ummariz the fil-
ter r quir m nts for each clement of the lighting y t m Incandescent Light Sources
and amcra for intcriorcin matograph a!!Clinstda lighted
\ indm . The incandescent source is characterized b ha ing a
Wh n prop rI appli d, harp focus can be carried filament tructure tl1rough which current i pa d to pro-
duce heating.
thr l17h window treated with either the pia tic film ma-
terial or the acrylic panel. The panel are particularl When the filament is heated to ,. r high temperatures
u ful \ h re wind r trong air movement ma cause the it radiates i ible light a a part of i radiant energy out-
pla tic fi lm t mov and produce visible highlights. put Figure 12 show the relati e pectral energy distribu-
tion for orne incande ent lamp at variou color tem-
peratures.
Conver ion-Type Filters Incandescent ources, relati e to the vi ible pectrwn,
Thc ' mat rial are intended for application a t open- radiate at all wavelength in tl1at pectrum. Th e proportion
ing (door, window , etc.) \. here natural daylight i en-
tcring an int ri r which i to be photographed at a 3200K
balance. Th "full" con er ion material availabl are
known a " T "and" ." In USA lighting practice, the
" 5" ha b en the typc most widely applied (it i really a
Wratten 5B quivalent). TI1e European practice has b en
to u e th d pcr correction SUdl a the "CTO." The d 1 ice
of filt r will obvi u I b detcrmined by the actual daylight >-
cond ition bing dealt with, or by artistic considerations. ~ 60 t - - - - t - - - - j -- - +- - - .
w
Fi lt r wh i h acco mplish less than the full correction z
w
to 320 K arc al 0 avai lable, and are widely used to deal with w
the variati n in daylight conditions that may be enCOW1- > 40 t---- t----j-- ~~"""""7'O<:: ~
tered oTh ya r also used where the arti tic effect wanted ~
....J
W
i different fr m "natural" daylight (page 367). a:
20 t---r----:r-7f"-"7'"9~,..e. _+--+--+_ -___l
eutral-Density Filters
Wh re it i desired to use a daylight balance inside the
pac in \ hi h ph tograph is taking place, the only filter
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
n rma ll indi atcd f r thc window will be neutral d n- WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
ity. Th c arc u uall required due to the overpowering
Icvel of s unlight which are often encOlmtered in natural Figure 12.. Spectral energy dist ribution curves for incandescen t lamps
. tting . Typica ll these fi lters are a ailable as eitl1er pia - at various color temperatures.

330 331
of energy at the different wavelengths (the sp ctral energy
di tribution) is olely dependent on the Kelvin temperature
at which the filament is operated. Some of the typical fila-
m nt configurations encountered in the photographic types
of ources are hown in Figure 13. The designations for the
various conformations are tandard in the USA.
Incandescent sourc rna be operated on either alter-
nating or direct current. A ery wide range of light sources
ha been designed with nominal operating oltages to meet
th requirements of both US and international require-
ments. There are two ba ic ubdivi ions within the class of
incandescent sourc .
A color film and 3200K lamp are used for all professional
color motion picture films.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
The tungsten-halogen lamp is an incandescent lamp.
Its radiant energy output i ba ed strictly on the tempera-
ture of its filament, but it offers an important difference in
operating principles when compared to the standard incan-
descent type.
The addition of a halogen gas in the fill plus the use of
high temperature materials in the envelope of the lamp
(quartz or fused silica, and recently hard glass), has r ulted
in a design which does not experience the blackening ef-

m ~ ~
fect with age that is characteristic of the standard incandes-
cent types. Due to the pre ence of the "halogen cycle"
within tl1e lamp, the tung ten is not permitted to deposit
on the bulb walls (as long as the wall temperatw·e is above
(-8 2C-8 250 degrees C). It is, in fact, re-deposited on the filament
C-2V (-6
C( - 2V (( - 6 CC-8 2CC-8 (See Figure 14). The results of this development have been
manifold:
....
.00.
Jf CTION A · A 1. Tungsten-halogen lamps have minimal loss in lu-
men output and no significant shift in color temperature
during their entire life.
2. Tungsten-halogen lamps with similar configura-
tions, wattages and initial lumen outputs as standard in-
candescent types are now produced with ub tantially
longer useful life.
3. Because of the requirement for high bulb wall tem-
peratures, it has been necessary to shrink the en elope size
of these lamps, resulting in completely new familie of
C-ll (-13 (-13B C-130
CC-ll CC-13 CC -13B lamps with much maller external dimensions than the
tandard incandescent equi alent.
Figure 13. Common incandescent filament forms and their
designations.

Standard Incandescent
The standard incande cent source utilizes a tung ten
filament in a gas-filled endo ure of commercial gla . These
ba ic lamp type have b n available for many year of
m tion-picture production. It has been traditional to pro-
duce two ranges of Kelvin temperature for professional use
in these types of lamp . T pically, at the rated voltage (Le.,
120 volts), a 3200K and a 3350K design have been available.
3350K lamps are dose to the Photoflood balance of Type Figure 14. Diagram of Halogen Cycle within lamp.

332 333
 In all other respects, th tungsten-halogen lamp should ?i
~ + 80
b considered the same a th tandard incandescent. They :;
a. + 60
ma be operated on eith r alternating or direct current. :;
ar hould be taken during in tallation to prevent finger- o + 40
c
marking of the en elope incc there is a tendency for ome ~ + 20
degradation of the en el pe to occur if fingerprints r dirt
ar I ft on during operation. ..,.3
CD -
0
20
iii
a:: - 40
Incandescent Lamp Operation o _ 60
CD
Following are m characteristic CUf\ which will g> - 80
III
e plain more clearl the relati nship of various of the pa- .r::
ram ters associated with incandescent lamp operations. o 40 60 80 100 120
Th curves are applicable t b th tandard incandescent Rated Vollage of Lamp ('Yo)
(wh n the lamp is relativ Iy n w) and to tungst n-halogen
Figure 16. Curve showing change of lumen output of lamp as voltage is
lamp .
changed . T his has been normali zed so that the percentages of lumen
output change to percentage change in rated vo ltage can be easily
Color Temperature Degrees Kelvin related .
3800
Q"
3400 e... + 300
~
I
Y
I ~
~

3000 ~ + 200
~ CD
a.

2600
...V E +100
{E
0

220C
/"" (;
0 - 100
0
0 - 200
CD
1800 0>
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 C
III
- 300
.r::
Lumens Per Wall 0
Approximate Lamp Efficacy (Efficiency) 80 90 100 110 120
Rated Vollages (0,<»
Figure 15. Incandescent lamp effieac a a function of color temperature.
Figure 17. Curve showing change of color temperature (degree K) as
Lumens are a mea ur of the total light output of a voltage is changed.
ource. In the case of incande ent lamps the lum n out-
put depend almost entirely on the temperature fthefila- percentages oflumen output change to percentage change
ment and the amount f pow r. The efficacy of th lamp in rated voltage can b ea ily related.
(lum n /wa tt) i almo t entirely dependent on th tem- There is a direct relation hip between the hift in
perature f the filament, and because of this relation hip Kel in temperature and the operating voltag of an incan-
the color temperature and lum ns per watt (efficacy of the d ent lamp. This i h wn in Figure 17 in t rm of an
lamp) can be related. Thi is demonstrated in Figure 15. ab olute change in color t mperature for a perc ntage hiIt
TI,e r lationship between the lumen output and the in the rated voltage. The rule of thumb that ha been u ed
op rating voltage of the lamp can al 0 be demonstrated as with 120- olt-rated lamp i that a one-volt chang (up or
hown in Figure 16. This ha been normalized so that the down) results in a 10-degr Kelvin shift. This approx.ima-

334 335
 100 standard mortality curve for incand scent lamps is shown
Tungsten-Halogen Lamp in Figure 19.
80 Standard I
nCand Boosted-Voltage Operation
~ eSCent L
amp
c'" 60 It is possible to over-voltage a wide range of standard
UO-volL, 280D--2900K lamp types and convert them effec-
'"
E
:> tively to photographic lamp types. This system ("Color-
...J
40
tran" boosting) was widely in use in many places around
~
'E the world until the substantial ad ent of the tungsten-halo-
20 gen lamp. Although little-used in the USA now, it is still in
wide use in other parts of the world and offer some inter-
0 esting advantages. There are many ituations in which this
0 20 40 60 80 100
system may be both cost-e£fecti e and functionally desir-
Operating Life (%) able for particular circum tances.
The system is designed to utilize tandard UO-volt-
Figure 18. Curve showing lumen output of lamp during life. rated tungsten filament lamps whose rated life at 120 volts
is 750 hours or more. The systelll 11I11 t 1I0t be IISed with stall-
100
0> ~, dard hmgsten-halogen incalldescent types, IIl1less there is a cer-
C
.;; "'~
--: tainty that the lamp has been specifically desiglled for lise ill a
:; 80 boosted-voltage system. Using the tandard incandescent
:;
en
~
E
60 \. \
types, a very broad range of lamp types, including many
of the sealed beams and the "R" series a well as many other
standard incandescent lamps, may b utilized and operated
'"
...J
~ at 3200K or higher.
~ 40
E
20
'\, ~
Typically, when lamp are operated at 165 volts, the
color temperature should be approximately 3100K to
3200K. It is possible to continue th boo ting operation, and

o ~
.....
.... 1::::--
:-.....
20 40 60 80 100 120
Percenl of Rated Average Life
Figu re 19. Life expecta ncy curve for tungsten fi lam en l lamps.
tion is rea onably accurate as long as the percentage d lange
in voltage i within 10-15% of the rated value.
Figure 18 compare the percen tage of initial lumens
ver u tlle p rcentage of operating life between conven-
tional incand cent and tung ten-halogen lamps. Note that
tlle twlg t n-halog n type has only a very nominal shift in
the lwnen output during the course of its entire life com-
pared with ilie tandard incandescent lamp.
The life rating of all type of incande cent lamps is
ba ed on th following concept: if a very large group of
lamp i tarted at ilie same time, the life rating represents
the time at whidl 50% of ilie group will still be burning. A
336
some lamp types will actually yield 3300-3400K when op-
erated at approximately 185 vo lts. Due to the low pressure
140 160 180 in tlle standard incandescent, long-life lamps, this is a safe
type of opera tion .
In tlle past, equi pment wa manufactured to accom-
plish this vol tage-boosting function wi th p ush-bu tton con-
trol of a tapped autotransformer. The Colortran converters
usually provide input voltage lection (provision is buil t
in to adjust the unit for input voltages between 100 an d 250
volts) and adjustment so that the full boo t range was avail-
able under any of these input cond itions. Thi permi tted
the use of the same lamp anywhere in the world . This
equipment is still in use in many place, and should be
given consideration where economics and function dictate
ilie feasibility.
A further advantage of thi y t m is iliat tlle standard
incandescent types utilized in it tend to be very much less
expensive than the photographic lamp typ that are rated
337
at3200K at the operatin g voltage. Further, the xp ct d life NATIONAL CARBONS FOR STUDIO LIGHTING
of many of these lamp at 3200K operation is directly com-
parable to the life that can be pected from 3200K type flxl.,. Carbo. Poslll" CarbOA HI,.live Arc D.C. Rall.g
photographic lamps operated at their rated voltag . Typ. HI. Doscrlplli. Ho. Dlscriplioo Ellclrical Volls
AalPIIU
Filters for Incandescent Lamps Ouatc 1 8mm x 12 In. 8 7mm x 9 In. 40 36
CC MP StudIO CC MP Studio
Th e filter are t picall applied to incand cent
M.R. 90 2 13.6mm x 22 .n. 9 7/1610. x 8... In.
urc , \vhich rna be "quartz," tandard incandescent or HJ. Studio CC P Studio 120 58
"b ted" incandescent types. These filters are normaJJy for
th purpose of changing th ED to an appro imation of M.R. 170 3 16mm x 20 ,n. 10 ." in. x 8'.. in. 150 68
da light. The are referred to as conversion filters (see page H.1. Studio CC MP Studio
67). M.R. Brute 4 16mm x 22 In.
TIl original tandard for thi conversion wa a glass Super H.I. Studio
fi lter, the MacBeth "Whi terl ite" type. This filter transmits Posilive·White
only about 35% of the light, and has been largely uper- Flame
11 17/32 in. x 9 in. 225 73
d d by the d 'chroic type which transmit about 50% of 5 16mm x 22 in. Special CC
the incident light. The dichroic is an interference-type fil- Super H.1. Siudio
Positive·Yellow
ter, and most of these convert the 3200K source to ap proxi- Flame
mately 5000K to 5200K.
M.R. Titan 6 16mm x 25 In. 350 79
a re must be exerci d in the use of th didlroic fil- Ullrex HIWF
ter ince they do not have the same filtering characteris- Studio 12 11/16 in. x 9 in.
tic f r light incident on the fi lter at widely varying angles. CC MP Studio
When u ed on ome typ of focusing light (particularly 7 16mm x 25 In. 300 73
ome of the open reflector "quartz" types), there may be HIYF Special
Studio
chang in color a the light i focused . GeneraJJ ,the light
at the edge of the field will how some hilt in color on •Unoon Carbide Corp. Carbon Products DiVision
wide-beam f100dligh using dichroic filter .
There ma al be ufficien t difference between color temperature be approximately 5500K. The Light I
dichroi thatilusedonmultiplekey inthesam scene, a sociated with th type of filters is approximat Iy 1 to
there could be significant nough differences in the vari- l-Yl top These filters are referred to as "full blue 50," "fuJJ
ou ar as being lit. A three-color type of color m t r hould blu "or "CTB."
b u d in making the m a urement in uch circum- Partial Conver i n Filt r - 3200K to Ie than day-
ta nce . light: These material are r Jated to the conver i n types,
range of very go d conver ion filters to meet thi in that they proVide a pa rtial conversion. The e are made
r quir ment is available in th form of sheets and roll of in several grades to p rmit a range of choic fo r the cin-
c lor d polyester material .TIle polyester film show good ematographer.
hea t re i tance even when applied to relatively high-pow- The application of the e materials allow for adju t-
r d luminaires. The u e of me of the multiple-lamp fix- ment in Light source due to voltage variation, th fading
ture (Mini-Brute ), with the requirement for orne degree of dichroic coating on certain type of lamp, and to
of diffu ion material, ha r ulted in a diIfu ion material achieve desired a thetic effects which requir I than a
which incorporat the con ersion color for this and imi- "full" daylight conver ion. These filters may also be u ed
lar applications. Reference hould be made to page 367 for to adjust the spectral energy distribution of th com mer-
a d tailed Ii ting of the filters available. ciaJ / industriallight urc 0 that they match tandard
on ersion filters - 3200K to daylight: The conver- photographic color balance (3200K or 5500K).
ion fi lter i used where it i d irable that the c nverted
338 339
DC Carbon Arc Sources
The open carbon arc remain in wide use, and in par-
ticular the 225 ampere "Brute" fresnel lens potlight. The
table summarizes the various carbon arc units, as well as
the type of carb n necessary for each type. There is also a
summary of th electrical characteristics of these arc when
properly operated.
Electrical Operating Characteristics
All of the ~arb on arcs described operate from direct
current only. The actual arc voltage of these wLits is typi-
cally about 72 volts. They are normally utilized from 120-
volt DC sourc s by using a re i tive grid (ballast) to drop
the supply voltage 48 volt .
More recently, specially wound or tapped generators
have been utiliz d which produce the arc voltage directly
and eliminate the need for the grid or ballast. This is a sig-
nificant! more efficient mod of operation in terms of
power utilization but does require special equipment.
Color Temperature
In the Brut and Titan tile carbons are available in both
white-flame aqd yellow-flame positives. The correlated
color temp ratUJe with white-flame carbon is 5800K. The
correlated color t mperature with the yellow-flame carbon
i 3350K.
Filters
The use of the e filters, originally a gelatin-based
types, is well-established practice. ew, more durable fil-
ter material are now available to accomplish these func-
tions. Thes filters are used witl, the different carbons in
order to provide lightwhid, is a better match to "daylight"
or 3200K. in so~ne cases, the arc color is adjusted in order
to meet the requirements of matching "daylight" at earlier
or later times of the day. The ba i.c conversions a re as fol-
lows. The designations are the most commonly accepted,
although some of the filter manufacturers have chosen to
create new codes:
Y-1: U ed with white-flame carbon to provide a bet-
ter match for"daylight." The Y-1 is pale yellow in color, and
has about 90% transmission. An La Yellow filter may also
be used.
340
MT-2 + Y-1: Used with white-flame carbons to convert
to approximately 3200K for color negative. (Filtered light
is slightly blue for 3200K reversal types.) The MTY filter is
available which combines these two in a ingle material. An
LCI Yellow plus Full CIa may also bused.
Other fil ters, particularly the !h MT-2, may be used to
"warm" the arc color as deemed necessary by the cinema-
tographer. The CIa series of filters are all applicable to the
arc witl, white-flame carbons for various degrees of adjust-
ment.
Enclosed AC Arcs
These are end osed light sourc whid, are ba don
the principle of a medium length mercury arc to which
various materials have been added to modify the spectral
energy distribution. The additives typically are metal ha-
lides.
All of these lamps are operated from alternating cur-
rent only, and require tile use of a high-voltage ignition
device to start and to re-strike them when hot, as well a a
ballasting device to limit the current.
As a general characteristic, all of these lamps t nd to
have a light output which is modulated in relation to time.
This is due to the fact that the light output follows tile cur-
rent, and these lamps are operated on alternating current.
As the current rises through zero and up to a maximLun and
back down through zero to the opposite polarity peak, tile
light output tends to modulate between a minimum and a
maximum value. The degree of modulation is different for
the various sources.
This characteri tic is important, ince it can b the
source of "flicker" problems. Witl, orne of the lamps it
becomes necessary to be sure that the power source t the
lamp and tile framing rate of the camera and the shutter
angle are held in c rtain specific r lationships. Ther is a
detailed analysis of this phenomenon in a following section
(page 376).
Another common characteristic of these source i that
they are approximations of daylight. Typical correlated
color temperatures are approximately 5600K. There will be
some variation in tl1i ,as well as in the manufacturing tol-
erances for color temperature for the individual lamp types.
The following sections will offer more detailed information
for each type.
341
HMFM Lamps
The most widely u ed of the new type of photo-
graphic enclosed-arc C di charge lamps are known a
HMIs. Thi term is a trademark of Osram, but has become
very much the generic term for thi family of lamps. Some
of the oth r trademarked brand names for th sources are
BRITEAR ,01 YMAX, TRU-ARC,. MSR and DiLite. An
assortment of these lamp IS shown U1 Ftgtu·e 20. These ar
fundamentally mercury arcs with metal halide additives to
adjust th c lor balanc . All of the various size of this lamp
are rated b the manufacturers at approximat Iy 5600K (see
Figure 21) . This is normally stat d as ha ing a plus or mi-
nu 400 D K tolerance. Color Rendering lode (CRI) of th
lamp i greater than 90 for all type . As will be noted from
the color temperature and its tolerance, th re can be some
variation in the color rendering characteristic from lamp
to lamp. Also, account must be tak n of the age of the lamp
since thi tends to re ul t in a red uction of the color tempera-
ture. In normal da light fill applications, these variation
are probabl not significant.
__~!£,". 200 WATIS
_ _ __ 575WATIS
~!!!!"!~1iiiii"' 12oo WATIS
2500WATIS
4000WATIS
Figure 20. Comparative ize of some H I lamps.
Where more than one light will be us d as key in a
ene, and these ar likely to be een in a ingle shot, it is
strongly recommended that the keys be measured with
a three-color type of color-temperature meter. Appropri-
ate filtering material are availab le for application to the e
wuts that all ows correction of gre n-magenta hilts as well
342
as adju tment of the color temperature. With the proper
meter, and the right filter materials at hand, it is literally a
matter of minute to balance lights to an extremely close
match. If this practice i not followed, it is po ible to ha e
significant variation in color rendering from two keys in the
same scene. Refer to the section on "Filters for Arc Sources."
,.,~m'!J
~wtj 1±1~ vj
,1,
400 500 600 700 nm eoo
wavelength A ..
Figure 21. (al Relative spectral power distribution of radiant energy
of HMJ 575-W a nd pectral radiance distribution (b) of daylight at
6500 K.
Page 345 is a brief summary of the elecb·ical and physi-
cal characteristic of the lamps comprising the full range of
HMI sources. Figw·e 22 is a graphic pr en tation of the
variou parameter of HMl amp expre ed in terms of
percentage chang in the upply oltag . It is of particu-
larinterest to note that the color temperature increases with
decrea ing voltage.
Like all metal vapor lamp , HMllamp require a c r-
tain period after starting until final operating conditions are
reached. The warm-up period varies with the lamp watt-
age, but typically i of the order of a minute or two from a
cold sta rt. Fig w·e 23 hows curves of th lech:ic and pho-
tometric data during warnUng-up of the lamp in operation
with a tandard inductive ballast. After ignition the lamp
current at first increases. Power consumption, operating
voltage and luminous £lux, howe er, are lower during the
warm-up stage than when in full operation. TIle warm-up
period after igniting a hot lamp is considerably shorter.
Lighting fixtures have been designed pecifically for
these light sources, due to their particular requirements for
cooling and the arran gements for mounting and electrica lly
343
 120
00
C> §. 79 .
115 C>
C>
0
co
ll")
N
0
.n co ....
co
Cll")
I .§2~
-
N M N <0
8. +1

110 '" ..
~ :I:

'" 0
-.
(ij

.
---- ---
,/ C> 0 Cll")
.. '
...
PL 105 0 0 0 0 0
C>
.§T"""
'" C> co
M
N
N I ci 0
~
0
ll")
0 +1
-'~~:-: " '"
0
co :I:
d>L rt!·· ·
100
.......'
............ .'"
IL .••.. -;,.;".iJ' ...............
C> 0 ll")
0
0 ll") 0
79 •
Cll")
95 C> ll") 0
2~
TF ;~ '" C>
<Q
N
N
M
~
ll") ci
M
<0
0
~
ll")
M .§ +1
UL "" .. "" ['" ...J :I:
UL 90 1--~~
.. ...::....-~-.~+-----4-----+------i <c
IL ' Ocn
- 0
CC_ C>
0
0 79 .
85 I----:-..:.."'- - - + - - - - - - + - - - - - - - l r - - - ----l ~~
C> 0 0 0 0 N 0 Cll")
2~
/ CD 0 ..t- ~
0

80
/'
PL d>L
L-=-_ _ --l ---I. -l. -l
Ocn
w-
...JCC
C>
~
M N N
...
ci ll")
~ -H
:I:

90 95 100 105 110 WW

vollage ~ 11.~ 0 ~ o
O~
Supply (00) Uv C> 0
CD Cll")
0>
~ 0

...
C> 0 CD o~
0 t.r:i ci 0
Figure 22. HMI 2500-W power consu mption PL, luminous flu x OL, ~CC
ItO
N N ~
N
0> ll")
.§ +1
current intensity IL, nearest color temperature TF, and operating voltage cc<c N :I:

UL (relative value~), as a function of the s upply voltage Uv.

<c:I:
~O 0
cmmecting the e lamps. Also, to utilize the s ub tantial light ~...J C> co 0 co 0
0 0 ,.,
-
C> N
:::J<C N ~ ~ M ci 0>
ll") C
eo:
-
output of these fixtures with any degree of efficiency re- r-
cnO ~
~

quires some pecial considerations. Fixtures are made by len

cn~
a large number of manufacturers at this point and include
Q.:I:
conventional fresnel lens potlights, flood lights and even ~Q.
....
ItO co ll") 0
0
0 ll") 0 ,.,
<cO
...
0
orne softlight configurations. ItO ~ 0> r--: en co ll")
r-
C
eo:
ormally the lighting units are supplied with a mat- ...JZ
ing ballast, although this equipment can be purchased sepa- -<c
~
rately. TIle balla ling system are normally conventional :I: ]i .
inductive types. TIlese ballast types have no effect on the c:>
C>
co
0> 0
- 0
0
0 0 0
0
Cll")
2-
-
ex)
M co
tendency for Jlis light to modulate as a fLUlction of time N ~
<D M
"§ +1
:I:
(flicker).
When perated on a standard inductive type ballast, this c.:i
lamp modulates approximately 83%. That i to say, the
minimum light utput is approximately 17% of the peak ..
<i
~.E
~
Q)
C>
~
-
C
~ E
::; ,., '§""
..........
Uo.
:.-n; .= E
~
co- "0 .2l_
value. Thi modulation characteristic, which is shown in > u ~'" u ::>

Figure 43 (page 377), is r ponsible for the "flicker" phe- .... ~ u'"
~
~ (i) i C
C> C>
C
~C

><
::>
Q)
E u +=" ::s
'"
:Em
0 C
g
== ~ ~ iI3 Ws: .& 'en
nomenon which can occur when proper attention is not
paid to the ynchronization of the power line frequency for
... ac:-
E.5
........
0._
C)o~
E-~
Q)
0.
C)
"'~
c.'"
o ~
"'C
::> .- "'-
::>'"
:=; 0
0..
::> "'c '"~C> C oc C>
.§ ~~ o.m
EO. .~ "5 C Q)
c.'"
the lamp, the hutter angle and framing rate of the camera. .£: ~·c E~
",E E~ 'E § °E Q)

This particula r problem i dealt with in some detail in a fol- :::E> .C> ~~ -,5- -::>' 0::> 3-' eo:
> ::>
<Xl

344 345
 160 ,..---....,..-r----~---T""""--___,
% rang of fi] ters describ d herein. A number of U,e types of
140 ~----I-----+---_+--
-___1
;: /
40 h:~i,~
. - -+-----+----t-------1
20 it
/
.' I
.
I--"
o 2 3 min. 4 any f the lens open ing or access doors are no t prop-
Warm-u p time - - -- -
Figure 23. IiMI 2500-W power COil umption PL, luminous nux OL,
currenl in tensit IL, nearest color temperature TR, and operating voltage
UL (relative values), as a function of time after starting the cold lamp.
I wing section (page 376). Man types of electronic balla ts
are now a\ ailable for the full range of HMl-type lamp . All
of th can be considered /lflicker-free" in the normal range
f cam ra operation.
The ervice life of th HMJ t pe lamp depend to
me e t nt on the number of tarts and might e en ceed
the alues given in the tabl . H wever it is mainl g e~ed
b th P rmissible toleranc of c lor temperatur (which
ma very according t application). During lamp life, the
color temp rature will drop at an average of appro imat~ly
1 d gree Kelvin per op rating hour. The Color R ndertng
lnd will remain lmchang d and the decreas of the lu-
minous efficacy and lumin u flux will be very low (Fig-
ure 24).
rMllamps that h ave had long use can, with the use
of a three-c lor color temperature meter and the appropri-
ate correction filter , have U1 ir color temp ratur and
green-magenta balanc adjust d . Thi practice will a ure
that the end life for these lamp is the moment at which they
can n longer be tarted using their specified ignition and
balla t equipment, rather than the point at which ~eir
unfiltered color balance i no longer acceptabl . AdJust-
ment of U1e color balanc of HMllamps is done with U,e
I ctronic ballasts offer a limited range of /lcol or tempera-
tur adjustment./I Caution hould be exercised in using
these controls relative to green-magenta axis shifts, and in
particular where applied to ke lights.
CAUTIO :
1. The HM.l sourc i tremely rich in ultraviolet
en rgy. All commercial fi ture presentl old have
been carefully designed t a ure that there is no leak-
ag of the ultra viol t nergy. There must be a I ns or
ever glass of appropriat c mpo ition over the open-
ing of this fixture in order to creen out Uus ultraviolet.
All of U,e commercial fixture in lise have interlocking
y tems which assure that U,e lamp will not operat if
erl y closed. IT IS EXTR MELY IMPORTANT THAT
THESE INTERLOCKS BE RESPECTED. SINCE EXPO-
SURE TO THESE HIGH LEVELS OF ULTRA VIO-
LET CAN RESULT IN SEVERE SU BUR I G
A D PAJ FUL EYE BURNS.
2. All commercial tems of HMl equipment are
electrically grounded (earthed). This independ nt
ground circuit must be r peeted, ince there are circum-
tances under which hazardoll voltages may b pre-
ented to an operator if UU connection i onlitted.
Wher HMI equipment is operated from a portable g n-
rator, a grounding take mllst be used to assure that
th generator and its structure are properly grounded_
UNDER 0 CIRCUMST CES SHOULD TIllS SYS-
TEM BE OPERATED U LESS A COMPLETE
GROUNDING CIRCUIT I 0 NECTED.
DCFM- DC Metal Halide Arc
Discharge Lamps
DCfTM lamps are repre ented as silent and "flicker-
free." These are generally ery irnilar in their phy ical ap-
pearance to HMl types, and a number of U,eir operating
characteristics are the Sa.I11 . The are rated at 5600 degrees
Kelvin, with a Color Rend ring Index above 90, and life
ratings are very similar to HMI lamps of sinU1ar wattage.
TIle electrode configuration is irnilar to that found in IX
 1m
W r - - r - - , - -....- ......-~-----,.--- -........, outputrepresents 90 lumens per watt. Lwnen maintenance
100 F~=9--+--+--+--+"""=.w (the amoun t by which the light falls off during life) i
claim d to be 90%. The tolerance pread for the correla ted
80 t--+--+---+---+--+-~~-~
color temperature (which i not true color temperature)
60 t--+--+---+---+--+
-~r--H would indicate t11at the lamp c uld be anyiliin~ from 3800K
40 t--+---+----+--!----+--+--+--l t 4600K as received from the manufacturer.°
20 '-_...-._----L_ _L-_....L..._~_ _.l...__....L.......J When operated on a tandard inductive type balla t,
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 750 h iliis lamp modulat approximatel 62%. ll1at i t sa , the
Operating lime minimum light output appro imately 38% of the peak
Figure 2'1. Luminous efficacy of HMI 575-W as a function of operating
valu . "Flicker" can be a problem under sam circum-
time. tanc , and appropriate precautions should b taken.
hort arc Xenon lamp . There are, however some ignifi-
cant differences between OCT and HMI: 8 7 -- '-

a.) Due to the fact that the lamp operates on DC, the ~_ • .

689~
_ ._ •' hokJIrtg ledge
arc ource is located at on I ctrode all of the time, which . I .._.... _

yields a malleI' effectiv source size, and should show

ome improvement in utilizing the lumen output of this
ource. Further, because the arc is operating on DC, it can be
/I ed at nny cnmera frnming ratef1'O/111 to 10,000frnllles per sec-
ond without concern for flicker. '53

b.) The DCI lamp ballast will be much simpler, and

hould therefore more reliable and less expensive than the
om what comple flicker-free ballasts required for the AC
arc .
j
c.) The claim for ilent operation is based on the DC
operation of the lamp a compared to the HMJ typ when
p rated on square-wa e type baUasts. Figure 25. Configurations and dimen ions for the llJOO-W CSI and CID
Thi lamp has only rec ntly appeared, and i currently 'amps.
pI' jected to be available in 8OOW, 1500W, 25OOW, 5000W,
and 10,OOOW sizes. At thi writing, the lamps have been This discharge lamp i available in a sealed-beam
succ fully fitted to e i ting HM1 Fresnel Lens Spotlights. (pAR 64) enclosure which afford imple handling and ha
mad it attractive for large area lighting of locati ns and
CSI Lamps ports ettings for both t I ision and film.
Appropriate filtering f r CSI lamps is availabl from
The Compact Source Iodide Lamps (CSI) are al so t11e range of light source corr ction media Ii t d on page
metal halide additive-type lamps. Typically, the e are avail- 367. Because of the charact r of the radian t energy di tri-
able in either a single-ended configuration or in a PAR 64 bution of this source, it i sential fuat a three-eolor read-
( eal d beam) enclosure. The configuration of t11 various ing color temperature m t r be used in order to a ure that
lamp in this series is hown in Figure 25.
Thi particular lamp ha been used more widely in
CAUTIO :The same cautionary note as shown under
Europe fuan in the USA. It i pecified as having a corre-
the HMI lamp type relati e to ultraviolet expo ur and
lated color temperature of 4200K plus or minu 400K.
to grounding and electrical safety is applicable to the use
Clearly it is necessary to do me filtering of fue light to use
of these sources. The sealed beam PAR 64 bulb emits
it ither in a "daylight" balance situation or for 3200K ap-
no UV provided that the outer bulb is intact
plication. The efficacy of the lamp is high and its initial
348 349
 I Typical spectral power
reasonable correction are bei ng achieved with the lCUl1 PS
fo r critical color w rk. X l o'
2.---.--- ,--r--r-----:----::--:------,
Spectral Power Dlslrlbu tlon _ _
CID Lamps of lkW CIO Lamp.

Thi m tal halide additive-type lamp utilizes the io- Recon,mu,ed Oal'toghl a1 c=::J
dides of tin and indium. Th phy ical configurations ar S500 D K 1Q551.
identical t th Ilamp (ee Figure 25), except that in the
cm type, a 2500-\ att ver ion i al 0 a aiJable. This is pic-
tured in Figur 26. The pectral power distribution and
tran i nt tarting characteri tics are hown in Figur 27
and 2 .
The c rr lated color temperatme of cm lamp i
5500K plus r minus -lOOK throughout life. It i claimed that
CID lamp can be dimmed to 40% maximum output (us-
ing llitable balla t) without affecting color temperature.
The claimed lumen maintenance for thi source i 90"10 for o 4L-+--+--~-~-~.--.>__-+-_+-y
all of its ty and ariations. 400 450 500 S50 600 650 700
hen op rated on tandard inducti e ballasts, the Wavelength lnml

lamp modulat to -!5%. That is to sa ,the minimum light Figure 27. Typical spectral power distribution for CID lamps.
output i appro irnately 55% of the peak. This represen
140 r----""T'"---~-----.,r----~
a ignifi ant ifllpro ernento er the basic modulation char-

120

c 100
.2
"§
m 80
>.,
.,
Ol

c:., 60
u
Q;
0..
+, 40
o
o
o
.,; 20

30 sec. 1 min . 1 min . 30 sec. 2 min.

Time from switch-on

-r- Figure 28. Transient characteris tics of lamp fro m switch-on .

1.125" •

' -L~ acteristi of the HMl and CST typ ,but precautions re-
garding flicker must still be ob erved.
Filters for adjusting the pectral nergy di tribution of
Figure 26. 2500-W compact iodide daylight (00). CID lamps are listed on page 66-367.
351
Light-Souroe Filters
ll1ese light sources vary not only in color temperahtre,
but there are likely to be significant green-magenta shifts.
It is reconunended that anyone regula rly working with the
types of AC arc discharge sources delineated above sho uld
have a three-cglor color temperature meter. With s uch an
instrume nt, and the system of filters created by Rasco Labo-
rat~ri~s, inc., itl iS po~sib l e to deal properly with all of the
vanatlons tha are lIkely to be encoun te red w ith these
lamps.
TIle possib le range of lamp-ta-Iamp variations in color
balance is p rimarily due to aging and manufacturing varia-
tions. In many situations, it will be highly desirable or es-
sential to assure that the lamps in lise will have the sam e
co lor rendering characteristics.
So me claims have been made for s i.ng le con version
filters for the HM1 and CSI type lamps, bu t it is difficult to
tmd erstand how a si.ngle filter could even come close to
m eeting th e wide range of possi.ble lamp color balances that
are likely to be encotUltered within a given type. The range
of available m~teri.als has been proven in prac tice to meet
the requirements of color balancing lights so that minimum
variations are presen t.
High-Pressure DC Short Arc Xenon Light
Sources
This source is the best commercia lly availab le li ght
somce for use in higher-powered projection systems. The
very small size and very high brightness of the arc source,
and the stabili~y o f the arc location d ue to the DC opera-
ti on, make it the source of ch oice around the worl d for
motion-pictur~ projection.
The efficacy of high-pressure xenon sources (lumens!
wa tt) ranges from 35 to 50 LPW. Ballasting is very simple,
CAUTION: ll1ese lamps have high internal pres-
sure even when col d. They are s upplied with a protec-
ti ve jacket ov~r the bulb, and this should not be removed
tUltil the lamp is full y insta ll ed. It is required that a suit-
a.ble face shield, body jacket and ga untlets be used any
time that the protective jacket is removed. When remov-
ing a lamp the protective jacket should be insta lled be-
fore steps are taken to disconnect and rem ove the lamp.
352
requiring only a current-limiting rectifier that ca n produce
DC that has less than 5% ri p ple. A high-voltage igniter is
necessary to start these lamps, and they can be hot re-struck.
TI1ese lamps permit the creation of an intense focused beam
of pure, slightly cold daylight co lor ba lance light (about
6000" K), and have a Color Rend erin g Index of 95 to 98.
They have fotUld some limited applica ti on in motion-pic-
ture photographi c lighting. The source is available in a wide
variety of wattages up to 10KW.
Stroboscopic Lighting
Stroboscopic ("strobe") lighting for motion pictures
has been avai lable commercially for abou t 30 years. Typi-
cally these utilize xenon flashtubes which produce a good
approximation of dayli ght (about 6000"K), an d a relatively
stable color temperature th roughout life. Due to the fac t that
the flashtubes that are s uitable for this application are ei-
ther long slim sources or helical shapes, they can really only
produce soft lig hting. They can be color-corrected or ad-
justed using the same filter materials described for appli-
cation to any of the normall y util ized lig ht sources and
lighting ins truments.
It is common practice to utili ze continuous sources
(such as tungsten) wi th strobes. Typical practice is to light
2 stops und er the strobe wi th the hmgsten lighting up to
one stop over. The more tungsten ligh ting, the softer the
image. The con trol equipment for these light sources per-
mits an exposure duration of between 1;50.000 and Y1 OO,OlXl of a
second. 111is perrnitsstop motion wi th extraordinary sharp-
ness of various phenomena, and delineates detaiJ in real-
time movement that is a blur in normal photography (even
wi th very small shutter angles). 111e sha rp ness of results in
slow-motion effects is tmm atched by other teclmiques.
The strobes must be synchronized to the cam era shu t-
ter. Usually the strobes are driven by the shutter pulse from
the camera, and it is imperative that the un its Aash when
the shutter is fully clear of the gate (otherwise a parti ally
exposed frame w il l result). To check camera synchroniza-
tion, the lens should be removed, and the cav ity illtuninated
with the strobe wi th the camera turned on. The sh utter
should appear to be frozen in one posi tion.
The control equipment for these s trobes permits the
addition of d elay to the pulse in d egree increments. The
position of the shutter will either move forward or back-
353
wa~d. in relationship to th gate until it is in the proper
po than . For refle camera th trobe fires twice for each
frame, once to iIluminat the ubj ct and a second time to
illuminate the viewfinder.
C U!'lO : People with photo en itive epi lep y
hould be informed that trobe lighting will be in use.
Commercial/Industrial Light Sources
This section will pr nt information about the rna t
commonl encountered type of commercial/indu trial
light urces whidl ma b found in location ituation .
For man e teri r ituations, there is little or nothing
that can b: dO~le about th color of the existing light (e.g.,
r adw~y Il~hbn9 ~r large-area ex terior lighting). In many
ther ItuatlOns It I comp let Iy practical and/or po ible
to apply filters to the light urces that are encountered in
a I c~ ti on setting. Thi s ca n r suIt in minimizing th prob-
lem 111 the et-up, and achi ving a more natural look (mor
nearly a the scene app ar t the eye).
Furth ralternativei th useofcamerafiltersto com-
pen ilt for the color balanc f the available light. [n or-
der~ou . eco~l . entionalph t graphiclightsfor uppl men-
tal hghtmg, It I anI nec sary that they be filtered 0 that
th ir color balance i the me as the dominant ambient
Ii htin o . This approach milke it po ible t r tain the
"character" or "look" of the I ation lightin o and till al-
~ow ~ c:eative fr edam to add urn uppl~mentallight­
mg a mdtcated for the d ' ired dramatic or artistic effect.
Domestic Incandescent Lighting
Non-photogrilphic typ f incandescent lighting t nd
to have color temperatur that may range from 2400K up
through 2900K or so at their rated voltages. TIle color tem-
p rature i' directly related to the wattage of the lamp, wi th
very-I w-wattage types hav ing the lowest color t mpera-
tur . Refer to page 319.
1f the~~ source are pr viding sufficient ligh t for xpo-
ur ,a nd It 1 fe~t that no upplemental lighting is requir d,
th n a camera filter can be used to correct the lighting bal-
anc to iln appro imation f 3200K. Typicall ,thi would
repr nt application of on or more of the Wratten 2 se-
rie filter. The table on page 230 !!ives an approximation
of the appropriate Wratten filter or filter required and the
effect f that filter on the color temperature of the ambient
lighting. (Alternatively, most lilboratories could corr ct for
the temperature deficiency in printing from c lor negative.)
If used,supplementallightiJlgcan be reduced in c lortem-
perature to match the ambient light; this would be done
010 tea ily by the addition of filters to the luminaire . It
could also be accompli hed by the use of a dimm r.
AC Discharge Lighting
The cinematograph r on location a igrtn1 nt is more
and more likely to enc unter variou t p of discharge
lamp . These may be in use for both interi r lighting in
tor and commercial buildings and for exteri r lighting
in ports stadiums, parki ng lots, shopping mall , and for
treet lighting.
Many of these typ of light sources give excellent
color rendering for th ye, and the manufacturers often
give a correlated color t mpera tme value to th urce. This
"Kelvin" temperatu re usually has no meaning f r th pm-
po s of color photo raphy.
The following tions offer the means for d aling with
these light sources to a me acceptable photographic rc-
ults that should be well within the laborator tolerances
for correction of color negative film. (See" I r Balanc-
ing.")
Existing Fluorescent Lighting on Location
11Us is probably the 010 t widely used type of interior
lighting in commercial and industrial ettings. It i not
unusual to fmd commercial or industrial locati n which
are lighted to 125 or so footcandle using fluor cent light-
ing. Considering the pe d and other rnaracteri tic of the
n we t film emulsions, thi level is certainly sufficient to
obtain reasonable po ure settings.
By making use of the ambient fluorescent light, the
cinematographer can maintain the lighting quality and the
character of the setting, that is to say, a more n arl y"soft-
lighted" appearanc .
Most fluore cent illumination, because of its discon-
tinuous pectrum, i not well-suited to color cinematogra-
phy ( e Figures 29 through 34). The correlated color tem-
perature of a fluorescent lamp may pro ide a i ual color
match for a tungsten lamp of similar color temperatur ,but
photographic color r uI will be quite dissimilar. Expo-
ure may no longer be a problem under th conditions
355

Figure 30. Warm Wh te F40WW.
but color renditi n remains a serious consideration with
fluorescents fo d in commercial or industrial situations.
H color film is exposed without filter correction, the
results will have a blue-green cast with weak reds, even
with daylight emulsions. The result is·not at all what
the viewer to see in a fluorescent-lighted setting.
356
Figure 31. Cool White Deluxe F4OCWX.
Figure 32. Warm White Deluxe F40wwx.
Mercury Vapor and Color Improved
Mercury Lamps
The clear mercury vapor lamp will not produce accept-
able color photographic results with any d~ of filter-
ing. The reason for this can be seen by exammmg the spee-
357

Figure 34. Incande cent Fluorescent F40lF.
trum in Figure 35. Note that there is essentially no light
output in the r~ portion of the spectrum and only line
spectrum outp t in the blue and blue-green portions. Ob-
viously, there i no way to compensate for the lack of red
energy, so that . source must either be overpowered with
358
Fluorescent Lighting
for Motion Pictures
by Freider Hochheim, President of KinoFlo,. mc.
Fluorescent lighting has traditionally had the
reputation of being an inappropriate light source for
motion picture production. The primary criticism has
revolved around noisy ballasts, poor color rendering,
green skin tones, 60Hz flicker and low light output.
These criticisms are now a thing of the past. Technol-
ogy has advanced to the point where high-quality
fluorescent products are now being produced spe-
cifically for the motion-picture and television indus-
try. The cinematographer can now consider using
fluorescent lights not only in situations which are
motivated by existing location fluorescent environ-
ments but rather in any situation requiring either
daylight or 3200 Kelvin light.
The flliorescent lamp by its very nature has an
indirect or ambient light quality which.is desirable
in situations calling for natural light quality. Instead
of bouncing the light from an HMI or an incandes-
cent fixture, the cinematographer can utilize a fluo-
rescent light source which embodies the character-
istics of a bounce board. The light is soft and has a
spread and drop-off very similar to bounced light.
Finding this quality of light in a long narrow light
source which can be easily hidden in a set opens up
new lighting possibilities and provides new solutions
for old problems. The low heat and low power re-
quirements give this technology added appeal
amongst actors and electricians alike.
KinoFlo provides some of the most recent inno-
vations. It is producing a line of location and studio
lighting systems offering lightweight and portable,
high-frequency flicker-free, color-eorrect fluorescent
lighting instruments. KinoFlo offers a broad selection
of color-eorrect lamps in sizes ranging from the mi-
cro at 100mm in length to the KF55 at 8 feet and in
5500 Kelvin and 3200 Kelvin color temperatures.
359
other lighting or allowed to render its subjects with only 1OlIO.
blue/blue gr n energy.
A numbe of other types of mercury lamps have been J
made in whi a phosphor coating has been put on the
inside of the 0 ter jacket of the lamps. In principle, this has
worked very tPuch like a fluorescent lamp and has resulted •J
inan~prov ~ color rendering capability. A number ill 4
these types, s ~ch as the Color Improved Mercury, have

~I
sufficiently c( ~plete spectral energy distribution so that
they are now finding application in certain types of com-
mercial interi ruse. I
•
35ll 4lIO 4SI 50() 550 1m 650 100
-.gr.nNoro.-s

,
~ 14J4
14 t U i 3 - ... 1454
~Olb""""'~ Olb Renoemg ......-47
-
a : ~ . «XIy - 3M!

.;.. I Figure 36. spectral energy distribution of 400-W Warm Deluxe mercury
50 I-- I lamp (H33GL-400-Wmo.
\
50 I--
1098 1825
0 I--
I
I _ 9Iot--~--+---+---a--~~I---+---l
30
20
I--
I ~ 1I01t---+---+--t--f:~t-- J-+---+----1
I--

1M to ~
II
... .j
! lOt---+---+--+--f~ :-+---+---1
1IOI-"-I-_+---+-4:S--... :-+---+----1
50() 550
w-IInglh In N8rlor.-w
1m 650 100
.J :D10... _~...t+_-;_-l
~ Q:Q~ Q:Q flIIndIImg Incleoo-22
. - 320y - 319
Figure 35. Spectr iaI energy distribution of 400- W Clear mercury lamp.
f
... 201-. .- . . . .-+---+--1

Spectral ~ergy distributions for some of these lamps 35ll «XI 450 50() 5S) Em
areshownin ~igures 36 through 38. It is evident from the ~nNlrclrt-.s

examination( f these distributions that there is a substan- eor-Olb~~ OlbRerdemg nclex

tial improven ent in the availability of energy at the inter- a:~ • • JII3y • .,g
mediatewav ~engths between the mercury lines. This re- Figure 37. Spectral energy distribution of 4DO-W Color Improved
sults in impr( :Ved color rendering. mercury lamp (H33GL-4OOC).

distributions for these types are shown in figures 39 and

Metal Hal de Additive Lamps
Themet halide additive lamps known by a variety
oftrademark d names such ~ Metalarc, Multi-Vapor and
HQI, for eX!Ple, are essentially mercury vapor lamps
which have d small additions of various metal halides
made inside e arc tube. These lamps have generally high
efficacies (ap roximately 85 lumens per watt typically).
These la1pps are widely used in sports lighting as well
as in shopping malls, and a wide variety of other commer-
cial/industri applications. Some typical spectral energy
360
40.
Sodium Lamps
High-pressure sodium lamps have become an ex-
tremely important light source for roadway and large-area
lighting such as parking lots. These lamps are known by
various trademarked names such as Lucalox and Lumalux.
These are high-efficacy lamps, up to 120 lumens per watt.
They have a charac~ristically yellow-orange color. A typi-
cal spectral energy distribution is shown in Figure 41.
361
 2Or--r---,r--....-:----,r----r--~-____.
lOD,I===!J:==1~=+"i212.:n78ii1~;;;;:iJ4===+==l
E9
5! 8(j....-~- . .+---+---II......., l-4--l----l
! i'll11---*-......H - - - 4 -......1- 4 ....--+------l
j 601---#-"+---+--111---" -+---~--1

J:
12.
450 500 56Il fDl
~Il~
500 5i5O 100
eca ~-GlO'K eca Rendemg 1nde><--43 ~i'I~
- x - 3lI2 y- 3ll5
Spectral ene<gy dislriblAion oI4()().Wd Melalarc Clear ~
Figure 38. Sp energy distribution of 400-W Brite-White Deluxe Figure 40. Spectral energy distribution of tooo-w MetalardC lamp
mercury lamp (H33-400DX). (coated).
2O.------r-+---.---..,....---r------,.----~--..,
2Or--..,.--~--r_-..,--~--"T"""-__.

I~~++---+---+---+-"
$I
U---I----l I 18t---t---t----I--+____. :-----+~

i
! lil 12t---+--+--~-_4 ~

r~
I
.t---t---+--+--+-!

E 4

al energy distribution of 400-W Metalarc clear lamp.
Low-pr ure sodium lamps have been widely used
in Europe forlmany years for the same applications. There
are some insltions in the US. This is the highest efficacy
commercial I p available (approximately 160 to 180 lu-
mens per wa ).
The s al energy distribution for this lamp reveals
that it is mo±~omatic; in effect, this is a yellow-only
lamp. No degree of filtering will permit proper color ren-
dition. These .ght sources are easily recognized (the source
is quite larg and relatively low brightness, particularly
compared to e high-pressure sodium).
Figure 41. Spectral power distribution of 400-W sodium lamp, similar
to types known as Lucelox or Lumalux.
Color Balancing for Photography
. A series of ~pp~~esis outlined in the following sec-
tions to deal WIth lighting when any of the commercial/
industrial AC arc discharge or fluorescent sources are en-
countered as the dominant ambient lighting environment.
Exceptions are pure mercury and low-pressure sodium.

363
A. Leaving the Ambient Discharge Lighting
"0 With Standard Photographic
II -
Lighting Equipment Used Supplementally
Where the ambient illuminati n i adequate for expo-
sme, and as uming (1) r asonabl Luliformity in the typ s
of lamps in the installation, and (2) that no supplementaJ
lighting wiJl b u ed, it would only be nece ary to apply
the appropriate filtering to the camera. When using color
negati e film and the required correction at the camera is
small, it is po ible that no camera filter be used, and the
laboratory told to mak the nece ary correction.
If omesupplementallightingisrequiredornece sary
for dramatic or artistic reasons, the suppl mental light
should be filter d to match the dominant col r balanc of
the ambient lighting. It i also po ible to utilize the ame
type f lamp a the ambient lighting, on fI r stand , for
upplemental lighting (e pages 66-375 for camera and
lighting filter ).
B. Mixed or Unknown Types of Ambient
Lighting as the Dominant Light Source
Many int riors arc lighted b mixed types of fluores-
cent lamps, or the f1uore cent illumination may be mixed
with da light or tungsten lighting. In shopping maU , it is
pos ibl to en unter e era! types of high-intensity dis-
charg lamps. The use of a three-c lor type of color meter
shou ld make it possible to establish what the dominant
color balance is. Some of the same procedure described
abo e ill (A) would then b applicable.
C. Filtering the Ambient Light Sources
Where the acces to the ambient lighting fixtures is
rea nable, and the quantity of th m not to great, the m-
dividual light r fixtme can be filtered to ither a 3200K
or a 5500K balance. It is then po sible to utilize standard
photographic luminair for supplementaJ lighting.
D. Overpowering the Ambient Lighting
Directly iULLminate the subject with or 5500K illumi-
nation. If this i done at a level such that this lighting be-
comes the dominant source for the exposme of the subject,
then daylight-balanced film can be used without any cam-
era filters. The background would, of course, be blue-green
in color but this may be acceptable. This practice i com-
364
monly followed in newsgathering or documentary situa-
tions.
CAUTIO
1.) There may be significant color variation en-
countered between the various types oflamps and even
between lamps of tlle same type made b y the same
manufacturer. Some of the reasons for these variations
may be age, burning position, temperature and manu-
facturing tolerances. A three-eolor type of color tem-
perature meter is necessary for accomplishing the mea-
surements required for some of the approaches de-
scribed in the following section. (If the lamp can be
identified, the tables noted below provide filter data for
most situations; the 3C meter may then be u ed to
verify the baJance between lamps.)
2.) It is strongly recommended that film tests be
run wherever there is greatconcem for color accuracy.
These tests should be done under circumstances such
that the anticipated operating conditions of the aChtal
production are well duplicated.
3.) AC lamps are subject to the "ilicker" phenom-
enon. That is to say, there is variation in the Hght out-
put .....lith time. For 24 fps exposure (crystal-eontrolled),
where the power to the lamp is derived from a stable
60 Hertz source, there is very little likelihood of a ilicker
problem. Overcranking, very small shutter angles and
some other combinations involving power upplied
from unregulated generators may re ult in flicker. A
more detailed treatment of the flicker problem can be
found elsewhere in this manual.
Filter Selection
Filters for color balancing commercial/industrial light-
ing sources for color photography (tables 366-375) wer
deri ed and confirmed photographically by David L.
Quaid, ASC, and c pyrighted by rum.They are accurate for
the particular lamps tested; see the caution paragraph
above about variation and testing, and page 238 about ex-
posure m ter variation. Deviation of typica l exposure
meters is indicated in T-stops next to certain filtered lights
in tlle tables. When measuring incident filtered light from
these lamps, adjust the ASA on the meter to compensate.
365
 lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting
Neutral Density and Combinations (for windowsl
Increase color temperature (Blue) Ellecton
Neutral Density Stops
Mired 3200' K 2900' K
Rasco #3415 N.15 .15 1/2 Value (312 (345
Lee #29B .15ND .15 1/2 Mired) Mired)
Rasco #3402 N.3 .30 1
Lee #209 .30ND .30 1 Lee #201 Full C.T. Blue -137 5700' K 4Bl0' K
Rasco #3403 N.6 .60 2 Rasco #3202 Full Blue ·131 5500' K 4670' K
Lee #210 .60ND .60 2 Lee #281 3/4 C.T. Blue ·1 13 5000' K 43WK
Rasco #3404 N.9 .90 3 Lee #202 Half C.T. Blue · 78 4270' K 37SO·K
Lee '211 .90ND ,90 3 Rasco #3204 Half Blue · 68 4100' K 36100K
Lee #299 1.20ND 1.20 4 3800·K
Rosco #3206 Thind Blue • 49 33800K
Lee #203 Quarter C.T.Blue -35 3610·K 32300K
EHect on Rasco 3208 Quarter Blue -30 35SO·K 31800K
Mired 5500' K 6OOO' K Lee #218 Eighth C.T. Blue • 18 3400·K 3060"K
Lee #207 Full CTO t .3ND t159 2930' K 3070' K Rasco #3216 Eighth Blue • 12 3330·K 3OOO·K
Lee #208 Full CTO t .6ND 159 2930' K 30700 K DiffusinCi Blue
Rasco #3405 Roscosun 85N.3 t131 3200' K 33600 K Lee #224 Daylight Blue Fros -1 37 5700·K 4810' K
Rosco 3406 Rascosun 85N.6 t1 31 3200' K 3360' K Rosco #3017 Full Blue Frost -131 5500' K 4670·K
Lee #221 Blue Frost -49 38OO' K 3380·K
Rosco 3013 Tough Booster Frost - 49 38OO·K 3380·K
Rosco 3012 Tough Booster Silk -30 3SSOOK 31800K
Lee #217 Blue Diffusion • 18 333O'K 3OO00K
lighting Filters
GreenlMagenta Adjusting for Arc Discharge Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)
& Fluorescent (Used with Blue/Amber Color Temperature Filters) Rasco "33407 Rascosun CTO t 167 2B65°K 3000"K
Rasco #3441 Full Straw (CTS) +167 2B65·K 3000"K
Green Filters (Decrease Red/Blue [magentaD CC Equivalent Lee #204 Full C.T. Orange t159 2930' K 3070'K
Rasco #3304 Tough Plusgreen Roscolt3401 Roscosun 85 +131 32000K 3360·K
CC30G 344O'K 3629·K
Lee #244 Plus Green Lee #205 Half C,T. Orange tl09
CC30G Rasco 1/3408 Roscosun 1/2 CTO + 81 38000K 4030' K
Rosco #331 5 Tough 112 Plusgreen CC15G Rasco #3442 Half Straw (112 CTS) t 81 38000K 40300K
Lee #245 Half Plus Green CC15G Lee #206 Quarter C.T. Orange t64 4060' K 433O'K
Rosco #3316 Tough 1/4 Plusgreen CC075G Rosco #3409 Roscosun 1/4 CTO + 42 4480' K 480O'K
Lee .246 Quarter Plus Green CC035G Rasco #3443 Quarter Slraw (1/4 CTS) t 42 4480' K 480O'K
Rosco #3317 Tough 1/8 Plusgreen CC04G lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting
Rasco #3306 Tough Plusgreen 50 CC30 Gt85B
Lee #241 Fluorescenl5700' Kelvin CC30 G+80A Decrease Color Temperature (Amber) Ellect on
Lee #242 Fluorescent 4300' Kelvin CC30 GtBOC Mired 5500' K 6000' K
Lee #243 Fluorescenl 3600' Kelvin CC30 G+B2B Value (182 (167
Mired) Mired)
Magenta Filters (Decrease Green) Lee #223 Eighth C.T. Orange +26 4600' K 5180' K
Rosco #330B Tough Minusgreen CC30M Rasco #3410 Roscosun 1/8 CTO +20 4950' K 5350' K
Lee #247 Minus Green CC30M Rosco #3444 Eighth Straw (1/8 CTS) + 20 4950' K 5350' K
Rosco #3313 Tough 1/2 Minusgreen Rosco #3414 UV filler t 8 5260·K 5710' K
CC15M
Lee #24B Half Minus Green Lee UV t 2 5440' K 5930' K
CC15M
Rosco #3314 Tough 1/4 Minusgreen CC075 M Red·Amber
Lee #249 Quarter Minus Green CC075 M Lee #236 HMI (to Tungsten) +134 3170·K 3226' K
Rosco #331 BTough l iBMinusgreen CC04M Lee #237 CID (to Tungsten) +131 3200·K 3360' K
Rasco #31 06 Tough MTY +131 3200' K 3000· K
Rosco #3102 Tough MT2 +110 3425·K 3790' K
Rasco #3310 Fluorfiller (CC30M t85B) Lee #238 CSI (to Tungsten) t 49 4330·K 4640·K
Rosco #3115 Tough 112 MT2 t 38 4545' K 5210' K
Rasco #3134 Tough MT54 + 35 4610·K 5290'K

366 367
 Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting
Camera filters : Symbol " .. conversion or light balancing series, " CC " Color Compensating series (Pages 124 and 125) EI
VJ column ISe posure compensation ,n T SlOPS for filters
&j Photo lamp filters : (Pages 366 and 367) EI column IS devrallon of tYPical e posure meters due to color Imbalanc When
readIn e posure In fil tered light from these units, reduce the ASA/ISO meter se lling (I e Increase the light level) y the number of
T stops Indicated Where correction IS "minus" (-), decrease the light level (Increase the ASA/ ISO seltlngl

-c DaVI'd L Qua Id ASC

Using existing fluorescenl lighting unfiltered Filtering fluorescent lights to
(f Apage 241) match photo lights (- Cpage 241)
Camera filters Pholo lamp filters Camera filter: None Camera filter:
(Kodak or equivalent) (Aosco Clnegel or equivalent) (Tungsten negative Tungsten Negative: #85
Manufaclurer 3200K film 5500K film 3200K or reversal) Dayllghl OIm: None
lamp type
-
EI
-EI -
EI
5500K
EI To match 3200K EI To match 5500K EI
Durotest # 81EF # 818 Full blue 50 Third blue Sun 85 'I,Minusgreen
Color Classer 75 + CC05M 113 +CC10M 2f3 + Y2Plusgreen VJ + %Plusgreen 0 + 'I4Minusgreen '13 + Sun 1/8 CTa 0
+#85 + Quarter blue +Sun 1fe CTa
Durotest CC10M CC10M Full blue 50 Quarter blue Sun 85 IhMlnusgreen -
Vltalight +#81 1 +# 81 '13 + %Plusgreen 113 + 'I2Plusgreen '13 + 1/4Minusgreen 0 '13
+#85 + Sun 1fe CTa
Durotest # 85 # 82A Full blue 50 I/,Plusgreen Sun 'h CTa V4Minusgreen -
aptima 50 2f3 + CC05M 2f3 + Sun % CTO 113 0 o + Quarter blue
I 113
Durotest # 81 # 80C Quarter blue Sun '12 CTa V4Minusgreen Half blue -
aptima 32 + CC05M 113 +#82A 111: + UV Filter o + Sun V, CTa 0 +Sun 1/8 CTa o:+ Quarter blue 113

General Electric # 81A # 818 Full blue 50 Third blue Sun CTa - Sun '18 CTa -
Chroma 75 +#856 1 + CC05M 2f3 + Quarter blue '13 0 + Eighth blue '13 '13
+ V4Minusgreen
General Electric CC60M CC50M Full 81ue 50 Third blue Minusgreen Minusgreen
Lite White +#81C ~ '13 1 + Half blue 2fJ + Plusgreen 2fJ + 'hMinusgreen a + 'I2Mlnusgreen '13
+#85 + 2x(Plusgreen + 'hPlusgreen +Sun '12 CTa
+ Eighth blue +Sun VB CTa
+ V4Plusgreen + 1f4Minusgreen
General Electric CC50M CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Mlnusgreen
SP-41 + # 818 2fJ 2f3 + Plusgreen 213 + Third blue 113 + Sun '12 CTa 0 + Eighth blue '13
+ # 85 + 'I,Plusgreen +Sun 1fe CTa
+ Quarter blue
General Electric CC05M CC10M Full blue 50 'I,Plusgreen Sun '12 CTO - V,Minusgreen -
1 +#82A 213 + 1f4Plusgreen 0 0 + '14 Minusgreen 1/3 Quarter blue 113
Chroma 50 +#81
+#85 +Sun 1fe CTa
All Mfrs- Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
 Using ulsllng fluorescent IIghling unflllered Fillering fluorescent lights to
malch photo IIgMs
Camera fillers Photo lamp ftllers Clmera filler: None Clmera filler:
(Kodak or equivalent) (Rosco Clnegel or equlvlllntj (Tungslen negilive Tungslen Negallve: #85
Mlnuflcturer 3200K fihn 5500K film nOOK 5500K or reversal) Oayllght film: None
r- - r-
Limp type EI EI EI EI To IIIllch 3200K EI To malch 5500K EI
General Electric CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen -
White + CC10M h% +#82B 1 + Plusgreen 1/3 + I/,Plusgreen 0 + 'hMinusgreen 0 + Ouarter blue 'f.!
+ 'I,Plusgreen + Quarter blue +Sun 'I, CTO
+Sun 'Ie CTa
General Electric CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
SP-35 +#82 % +#82C 1'1: + Plusgreen '13 0 + I/,Minusgreen 0 + Quarter blue %
+Sun '12 CTa + Eighth blue
General Electric CC40R CC15M Half blue Plusgreen 'hMlnusgreen Half blue -
SPX-35 +#81A 1 + CC30B 1'1: +2x '13 + 'hPlusgreen 0 + Sun 1/, CTa 0 + lhMinusgreen %
('I2Plusgreen) + I/.Minusgreen + %Minusgreen
+Third blue +Sun 'Ie CTa
General Electric CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
Regal white +#85C 1 + CC05M 12/: + Plusgreen '13 +Sun 'Ie CTa '13 + Sun 1f< CTO 0 + Minusgreen 1/3
+#81 + Quarter blue + Eighth blue

General Electric CC30M CC50B Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen - Half blue
SP-30 I + # 81EF 1 + CC05M 121: + Plusgreen '/3 + '/,Plusgreen % + Sun 'Ie CTa ,] + 2x 0
SPX-30 + '/.Plusgreen Sun 1f< CTa + UV Filter (lhMinusgreen)
+Quarter blue + Eighth blue
GTE Sylvania CC50M CC35M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen -
Lite White Deluxe +#82A D% 2fJ + Plusgreen % + IhPlusgreen % + '/.Mlnusgreen 0 + Eighth blue 113
+#85B +%Plusgreen + Quarter blue + Sun 1/2 CTa
+Quarter blue + Sun 'Ie CTa
+Eighth blue
GTE Sylvania CC30M CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Minusgreen
actron-41K + # 81A 213 +#82 1 +Plusgreen '13 +Quarter blue 0 +Sun '12 CTa 0 + Quarter blue 0
+#85 + UV filter + Sun 'I, CTa
GTE Sylvania CC05M CC10M Full blue 50 '/,Plusgreen Sun '12 CTa - '/,Minusgreen -
Design 50 +#81 1 +#82A % + '/<Plusgreen 0 0 + 1f<Minusgreen '3 + Quarter blue '3
+#85 +Sun 'Ie CTa
GTE Sylvania CC40M CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Minusgreen Third blue
Deluxe White +#82A l 'l. +#82B 1'1: Plusgreen 213 + 'I,Plusgreen 0 + Sun 'I, CTa 0 + Minusgreen '3
+#85 1f<Plusgreen +Sun 'Ie CTa
+Sun 'Ie CTO
GTE Sylvania #85C # 82C Half blue '/,Minusgreen Sun 1f< CTa - Half blue -
Natural White '13 2/3 + Eighth blue o -I UV Filter 0 +Sun 'Ie CTa I] '3

All Mfrs-Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Delu xe: See page 167
 Using exlsllng fluDrescenl IIghling unnllered Filtering nUDrescent lights ID
match phDtD IIghlS
Camera nllers PhDID lamp nllers Camera nller: NDne Camera niter:
(KDdak Dr equivalent) (ROSCD Cinegel Dr equivalent) (Tungsten negallve lungslen Negative: #85
Manufacturer 32DDK nlm 55DDK nlm 32DDK 55DDK Dr reversal) Daylight nlm: NDne
c- c- c-
lamp type EI EI EI EI To match 32DDK EI TD match 55DDK EI
GTE Sylvania CC40M # 80C Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
Warm Lite Deluxe + # 810 '!J +CC30M 2 + Plusgreen a + 'hPlusgreen % +Sun V, CTa a +Minusgreen '3
+#81 + '/,Plusgreen +Sun VB CTa + Eighth blue
+Quarter blue
GTE Sylvania CC30M CC508 Half blue Plusgreen Minusgreen Half blue
actron 31K +#85C 1 + CC05M 121: Plusgreen '13 + %Plusgreen a +Sun %CTa a + V2Minusgreen a
+ # 81 +Quarter blue +Sun '/8 CTa + 2x(UV Filter) + '/.Minusgreen
+ Elghth blue +Eighth blue
GTE Sylvania CC35M CC508 Plusgreen Plusgreen Mlnusgreen Half blue
3K Royal White + # 81EF n'l3 + CClaM 121: + '/.Plusgreen '13 + '/,Plusgreen a Sun V. CTa a +Minusgreen a
+Half blue Sun 'ie CTa +Quarter blue
+ Quarler blue
GTE Sylvania # 82C #80A Sun 'Ie CTa Sun CTa Third blue - Full blue 50
Incandescent #82A '13 +# 82C b2f: +Sun V, CTa '/3 +Elghth blue '13 +Elghth blue '3 + Y2Minusgreen '13
Fluorescent + CC05M + CC05M +Quarter blue

North American CC50R CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Fluorfllter Minusgreen

Philips Ultralume 50 +#81EF 2 +#818 1 + Plusgreen '13 +Third blue a +Sun 'Ie CTa a + Sun '18 CTa a
+ Third blue
North American CC5aR CC30M Full blue 50 Plusgreen Mlnusgreen Minusgreen
Philips Ultralume 41 +#818 2fJ +#82 1 + Plusgreen 2fJ + '1,Plusgreen a + Sun Y2 CTa '13 '1,Minusgreen '13
+ Eighth blue + Quarter blue +Sun 'Ie CTa
North American CC3aM CC508 Half blue Plusgreen '12Mlnusgreen Half blue
Philips Ultralume 30 +#81EF 1 +CC10M 121:2 a + '1,Plusgreen a + '1,Minusgreen '3 +Minusgreen '13
(V2Plusgreen) +Sun 'IeCTa +Sun 'I, CTa +Eighth blue
+ Quarter blue
North American CC05M CClaM Full blue 50 '1,Plusgreen Sun '12 CTa - '1,Minusgreen -
Philips Colortone 50 + #81 1 +#82A 2JJ + '1,Plusgreen a a + '/,Minusgreen '3 + Quarter blue '13
+#85 + Sun 'Ie CTa
Verilux Corp # 81EF CC10M Full blue 50 Third blue Sun 85 '1,Minusgreen
Verilux + CC10M '/3 +#818 2fJ + %Plusgreen '13 + '1,Plusgreen a + Y2Minusgreen a + Sun 'Ie CTa '/3
+#85 +Quarter blue + UV Filter
All Mfrs-Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White , Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
 Color Balancing for Commercial/Industrial Camera Fillers Pholo lamp Fillers
Mfr.
High Intensity AC Arc Discharge lighting lamp 3200K EI 5500K EI 3200K lamp EI 5500K lamp EI
Film Film
Camera filters: Symbol " iI " conversion or light balanCing serres, " CC" :
Color Compensallng serres (Pages 230 and 231 ) EI column IS exposure HIGH
compensa tion 111 T Stops lor fill rs PRESSURE
Photo lamp filters : (Pages 366 and 36 7) EI column ISdeviation of typical SOOIUM
exposure meters du to color Imbalance When reading e posure In Jiltered
GE CCSOB " BOA 2 (Plusgreen) Sun GTO
IIghl from lhese unllS. reduce the ASA/ISO meter selting (Ie Increase the
LU2SO/0X 1CC3OM 2'" t CCSOB 3'>: 0 Plusgreen 'I>
light level) by the number of T StOps Indicaled
~CCIOM ' .l'Iusgreen
Note: To aVOId e cesSlve foltrauon. the use 01 daylight·balanced film for +Eighlh blue
Metal Halide and Mercury IIg1111ng IS advised If the lab can accommodate.
and exposure IS accurale. some or all cam fa filters may be left off GE n80C nBOA 2x (Plusgreen) Sun CTO
LU250 +CC50M 2 +CC50B 3'}, I Sun V, CTO 'I, +Plusgreen 'IJ
©David L. Quaid. ASe I tt82A
Camera Filters Photo lamp Fillers GTE CC30M ,,80B Plusgreen Sun CTO
Mfr.
lamp LU250 +CC40B 'IJ , CCSOB 3 '~Plusgreen Plusgreen 'I>
3200K EI 5500K EI
Film Film
3200K lamp EI 5500K lamp EI
I + ' d'lusgreen '"
METAL MERCURY
HALIOE GTE CC50R CC55M Full blue 50 2 (Plusgreen)
GTE H37KC + CC40M 2'}, ,,81A 1'}' Plusgreen ,}, +Hall blue ,},
CC50M CC35M Full blue 50 Hall blue
MM4001 ~ 85B 1'" ,,,810 PJusgreen 1,J ,}, 250/N + tt BIA t Third blue + Thlrd blue
11,) I Plusgreen
BU·HOR t " Plusgreen ,'. Plus green Full Blue 50
GTE H37 CC85M CC60M Full blue 50
I +Third blue ~ Ouarter blue It ,,810 1~ + Half blue H +2 (I'tusgreen)
GTE CC40M CC35M Full blue SO Half blue
KC2SO/0X 1+n85B 2
+3 (Plusgreenl +Sun'OCTO '"
M4001 +=8IB 1', ,=8IA .., ' Plusgreen 0 • PkJsgreen 0 I + Third blue
C/U +=85 • Ouarter blue GE H2SO/ Not CcaOM Not recommended Full blue 50
GTE ,, 81EF CCSOC Hall blue " Plusgreen OX37 recom· +tt85 2'1 1~ 3x(Plusgreen) I
MS4001 " CC IOM " JCC25M 11'3 ,'I. Plusgreen ,}, ,SUIl ,~ CTO 0 mended +Third blue
3KIBU , Eighth blue , Sun ', CTO
ONLY

GE CCSO CC35M Full blue SO Third blue

MVR400/ 1+=85B 1', • =81B I ' Plusgreen
U t I tPlusgreen
" +Plusgreen "
' ,flIusgreen
t Third blue i Quarter blue
I Eighth blue

GE CC50M CC30M Full blue 50 Hall blue

MVR400/ , ,,85B 1'1
C/U
" t Plusgreen
+ 14Plusgreen
" Plusgreen
"

Third blue
+Eiohth blue

375
 100

50

OL.. ...
Supply Cycles 2

Fig ure 43. Waveform for an HMll amp.

100
L

Figure 42. HMI applied lamp current and vollage with resultant light
output ver u time; result for s tandard reactance-type ballast are
represen ted. 50

[Example: Th flrst listed fluor cent light n page 368

(Dm otest oJor Classer 75) ca ll s fo r fil ter adj ustment of 1 Y:J
stops; using 3200K film at El 320, read the exposLLre meter
a t El 125 for the ambient fluorescent ligh ting. If fi ltered in-
candescent upplementary lights are used, the El column
calls for ~ t p, set th posure m t r to 100 to read them.
If arc r HMJ supplementary liaht are used, no further
adju tment i required, 0 use the meter at 125, the same
a for ambient lighting.] After color balancing a directed
by the table, a Minolta olor Meter Umay b used to de-
t ct and c rrect for differences between indi vid ual lamp
if desired.
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem
All of the AC phot graphic arc lamps described in th
Lighting tion and in the Comm rcial / Indu triaJ light
sources ecti n can exJ1ibi t the n flicker" phenom non.1hi
includes fluor cen ,mercury vapor, metaJ halide additive
types, and hjgh-pressure sod ium as well as th e p ho to-
gra phic typ like HMJ, CSI and ill.
O L- ......I
Supply Cycles 2
Figure 4-1. Waveform for a lOOo-W I lamp.
All of the noted typ of lamps requ ire the us of a
balla ting system to provide current limiting after th arc
is s tr uck. Th e mos t co mm o nl y enco untered ty p of
balla ting device i the induct r or "clloke." Wh~1I II e.d .on
sill/pIe inductive bnllnst systems, nll ofthese lnll/ps W ill exll/b~t n
clwrncteristic which is properly designnted ns tl/l/e-lI/adulntlOn
of the ligltt Ol/tpl/t ("flicker"). Th.is is due to th fact that th.e
light output of the e type of lamps follows the current
wav form . The degree of modLuation, or amou nt of
"flicker" is dilferent for each f the n oted lamp type .
Referen ce to Figure 42 sh ws the effect as it is d is-
p layed for an HMI la mp. Not th voltag · waveform whjcll
377
 A 24 fps in the case of the HMI lamp shown in Figure 43, note
N=1 that the modulation at its minimum represent nly]7%
65
or of the peak light output. With the CSllamp, thi num-
ber is approximately % of peak (F.igure ~), ~nd for ~e
60 m= 5
n werCIDtypes,itisr ported that this quantity nI 55 Yo
Z of the peak light output. Obviou I ,the depth of th modu-
,;.
u lation will determine th amount of toleranc th re ma be
""
u"
55 in filming with this li ht relative to the n sar d~gree
1 of c ntrol of those param t rs which affect the teadllles
>- of th e posure. . .
Q.
0. 50 The time-related factor that are involved III a urlng
a
0. Ulat a wliform exposur from frame to frame i guaranteed
E
~
45 u ing th se types of light ources (i.e., flicker-h'e ) are the
following:
60 90 1. Stability of Ule power frequency to th lamp bal-
120 150 180 210 240 270 300
camera shutter angle , degrees
last;
B 25fps 2. Ca mera fram ing ra te;
I N=1 I N =2 3. Stabili ty of cam ra peed;
4. Camera shutter angle;
65 5. Phase of shutt r relative to light (particularly at
high camera peed).
" 60
:t:
,;.
u
Simply stated, it i n ce sar to be ur<; that th ame
number of light pulsation are present dun~g.each e p?-
'"u"" ure interval of Ule film. The amount of vanahon permIt-
.::'" 55
>- ted is different for diff r nt values of the parameters noted
Q.
0. above.
.," 50 In the case where a v r table pO\·ver lin i avai lable,
0. m=4
E a i true in mo t technically advanced countri , operat-
~
ing from the normal p wer net with a camera Ulat i cry-
45 ~~....-4~~~_~_~_~~~~~~,......J
tal-eontroLled, the hutt r angle may be vari d through a
60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 very wide range. Th re ha certainly been ad quate te t-
camera shutter angle. degrees
ing of this principle for hutter angles betw n 90 and 200
Figure 45A an d B. Co n tours of safe la mp su p ply fre qu e ncie for one d grees.
rip pl e ra ti on value. m is the nea rest who le numbe r to th e number of It is important, how ver, to be aware that th rare
ripple cycles in th e came ra fra me pedod. N is th e neares l·w hole number condi tions w here on ly CI light vCl riation in one of. the PCl-
10 the nu mber of ripple cycl es in th e expos u re in te rval. rameters of power line fr quency or camera fram ll1g rate
i d,aract ristic of the effect f an inductance in a circuit, wi ll result in flicker. Wh re po sible, it is desirable t tay
and furth r that the amperag i generally inu oida!. The at the hutter an Ie h wn in the "window " that can be
light output do Iy track th amperage waveform (not b erved in Figures 45 and 45B.
g ing negative). The result is that there are two light pul- These "windm " how where the range fop rating
sations for each full c de f th power line fundamental tolerance i great t. F r example, in Figure 45 th inter-
frequenc (for 6O-cyde y t rns, there are 120 pul per tion on the pr ntation at60c des per econd and 144-
second; for a 5O-cyde y tern, th re are 100 light pulses p r degr hutter angle represen~ ~e middle of a"~ indow."
second). When operating at th condlhons, a sub tanball large
378 379
variation i po ible, probabl plus or minu 5%, on all the Fresnel Lens Spotlights
parameter which are ubject to variation.
In a practical en e, operating with a 24 fps camera Fresnel spotlights are made for standard incand scent
from a gen era tor where there i uncertainty about its de- and tungsten halogen incandescent sources, and also for the
gr e of r gulation, it would be prudent to op rate with th range of HMI, CID and CSI arc discharge lamp . The range
144° hutter angl . In uch an instance, moderate variations of wattag , taking into account all types is from 200 watts
in the frequen of the generator output will not produce or so to 12,000 watts.
flicker. Plu or minus 2 cycle in th output power fre-
qu ncy wou ld probably be acceptable wh n operating
Filament ./
withi n the w indow locati n for a 144° hutter angle and 24 /
fp . A imilar presentati n is made for the 25 fps operation Spherical /
in Figure 45B. Reflector
Although the data hown is sp ifically for HMI, it
mu t be r iterated that it is applicabl for any AC arc dis- Flood
charge ource. The window opening in Figure 45 are spe- Beam
Specular
cifically determined for HMl. Finish
The would ~ nd to be very conservative for CSl, even
more con er ative for cm and po ibly for some other
commercial sources. However, particularly where one is
encountering lamps op rated from single phase systems,
caution sh uJd b exerci ed. This chart can provide the cin-
ematographer with tho e points of operation which will Figure 46. Optical sy tern of tandard Fresnel Spotlight when in full
give him or her th maximum protection against the flicker flood position.
phenomenon.
Electronic and some other types of balla ting systems Filament
whidl pr vide flicker-free balla ting are now available for
a limited range of wattages of the HMJ light ources. Some
of these ballasts are con tructed in such a way that they Fresnel
Lens Spot
increase the operating frequency of the power to the lamp. Spherical
Beam
Th result of thi i that there ar many more pulsations per Reflector
sec nd 0 that mall variations in the number of pul ations
per hutter opening become unimportant. In addition, and
of at least equal importance, the output waveform of essen- Specular
Finish 1--- - - d ----""'..".-. 11
tiall all of these devie is an appro imation of a square
wa erath r than being inusoidal. Thi further reduces the
"off" time and with it the tendency to flicker.
Figure 47. Optical sy tern of landard Fresnel Spotlight when in spol
The 200-watt HMl flicker-free s t ms have been in the position.
field for the long t tim of an of these types of ballasts.
There is now uch equipment for HMl at everal other These luminaires r pre ent the mo t widely u ed
pow r level . motion-picture lighting units. They provide the means for
changing the beam diameter and center intensity through
Luminaires a relatively broad range. U ing standard incande cent
In this ecti n a brief description i offered of the op- lamps, the" pot" to "flood" ratio ma be of the order of 6
tical stems and g neral performance characteristics of the to 1 or so, and with a tungsten halogen lamp, it may be
basic type of luminaire utiliz d in cinematography.
380 381
 Figures 46 and 47 sh ow the op tical system of the
fresnel in tl1e spot and flood positions. Note tllat the fl ood
position is accomplished by moving the light source/reflec-
tor combination very close to the lens. When the h.mgsten
halogen light sources are utilized in these systems, due to
Wide the fact that the envelope is much smaller, it is possible to
Flood move the light source/reflector combination even closer to
Beam tlle lens resulting in a wider flood beam distribution. This
is shown in Figme 48.
Tungsten-Halogen This is a very attractive feature, since tl1e highest effi-
Lamp ciency is acl1ieved in tlle flood position, and there need be
no sacrifice in the spot performance. Typical efficiencies in
the beam (the portion of the pattern that is witl1i.n 50% of
the center intensity) in "spot" focus for fresnels wo uld be
Figure 48. Optical sys tem of Fresnel Spotlight when adapted for from 7% to 9% and in tlle "flood " posi tion from 30% to 40%.
Tungsten-Ha loge n lamp. One of the most important features of the fresnel lens
spotlight is its ability to barndoor sharply in the wide flood
X
:::>
focus position. This property is less apparent as the focus
-J
Narrow Spot is moved towards a spot (at spot focus it is not effective at
<5 all). The bamdoor accessory used witll this spotlight pro-
<J)
Q)
uc vides the cinematographer w ith the means for convenient
ro light conb:ol. The sharp cutoff at the wide flood is, of course,
U
due to the fact that the single-soLuTe effect produces a to-
o Medium Flood
tally divergent light beam. The action of the barndoor then
~
::- is to create a relatively distinct shadow line.
'iii Occasionally it may be desirable to optimize the spot
c
Q)

E performance of these units, and for tl1is situation "hot"

- 10 -5 o +5 + 10
Coverage (Ft.)
Figure 49. Characteristic intensity curve of Fresnel Spotlights.
possible to extend this ratio to 8 or even 9 to llU1der some
cirCWllstances.
The optical y tem of these lwninaire i the same for
all the variations that may be presented. The light source
and a spherica l reflector are located in a fixed relationship
to one another. This combination of light source and back
reflector is designed so that the spherical reflector reflects
the energy being radiated toward the back of the housing
tlu'ough tlle filament and towards tlle lens. The effect in-
tended is that tlle energy being radiated to tlle lens appears
to come hom a single source. The combination of the re-
flec tor and light source are moved in relation to the lens to
accomplish tlle focusing.
lenses are available. These tend to produce a very narrow
beam with very high intensity. It is important to remem-
ber that the flood focus is also narrowed when tllese lenses
are used. Figure 49 hows characteristic intensi ty curves for
hesnel spotlights.
Dedolight
The Dedolight, introduced within the last several
years, is a lighting instrument whose concept is W1ique, and
which offers a remarkable range of performance combined
witl1 small size, and low power requirements (see Figure
50).
The optical system is shown in Figure 51. Note that the
moving element in tl1e system is tl1e light source wi th a
collection mirror behind it, and meniscus lens opposite. To
change the focus of the W1it, tl1ese tI1ree elements, which
are fixed witl1 regard to each other, are moved as a wut
relative to a clear fixed condenser lens.
 7000 Lux Ic

600

6000

500
Fig ure 50. Th e Ded o lig hl.
5000

Condenser Lens
Spherical Reflectors
Filament 400
Meniscus Lens

--'I
4000

" ~/\
I~II l
' /

,'1 Ht,il \
' - '1'- - "
, I 1 1- 300
\\ I I I
\\ r~ : -',I I 3000
\"'1 i _ I_ LlL,
,, _
:\{
~

I I
, I I
200
Figure 51. Dedolight Optical Sy te rn . 2000

The performance of the light ' hown in Figure 52,

where the 25:1 foeu ing ran e can be seen, and the unusu-
all flat, e\'en and ft-edged ilJwnination field ar evident
at aLI foeus po iti n . 1000 100
When fitted \ ith an acce or proj ction a ttachment,
the beam can b controlled ftuther by the u e of an iris or
framin gshutter . ltprojects Ro co " M"-sizegob and ~ i1J
pr ject pattern wi th hard ed g and without c .Ior ~'IJ1I?­
ing. Where a d iff use or soft- dg d pattern projecti on IS
desired, the fron t lens of the proj ction acce ry can be
adju ted to accomplish this effe t.
Figure 52. Dedolight performance with 100w source, 10 fl. d i lance, spot
The Dedoli ht is made a ither a 12-vol t r a 24-volt 3.4· , flood 40· .
ISO-watt unit. The lOO-watt unit can uti lize a famil of
lamp indudm (at12\ olts) 20, SO and 100 watts. The units Open Reflector Variable Beam Spotlights
can be battery operated or can be used from 120- or 240-
\'olt C uppli offered for u e \ ith the lumi naire Th e are typicall the tungsten-halogen open reflec-
whidl permit · lection of 3000° K, 3200 K or 3-IDQ°K opera- 0 tor potlights. Ther ar also some low-wattage HM I-types
tion. avaiJabl . These non-len ystems pro ide "foeu ing" ac-

385
 The great a ttraction of these lwninaires is that they a re
substantially more efficient than the fre nellens spotlight .
Typical efficiencies in the spot po ition gi e 20 to 25% of
the ource lumens in th beam (50% of the center inten it)'
area) and in flood, effici ncies of 45 t 50% are not uncom-
mon. Figure 49 how typical inten ity distributions for
the e units.
T pical spot to flo d intensity ratio for these type of
wlit is b tween 3:1 and 6:1.

Spot Posit ion "'

CD
15
c £
Wide Flood Position
'"
u I
(5
Figure 53, Optical y tern of non -lens pollight (variable beam). 0
~
:?:
'iii
Ii) c
CD Gl
15
c
c:
Coverage (Ft.)
'"
U
SpOl Position
(5
o Figure 55. Characleristic intensity curve of tungsten-halogen floodlight
~ (broad) (horizontal axis).
Wide Flood
Position Tungsten-Halogen Floodlights
A variety of tlmgsten-halogen flood lighting fixture
have b n developed, taking advantaO'e of th e compact
SOLLrce . Two of the more typical forms are treated here.
Coverage (Ft.) The fj tures are a ailable in wattage from about 400
through 2,000 watts.
Figure 54. Characteri tic intensity curves of non-lens spol\jght (variable Th o-called "broad" normaII u e a linear SOLLr e
beam). and represents a relativel high efficienc y tern. Barnd I'
tion, and therefore a variable diameter beam, by moving control of the light is effective with the edge of the door that
the light source in relationship to the reflector (or vice is parallel to the light urce. Typical characteristic int n-
versa). These types of wli ts are available for sow'ces rang- ity cW'v for the br ad i hown in Figure 55.
ing from 400 to 2,000 wa tts. Refer to Figures 53 and 54. One ~r----------------- -------,
of the drawbacks of this system, when compared with the 15
c
fresnel lens potlights, is that there are always two light U'"
ources operative. The illunlination field produced by these (5

ystems is the sum of the light output directly from the bulb ~
and the energy reaching the field from the reflector.The use ~
'iii
of the bamdoor accessory with these lights does not pro- c
CD
duced a single hadow, due to this double-source charac- EL-- - -- ------+- - - - - - - -----'
Coverage (Fl. )
teristic. Typically a double shadow is cast from the edge of
the barndoor. Figure 48 shows the optical systems of these Figure 56. Characteristic inten ity curve of "mini" floodlight OlOrizonlal
open reflector poUights in both the spot and wide flood axis).
positions.
387
 There are typ of" mini" floodligh ts using the coiled-
coil short filament tlmgsten-halogen lamps which provide Painted
Surface
very even, flat coverage with extremely sharp barndoor
control in both directions. Due to the design of the reflec- (Q~~~f-- Reflector
Tungsten- - Shield
tor in this system, the light output from this fixed-focus Halogen
flood light appear to have a single SOllfce. This accounts Painted Standard Lamp
for the improv d barndoor characteristics. The intensity Surface Incandescer
Lamp
characteristics of the "mini " floodlights on the horizontal Cone Light Folded " Solt" Light
axis is shown in Figure 56.
Painted Surface

Distribut ion Shown lor Unit 3 It.

From Vertical Surface
Ii:
Q)
en - Distribution Shown for Unit 10 It
'"CD From Vertical Surface
> Tungsten-
o
U Halogen
Lamp
Umbrella Ught
" Soft" Light

Intensity (Foot Candles) Figure 58. Optical system of various "soft" lights.
Figure 57. Characteri lic i ntensity curve for cyclorama light. lil
Q) {;
i5
Cyclorama Luminaires c

These lighting fixtllfes were originally developed for '"

u
'5
lighting backing in television, but have broad application
~
in similar types of situations in film. Because of the design z:-
of the refl ctor system, it is possible to utilize these futllfes '0;
c
very do to the backing that is being lit and accomplish a Q)

very LU1.iform distribution for a considerable vertical dis-

tance. TypicaJly th e lmits are made for tungsten-halogen
linear SOLU:ces ranging from 500 to 1,500 watts.
Based on th variations in design, some of these may
be used as close a ' 3 to 6 feet from the backing being illu-
minated . The pacing of the luminaires from one another
along the length of the backing is in part determined by the
distance of the e fixtllfe from the backing itself. A typicaJ
intensity distribution i hown for a floor positioned unit
lighting a vertical backing in Figure 57.
Soft Lights
The oft light, which attempts to produce essentially
shadowl illumination, is now a fundamental tool in 00-
E
Coverage (Fl.)
Figure 59. Characteri stic inte nsi ty curves of "soft" lights.
ema lighting. Cllfrentl y, these are made in wattages from
500 up to about 8,000, and typically utilize multiple 1000W
linear tube tLU1gs ten halogen lamps.
The degree of softness is det rn1.ined by the effective
area of the SOllfce. All of these fixtllfes are indirect, in the
sense that no direct radiation is permitted from the light
SOllfces into the beam of illumination. The "reflecting"
sllffaces vary in finish from matte white paint to a variety
of sen1.i-specuJar surfaces. The degree of pecularity of the
backing is not as important a the size of the reflecting sur-
389
face which i uniforml l illuminated and ref! ct the energy
which makes up the illumination beam.
Formerly these were availabl nly in the form of the
Cone Ligh t, but now a variety of other configmations have
been developed largely due to the availability of the linear
soW"ce tungsten halogen lamp. Figure 58 shows the con-
figuHl tions of some of the types of ft lights in current u e.
Typ ica l intensit distributions are hown in Figure 59.
There are several typ of lioht urces which are up-
plied b the manufacture a ess ntiall complete light-
ing tems.
Sealed-Beam Types (PAR Lamps)
Th most popular of these are the PAR 64 and r AR 36
conJiourations. These lamps hav a parab lic reflecto r
\ hich ha a high reflectance aluminized coating, and a
pri matic t p of front lens. T picall theyar supplied in
P (ver narrow spot), SP (narrow pot), MFL (me-
dium f! ad) and WFL (wide flood) lens yst 111 • They are
eXh·ell1ely effi cient optica l ystems.
Fi xtLLres are ava ilabl which assemble ll1ultipl s of
these typ of lamp for da light fill applications or for long-
throw tadiurn and arena lighting requirements. Both
3200K type and the dichroic coated version of these (ap-
proximatel SOOOK) are available.
Light-Control Accessories
Th most typica l lighting acces o r supplied with th
luminai res of variou t pe describ d in the pr ced ing c-
tions \ auld b th barndoor and rim. Provi ion i made
for mounting these acces aries on nearly all of the lumi-
nair de ·cribed.
Barndoors
These have been bri fly described in the section n
fresn I I ns potlights. Th purpo of thi acces or i to
prevent the illumination b am from the fixture from readl-
ing certain portion of the t. It is intended tha t a relatively
well-defined edg can be e tabli h d defining the end of
an illuminated ar ·a and th beginning of an Lmilluminated
zone.
Barndoors are most effective when used on fresnel lens
potlight when the spotl ight is in th wide fl ad position.
The effectiveness of the bamdoor is reduced as the focus is
moved toward spot and is totally without useful effect at
the spot focus.
TIle ffectiveness of the barndoor as an acce soryon
other typ s of luminaires varies sharply with the design of
the specific item. In a number of the open reflector tung-
sten halogen systems (particularly floodJights) barndoor
effectiveness is limited to the edge of the barndoor whleh
is parallel to the ource.
Overall, this i one of the most important and useful
lighting accessorie available to the cin ematographer.
Scrim
The type of scrim referred to here i placed directly in
the accessory mounting clips on a luminaire. This type of
scrim is normally wire netting, sometimes tainless steel
wire, which is u ed as a mechanical dimmer. There are
normally accessory clips at the front of the luminaire to
accept the appropria te size crim.
The advantage of tile scrim is tllat it permits a reduc-
tion in light intensity in several steps (single and double
crims) without changing tile color temperature or the fo-
cus of th luminaire. Contrary to popular belief, it is not a
diffuser.
The half-scrirn is an extr mely useful variation on the
full scrim. It permits the placement of a scrim material in
only half of the beam, and is widely used on he nel spot-
lights. It overcomes the problem encountered when the
fresnel is used at fairly high angles. The portion of the beam
striking the floor or objects near the floor do est to the
lurninaire produces intensitie that are too high to matdl
the desired level at the distance associated with the center
of the beam. The r ason for this, of course, is th ubstan-
tial variation in the distances tha t the illumination energy
travels. The half-scrim applied on tile portion of the beam
impinging on the nearest objects can overcome this prob-
lem.
Gel Frames
DiJferent forms of these holders are made and de-
signed to fit into the accessory clips on tile front of most
luminaires. They permit the convenient use of various types
of plastic filter materials to modlfy the characteristics of the
beam. Color media may be put in these holders for effect
391
color and a wid ra nge of diffusion products are ava ilable
which may al 0 b mOtU1ted.
Grip Accessories for Light Control
T pi all ,grip quipment for lighting control repre-
ent d vi n t direct! mounted to the light.
Diffuser
Gobos
obo come in the same form as the arious a im,
d t , finger, butt rfli and overheads, but are opaque. In
this form th yar utilized to keep light from fa ll ing in a
givetHr a, and peflTtit very fine adj ustmen t of the lighting
ina larg arca . Th amea ortmen t of holdersands tands
is ava ilablc f r m unti ng these dev ices.
A sp cial ized variation of the gobo is the cucolori ,
wh ich i a cut- ut pattern placed in the pa th of the sp t-
light in ordcr to a t a hadow that might be comparable
to the light c min throu h the leaves on a tree. Severa l
v r ion of th e devices are available.
Reflectors
Rcflect r board are widely used for redirecting SW1-
light and modifying its charactelistics so that it is suitable
392
fo r ~se as et illtllTtina~i on. Refle to r come in a w ide range
of SJzes and constructlOn ,aJ1d a nu mb r of djfferent sur-
facll1g material are ava ilable for ace mpli hing the reflect-
ing urfaces.
These boards have b cn tll'faced with variou reflect-
ing media, including sign paint r' I af. H wever, the b'cnd
now i toward pia tic laminate for thi purpose. 111cse are
nov.' a ailable from Rosco in urface fini h ranging from
an ab olutely clear mirror throu h vari u degr of dif-
fusion of the mirror charnct ri ti .
These variations permit the lecti n of urfaces wruch
accomplish both reflection and diffusion. A aded series
of these is available and areal ,du toth laminatedc n-
truction, very stable repeatable urfa . Th are not dam-
aged by weather or by dust r dirt ince the can be ea iJ
cleaned.
In addition to being able to r flect and diffu e at the
same time, there are versions of th ne\ laminate mate-
rial wrucl1 also do color filtering. One ersion of a "soft"
reflector has a slight blue tint wruch corrects the sunlight
to a closer approximation to da light. old reflector are
also available in these tem.
393
 Special Visual Effects
Recent year have brought a high level of sophistica-
tion to th mechanic of pecial visual effects, allowing cin-
ematograph r 'imagination a greater degree of freedom.
Thi chapter i intended to give the cinematographer an
overview of the techniques a ailable, including front and
rear pr j ti n, the ptical printer, motion control photog-
raph ,and digital image manipulation.
Shooting Background Plates
n pr j ted n a translucent screen and re-pho-
to raph d a a background for a Ii e-action foreground
have been traditi naIl called "plat "or "ke ." Guide-
lines for the ri inal photograph of such enes also ap-
ply v hen th en are to be compo ited b mo t of the
meth d discu in this ection.
General Requirements
pin-r g i t red motion-picture camera should be
emplo cd for fi lming all stationary background plates.
ince the plate will later be re-photographed in combina-
tion with a Ii e f regrowld cene, often employing the use
of a olid t pi e, the lightest amount of film movement
due to po r r gi tration will be readily detectable. It i not
absolut Inc ary, but de irable, that a pin-regi tered
camera b emp lo ed for filming traveling plates. full
cam 'ra ap rture i de irable, although an Academy aper-
ture may be cmpl yed if it i the onl y size available.
Vi taVi i nand 65mm cameras are also often used. The
larg I' n gativ ar a I ad t finer-grained, sharper compo -
ite image. Medium- p ed emulsions are the usual elloice
of mo t ba kgr und plat camera men for grain and harp-
ne . High- pe d negative may be used tmder special cir-
cumstance .
E pure h uld be on the ful l side; if in doubt, slightly
overc p rath r than underexpo e. A crisp, full-scale
p rint with rich blacks and elean highlights is desirable. A
mudd print made from a thin, wlderexposed negative is
unsati factory and would be very difficult to match when
the compo it c ne i lat r photographed. Backlighted
c n ,e ept f r effects Uell a wilight shinLmering on
water, should be avoided. Background plat s fall into two
distinct categories: stationary and trav ling.
Stationary Camera
A tationary plate is photograph d witll a rigidly fi ed
camera, tied down and firmly brac d . Kn wing e acHy
how and for what purpo e the plate will be used i a great
aid in setting up. An imp rtant fact r in fi lming tationary
plates is recording the proper p r pective, with ti,e correct
ani hing point, to pr vide an appar nt match with the
foreground scene in the final comp ite pictur . Unles the
ani hing point is properl p ition d, th linear com'er-
g nce in ti,e foreground scene will n t matell that recorded
on the plate.
Camera elevation and tilt and h riz n placem nt must
be given erious consideration in order to meet these re-
quirements.lfindoubt, or if th plate i for library use, place
the h rizon dead center ince it rna be moved up or down
\ hen.
composited and allow the mo t leewa in fittinu0
anous composite situation . The ideal ituation, of course
is to film three plates: one with the k ~ from the top, one
with the horizon centered, and one with the sk occup-
ing Y-; of the frame. This will a llow fran eventuality and
give ti,e director added scope if he d cid to hoot up or
down. U ually, hm,,'ever, the h riz n is plac d about lA of
tILe distance trom ti,e top of th fram . It' advi able to have
slightly more foreground , wh ther water, pavement, or
enery. If sufficient foregrowld i n t provided on ti,e
fi lmed image, it may be nece ary to blow up a p rtion of
the picture to provide it, re ulting in increa ed grain and
poorer image quality.
Platesshottoscriptar u uallyord r d with ufficient
data for the cameranlan to do the job pI' perly. tock plates,
filmed for library use, are a little m re difficult since they
must be photographed in a mann r tha t wi.1I a llow using
tI,em 111 a more genera l way to fill variou ituation .
BackgrolUld images hould b iz d so that tILe full-
e t po sible area of the fil med fram ca n b utilized . This
provides the finest photographic quality, lea t grain and
harpe t picture, and result in a top qua li ty combination of
plate and foreground . It i inadvi able to employ a lens
horter than 35mm (for 35mm phot !!"raphy) unle only a
partof the image is later utilized . me background scene
hot with an e h'emeI wide-angl len ma pr ent er
difficuJt match ing problems when compo ited. Slightly
longer lenses, on the order of 40mm and SOmm, are best.
(Len es of comparabl angle are recommended for
istaVision or 6Smm ph tograph .)
An excellent method for securing an accurate match
for a plate shot to script is to use stand-ins .P.o itio~ed ex-
actl the same as the playe will later be posItioned m fr~nt
of the background. A few feet of film houJd be hot With
the tand-ins in po ition and they then hould be mo ed
out and the plate photographed . This will ~ive the
compo iting cameraman a good idea of h?w th fmal shot
houJd look and is particularly valuable If the plate cam-
eraman i on an extend d location trip and might not be
available houJd que tions arise. While the plate is being
hot, be certain that no one walks closer to th camera than
th positions occupied by the stand-ins. If someone were
to walk between the stand-in position and the camera, ti,e
p rson would appear to large, upsetting the required di-
minishing per pective. To b afe, keep everyone te~ feet
or more behind the position ccupied by th t?Jld-ms.
Background view seen through a door or wmdow are
Ie critical to shoot, sinc the iew is a distant on and does
not require an perfectl int grated relationship with the
foreground. The camera angle must be correct, however,
and present the prop r vartishing point. A scen suppos-
edl occurring in an offic on the 20th floor houJd have a
window plate p sessing a view taken ~om t~at appa~ent
Ie ation, and presenting the proper \/Iewpomt. While a
considerable amount of "cheating" can be tolerated ( uch
a hooting from the 10th floor of a building), th i w pre-
ented shouJd be one that wouJd appear normal t a per-
n on the live t looking ut the window. TIl pla~e cam-
ra couJd not, for in tance, be angled up or down; It m.ust
be shot dead level so that a " quar e on" view with vertical
line i recorded. A sp cial backgr·owld slate should be u ed
to film all pertinent da ta: prod uction number, scene nu m-
ber, ca mera heigh t, camera angle, sun angle, ~ocall e~gtIl
of lens, et cetera. 11Us data will be a help later m duplicat-
ingthesetupwhenthec mpo itesceneisfilmed. Theback-
ground plate camerap r n h.ouJd bear in.~d ~at he is
not expected to record b autlful compo ltion m them-
lves. He is impl furnishing the background to back up
th combined scene.
Moving Camera
Traveling backgrowld plates for rear proc pr jec-
tion are used in combination with suppo edly movmg ve-
hid , airplanes, train or boats. They may be film~d with
eith ringle or muJtiple camer~. In or~er to pro~lde. the
arious plates necessary for hooting anous combmations
of group hots, close-up, 0 er-the-shouJder cen , etc.,
se eral angle mu t b filmed from the moving camera
platform. It is ad isable to use a in~le camera who ne~er
p ible to allow "cheating" the sunlight 0 that a time m-
terval between run may b chosen which will record each
plate with the best light condition. C~mera car p~ed may
al be varied, if de ir d, for the vanous angl , If plates
ar hot individually.
Single cam ra plates wiJI usually suffice, ince tJ;e
change in cam ra angle w hen th e process s~ene IS
p hotgraphed is u ually ufficient .to co~e~ any nusmatch
that exists. Rem emb r that the audIence ISm tent on watcl,-
ing the fo reground action and the background plate will
not distract W1le s som thing very jarring app ars. Nor-
mally, a considerable amount of "cheating" is p rmiss~ble
(indeed, often required) in order to record the best pOSSible
t of plates, in the proper light, at the .correct rate of peed.
Sometimes a single id of the treet LS filmed to ser e for
both ide angles - b hooting left rear going one way and
right rear going in the opposite direction. Or, a. ingle plate
ma be turned over in projection (if no telltale 19:t1S appea~)
t rve both ides of the treel. Turning the plate over IS
u ually reserved for country road, ince its u on tr~Jfic­
lad n streets may be more obvious (parked car on eltl,er
ide of the street will point the same direction).
Of great importance in filming moving plat is ~h at
th camera be at the correct height. For auto the heIgh t
hould be at ti,e shoulders (not the eye level) of a person
sa ted in the car w ho w ill later be seen in ti,e rea r projected
com posite shot. This w ill vary, for example, with low-slung
ports cars and bu e . It wouJd not d o to look outsid.e a
port car window a nd see the roofs of car foll.owmg
(which wouJd re uJt if the plate camera were too hIgh).
On the other hand, a low-angle shot shooting up into
tr and buildings i equally bad because it is n t feasible
to angle a camera in a car to photograph seated p pIe and
see this perspective through the window. ~e plat~ cam-
era hould be tilted light! downward - JU t a trifle be-
397
low hori zontal. The va nishing point of a straight-on shot
wo uld b just ab ve dead center of the screen. Remember
it i alway b tt I' to have a Little more pavement than sky.
A set-up may require tiJting down on a mock-up car, 0
add iti nal image in the lower corners of the frame is desir-
able. Traveling plate hould b photographed witl135mm
or -lOmm I n on side and three-quarter angle shots. A
35mm, or m tin1 a 50mm if only a small area of the
plate will b utilized, i used on traight-back hots.
Speed vs. Angle
The camera angle on a moving hot affects the appar-
~t peed f th projected image. Plat hot from traight
Ide angl appear to move much fa tel' than those filmed
from eith I' trai ht fon ard or traight backward an.,.les
- ev n if the peed of the vehicle from which tile hots
were mad \Va the ame. It is often necessary, tl)erefor ,
to cheat tile cam ra vehicle peed (not tile camllfa peed)
o that all an I - \ ill appear at the same relative peed
\ hen I' ar-proj ct d. This effect i less apparent in open
countr than in city treets with closely packed traffic and
nearby building . It i advisable to use normal 24 frame
per econd cam ra p d whenever possible 0 that pedes-
trian . appear to b moving normally. It may be necessary
on wLld cha h ts to undercrank ince this is the only way
to record ul tra-fa t vehicle peeds with safety.
The following diagram will be useful for estimating
cam~ra car. p eds for various camera angles. This is for city
traffic. Vanou angle plate may be filmed in open COUll-
try at the ame ca mera car speed for all angle if nothing
clo e to the ca mera appears in the plate.
60%
80%
100% 100%
80%
60%
For e ampl , if tile camera car travels at 50 mile per
hour for the traight hots, it hould travel at 40 mile for
398
the three-quarter angles and at 30 mil s for the side shots.
Be certain to set the camera at the same height and with the
same slight downward tiJt for all angles.
Plate Print Preparation for Back Or Front
Projection Or Aeriallmage Compositing
Color matching is affected by the lenses, arc mirror,
quartz protector plate, cooling water cell, and by the screen
itseU. Preproduction te ting is suggested. Plate prints
should incorporate color ra tio correction for projection con-
ditions. Print contrast may be lowered by flashing and/or
using low-eontrast print (IV) film; both will also affect color
aturation. Masking has also been uggested (American
Cil1ematographerMagazine, ov. 1984, p.109,J. Danforth).
Prints should be on B & H perforated stock.
Front-Proj ection Process
by Petro Vlaho
The front projection process of composite photogra-
phy was made possible by the development of a highly
directional reflective material by 3-M (Scotchli te #7610).
Scotchlite is a glass beaded reflex reflector that returns
most of the reflected Light back to its source. The gain of
Scotchlite is so high that a fraction of a footcandle of back-
ground image intensity is s ufficient to balance a 2OQ-foot-
candle foreground illumination .
Although the projected image falls upon foreground
subjects, its intensity is so low that it i not vi ible on the
subject. When the camera is xactly aligned on the optical
axis of the projector, it will not se the hadow cast by tlle
foreground subject. The very low level of illlllTIination re-
quired by the Scotchli te screen makes possible background
screens as large as 30,000 sq. ft. when using an arc projec-
tor.
The practical use of front projection requires careful
alignment of the camera and projector lenses to (optically)
superimpose their fro nt nodal points. When the nodal
points are misaligned, or when the ubject is too close for
a given lens focal length and f- top, a dark halo is devel-
oped. The appendix at the end of this section defines a safe
399

minimwn object distance a a function of screen di ta nce,
len focal length and f- t p. B observina the limitations
of th front-projection proc , excellent r~ults ha e been
obtained.
Geometric Relationships
. TI,e hadows cast b an actor, or any foregrow,d ob-
J t, are largel obscured b the object as the proj tor i
b~ought do to the camera. The hadows are completely
hidden from the camera wh n the camera and projector
len . occupy the same po ition.Since this is not ph icaIJy
p Ible, the axes of both I nse are made to coincide opti-
ca ll b the use of a mi-transparent mirror. The arrange-
ment of the camera, projector, mirror and screen are hown
in Fig. 1.
The function of the emi-mirror is to bend th axis of
th projector in a right angle 0 tI,a t the light which reaches
the r n appear to originat from within the camera lens.
Sil~ tI~e ca~,era cannot arow,d or bel1ind a for ground
object, It WIll not see tI,e hadow cast by tI,at obj ct if the
ha~ow i confined strictly to tI,e area behind tI,e obj ct.
PlaCIng the projector axis coincident ....ri th the camera axis
accompU hes this objective wiiliin certain limitations tI,at
5COTCH LITE
\ f
\ I FOREGROUND I
\ I
"
\
\
\
\
\ I
\ I
\ I
\
BLA CK " " , ,\
ABSORBER
S C REEN
---
Figure t. Arrangement of camera, projector, mirror and screen.
will be desa-ibed. Although the projector is loca t d to the
right of the camera in Fig. 1, it may be located on either side
or may project into th mirror from above or below. It is
al permissible, fr m a functional point of vi w, to inter-
change the camera and pr jector locations.
The mirror, at 45° to the projector and cam ra axis,
r flects the projected image onto the screen; but the mir-
ror, being semi-transparent, allows about half of the pro-
jected light to go dir tI through the mirror onto the near-
e t wall and be" a t d . uch wa tage is unavoidable ince
the mirror must be emi-transparent to permit light from
the foreground scene, a well as from the background it-
If, to reach the cam ra In.
The 45° mirror i al a partial mirror a een by the
camera, and provid to the camera a view of th ide wall
f the stage as well a a econd image re ulting from the
projector waste light. To eliminate these secondary in,ages
a mall, dull black scr n is placed opposite th proj ctor,
a hown in Fig. 1.
Introvision (Hollywood) replaces portion of the black
sa-een with a piece of Scotchlite sa-een. Suppl mentary
I nses permit focusing the projected image onto th supple-
mentary segments. When matched to black flat on tI,e
main set, it is possible to have actors appear to em rge from
doorways and from bel1ind objects in the projected back-
SCR EEN7 ground.
; Another development by Courier Films Limited, the
08../ECTS I Zoptic Process, employ a zoom lens on the camera and the
'Q
I
I
•
/
I
I
II
/
projector and interlocks the zoom control . B imulta-
neous zooming of the foreground and background lenses
in the ame direction, objects in the field appear to move
toward or away from the camera. This technique was used
tensively in the 1978 production of Superll1an. Th trans-
\ I
I mission / reflection ratio of the mirror is not critical; how-
\ f ev r, for best utiliza tion of foreground and projection illu-
\ I
\ I mination, transmission should always equal or exceed re-
\~I MIRROR flection. Their relation hip is shown in Fig. 2. Th projec-
tor light that finally enters the camera experiences a reflec-
{eJ1 tion at the mirror to get to the screen, and then a transmis-
---u \
-).\1 1
J.
PRD./ECr~
CAMERA
ion through the mirror to get to the camera. Utilization is
ilierefore a function of the product of ilie reflection and
transmission percentages. Even if one assumes no losses,
th maximum efficiency cannot exceed 25% and it occurs
at a SO/SO ratio. In front projection, one hould expect two
stops of light loss.
401
 25
ing light back to its source. A reflex reflector can be made
by using comer mirrors or gla beads. Th 3M screen u
20 glas beads. The limHed angular ilistribution of reflection
is illu trated in Fig. 3. Becau of the controlled angle f th
reflect d light, the screen has a ry high gain. If on ob-
serv the screen from a vantag point not more than about
yt0 fr m the axis of the proj ctor, it will app ar to be nearly
1,000 times brighter than wou ld a matte wh ite surface re-
ceiving the same illumination. Because of this high gain of
Scotchlite, ver little illumination is required from the pro-
Nofel-EFF. F.6. - r
"'ote2-LOSS~O
jector; therefore front projection can pro ide background
of aIm t any d ired ize. A 13o-A arc lamp project r can
10 15 '20 25 30 35 40 45 so 55 60 65 70 r/lANSltf/SStCW %
ea iJ illuminat a 30,000 q. ft. screen of Scotchlite to bal-
90 50 70 60 50 -40 3AJREFl.£CTANCE "1'0 ance a 2OQ-fc-ke foreground n. lllUS, screens up t 120
X 250 f t can be used.
Figure 2. Front p rojection mirro r; transmission/reflection ra ti o and
efficiency.

Since film expo ure of foregrOlUld objects requires a

given amount of light at the camera, any transmission loss 1400 1\
through the mirror must be made up by increasing the il-
lumination of the foreground. Thus transmission should be 1200 \
as high as po ible. The efficiency of utilization of the fore-
ground (FG) illumination is a linear function of transmis- 1000 _\
ion and increases a the transmi ion increa es. An in-
crease of transmission from 50% to a val ue of 60% results 800 \
in a 12% increase in the utiliza tion of the foregro und illu-
mination. It can be een from the figure that this change
600 \
from 50 to 60% in the transmission results in a drop of only 400 1\
4% (25 down to 24) in the utilization efficiency of the back-
ground (B ) illumination. 200 \
Th scene being projected onto the screen is also be- ' I'--
ing projected onto the foreground object and actors. o r--
Whether or not the scene being projected on foreground 0° 0.5 0 1.00 1.5 0 2.0 0
objects will be visible in the photography depends upon the DIVERGENCE ANGLE
intensity f the projected light relative to the intensity of the Fig u re 3. Relati ve a ngular d istri b u tion of re fl ect ion of 3M Scolchl ile
foreground illumination. A specific high-gain intensity re- reflective s heeting Type 7610.
lation hip i thus far olely a property of the Scotchlite
screen. The ability to u e large background screens is on of
the principal advantages of front projection. By compari-
The Scotchlite Screen son, rear projection was limited to a screen ize of 20 to 30
ft., even when illuminated b three high-powered projec-
The pedal properties of the front-projection screen tors. Even considering the 10 es of the emi-mirror, one
make front projection practicable. One screen made by the need only use ab ut one footcandle of illumination on the
3M Company, commonly known as Scotchlite, Type 7610, screen to balance a foregrOlUld key light of 200 fe. Thi i a
is a reflex reflec tor - that is, it has the property of reflect- net ra tio of about 200:1 and i more than ad qu ate to result
402
403
 in invisibili ty of the image projected on foregro lmd objects
- even a white shirt. If one considers a white shirt to be
nearly 100% reElective, and the reflectivity of black velvet
, to be approximately 2%, this represents a ratio of only 50:1.
Thus a white shirt is so dull compared to Scotchlite (200:1)
that it appears to be blacker than black velvet when the
Scotchli te is illuminated to the brightness of the foregrOlmd
scene.
The Scotchlite material is available in two-foot-wide
rolls. The screen can be constructed by simply papering the
material onto a wall-like surface or wooden backing or
hanging it in horizontal strips. It is only necessary to cover
all of the screen area. Butt edges are not required, and pieces
may be overlapped. It is advisable, however, to prepare a
screen from the same production batch since a second batch
may differ slightly in brightness gain.
Tesselating The Screen
Irregularities in reflection of the Scotchlite material
may be minimized by cutting or tearing the Scotdtlite
into small pieces, scrambling the pieces, and reassem-
bling them into a mosaic. This, however, is wasteful of
ma terial and is labor intensive. Apogee, Inc. has de-
signed a die which cuts ScotchJite into symmetrical
hexagons with curved edges; with the aid of a template
the tiles are mounted on a prepared Dacron and Mylar
sheet with a 3% overlap . The completed screen is
dlecked by photographing it using a ring light and high-
contrast film in order to exaggerate any imperfections
that might exist. (Apogee, Inc. holds a patent #4,548,470
covering this method of screen fabrication and supplies
either the complete screen assemblies or separate tiles
for the user's application .) It is not necessary that
Scotchlite be absolutely flat or square to the camera since
its gain is quite uniform over a rather wide angle of in-
cidence, as shown in Fig. 4.
Alignment of Nodal Points
The practical usage of front projection requires care-
ful aligrU1lent of the camera and projector lenses. All multi-
element lenses, whether for camera or projector usage, have
two or more nodal points. In the front-projection process
we are interested only in the front nodal point. For the pro-
404
800
600
---l---- --- ~
400
0° 10° 20 ° 30° 40 °
INCIDENCE ANGLE
'AT 0° INCIDENCE
Figure 4. Gain of Scotchlite screen as a function of the angle of incidence,
for a constant d ivergence angle of 1(,. between incident beam and
measuring axis.
jector lens, the front nodal point is that position within the
lens from whidl the light appears to emanate. For the cam-
era lens, the front nodal point is that point within the lens
toward whidl all incoming light appears to converge. Since
the camera lens has a finite field angle, and since it is pos-
sible to have foreground objects anywhere within the field
of view of the camera, there is only one position of the cam-
era lens that will eliminate shadows for all objects witl1.in
\' its field of view.
This position is obtained when the front nodal point
of the camera lens is effectively coincident in all axes with
tlle front nodal point of the projector lens. If these nodal
points are not effectively coincident, a black shadow line
will appear at the edge of foreground objects.
Where there is only one foregrollild object in the scene,
and that object is located symmetrically on the camera axis
(as in a doseup of one person), it is possible and sometimes
desirable to place the camera nodal point al1ead of tlle pro-
jector nodal point. The desirability of this procedure will
( .
be explained later, in the discussion of shadow gradients.
The camera and projector each have three degrees of
freedom in h'anslational motion. A sliding movement of the
camera or projector to the left or right is a translation along
the x-axis. Similarly, a change of elevation is translation
along the y-axis; movem ent toward or away from the
screen is h'anslation along the z-axis. Adjustment of the
position of the camera or projector along these three axes
is required to obtain effective coincidence of their lens nodal
405
 pint . An adjustable ba e for the projector or cam ra fa-
ci litat this adjustment.
It is the virhtal, or reflected, nodal point of the projec-
tor that i to be co-located with tile nodal point of the ca m-
era lens. Thus any adjustment of the mirror's placement or
an Ie hifts tile positi n of tile projector nodal point with
I' p t to that ofthe camera. ince the nodal point of a len
i a ingle point somewh r within the lens, it is n t acccs-
ibl for making a direct m hanical alignment. Ther fore
it i nece I' to make the alignment optical! b using test
targ t I cated in the camera field. The degree of permis-
ible error in the alignment of the lens nodal points i a n.U1C-
ti n of everal variabl .
. The principal va riabl is th separa tion of for grow1d
bJ ct from tl1e screen. When the foregrOlU1d obj ct are
quite close to tile screen, on may misalign the ca mera by
a . ~nu ch as an i:nch. in any direction without induci ng a
Vistbl hadow Ime LL1 photograp hy. As foreground obj cts
approach the cam era, the aIignment becomes more critica I,
until onl y Yn in. of a li gnm nt erro r can cau e a vi ib le
shad w line. Thus, when aligrunent targets are u d, tlley
hou ld be placed clo e to the camera to simplify the a lign-
ment pI' ccdure and to a ure alignment accuracy.
The t pe of alignment target used can impose orne
pI' blem . 11le use of whit card requires separat illumi-
nation, and balancing the brightn can be a bit of a chore.
mal! ections of the tdllite creen may be us d, but
ince the briahtness varie in er el wi th the square of tl1e
di tanc , they are over-bri ht when brought cia to the
canl ra. good procedur i to top down the projector
and camera lenses to f!22, if po ible, and tip the Scotchlite
targ t well past-l5°. At a very teep angle, tlleiJ' brightness
ca n b made to match that f the sa-een. Under til s c n-
dition ,a misalignment of a little a YJ2in. can b readily
obs rv -d.
The source of light tha t produces a shadow Une origi-
':,ates fro m the projector len ", which in tum receives it light
h'om the lamphouse and it optics. The alignment of the
lamphollse and its optic hould resul t in symmetrical il-
lumination f the exi t pupil of the projector lens. When the
exit pupil i not symm trically illuminated, the center of the
em rging light blmdle is not a t the lens center. And while
thi off-cen ter illuminati n in no way affects the back-
around scene, it does r ul t in hifting the hadow to one
id or tl1e other, just a though ne had shifted the projec-
406
tor. Any change of the projector lens iris then acts not only
to dlange light level, but produces the equivalent of a shift
in x or Yof the whole projector. An iris change on a projec-
tor with a poorly centered lamp can result in up to :-2 in. of
apparent misaligrLment.
A computer-generated table has been prepared to
show the aligrLment error that induces a 0.cXJ02 in. hadow
line on the camera negative under a variety of conditions.
This dimension (0.0002 in.) represents the thr hold of vis-
ibility of a line projected on a large screen. The primary
utility of this data, found in the appendix on page 413, is
to show the relative influence of the object-to-screen sepa-
ration, and to indicate the magnitude of alignment accu-
racy required . The actual aUgrLffient error tha t can be ac-
cepted is reduced by the halo effect, which will be discussed
a little later.
Alignment of Anamorphic Lens
The use of anamorphic lenses introduces special prob-
lems in front projection. Such lenses have two front nodal
points, one associated with the vertical tilt motion and the
other with panning motion. Both nodal points exist in the
camera and projector lens, since these lenses have, in ef-
fec t, two different focal lengths. If these nodal points in ilie
camera and projector lenses are not equally spaced, there
is no way to simultaneously superimpose both sets of nodal
points.
The problem can be minimized by splitting ilie dis-
tance between front nodal points for each lens and co-lo-
cating this median position. Simultaneously, one should
keep foreground objects relatively dose to the screen,
whereby rather large misalignment of nodal points can be
tolerated wiiliout introducing a shadow line.
Pan, Tilt and Zoom
It is possible in front projection to pan and tilt the cam-
era during photography, provided that the x, y, z relation-
ships of the nodal points are maintained. To do this, it be-
comes necessary to use a nodal-point camera mount that
permits the front nodal point of the camera lens to be lo-
cated at the center of rotation for both pan and tilt motions.
This requirement of maintaining a co-location of projector
and camera lens nodal points also applies to a zoom lens.
407
 Beca use th fr nt nodal point of a zoom lens may shift
by several inche during a cl1ange of focal length, it is nec-
es ary to hift th camera body an equal distance, in order
to maintain a fi ed patial relationship between the two
axe of rotation and the nodal point. An alternative, of
cour c, i t limit th zoom range, and to place all fore-
ground bject eto e to the creen, thus taking advantage
of th r ultant in r ased tolerance of nodal-point po ition-
ing, a m ntioned earlier.
--------------- - ---------------------- ---
TYPI CAL RA n o IVHEN 35...... E6-
SEES Yz OF 3 5 ..... PLATE
to I." 2.0 VI.
CO PY' .. RATI O - IWNI PLATE/ NN NEG.
Figure 5. Relative loss of image quality as a function of copy ratio.
Problems of Grain in Front Projection
There are ratl1 l' evere Limitations on the use of zoom-
ing in a front proj ction cene and these limitations are
caused by image grain. It mu t be remembered that the
scene bing proj cted wa once photographed by a cam-
era on negati film. In front projection, this scene is being
copied onto th film in the camera and this film is a nega-
tive. Thu th background part of tJ1e scene is a dupe that
ha been made on camera negativ rather than a fine grain
duping tock. The graininess is therefore increased.
If, for xample, both the camera and projector films are
35mm, and if the ntire projected scene just fits tl1e full
aperture on th camera ground glass, then there is a one-
to-one rela tionship between the image on the projected film
and tJ1i same image a it is being exposed in the camera.
In this ca we ha e a 1:1 copy ratio. If one now zooms to
twice the initial focal length, only ~ of the widtl1 and ~ of
tJ1e height (or Y4 of the area) of the projected print is being
copied. This i in r alitya 16mm area. Owing to the loss of
408
resolution and increase in grain, it will look like a 16mm
backgrow1d. . . .
If, on the other hand, th entire background Image IS
projected onto a sma ll creen that r pr nts, for example,
a window then one can zoom in until th window fills the
camera \ri~wfinder. At thi pint the cop ratio has again
dropped to 1.0. Figure 5 illu trat the .r lative 10 of im-
age quality as a function f the c p ratio. te the advan-
tage of using a 65mm BG.
The Halo Effect
From the earlier discu i n on the alignment of nodal
points, we ma ha e implied that once e ac: aligr~m.ent is
achieved there \ ill be no vi ible hadow Ime; thi IS not
necessarily the case. Perfect alignment of nodal points as-
ures the absence of a hadow line onl when both the pro-
jector and camera lens apertu~es ar a . mall as pinholes.
ormal Lenses do not apprQ)omate a pll1hol~. Actu~ en-
trance pupil diameters are in the order of one mch, a IS the
case for a 100mm lens at f/ 4.0. Since lenses have aperture
3.0 dimensioflS significantly larger than a pinhole, tl1eir depth
of focus is limited as a fW1ction of aperture.
When a foreground object i in focus and the back-
ground is not in focu , a black halo f?rms a~ound ~1e fore-
ground object on the camera negative.. ~s halo I not.a
black line, such as is experienc d by ml ahgnment, but IS
best described as a brighme gradient that faUs to 50%
intensity at the edge of the foreground object. The halo is
most often seen on closeup .
As objects recede from the camera and appro~ch the
screen the halo shrinks to a faint lin and, at some distance
it see~s to disappear. This edge-gradien.t halo is most con-
spicuous when the background cene I a clear sky or a
blank wall. It is less noticeable on background uch as dark
foliage. .. .
The halo phenomenon IS explam d by ref~ence t? FIg.
6. If tl1e camera is focused on a foregrow1d oblect, tJus ob-
ject will be in sharp focus at the film plane. If ~ne as~wnes,
for the moment, that the projector aperture I a pmhole,
then the shadow cast by the foregrow1d object will appear
quite sharp on the screen. In tJ1e c~era, tJ1e ~rojected back-
ground image and tl1e shadow wLlI botl1 be m I:arp focus
at some plane ahead of the film, but ~ot on tl1e film: Fr?m
the diagram it can be een that th light ray , contmwng
409

BLUR. WIDTH OF POINTO
F. G.
Q R
--.......
O dJECT
---
- - ----::::: ::: .;.:::: :. =- -=- - -
- A
S CREEN·- - . .
FILM P L A N E
A ND r. G. FOCUS
t SHA DOW GRADIE N T
~ '00r-_---...:A~~~Or---_/ --- - IOO~
~ four-ind l focal length (100mm), it must be stopp d down
~ to f/ .0 to match the entrance pupil d iameter of a two-inch
~ camera lens at f/4.0.
~ 50 %
~ UNSWARP B . G. S H ARPL y
" SCREEN IMAG ES FOCUSED
~ OL------..=--
~
F. 6 . 0/VECTS
'-- ."......--J
' " CAMERA IVEGATIVE
Figure 6. The halo phenomenon.
past this plane of focus, di erge as they reach the film plane
and become a blur on the film. Point A on the screen can
be seen b aLI of the camera len ; but point 0, the edge of
the harp hadow, can be seen by only half the lens. Thus
A i at full intensity at th film plane, but as point 0 is
reached, the light has fall n to half intensity on the filn1
(because half the len has b n ocduded). This gradient i
shown in the lower part of th figure and exist for aLI ob-
ject .
The edge gradient described above is prod uced by the
cam ra lens aperture alone, beca use the projector wa as-
urn d to be a pinl101e. In practice the projector aperture is
not a pinl1ole, but ha ome finite diameter. This real diam-
eter of the exit pupil of the projector lens causes the shadow
on the screen to ha e a oft edge and this edge spreads out
for orne real distance on the creen. However, the gradi-
ent already produced by th camera lens aperture does not
this second gradient (produced by the projector lens)
a long a the size of the projector lens aperture is equal to
or maller than that of the camera aperture.
This conclusion wa verified by computing the size
t and shape of the edge gradient for two extreme conditions;
~
~
one condition wa a knife-edged screen hadow, while the
~ oth r condition was a uniformly increa ing shadow extend-
ing from A to B. These hvo conditions cover aLI po ible
8
~ pr jectorlens apertur up to and equaling that of the cam-
0 1. era aperture. The gradient on the camera negati e was
id ntical in size and in hape for both cases. Th edg gra-
di nt halo is therefore a function of whiche er I n aper-
ture i larger.
In practice it can be conduded that one should always
stop down the projector until its exit pupil diam ter is less
than the diameter of th entrance pupil of the cam ra. If
both lense have a foca l length of two inche (50mm) and
th camera is at f/4.0, then the projector can b at f/4.0 or
5.6 or any smaller aperture. But if the projector len has a
Minimum Foreground-Object
_0 Distances
A table has been prepared that pecifies the closest
distance that foreground objects may approach th camera
for a 0.0002 in. half-gradient halo as a function of creen
distance, camera focal length and lens aperture tting. This
table appears on pag 413.
After the camera and projector nodal point are
aligned in all three ax (x, y, z) by the method d ribed,
one must then be concerned with the halo eff ct. Appen-
dix I may be used as a practical guide to determine afe
object distances that will not result in a visible halo. ~e
Appendix is organized by lens focal length. After electing
the table corresponding to the cam era lens, find the ca m-
era-to-screen distan ce loca ted in the left-hand colum n. The
row of nunlbers oppo ite the screen distance repre ents the
do est dis tance obj ct may safely approach the camera
without developing a visible halo. This distance i listed for
everal lens stops. These lens stops are for the camera, or
for the projector lens if its aperture is the larger. ( ote: f/
2.8 is a larger relative aperture than f/4.0.)
The near distance limits listed in the tables of Appen-
dix I will result in a halo around the object of 0.0004 in. on
the film. Since the halo i a gradient, the first half of the
411
gradient b tween A and 0 (Fig. 6) i flow visibiJi ty. There-
fore, ani the teeper half of the gradient i considered as AppendiX I
capable of producing a vi ible hadow. The tables, there- Minimum Object Distance (in ft.) for O.0002-in.
fore, defin an object di lance for which the teeper half of Half-Gradient Halo.
the gradient will produce a 0.0002 in. hadow line on th
n gative; th re is ah a orne qu tion a to how much Lens aperture and object
distance
halo can b present b fore it is i ible. The 0.0002 in. value Screen II 11 II II II II
has been u ed by T hnicolor, f r example, a a limit for distance 2.8 4.0 5.6 8.0 11 16
color regi tration. It r presents ~ in. n a 50-ft. CTeen. Th 25mm lens
exact width at which a hadow lin i visibl or invisibl 10 8 7 6 6 5 4
20 13 11 10 8 6 5
depend upon hm do one its to the creen, the quality 40 19 16 12 10 8 6
60 23 18 14 11 8 6
and harpn of th projection lens, contras in the pic- 80 25 19 15 11 8 6
ture, and of course n' own visual acuity. 100 27 20 15 11 8 6
120 28 21 16 11 9 6
Perhap the m t ignilicant ariable affecting the vis- 32mm lens
ibility of halo is pictur contrast. The most critical scene i 10 9 8 8 7 6 5
20 15 14 12 10 9 7
white again t white, ince these bj cts matd, in color and 40 24 20 17 14 11 8
60 30 25 20 15 12 9
are at high luminance. The daJ'ker and more mottled the 80 34 27 22 17 13 9
backgrOLmd, the les vi ible the ha lo. The Appendix is for 100 37 29 23 17 13 9
120 40 31 24 18 13 10
the worst case, whit against white. Most cenes do not 40mm lens
present th e criticaJ brightness c nditions. It i therefore 10 9 9 8 8
12
7
11
6
9
20 16 15 14
practicaJ in man cases, where th background is dark or 40 28 25 22 18 15 12
60 36 31 26 21 17 13
mottled, to accept the nearer doseup limit indicated for the 80 43 36 29 23 18 14
next mall r top. With a dark f liage background, even 100 48 39 32 25 19 14
120 52 42 33 26 20 14
closer ubj ct-eamera distances can be tolerat d . 50mm lens
10 9 9 9 8 8 7
20 18 17 16 14 13 11
Z-Axis Displacement for Closeups 40
60
31
42
29
38
26
33
22
28
19
23
16
18
Wh n it is e sentia l to make a rather extreme doseup 80 52 45 38 31 25 19
100 59 50 42 34 27 20
of a singl bject or per on, it can be done without a halo 120 66 55 45 36 28 21
by obser ing a pecial rule. If the ingle foreground object 75mm lens
10 10 10 9 9 9 9
e tend outward in all directions from the center of the 20 19 18 18 17 16 15
40 36 34 32 30 27 24
camera-I ns axi ,it then becomes p ible to mo e the cam- 60 51 48 44 39 35 29
era forward b e eral inches, placing it well within the 80 64 59 54 47 41 33
100 77 70 62 53 45 36
hadow c n of the projector. 1h.i action would normally 120 88 79 69 59 49 39
produce a vere shadow on the in ide edge of all off-cen- 100mm lens
9
10 10 10 10 10 9
ter objec . But the singl object ( r person) that extends out- 20 19 19 19 18 18 17
40 37 36 35 33 32 29
ward in all direction from the camera center has no inside 60 54 52 50 46 43 38
edges, and thus no had w line or halo will be vi ible. 80 70 67 63 57 52 45
100 85 80 74 67 60 50
120 99 93 85 75 66 55
Brightness and Color Matching 150mm lens
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
20 20 20 19 19 19 18
Segments of th front-projection screen material can 40 39 38 38 37 36 34
60 57 56 55 53 51 48
be placed in position f rward of the main screen for cer- 80 75 74 71 68 65 59
tain special ffects, sud, as doorways. It should be remem- 100 93 90 87 82 77 70
79
120 110 106 101 95 88
bered that the inverse quare lawai a applie to Scotdilite.
If one pia a piece of the ma terial at half the screen dis-
412 413
tance, for cxa mple, it will be 4X (2 stops) brighter than the
main crc n. Thu all such application should strive to
keep suppl mentary creen ma terial close to the main
screen.
A in r ar proj ction, the eye is not an adequa te instru-
ment to dc termine c lor or lighting balance between fore-
gro~nd and background. Where the background is simply
pa mg scen r, e-balance rna be sufficient. When the
fo reground i a continuation of the background, photo-
graph.ic t h u1d be made to ensure a good color and
brightn match. Lens coating, the ultra iolet cutoff of
optical gla and the pectral sensitivity of color negative
material are all inilu ntial in determining color balance of
~. The c I r r p nse f the hunlan eye is ignificantl
differ nt from that of color film. TIle eye, therefore, i not
an accurat predict r f the film' color rendition in thi ap-
plication.
Steps to Avoid Shadows and Halos
1. lign cam ra and projector lens front nodal poin
b pl~cing targpt of otchJite at the f/16 distance of Ap-
pendIX 1. Placc tar cts at left, center, and right of camera
field. Tip targ ts until th ir brightness matche thatof main
screen. top down camera and projector. Position ca mera
and project r for no h.adow on any target. Camera is cor-
recti located on nodal head when the camera is panned
to place right target at left edge of camera field and no
hadow appears.
2. t cam ra I 115 to de ired f-stop . Set projector len
t a mall r f- t p. Rech ck for hadows at edge of target .
Ann-uniform field of ligh t into the projector lens will
cau e a hadow line a projector stop is changed.
3. b erv minimum object distance of Appendix I to
avoid halo. Proj ctor exit pupil should not be larger than
camera entranc pupil. (Pupils are equal when tile depth
of field i th arne f r both len e . Use lens tables.)
4. If u ing a zoom len , line up shot at maximum focal
length to be u d in til h t, and then check for shadows
at minimum f cal l ngth.lf shadows appear, reduce zoom
range or u pr per nodal head that couples to zoom con-
trol.
S.lf pr j cted inlage is larger than camera field of view,
background plate negative hould be larger than camera
negative,otherwi background will be grainy.
414
6. When using anamorphic camera lens, keep objects
close to screen and co-locate a median point between the
two front nodal points of the camera lens with nodal point
median of the projector.
7. 1£ camera is moved forward of normal nodal point
location to make an extreme closeup, the object must be on
camera center and have no inside edges (i.e., no space be-
tween arms and body).
8. Supplementary screen set forward of main screen
should be kept very close to main screen to avoid a bright-
ness change.
9. When background is a continuation of foreground,
photographic tests are needed to assure a good color and
brightness match.
Additional information on front projection and on
Scotchlite front projection screens 7610 and 7615 high con-
trast sheeting is available from Safety and Security Systems
Division/3M, 225-4N-14, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55144-1000,
(612) 733-4433, (BOO) 328-7098.
Compositing
William Han ard
ASC Associate Member
President, Hansard Enterpri es
Rear-Screen Projection
Rear-screen projection proc s essentially consists of
filming live foreground action against a pecially photo-
graphed background "plate" which is being rear-projected
onto a translucent screen.The following items are required:
1. Special backgrowld projector with camera-type reg-
istration and 220 volt, 3-pha e, AC sync motor.
2. Motion-picture camera with crystal-controlled mo-
tor with a cameralprojector electronically pha eable shut-
ter sync box.
3. Specially prepared print on print stock with B & H
perforations, made from plate n gative filmed to produc-
tion specification or from stock library plate material.
4. Translucent projection screen.

Proce s shots usually are filmed on a motion-picture
stage or in a warehouse. Portable process projectors and
creen can be rolled nto any set and employed to back
up the action by fumi hing the "view" seen through a win-
dow or door of a hou e, plane, train, automobile, etc.
Camera and projector are electrically locked 0 that
their hutter open and do imultaneously. The projec-
tor d not have a "flicker blade" as in theater proj ctors,
tint rrupt the creened imaae and shorten the dark inter-
al b tween frame .
Process projector have camera-type hutter and
010 m ntsso that the individual frames are in perfect ync
with the camera' fi lming action. This results in a vi ual
"flick ring" picture but a photographically perfect image
inc each frame of film is proj cted for the entil"e interval
the camera shutter is open and therefore provide maxi-
Illum light exposure fram fo r frame. If the projected im-
age i a stationary plate itmu t perfectly regis tered, because
any unsteadiness would be readily discernible when filmed
in c mbination with a fixed f reground set.
amera and projector must be lin ed up so that the screen image is
photographed with equal brilliance across its full width. Camera #2 will
phot'ograph screen"A-B" with even brilliance. Camera 1 will record the
" B" ide of the screen darker. Camera #3 will record the "A" side of the
screen darker.
Traveling plates need not be critically registered sinc.e
their movement wi ll u ually cover any inherent un teacU-
ne . A tep printer (with camera-type registration) should
be employed to print stationary plates. A continuous
printer may be used for tra eling plates. A center line is
drawn on the stage floor 0 that camera and projector may
b t up in line with each other. Generally speaking, cam-
era and projector should be lined up, although the screen
ma be wung at a ligh t angle, if desired, to the foreground
set. If the camera is not squarel on the projector center line,
416
an unevenly illuminated screen image, with one side
dal"ker, will result. However, yo u do have th liberty of
getting off center line app roximately five degree on each
idewithaHi-Trans cr en and 45 degrees with a Lurniflex
screen.
There is absolutely no ubstitute for e p rience in
photographing proce scenes. They cannot b done "b '
th book" - too many technical and arti tic factors are in-
volved. It is up to the dir ctor of photography, along with
the process coordinat r, to ba decisions on previou ex-
perience, inherent kill and ba ic knowledge of the many
variables in each setup.
One ba ic problem is balancing the light on the screen
with the foregrOLUld illumination. The angle, hadowef-
fect and light quality f the illumination on th live set
must match the projected plate to form an acceptable over-
all pictw·e. Care must to taken to keep all ligh t illuminat-
ing the foregrOLUld set off the background scr en or it will
wa h out the projected picture.
Screen brightnes will vary with the plate in use. Mea-
u.ring is a matter of balancing by eye,·preferably with a
m notone viewing filter and an out-of-phase sync box for
dil"ect viewing through the camera (to achieve perfect bal-
ance while the camera i running without film). The screen
i illuminated onJ half the time, while the for ground set
is constantJy illuminated. The screen image i projected
with a carbon arc light, which requires a daylight film in-
dex for black & white film , and the foreground is lit by
tungsten lamps. "YellowFlame" carbons are used for pro-
jecting color plates so that tJlei.r color temperature matches
the tungsten-illurninat d foreground set.
The camera should be positioned at an elevation rela-
tive to that employed by tJle camera used to filmed the
original plate. The floor of the set should be regarded as the
camera floor - do not use the stage floor if the et is built
higher on a false floor. Pr serving the relationship between
foreground and background is of paramount importance
- elements must appear to have been photographed to-
gether. Best results are achieved only when camera angles
and lighting are matched to preserve persp ctive, space
relationship, convergence of lines and photographic tonal
values.
On stage, short focus lenses should be avoided. The
doser the camera is to the process screen, the more brilliant
the center of the screen, causing what is known as a hotspot.
417
Longer focal length lenses on both camera and projector
wiUproduce the best results. A 5-inch projection lens and
a 2-inch camera lens is a popular combination. A 40mm lens
sh uld be the shortest employed on the camera if the full
screen is being filmed . A wide-angle lens may be u d on
a large set where the proce screen is only partiaUy used,
or when a relatively maU projected image is used for a
view through a window or door. Care should be taken to
keep the camera and projector lined up when filming a
partial creen image on one side of a live et. The fore-
ground set and the play r hould be positioned a dose
to the screen as possible, a that the projected picture is
photographed as sharp as the available depth of field per-
mits.

Camera and projectormu t be lined upwhen the camera is panned &om

a screen image on onesideofa live sello the action on the opposileside.
Projedorll2 is correctly positioned . Projector #1 would result in a darker
image on the "B" side of the screen.

Another advantage in working with the action dose

to the creen is that it requir a smaller projected picture.
Th result is greater image compression, lending colors
richness an d brilliance. O n moving background h ts, sud1
as a ro ki ng boat, rocking th e camera sligh tly aids the illu-
sion of motion. Such rocking m ust not be apparent, but give
the appearan ce of integrat d motio n of foreground and
background action.
Print density will depend on the subject matter. It is
advi able to have two prints for 35mm and three prints for
VistaVision. One copy should be of good, rid1 normal den-
ity with normal color, and the second copy should be 2;'3
of a stop lighter in density.
OveraU creen brightness can be controUed by vary-
ing the amperage on the projector arc, adjusting the pro-
jection lens diaphragm and by employing neutral-density
418
filters. V ry little can be done to al ter the tonal c ntra t in-
herent in an individual print.
A impl rul f thumb for calculating projection dis-
tance and f cal len th of projection lens for a particular
cre n iz : th pr jector leI foca l length multiplied by the
screen width plu 10% equals the projection distance -
give r tak a f w f et. Thus a 5-inch lens will fill a 20-ft.
screen from appro imatel 110 feet awa .
tatic background en can be handled with greater
econom b u ing a 4" 5" tereopticon slide projector.
Tim is ed behveen takes ince the film does not ha e
to be r w undo I ,color lides ma be used for black &
whit film ph t graph ; in fact the are often preferable
becau th pI' nt a I grainy image and better black
& whjt eparation. Rear projection tide projector are
u uall equipped with arc lamp, although ometime
tung ten bulb are employed for mall aeens. Specjally
prepared W' .f' r 4" 5" slides are used. The emul ion
i removed from th base and transferred onto Pyrex gla
to elirrunate burrun or bleachillg of the transparency; this
also r ults in harper focus and facilitates cooling of the
transparenc and gla mOlmts.
One final note: the profes ional result of any process
ene i onl a good as the background plates provided.
Photographing Miniatures
by Dennis Muren, ASC
The rece nt increase in the use of miniatures in mo-
tion picture mean that live-action cinematographers
may now b ca ll d upon to photograph miniatures, an
area usuall y ha ndl ed by peciatists. Today's pinpoint-
sharp In , very fine-grain color negatives, and crystal-
clear 70mm reI a e prints can reveal flaws, and the olu-
tion require th utmo t attention to detail by every mem-
ber of the effect team. The cinematographer should talk
to the dir ctor, the live-action director of photography,
and the effect crew. He or he should look at a much
footage from the job a possible, especially immediatel y
preceding and f 1I0wing the miniature shot. Based on thi
material, h h uld then visualize how the shot would
have been photographed had it been built fuJI- ized and
apply that information to th following:
1. The notion that miniatur look big when photo-
graphed with w ide-angle len e from a low viewpoint is
somewha t true. But when cut into a equ nce filmed from
above cr with long len es the hot may look ut of place.
2. A s mall f-stop is u uall nec ary to hold the
depth of field needed to keep the model in focu .
3. The entire model and et mu t appear to be in fo-
cu ,as it probably wou ld hav be n if the cene had been
buHt full-size.
4. When shooting a full miniature hot, a 0-1 filter
on the camera can give an artificial atmo phere which
enhance the sen e of reality.
5. atch the preceding and following Ii e-action
photography as closely as p ible. Lighting umts should
be placed at the scaled di tanc from the model to dupli-
cate natural light fall-off. Small unit help the scale.
6. rtificial smoke can b u d to Lightly cloud the
atmosphere in a miniature and give a reali tic aerial haze.
In instances where more control i ne ded, bridal veil
material can be tightly tretched within a set and sepa-
rately lit.
7. Panning, til ting, trucking, even jol ts and shakes can
add greatly to a shot if they are appropriate with that
moment.
8. lligh-speed film tack allow for extra stopping
down. Perforation size a nd location can be checked on
each roll to help insure rock- teady image, if nece sary.
9. For high-speed hooting any rental cameras
should be loaded and te ted by th assistant who will use
them. Registration s teady te ts hou ld be made at the
chosen speeds, if necessa ry.
Model Size
Water, fire, and exp lodiJlg model should be as large
as the budget and safety allow, ven half-size if possible
and shot high-speed. In ten e wind ca n help break up o ut
of scale water droplets and in ome ca es, fire. Explod-
ing models should be pre-broken, rea embled, and ex-
ploded within slow-moving, low-powered, and colorful
pyrotechnics preferably with two or more blast. Other
types of models can be built just big enough to be ad -
equa tely detailed and till carry depth of field .
421
 Miniature explosion and fire can be dangerou be- x
cau the camera may need to be in close proximHy to the ~ '"
~
L{)
C') 00 ~ Ll':! Ll':! r--:
N 0>
C') en co ~ C') T-"

mi.njature. Plan accordingly.

Shooting Speeds co (0 X ~
r-- L{) ~ "! T-" T-"

~ ~
(0 0> M
N N 00 <D ~ N T-"
[f there i no motion on the miniature, it can b pho- T-"
<D T-"

tographed at an pe d. Water, fire, explosions, and fall-

ing ffects are usuall done \ ith large models and cam- co ~
~ 00 N
(0 X (0
era peeds up to 360 fp . The exact peed depend upon ~ '" I'-: ~ "0 r--
~
C') LO 0 L{) N T-"
'" ,.- L{) N c:: T-" T-"
the cale of the model and the effect desired . The accom- 0
(.)
<I)
pan ing chart i a starting point, but for the be t re ults, en
te t hould be made (page ill) . .... r-- ~ I'-: ~
'" x

-
(0 <I)
~ N ,.- r--
High-speed hots can often be expensive and w1pre- M
S- O> ~ 0.. N
N
~
T-" ,.-
C') T-"

dictabl vents becau e of th W1certainty of r quired <I)

<I)
u...
cam ra peeds, pyro technic, winds, mechanical quip- I

ment, human error, and th ne d to seq uen ce events in X ~

"0
~ 0> r-- L{)
C'! ,.-
T-" '"
S-
~
00 Ll':! M
T-"
<I)
(1) LO co N
,.-
00 ~ N
mu ch faster succession tha n they will be viewed . If an C') 0..
en
N T-"

xpl ion is photographed at four times norma l p ed (96 Ci)

fp ), then all other con trollab le actio ns wi thin the shot "0
~ 00
X
~
0 T-" r-- ~ ~ "! co
must happen four time fa ter. Achjevi ng an adequate ~ (0
00 ::2: T-" c:i L{)
0 L{) N
Ie el of good-looking lighting can be very difficu lt if
T-"
N T-"
C') N ,.- T-"

h ting high-speed at a mall f-stop. If using HMls,

make ure that there will be no flicker at the filming X
0> ~ (0 ~ 00 N (0 C')
pe ds. Scenes \ hjch ar upp ed to take place outdoors N '"
;:-- L{) lr:!
N
,.- C') N ,.- ,.-

hould be shoot outdoor if weather permit .

With top-motion, h ting is accomplished at one
fram at a time with the object being light! mov d by 00 X ~ r-- ~ r--
~ ~ r--
'"
C') T-"
0> N
~ N ~
hand between each fram . One-fourth- econd exp ures ~ N N ,.-

or more per frame allow for great depth of field in low

light I vels. Stop-m tion photography is used to giv a en '0 ....
-
<I)
:::l
fr dom of movement and e pression to an object or fig- 0..
0
<I)
0.. 0
en~
ure. en
Motion-control photography is used w hen an object <I) t- oo lii 0 0 0 0 0 LO

--
<I) 0.. (0 ~ C') N T-"

or fig ure is moved by computer-controlled motors at very

N
'U5 en >-
C"d en
-
c::
<I)
.... <I)
sl w peeds. Long expo ur limes per frame allow for 0 t::
'E
.E :::l
"0 cD a..
0
very sma ll f-stops. The computer can repea t the m ve- .... '0 c::
....0 en

--
<I) 0 C"d
ments of t!1e motors, which allows for multiple expo ures.
An facet of a shot can be i olated and wedg d for inten-
0..
en
c::
0
(.)
<I)
en (.)
....
(1)
(.)

ity, c lor, filtration, and atmosphere. The image can be

<I)
~
:;::::
(.)
....
<I)
C"d c::
(.)
built lip tl1rough multiple e posures made from the cho- c:
C"d
.:= 0..
en
....:::l ....:::l
(1) (1)

en w dge frames, while th computer repeat the ame Q.) <I) en en

E 0 0
(ij 0.. 0..
motions each time. (.) ....
C"d X X
Go-motion hooting i u ed when shooting animal en LL w W

or cr ature model . The major b dy parts are attached to

rod which are moved b computer-controlled motors.
423
Detail movem nt are aJlima ted b y hand each frame.
Single fram h ting a ll ows for sma ll f-stops a t long
exp ure tim. verage at various angles and camera
speeds i e p iaLly u efu l to help cushion the risks on
high- pe d hot .
Calculating Camera Speed
Explanation of table (Page 424)
The al f the model ma be stated as "inch per
foot" or a a fra ti n f full ize. In photographin a a min-
iature, portra ing an motion when the speed of that
01 ti n d p nd on gravity, the frame rate of the camera
. govern db. the cale. Thi indude falling objects or
\ ater, wave acti n, fire r moke, explo ions in which
objects ar thr \ n into the air, etc. On the other hand, an
object (for instance, an automobile) moving at a control-
lable peed can b related to the selected camera peed
in the fir t in tanc (gravit), the camera frame rate is
incrca d a the inv r e quare root of the cale fraction
(the quare root of the relation of full ize to miniature).
For instanc , f r a miniature Yib full size (%"=1'), the in-
ver e of th fraction i 16. The square root of 16 is 4 and
the frame rate hould be -l normal = 96 fps.
In the ame et, an automobile portra ed as travel-
ing 60 mile p r hour hould 010 e Yi6th that speed be-
cause f the cale, but increa ed 4 times because of the
frame rate.
n) x (portrayed speed) x (frame rate)
(normal frame rate)
Yib 60 x "6h~ = 15 mph (or 22 ft/sec)
Motion-Control Cinematography
by Richard Edlund, ASC
Moti n-eontrol has become an inseparable part of film
grammar. In pen ive solid-state digital electronics, a tech-
nology b m f the space race in the late '60s, made it pos-
sible to ac urately record and play back motion with suffi-
cient reliability to achie e the robotic camera system nec-
424
essary to produce the space equenc in Stnr Wnrs, the
success of which brough t on a rena is ance of motion-pic-
ture vi lIal effects. Since that time a maj rity of the top ten
b x office grossers hav relied on motion control for cru-
cial scenes. Prior to the ad ent of digital technology, the
control of motion had been attempted with ariou degrees
of succe by using analog electronic, I yn motors and
gears, even by hand-cranking mechanisms using a metro-
nome for synchronization!
To define it, motion control i an el tronicall con-
trolled mechanicals tern that allow theph ical motions
of a camera and/ or other objects to be recorded, enabling
uccessive passes to be photographed "on the fI " with the
corresponding motion blur characteristics of normal mo-
tion-picture cameras, so that c mp it can be created in
an optical printer or digitall . The comp 'tes may com-
prise separately phot graphed act r , miniatures, back-
grounds, and a myriadofoth rcreativepo ibiliti . TI1U ,
traveling matte systems of var ing kind can be used, fore-
ground and background of differing scal can be used
with a moving camera, and when ynchronized with video
playback systems, actors can perform within impossible
sets and locations, interactiJlg with creatur and minia-
ture shot previously or sub equently. In practice, the pro-
duction company will generally contract with a visual ef-
fects company to carry out specific hots and sequences that
will require this equipment and tlle e tedmiques.
Several companie ha e developed field recording
units, hybrid sy terns which have variou facilities, such a
speed and distance of travel, tracking, panning, tilting,
booming, follow-focus, remot op ration, pr -progra mma-
bility, ease of set-up, quieble of op rati n for oWld, and
adaptability to various formats Udl a 65mm, VistaVision,
or 35mm. SUdl a company wil l a ign a visual effects su-
p rvisor to work with tlle director, dire tor of photography
and other appropria te crew memb rs to achieve tlle proper
set-up time for any given plate. Of cour e th r is respon-
sibility implied to achieve a given p late w ithin reasonable
and predictable set-up time, and for thi reason carefu l
preproduction planning i neces ary between tlle effects
company and the V.P.M. When hooting actor within the
principal production schedule, usually blue-screen photog-
raphy is required and in these ca es even the wardrobe
should be discussed with the vi ual effects upervisor.
425

Motion-Control Equipment: Field
in the field (defined here as outside the wall of an
effects tudio, with the cam ra operating at sound speed)
there are different requirements. The director will u ually
want a moving camera if he/ he can have it, but this h~
been (and till is) difficult to achie e in effect hots. If this
is to be done, the following equipment is required:
1. A teady camera, usually o.f a larger !ormat than ~e
production is originating with, WIth a sP:Clal motor that.IS
lavable to the motion-control electrorucs, and that will
provide frame/shutter position accuracy in s ucc ~ ive
pa . Though not imperative, the camera should b: silent,
dialogue can be record d, and it should have a calibrated
videotap viewfinder. . tion on tlli basic them inc rporating vario u I vel of
2. A reliable follow-focus system that IS repeatable.
Double-pass shots must exactly repeat with higl., re olution.
3. A pan-tilt head which by any of a varIety of.t~ch­
nique can provide caleabl lens entrance-pupal pOSitiOns
for ub equent repeat passe on less than full-scal prop-
r or miniatures. This pan-tilt head should ~ave a ren:ote
operating console witll hand-wheel and VIdeo mom~or .
U ually uch a head will ha e DC servo motors to proVIde
real-time normal to high- peed pan/tilt range. . many bells and whistl wllich include mo e- m otlung
4. A dolly with track, having a powerful tracking mo-
tor, motorized boom, and positional encoders for both axes
which allow for either dolly grip control as in normal hots
or remote operation or pre-programmed moves. Th above
equipment should be as tandard as possible in appearance
and operational characteri ti ,and operate on standard
production dolly track. . t m have several way to program moves and any or all
5. A motion-control electrorucs console, operated by
a uitably wizened technician who can efficiently log and
stor motion files, shot-by- hot, invisibly to the rest of tile
production. . .
6. A videotap flick r-free console, wluch will store
shot on tape or laserdisc, as tile hots are mad ,and play
back irIStantly for dir ctorial scrutiny. This system should
be able to provide on-tIle-spot video composites for com-
pari ns of A to Bscene action, and the ~bility to pl~yback
while recording B, etc. The video requrrements Will vary
witll the hot requiremen .
7. A bookkeeping detail which will log actors' _posi-
ti ns and distances, camera and track positions Within.tile
t, and other mathematical and geographical informanon.
Again, this should happ n sy tematically and invisibly to
ti,e re t of tile production. Thi i crucial to tile cr ation of
til r t of tile jigsaw puzzl of elements tIlat mak up any
gi en hot.
Motion Control Equipment: Studio
ersatile motion-eontrol tern for photo raphing
miniatures consi ts of a t ad pin-registered cam ra, built
into a pan-tilt-roll head \ herein the entrance pupil of the
lens can be situated at tile erte of all a es, hung fr m a
boom arm, all mounted on a track of at lea t 50 f tin
I ngth. Various model mover, rotator, or p Ion are u u-
all m IUlted on anoth r h·ack f 20 feet or SO t P rpen-
di ular to tile camera track. Again, tilere are many varia-
ngi ne ring prowess witllin the industry and th preci ion
and reliability of such y tems provide the operator Witll
diff r nt levels of creative h· edom.
An electronic syst m run the motors (usually tep-
ping motors IUUess con id rable peed or power i needed,
in wllich case DC clo ed-loop ervo motor are u cd), then
tor ti,e motion fil laid down by ti,e operator and en-
abl the operator to int ract with the stem_Tl,ere are
programs, graphic tablet, and pecialized oftwar ad
infinitum.
tudio motion-eontrol equipment often ha pr i ions
to control tile camera hutt r angle over a wide rang in
ord r to control ti,e apparent motion blur. The exp ure
rang i from about Y.! nd to e tremel long. Mo t
of the following metllod may be u ed.
Joys ticks (usually pot ntiom ters or rotary optica l
haft ncoders) are us d to manuall y move the mot rs tI,at
opera te the various parts of the y tern. The joystick might
contr I the speed or po ition of one or more motor at a
tim and all tIlese motion aloe r corded for future playback.
Tlli is similar to remot controlling a model airplane orcar
and making an exact record of what happened.
Th joystick might b u ed to move th y tern to a
ri of fi ed positions while a record i made of th key
positions. The system could later generate a matllematicall
mooth path through the e points. Tllis i imilar to an
427
animator drawing key frames and then creating all the in-
b tween automatically.
If th Y tern ha a compu ter keyboard, then a move
could be creat d u in only start and end po itions with
ea e-in and a e- ut mud1 like an animator' exposur
sh t. Mud1 m r comple methods of move generation
ar a ailable using computer graphic . TI1e move file can
be edited and modified in a man ways as there are mo-
tion-e ntr I t m . me computer-eontrol sy tem have
graphi whim all \ the operator to preview the shot be-
fore th camera i used.
number f commercial electronic motion-control
tem are a ailabl ,as well as mechanical s stems. Som
f the maj r vi ual effects tudio build their own motion-
contr I terns. Although the use of motion control in
modem eff ts w rk i commonplace, the proc can be
e pen i e and time-c nsuming, but when properl ap-
proamed, hi h-quality \ i ual effects can be produced at
budg t and n tim .
Motion Control Extends Cinematic
Capabilities
Motion-control ystems are used in many way for
vi ual effects. Th following list is certainly not exhaustive:
1. Th abilit t program model shots so that the mo-
tion of object in an effect cene is believable, and to pre-
vi w th e mov and modify them as needed for approval.
2. Th abi lit to repeat these cenes for front-light/
back-light or fr nt-light/ front-light matte passes if needed.
3. Th ability to repeat these scenes for enl1ancement
effect Ud1 a nine pas e , rwming lights, smoke-ro m
eH ct ,filtrati n, etc.
4. Pr ci i n fly-by and extremely close approaches to
object can b accompli hed smoothl y and in perfect (pr -
grammable) f cu .
5. top-motion animation can be included in cenes
that have fi Id-r corded moving camera.
6. o-moti n animation is made possible by using
extremely com pie mechanical systems with upwards of
50 motion-c ntrol channels to create impossible creator
in motion. Thi y tem was pioneered in Dmgonslayer.
7. Mo-m tion - a y tern wherein field recorded
en with pan, tilt, track, boom are combined with par-
tially motorized rod puppets (controlled mostly by puppe-
teers). TIUs technique was developed fo r Alien]· It also in-
duded a laserdisc video processing ystem capable of con-
verting any filming rate, from 1 fp to 48 fp ,back to 24 fps
on the spot so scenes could be vid o-eomposited during the
hooting day to enable interaction of a Y.3 -scale Alien pup-
pet with live actors in field-recorded scenes.
8. Optical printers can be equipped with motion con-
trol so that optical pans, tilts, zooms, fades, diffusion, wipes
and dissolves can be repeated for uccessive passes.
9. Animation cameras can become mum more versa-
tile, ince all axes can be programmed; objects, miniatures,
etc. can even be shot against miniature blue screens; and
front-light/backlight repeat pa can be accomplished.
Motion-Control Technique
When working on Star Wars, we tarted with an empty
building and had to amass, modify and build our motion-
control equipment before we could produce any images.
We had built up visual "violin" and had to learn to
play them. Fortuna tely, the picture hit and a large audience
showed up for our motion-control recitals. Since then,
many irmovations have come about in the equipment
(whim are not seen directly by the film-going public) and
many good motion-eontrol cinematographers have devel-
oped.
There are two main techniques for programming
motion files: One is to use start and end positions for eam
axis of motion (there could be any number up to perhaps
16) and have the computer generate the moves. The other
allows the cameraperson to generate the move by joystick.
It is my opinion that the compu ter-genera ted method is
superior for graphics and animation purposes, and the
human interface is best for most miniature and model
photography. If shots are crea ted using a computer, tl1e
moves will have mathematically perfect curves, slow-ins,
slow-outs, etc., and no heartbeat or verve - especially in
a~tion sequences - therefore becoming subliminally pre-
dICtable and less interesting to the audience. Human op-
erators do not produce tlus mathematical perfection; in-
stead they tailor the camera move to what is interesting in
their viewfinder. TIUs human sense of curiosity is present
in the work of a great operator, and this transfers to the
audience.
 Traveling Matte Composite
Photography
by Pctro Vlah and Bill Taylor, ASC
In thi typ of comp ite photography, the compo -
iting i done on an ptical printer. Both the fo reground and
background ne are printed onto a dupe negative. A
illl0U tt (male) matte i employed to prevent the back-
growld ene from po ing the area occupied by the FC
action. cover (female) matte is used to protect the back-
ground en fr m veiling when the FC action is printed
onto th dupe n gative (see figures 1-5).
There are h 0 basic technique for generating the
matt : dual film, and single film. The dual film technique
emplo a dual film camera and beam splitter. A color
negative record the action, and a black & wh ite film
record a matt ( ilhouette) of the action. The backing be-
hind thc actor requir pecial illumination which will ex-
po th B & W matte film, but will not expo the pa-
rate color ne ative. ariou illuminators have been used
including Ultraviolet, Infrared, and Sodium.
The odium tem is b fa r the most-used dual film
matte ystem. A originall used in England, it req ui red a
back ing illuminated b monod1romahc odiu m light.
Didymi um gla fil ter were required on all set lamp to
ubtract th odi um wavelength From the foreground light-
ing. Thes filt r ca used a light loss of about two stops.
An im provcd odium sy tem initially in trod uced in
1959 employ d a p cial beam plitter and narrow band fil-
ter in thc ca mera. It d not requi re filters on the set lamps
and do n t ignificantly affect exposure. This improved
sodium y tem wa u ed extensively at Disney Studios and
is stiJlu d occasionally, a in the feature Dick Tracy.
The od ium y tem (or any d ual film system) has the
basic di ad antage of requiring separa tion between the
backing and th a t r. The actor must be kept well away
fro m th backing a not to be contanlina ted by sodi um
illlU1lin ati n. For thi rea n the actor (and hi fee t and hi
shadow) cann t get into and among the elements of the
background en . t pieces may be photographed wi th
the actor and matt d into the backgrowld scene along with
him, but it i er difficul t to perfec tly matdl ( ay) a fore-
ground fI r to a fI or in the background Wi tllout a test.
430
Development of dual film ystem has not kept pace
~itll ~)l provements in the blue screen ystem, and begin-
rung 111 the Star Wn rs era, tile blue creen system became
overwhelmingly the metllod of d loice.
Blue Screen Process
The Color Difference Traveling Matte Stem is the
mo t flexible of all compositing techniqu .It can be used
witll any pin-registered camera, and with normal w1filtered
set lighting lamp. The only proal requir ment is that one
must paint the backing an appropriate blue. The blue-
screen traveling matte technique prior to 1959 had as its
trademark a blue halo foil wing all moving objects (and
frequ~tly non-mo ing bjects). TIle Color Difference ys-
t m eliminates the blue halo and pro ide nearly all the
ad antages offered by other compositing s stems but with-
out their disadvantages or limitation .
The Color Difference Traveling Matte 5 tem properly
mattes rapid motion, moke, gla ware, water, fine detail,
and so fo rth. lt also permits an act r in the FC to move in,
among and behind objects in the backgrowld scene. Fur-
ther, the actor's shadow can be cau d t fall realistically
upon the objects in the B ene ven when that cene is
in rea li ty a miniature. ooth r compo iting techniq ue of-
fers this range of flex ibili ty.
The theory of the Colo r Differenc ystern i based on
colorimetry, and is sta ted a follows: (1) Excep ting the col-
or blue and magenta, all color have a blue cont nt that is
equal to, or less than, th ir green content. (2) All the remain-
ing color except yellow and gr en have equal blue and
green content.
When the blue and green cont nt of a scene is equal,
the blue and green B & W sepa ra tion will be identical.
Thus, there i no n ed to mak a blue separa tion to repro-
du~e such colors as reds, fi e h ton ,a ll shades of pink,
wl1Jte, gray, and all sa tw'a tions of cya n. Since the blue and
green separations (for these pecifi c color ) ar identical,
one would simply use the g reen paration twice; once as
the green printing separa tion, and once as the blue print-
ing sep aration.
When this select group of color appears in the fo re-
growld of a bl ue-screen hot, th g r n separa tion has one
uni que diffe rence as com pa r d to the blue separation.
Whereas the blue screen area is essentially d ear on the blue
 ing area and requires a very dense cover matte which rarely
fits.
The green separation is an almost ideal replacement
for the blue separation because of its high density (black-
ness) in the blue-screen area and because it has the correct
density for all of the foreground colors except for yellow
and green.
The green separation would be a perfect blue replace-
ment if a way could be found to add a little extra density
Fig. 2. Female matte of action where green and yellow objects occur. The addition of this
in Fig. 1; also called "matte
master."
needed extra density for green and yellow is the function
of the Color Difference matte. The Color Difference matte
is otherwise a clear film except for a few spots of density
where a yellow or green object existed.
The Color Difference matte is made by printing with
blue light through a bi-pad< consisting of the original nega-
tive and the green separation positive. The only areas that
are simultaneously clear on both films are those areas that
were green or yellow in the original scene.
When the Color Difference matte is laid over the green
separation, and their combined densities are compared to
Fig. 3 Male matte f action on Fig. 4. Background scene to the blue separation, they will be identical in all areas except
Fig. 1. (In practipe. a print be combined with foreground the blue-screen area, which will be black instead of clear.
from film shown in Fig. 2.) action in Fig. 1. Thus, the Color Difference matte together with the green
separation area makes a perfect replacement for the blue .
separation. This "synthetic" blue separation is perfect be-
cause it has all the correct densities for foreground colors
while remaining essentially black in the blue backing area.
The only limitation of the system as described is that
it cannot reproduce colors in which blue content exceeds
green content, e.g., blue and magenta. Desaturated blues
Fig. 5. The final composite (like blue jeans) reproduce acceptably.
print; Fig. 1 plus Fig. 4, via When it is necessary to reproduce a saturated blue in
Figs. 2 and 3. the foreground, a green backing may be substituted for the
blue one. While this is a common practice in video matting,
separation, this area is quite dense (black) on the green it's harder to get a good result in film because the blue
separation. Because of this density, the blue screen repro- record (the grainiest of the three layers) must then be used
duces as a black screen when the green separation is sub- twice. Good pure-green illuminators are not widely avail-
stituted for the blue separation. Very little cover (female) able.
matte is needed1because of the high density on the green Because all three separations (with blue being replaced
separation in the blue backing area. with the synthetic blue) are essentially black in the blue-
A cover matte density of 0.6 to 0.9 is generally suffi- screen r:egion there is no need to use high-contrast, high-
cient when using an excellent blue screen such as the rear- density cover mattes. The mattes should be made on film
illuminated Stewart T-matte blue. The problem with the stocks having essentially the same gamma as the B & W
blue separation is that it is essentially clear in the blue back- separations. The male matte should be transparent to the
432 . 433

Screen Types and Lighting:
Back-lit screens
A p r~ t blue backing \ ould expose only the blue-
n iti la l' f the color negative. Crosstalk in the nega-
tive la er ,imperfect illuminators, and spill light on the t
aU compr mi thi ideal. evertheless, thanks to the joint
effort of the vi ual eff cts community and film manufac-
tur rs, the b t current combinations of screen illumination
and negative t p ield backing of unprecedented q ual-
ity.
Eith roftw type ofbJu backingscan beusedinthe
blue-s l' n matt pr ce . Jf the backgrow1d scene is one
into whid1 the actor (or ubject) will not enter, then a simple
vertica l bluc urface i all that is needed for matting. An
excellent blue ba king for this purpo e is the rear-illumi-
nated Stcwart T-matte blue r en.
The be t illuminator available today are bank of
narrow band fluor cent tube driven by high-frequency
(flick rI s) lectr IUC balla ts. These tubes can be filmed
at any cam ra p d witho ut frarne-to-frame variation in
illuminati n. The pho phor in the e tubes are formulated
to produce a harpl -cut blue light that will not expos the
green nsitive la er of the 5248 and 5296 color negative to
any harmful d gr e, and will not expose the red-sensitive
434
layer at aU. TI1ese nearly-perfect blu illumina tors allow the
use of the thinnest possible cover matt for best results in
reproducing smoke, transparencie , blowing hair, reflec-
tions, et cetera.
Manufacturers of these special purpo tubes and fix-
ture include the originator, Jonathan Erland, at Compos-
ite Components Co. in La Ang Ie , who can also upply
fabric and paint. Lightweight fixtur and high frequency
ballasts are a ailable for rent from Kinoflo in Sun Valley,
California. Ballasts made by th e companie can be
dimmed; a great convenienc in adju ting reen bright-
n . The only drawback of these tup i co t.
Fair re uLts (at much les e p n ) can be achieved
with commercial da light-blue flu rescent tubes wrapped
with deep blue Rosco or other manufacturers' filter sheets.
The combination of the Stewart reen and th filters elimi-
nate most of the green Light from th tub . AJthough com-
mercial blue-print tubes have also been used, this is not rec-
ommended because of their v ry hi h UV output.
Regular 6O-cycle balla ts can be used with any of these
tubes at the cost of weight and power efficiency. The draw-
back is that 24 fps filming mu t b crystal-controlled to
avoid £Licker, and any high-speed work mu t be atcry taJ-
controlled multiple of 30 fp . Th tubes are somewhat
forgiving of off- peed filming becau f the Light " lag"
of the phosphors.
In the past, Stewart translucent screens have been Lit
by large banks of Par reflect l' fl od . Since incandescent
lamps are a very inefficien t ource of blue light, the fluo-
rescent system has made thi method b olete.
Front-lit Screens
The principal advan tage of the l' ar-ill uminated screen
is th instant wuform illumination btain d at the flip of a
switd1. Uniortw1ately, few tudio have permanent facili-
ties for large back-Lit screen . A front- illuminat d blue-
painted surface is also acc p tabl f r traveling matte pho-
tography. It has the advantage f availability. Any mooth
surface that can be painted, including flat, a canva back-
ing, and so forth, can be u ed a th blu backing.
An increasi ng ly popular illuminator for front-lit
screens are arrays of the pecia l-purpo blue fluorescents
described above. The broad, soft-light nature of f1uorescents
makes it relatively easy to illuminat sa ens of 100 feet or
435
more in width. More CaTe must be taken to eliminate spill
illumination on front-lit creens. With care, front-lit screens
can produce a r tut every bit as good as back-lit scenes.
Blue cr en can also be front-lit with blue-filtered
HMI or Carbon Arc Lamp . Getting even illumination with
the e ources i a tim -consuming challenge, and filters
mu t be caTefully watched for fading. Photographic resttlts
aTe good to fair. Lea t d irable by a large margin (for film
purposes) is a blue urface front-illuminated with white
Hght. Whit Hght, however, is essential when the actor and
his shadow must appear to enter into the backgrOlUld
scene.
Blue Floor Shooting
U the actor i to get into and walk about in the back-
ground en , then the floor must also be painted blue. The
same type of (white) Hght and Hghting fixtures that light
the actor (subject) are also used to Hght the blue floor and
backing. A hadow cast on a blue-painted wall or floor by
the subject can b transferred (when desired) into the back-
ground cene tog ther with the subject.
Hoor shooting is the most difficttlt kind of traveling
matte hot to light. It i also the most rewarding because it
permits the actor to walk or sit upon objects in the back-
ground a well a to enter or exit doorways, even when the
background scene is a miniature. When the actor's shadow
is made to fall upon the ground or other surfaces in the
backgr und scene, the composite scene is readily accepted
as real.
Matte c ntra t must be high in a floor shot to achieve
separation from the contaminated blue of the floor. The
problem i often compounded by glare from back lighting.
Cover matte mu t be heavy, and will take on a "cut-out"
appearance unle s measures are taken to soften the edge.
Nece arily, reproduction of fine edge detail will suf-
fer. An acceptable compromise between edge softness and
detail is sometimes impossible. When it is possible to re-
produce the actor' hadows, the shadows are often unac-
ceptably grainy. Industrial Light & Magic's tiny "brown-
ies" in Willowar the most successfttl white-light blue-floor
composites to dat , partly because the costume color was
controlled to tay on the warm side of the spectrum. Even
so, their shadows had to be entirely hand-animated. The
fine t-quality blue-floor hots are yet to come, from elec-
tronic compo iting (see below).
Front-lit Blue Screen Materials
Composite Components and the Dazian Company
upplya useful screen material in blue or green; the fabric
is sHghtly stretchy and has a fuzzy urface that helps to kill
reflections of foreground lights. It is not the preferred choice
for a white-lit floor. An acceptable blue paint is the 5720
Ultimatte Blue from Rosco Laboratories.
A new backing material is the Stewart-Ultimatte Blue
Screen designed for front illumination. It is a plastic sheet
material that can be rolled or stretched on a frame. It is
tough enough to walk on and is washable. This material is
slightly photographically superior to any of the paints for
matting. It is available in sizes up to 40' x 90'. Since this
material is quite expensive, it is best used for floors where
its scuff-resistance is most valuable. The material may be
used with walls and backings painted with high quality
blue paint.
Front-Projected Blue Backings
Blue backings of almost unlimited size may be front-
projected onto Scotchlite material using a beamsplitter and
a special blue illuminator. A refined system of this type is
the Apogee Blue Max projector, now owned and operated
by Sony Studios. An ingenious extension of this system,
known as Reverse Front Projection, can create a blue back-
ing that will not reflect in even the shiniest foreground
objects. Space helmets and compl tely silvered props were
matted using this system in 2010 and other films. These
systems are described elsewhere in this book.
Light Level for the Stewart T-matte
Blue Translucent Screen
A paper gray scale and a Wratten 47 blue filter may
be used to set the light level on the translucent Stewart T-
matte screen. When the paper gray scale is in the position
of the actor and illuminated for normal exposure at the de-
siredf-stop, the blue backing illumination shottld be adjusted
when the gray scale and screen are viewed simultaneously
through the 47 blue filter. The illumination is proper and
sufficiently urtiform when it falls within the range defined
by white and the first step below white on the gray scale.
437
 Note that the blue creen negative density should be
the ame at all f-stop . A pot meter may be calibrated for
use with the appr priate blue filter to read f-stops directly.
Lighting a Front-Illuminated Backing
Backing illuminated parately from the subject, such
a tllO lit b blue fluor cent lamps, may be balanced by
the same procedure a the translucent screens above.
If one i u ing a relative! efficient blue surface lit with
white light, uch a the tewart-Ultimatte Front-Lit blue
screen m ntioned earlier, the proper incident light level on
the backin i the me a that illuminating the subject.
Thu , whatever value is used to light the actor' face is also
the correct value for the backing.
Lighting Procedure for Holding the
Shadow
I. Turn on the key light so a to ca t the de ired
shadow.
2. dju t th fill Light in the hadow to achie e the
desired hadow den ity.
3. Mea ur the brightne on the floor just outside the
hadow (u a pot brightn meter and blue filter).
4. Light all the r t of the blue floor to this measured
brightne . while adding a little Light as possible to the
hadowar a.
5. Light the bl ue wall to adueve the same brightne
a the fl oor.
6. R duc fi ll in the hadow, if necessa ry, to re ta in
shadow d nsity. hadow density is controlled by adjust-
ing th fi ll light, n t by adjusting the keylight.
Out id the hadow, the entire blue set should appear
to have qual and wliform intensity as seen h'om the cam-
era p ition.
Since th human eye has a fast automatic iris for mall
Light dlan , it i n t a good measuring device. It i nec-
e ary to u a pot brighbl s meter and blue filter to check
for uniform brightn . A Polaroid camera with black &
white fi lm and a blu filt r i also useful for making a quick
check of lighting wliformity. Becau e of the relatively flat
angle betwe n the camera and floor, the fl oor will not ap-
pear to be a bl ue a the back wall. A diffused, polarized
whi te light component i reflected by the floor because of
438
th flat angle. For holding good hadows it is essential to
f u e a polarizing filter over th ca m ra lens. The HN38 is
recommended. Rotate tile filter tmtil th floor gla re is can-
celed .
Lighting to Eliminate the Shadow
1. Light the entire blue t unif rmly with large area
diffused light sources.
2. Check uniformity a noted in the preceding para-
graph.
3. Place the actor in p ition.If he ca ts a hadow add
additional low-level lighting to return th Jiah t I eJ ~ the
hadow to its original level. 0
~. Add a modest ke light to create desired modeling,
and Ignore the hadow it ca . The added ke light will
cause a hadow to be visibl to th e, but because the ke
light did not reduce the blu in ten ity of the floor (in tile
hadow it has creat d), the hadow can be made to drop-
out in the matting proce .
Lighting to Match the Background
. There is more to lighting a con in cin g compo ite than
Imply ma tchin~ the ~irectio~ and color of the lights on the
background. It IS not lffiffiedlately ob ious, but for practi-
cal purp.oses, a pe~son on a blue tage is (from a lighting
standpomt) standing on and/or in front of black elvet.
Since the ~atting proce drop out the blue backing and
the blue kick from ~e edges of th F object, the object may
a well have been 111 a black tage. T hi blackness causes
no problem if the background cen i a night scene that is
essentially dark.
~owever, if the backgrotmd i to be a light da y scene,
then If t~e person had really been in that day environment,
thaten vlfonment would have pr vid d back and edge light
well as refl ected Ji~ht to light up the hair and to provide
the normal edge bnghtne along arm , sides of the face,
etc..The cinen:atographer mu t back- and side-light tile
subject to proVlde about the am amount and direction of
lighting the environment would have provided. If this is
not done, edges of arms and I g and faces go dark and the
scene looks like a cutout.
Inappropriate lighting will compr mi e a hot the in-
stant it comes on the screen, while faulty compositing tech-
nique may be noticeable onl to experts.
439

Other Lighting Considerations
Blue illumination and blue reflections from the screen
on the subj ct mu t be minimized for top-qu~ty results.
It should b noted th at illUlllination and reflection ar sepa-
rate issues! . 4. It permit exact positioning of set pieces to match
Blue illumination from the screen can be mad negli-
gible by m ving the actor a~",ay from the screen (at least
15',25' is better) and by rna king off alJ the screen area that
i not actually ne ded behind the actors..(The re t ?~ the
frame can b fill ed in wi th wi ndow mattes LIl comp sltmg.)
Reflections can be controlled by reducing the screen
size o r di guised with dulling spray, but om~times can-
not be eliminated. In the worst ca e, reflectIons make
"holes" in the matt whidl must be filled in with hand work
in compo i ting. Of cours when the actor must st~d ~ n~e
middle of (l blue-painted set, some blue contam mabon 1S
lLllavoidable.
Using the UltiMatte Video Previewer
UltiMatte is a video matting d vice that can pI' vide a
preview of the final composite ene on.a color .m~rutor
prior to and during photography. TIle Ul?Matte elil~lm~te
much of the g ue work and uncerta mty 1Il pho~og[aph~g
comple cenes in which the actor must b reali ticaLIy 1l1-
tegrated among people and object in the backlfollild
ene. Prior to UltiMatte,complex blue-scr n hootmgwas
low, difficult, and often unsucces ful.
A small color video ca mera is u ed to observe the scene
to be photograph ed. Avid ocassette player is used t? pro-
vide a backgrollild cene. if the background scene. ls lLll-
available, UltiMatte generates a test scen . The Ul~atte
accepts and matte both cenes to how the comp~ lte on
a color m nitor. The UltiMatte g nerate electronJc male
a nd female ma ttes which are th equivalent of the mattes
g nerated by th Color Difference Blue ~creen Pr?ce s.
What one ees on th monitor correlates qwte well Wi th the
ub equ nt film compo ite.
The UltiMatte Previewer does the
following:
l. It observe the blu backing and ind ica tes visually
an a rea that are wlder-illuminat d. This reduces lighting
to a fraction of th normal time.
2. It di pia the male matte and determines wheilier
or not the subject can be matted. It show exactly where a
dullil1g spray or a change of angle of a set piece is needed.
3. It displays ilie fully matted picture and indicates
what lighting adjustments may be needed to successful ly
hold or liminate a shadow.
positions of objects in the background scene.
5. It permits ali the problem on the set to b detected
and corrected before shooting. Thi is a prerequisite to get-
ting a good matting job from the lab. After ilie quality of
the foreground image is ascertained thr ugh the UltiMatte
previewer, a motion pictw'e camera replaces the video cam-
era and the proc continues in the conventional marmer.
Laboratory Procedures for
Compositing
The Color Difference Blue Screen Traveling Matte
System permits a high level of realism. To maintain iliis
realism in such items as moke, glasswar , fine detail, and
so forth, special care mu t be exercised in selecting the den-
sity and gamma of the eparations and mattes. All separa-
tions (and certai.n matt ) are to b mad n a black & whit
panchromatic film stock at a nominal gamma of 1.0. (wiili
all printing factor , s uch a the "CaLlier Q Effect," taken into
accOlLllt). The Ea tman 5235 film is suitable. Each positive
separation of a gray scale, when uperimposed over the
color negative, should I' ult in a constant density-sum for
aIJ steps on ilie scale. Furthermore aIJ the step on the gray
scale must lie on the stra ight line portion of ilie D-Log E
curve for each layer of the color negative and for all th.r
eparation positives.
Upon exanLining the red separation positive (Red+) it
will be seen that the film is quite dark in the blue-screen
region. TIle Red needs very little additional density to fu lly
protect the dupe negative. Depending upon the I' d con-
tamina tion in the blue backing, a cov I' matte adding
as Little as 0.3 to 0.6 density may be adequate to prevent red
veiling.
The green epa ration will be less dense in ilie blue
backing region a nd will require additional density to pro-
tect the dupe negative from veiling. The fact tha t as much
as 0.9 add itional density may be needed indicate a sub-
s tantial green leakage. If the added density is obtained on
a separa te piece of film having density of 0.9, this low-den-
441
sity female cover matte may be under-sized, resulting in a
greenish edge that may be visible against the background.
If the additional density is added as additional expo-
sure before de eloping the green printing separation, nor-
mal edge growth is achieved and no green fringe occurs.
The female matte should have a gamma of 1.0. It may be
made directly or printed from a male matte.
The green cover matte is generally too dense to use for
printing the red separation. If the same cover matte is used
for this purpose, tran parent objects and the blurred edge
.,;
of moving objects will have a cyan tint The density differ- o'" o
ence between a white object and the blue backing (with ~
au l'! au
a a
cover matte) hould be the same for both separations. au '"
C "8 '"
C
Q) Q)
The gamma of the color difference matte must be ar- c a> c a>

rived at bye periment to match tl1e contrast of the separa- '"

(; '"
E '"u>- '"E
tion positives. A gamma of 1.0 is a good starting place. The .E
color difference matt can exist as a separate film, or be s El
....
~
<D '"'"c-
combin d with one of the other films. Z Ol
~ "'E "0
The male matte should be just dense enough in the :E
a
~
a '"a
subject area to avoid print-through, while being relatively U Z Z

clear in the blue backing region to permit printing in the

BG scene. Depending on the nature of the two scenes and
the lack of purity in the blue backing, it may be necessary
to increase the gamma of the male matte to as high as 1.5
to 2.0 to obtain enough density to avoid print-tl1fough.
The gamma of the male matte should not be increased
more tl1an is necessary to prevent prinHl1fough because
excessi e gamma causes noise in shadow areas, a loss of
fine detail, and a 10 of transparency range.
The f llowing table li ts alternative methods that may
be used to produce the arious mattes and printing records.
Choices are determined in part by the colors in the FG
scene.
....r
Current Fil m Stocks ar : '"
..:J
Color Negative: Eastman EXR 5248 & 5296 '"z
B&W Separalions: Eastman Panachrom, tic ~ ell <:>
Q)
"' :::J
Separation Film 5235 Q,.a: (!)COCD c:c

Matte Films: Eastman Panachromatic

Separation Film 5235 & 50202 ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ !!:! !!:! n; <0 n; <0
developed 10 high gamma or
'" <0 <0 <0 ::;;;: ::;;;: ::;;;: ::;;;:
Eastman High Contra t ::;;;: ::;;;: ::;;;: ::;;;: J!'l J!'l Q) Q)
<;) <;)
Panachromatic Film 5369
Q)
<;)
Q)
<;)
J!'l Ol
<;) '" '"E
E E E
develop d 10 a low amma.
::;;;: ::;;;: '"
::;;;: ::;;;: J: J: J: J:

Color Dupe Negative: Eastman Color Intermed iate 5244

ui r.D r-.: a:i en -
c:i N
~

443
442
Electronic and Digital Compositing
Becau e Vltimatte ideo composites are much more
forgi ing of contaminated backings, it was a natural pro-
gr ion to adapt Vltimatte matting logic to create film
compo ites by both analog and digital means.
The Sony high-definition cameras, together with the
30 Mhz. high-definition Ultimatte-6, have produced some
scen for theatrical motion pictures in Japan and Italy.
More recently, Son Hi-Definition Facilities, lnc. in Culver
City, California has oHered a film-to-film service u ing the
same high definition ideo equipment. Feature films using
thi compo iting proc are in production.
Already the line between optical effects companies,
computer graphics companies and video post hou es has
begun to blur as digital film composites become widely
available from these sources.
Most visual effects companies, such as ILM and Boss
Film have developed proprietary sys tems. Computer
Graphics creators such a th pioneering Digital Film Com-
pany and Pacific Data Images provide digital composites
along wi th their other services. Composite Image Systems
in Hollywood offers tI,eir "D.O.T" process, another 1000+
line, film-to-film system.There are certainly many more to
follow.
At this writing, a most advanced digital film-to-film
ystem i being demon trated as a pilot project of the
Ea tman Kodak Company. Their Cineon system can cre-
ate digital dupe negatives indistinguishable from the origi-
nal on the screen. Ultimatte Compositing technology is
employed in their work tations at Kodak's Cinesite, which
offer a 4000 line ultra high-resolution film-to-film scan-
rung, printing, and compo iting service. Effects teams for
everal feature films, incl uding Super Mario Brothers, have
u ed Cinesite services.
Ultimatte Digital Compositing, which now includes
creen correction, repre ent a major advance in image
compositing. Ultimatte Cinefusion compositing software
i available for several computer platforms.
Digital compositing greatly expands the scope and
application of blue-screen photography. White-lit screens
are much less of a problem. Ultimatte Screen correction, at
the touch of a button, provides instant lighting un.iformity
on walls and floor having non-un.iform illumination and
varying shades of blue.
Particularly exciting i tI,e prospect of shooting front-
I~t blue screen compo it outdoors in natural light; it's rela-
tively easy to get good r ults in the electronic realm, but
nearly impossible with present purely photo-mechanical
m thods.
With all that said, even in thi digital age, we hould
n t forget that first-ela composites can till be made on
in pensi e, wideJ available optical printers. ln J nathan
Erland' phrase, optical printing i "parallel proc ing at
the peed of light!"
Black & White Self-Matting Process
TheStewartT-matt translucentbluebackingpro ides
a blue of sufficient purity to make possible a self-ma tting
process. The subject is illuminated with yellow light and
IS photographed on Ea tman 5248 color negative, or a color
r v rsal fi lm. When th n gative is used, a color print is
made. (The yellow fi lt r hould pass no blue light in the 400
to 500 nanometer range.)
. TJ:te color po~itive i printed to a B & W dup nega-
bv u mgyellow bght. Th blue field on the print is its own
cov r matte, and no exposure occurs in tI,e blue fi Id area.
~t, the color po itive i u ed as a male matte through
whJch the B & W background scene is printed on the ame
dupe negative with blue light. The color print pr vents
e po ure in the subject area b blue light.
In this system, no other parations or matt are re-
quired. The proc hold moke, glassware and hair de-
tail.lt i not an imp rtant tem in an era when almo tall
film are made in color.
The Future for Traveling Matte
Composite Photography
by Jonathan Erland, FSMPTE
Executive Vice Pre ident,
The Technology Council of the Motion Picture/ Tele\li ion lndustry
The 1977 release of Star Wars precipitated a new era
of visual-effects wizardry that continues to the pr nt. In
~act, with ~e adv~nt of digital film scanning, electronic
trnage marupulation and computer-generated imagery
445
(CGl) added to the still-growing wealth of evolving pho-
tochemica l and in-camera compositing technique, the art
and craft of cin matography finds itself in possession of
unprecedented power over the moving image. Impl.icit in
th.is newly acquired capability is a requirement for an in-
crea ed awarenes and ensitivity to the new and evolving
technolog n the part of all the craftspeople involved in
cinematograph . Composite cinematography hould be
preceded b careful analysis of both the method and the
material mo t appr priate to achieve the desired result.
Film Stock
Impr vern nts in film stocks are now occurring with
such rapidity a to predude the prior practice of provid-
ing comparative data in this manual. Instead, guideline for
use in selectin and testing appropriate stocks for compo -
He phot graph will be discussed.
The imp rtance of color difference matting in compo -
ite phot raph ha now been uffic.ientl well establi hed
that all manufacturer ha e made efforts to achieve the
requi ite chromatic discretion in their product. Recent years
ha e seen the ad vent of a major breakthrough in fil m stock
con truction. Thi is attributed to the development of tabu-
lar- haped ilver halide cry tal, commonly called "T"
grain, in which the cry tal is as little as one-tenth as thick
a it i wide. The goal of the new crystal design is to pro-
vide a relatively larger target for a given mass of crystal.
Thi ha two ffect: one, the speed versus grain ratio is
increa d, producing a finer grain image for a given peed;
two, the variou layers tllat make up the total emulsion are
relatively thinn r, pr viding for less light scattering wi tl1i.n
the em ul ion and producing a clearer, sharper image
(greater acc utance).
The n w gra in tructure is a s ubstantial improvement,
and stil l b tte~' p rform ance is promised for the future.
How ver, cinematographers intending to produce compos-
ite photography must be aware that SUdl enhanced perfor-
mance is accompani d by increased susceptibility to insta-
bility; tI,e v 'y high-speed film stocks are sensitive to physi-
cal tres. ertain type of camera movements disrupt the
silver-ha lide cry tal ' w itl, in the emulsion, cau ing w,even
expo ure of one or more color records. In twlgsten stock ,
this i u uaLly th blue (and fastest) record. In normal con-
eIltional production, the effect is usually so subtle as to be
446
inconsequential. However, in the far more critical realm of
composite photography, such effects can be very serious.
Thus it is ever more important to test bOtll tI,e film stock
and the camera prior to embarking on any composite cin-
ematography.
Split-screen compo ite are particularly susceptible to
high-speed emulsion stress Yl,drome, as til two (or more)
elements wiJJ be acq uired from diff rent takes. Since the
effect is erratic, the resultis to real tI, split. In blue screen
composites, the effect can cause the matt (usually derived
from the blue record) to beat (fluctuat ) from subtle size
changes.
Therefore, film stocks and camera under con ider-
ation for the production hould be ubjected to a simple
test. Expose the candidate film tock in tile camera of choice
o tIlat a uniformly illuminated 1 percent grey card fills
tile frame. Indude a slate in tile field to record pertinent
data. Make two successive takes. In take one, allow tile
camera to fW1 normall for veral econds. In take two,
allow the camera to come to speed and then intermittent!
interfere with the feed pulley of tile magazin by pinching
tile pulley witll tile fingers. This action has tile effect of
sending a hock wave tluough the film a it passes through
the camera, exacerbating any tendency on the part of eitller
the film stock or tile camera to emul ion tress syndrome.
On projection, tile print may exhibit density and colorim-
etry changes corresponding to tile int rf rence applied to
tile magazine. If tile print does exhibit uch changes, it is
probably the result of emu lsion stress.
What is occurring i a tran i nt disorientation of the
sil ver-halide crysta ls due to th ir uniquely thin and fla t
structure. The consequence i a piezoelectric effect in which
electrons are momentarily disl cat d. Thi temporary phe-
nomenon affects the relative spe d of til emulsion, whid,
translates into the d,aracteri tic flu ctuation in image den-
sity. The degree of fluctuation ob rved will indicate the
magnitude of risk. If fluctuation s ar observed in the ini-
tial and unstressed take, the tock should be absolutely
avoided . If needed, a careful analysi can be mad e by ha v-
ing black & white color eparation positives made from the
negative on a high-contrast stock ud, as Eastman 5269.
This test wiJJ more readily reveal the degree of density fluc-
tuation in the separate color records of tile stock. Alterna-
tively, the negative may be run on a telecine, permitting any
fluctuations to be observed on a waveform monitor.
447
 Remcmber that the tr syndrome is a function of
b th the t ck and the camera, 0 that a change f either
ma rectify the problem. In ome cases the necessary cam-
era modification i quite imple. For example, the modifi-
cati n for the Mitchell Standard i the ubstitution of a large
diameter (.700") fir tidier r 11 r for the stock (.366") roller.
The camera must al be rigorousl tested for teadi-
n of the movement and h uld preferabl ha provi-
ion for the inclusion of a film clip in the viewfinder y -
tem t facilitate the lineup f the other elemen of th como.
p ite photography.
C lorimetry tests hould n w be conducted whidl will
d t rmine the suitabilit f r the color differenc traveling-
matte technique. For the t t , the frame should consist
of a blue field of the type anticipated in produ tion (a di -
cus ion f variou type of backing follows) . Also included
in the frame should be an 18 percent grey ca rd, as w II as a
black void. The black v id i created by lining a box, tin can
or other ve sel with black velvet and displaying it to the
camera in such a way that no light falls on the interior, the
object being to proVide an ar a on the negati in w hich
no exposuJ"e has occurred.
TIli particular test i u ful i.n revealing any tendency
of the len to" eil" blue light aero non-blue area of the
image, and also to indicat the presence of exces ive ultra-
violet radiation cattering in the lens and camera body.
While the ultraviolet can be blocked with a filter ( uch as a
ratt n 2E), nothing much can be done about a lens that
i veiling blue, and in uch a ca an alternative lens hould
be selected. tf possible, the frame hould also contain a pure
blue r ference. For the te t nly, both the blue backing field
and the gray card hould b illuminated equally when read
b a p tmeter. A wedge hould be shot extending two
stop above and three stop below nominal at half- top in-
cr m nts.
Th developed negativc shou ld be read on a color
d n itometer, preferably in c n ultation with the t chnician
r ponsible for the compo iting process. For impLicity, the
d n itometer can be nulled to zero on a clear, unexpo ed
portion of the negative. Thi permits subsequent reading
to prod uce values for eadl record above 0 min. For a pho-
t ch mical compo ite pr ce , the candidate film tock
h uld exhibit a high d gr of color discretion. (For an
electronic compo ite pr different criteria apply, and
th will be discussed paratel). Sanlple reading from
448
an actual desirable film stock are: Red .02, Gr cn .16, and
Blue 1.20. This yields a Blue/Green differenc of 1.04 den-
sity LUutS. Sample readin from a less-than-de irable film
tock are: Red .0-1, Green .44, and Blue 1.24., yielding a B1ue/
Green difference of.80 density units.
As is observed in Petro Vlaho . tutorial on blue screen,
the degree of green dcn ity in the blue-screen area will
determine the density f the cover matte, which in turn
determines the quality of the final composite. Thus the low
green reading of the first ample i very d irable com-
pared to the considerabl higher reading of th econd
example.
If the wedge r veal that a desired balance betwecn a
low green density and a ufficient blue density r ult in
an underexposed gray card, then an adjustment to the lu-
minance of the blue backing is called for. In practice, tlus
fr quently results in a blue backing luminanc about one
stop lower than the foreground illumination. om optical
camera operators pref r a lightly overexposed foregroLUld
cene, which can increa e till further the pread between
foreground and blue backing. On the other hand, other
op rators prefer a lugher backing luminance. Moreover, the
luminance of the background plate will influence the selec-
tion of backing luminance value, with high-luminance
plates (i.e., bald sky) requiring higher lunUnance backings
and night scene calling for lower backing level . The les-
son here i to consult with the operator at the earli t po -
ible opportunity.
While the catalogue of technique for enhancing the
results of blue ser en proc i too extensive to e plore in
thi tutorial, tllere are tw r latively imple tactics that can
make a significant diH renc . TIle first procedur i to reo.
rate the film stock to half its normal rated p ed, tllu over-
expo ing it by one stop, and tllen compensate for this over-
exposure by instructing the lab to pull proce one top,
tlluS reducing the developm nt. This maneuver results in
a normally exposed n gative but with a notic able reduc-
ti.on in graininess and improved resolution. The econd
procedure is to lect a fine-grain daylight-balanced stock
for the blue screen photography. This require eith r Eght-
ing with HMI or filtering tlU1gsten light appropriately. The
main reason tlUs i effecti e i that the blue screen process
make use of the blue r cord of the negative to derive
mattes; and while thi i a fa t, relatively coar e-grain
record in a tlU1gsten-balanced stock, it i a v r fine-grained
449
r cord in a da light-balanced stock. The tradeoff for both
of these maneuvers is the r lativel e tea agant use of light.
Video and Electronic Scanning
The criteria f r backing exp ures for telecine trans-
fer and lectronic cannin intended for computer image
manipulation can differ quite si nificantly from photo-
chemical requirem nts. [n general, a negative proper!
e p sed for film compo iting will ha e a blue luminance
level at, or above, the upp r limit for optimum vid a mat-
ling. A ophisticatcd vid matting y t m such as the
Ultimatt i capable of producing a matte from a little a
,I() I.R.E. video uni , which would occur at about four top
lower backing luminance than for a film blue scr n cam-
p ite. id "c1ipping" ccurs at about 100 1.R.E. video
unit . Thus, with a high-luminance blue backing, the blu
l vel will rcach clip and cannot increase further, whjJe the
ine itable reen density may continue to rise, reducing the
degree of paration between green and blue. Moreover,
e c i"e luminance of the backing threatens the image
d tail at the matte dge, \>\ hich will detract from the qual-
ity f Ihe omposit . A targ t, then, i a point within the ca-
pability of both the optical and video proce ses, and this
oc urs at the 1.20 den it w'lits ab ve D min. in the blue
record. Blow thi point, film compo iting becom diffi-
cult, while above it, video mattin uffers.
Ultimatte uScreen Correction"
Video matting from film via the Ultimatte can also
avail itself f the reen-e rrecti n featur . To use this at-
tribute, a take hould be prepared f the blue-screen scene
e actl as it will be hot for the production, with a locked-
off cam ra but without an of the live action. If th cene
require camera moves, a m tion-control y tem should be
provided f r the cam ra, and the ca libration take run with
the motion-contc I program for ach hot. 0 further
changes hould b made t uch m tion-<:ontrol programs
un1 another calibration take i al mad .
[n the po tproduction compo iting proces , the cali-
bration take will b used I "map" the blue- creen area and
correct f r any defici ncie . Thereafter, actual pr duction
take witl u thi information a a reference and correct
the deficiencies for all sub quent takes. The main ad an-
tag of th.i procedure is to Ie sen the burden on the stage
450
crew in providing effective matting backings, thus speed-
ing setup and reducing co ts. Permitting this technology
to become a panacea, however, entails risk; if the Ultimatte
i unavajJable or the calibration take i lUlusable for any
reason, it will then be difficult to fali back on more conven-
tional techniques. The result witl be very costly and tim -
consuming to overcome. It' a good idea to make cr n-
correction calibration takes while also making every rca-
onable effort to pro ide a functional blue screen in the
original photography, r lying on the screen correction only
as an insurance policy.
Electronic Scanned Film for Feature-
Quality Composites
A this edition of the manual goes to pr , a vari ty
of digital electronic film canning systems are making th ir
appearance in the feature film industry . Th Eastman
Kodak facility, Cinesite, is one. Others include: Computer
Film Co. (Land n and La ngele); Component Video,
(Los Angeles); Pacific Title, (Los Angeles); Pacific Data
Image, (Los Angeles); Video Image, (Los Angeles) and
Sony High-Definition Facilitie , (Los Angele ). Vari us
other facilities are prov iding work stati ns for d igi tal i1n-
age manipulati n. As with photochernicaland video mat-
ting technique, these new sy lerns ha e their own optimal
performance parameters.
While it i theoretically true that digital lectronic
matting can be performed on any color coordinates, the
afer practice i to select ne of th three primary colors. The
main determinant in selecting the backing color will be the
color content of the for ground scene. Howe r, other i -
ues t be considered are: the matting performance of the
particular film tock, th software program on which the
camp ite will be performed and th circum tances in
which the matte will be acquired. In the latter ca e, a vari-
ety of new options will become available to the cinematog-
rapher. Green backin , for example, can be pr vided for
effective daylight exterior traveling mattes more readil
than can blue.
Ultimatte composites including the" cre n correc-
tion" feature ar also ava ilabl on wo rkstation that have
licensed the process. Feature-film productions intending to
use this method of compositing hould observe the guide-
451
line for preparing for video matting via Ultimatte, and the
lower backing Iwninance val ues generally apply.
. It i. alway wi e to hoot a wedge test, if the opportu-
nltye 1St . u h te t hould include foreground detail
imilar to th actual sh ot. Thus costume ma terials and
col I' ,a well a pI' p , hould be included where po ible.
Stand-ins for principal pla ers with similar hair and other
characteri ti ar h Ipful. Th foreground hould be prop-
er! e p d 0 that an ] % gray card will yield proper
LAD#' . (Laborator Aim Den ity alues are read from the
de elop d n gative and hould be approximately: Red 80,
Green 1.20 and Blu 1.60). rti ticall desired "deviati ns"
from thi "n rmal" expo ure and development can more
e.ffe.ctiv I be acc mpli hed in the ubsequent image pro-
c ing than in original ph tography, where they can com-
promise th annin pr
A rie of hort tak i then made in which the lu-
minance of th backing creen is progres i ely adju ted
from "par" with the foreground to two and a half top
belm par, in half- top iner ments. This test is then scanned
and t t comp it made on the workstation of choice. In
~ractice, it may b m re practical to adjust the foreground
light than the backing illumination, compensating for ex-
po ure via NO filte .
The cin matographer hould make it a practice to in-
dude the gra card and gray ale at the head of each take.
It i convenient to di play the e to the camera along with
the late unle th late is illuminated with a separat slat
light. Additionally, the running camera should be briefly
"capped" a to provide a short length of film devoid of
expo ure, so that a D-min. reference is produced to a ist
in ca libration at th carmer.
Front-Lit Backing Materials
As w!t~ fi lm toc~s, backing materials currently w'-
dergo rev Ision too rapidl y to permit full discussion here.
The new ly m rging I ctronic matting processes will
make u e f paint, fabric and plastics only now being
developed. Inquiry directed to the following provider of
sud, material wi ll yield current information: 7-K Color
(Lo Angel ); Composite Components Company (Los
Angeles); Daizian ( ew York and Lo Angeles); Gothic
Color ( w York); Paramount Paint (Los Angeles); Ro co
(worldwid); tewart Filmscreen (La Angeles).
452
Transmission Blue Screen
JJ:1 transmission blue scre n, th ource Light, power
supplie and color of the creen it If ha e all een changes.
Incandescent Lights, impractical b ca use of their low blue
c.ontent, have been replaced by fluor cen t lamps, in par-
ticular by lamps containing the ingle pho phor trontium
pyrophosphate: Europium. Such lamps hav a narrow
band output peaking at 420 nanomet !'S. The ma be ob-
tained from the major lamp manufacturer and are identi-
fied by the prefix SOB (Super Diazo Blu ). TI, lamp (in-
deed all fluorescent lamps) emit a c rtam amow,t of ultra-
violet light; therefore, it i wise to use a Wratten 2£ at the
camera or a comparable UV filter at th lamp.
It hould be mentioned that there i me evidence to
ugg t that the blue end of the pe.ctrum, particularly the
area a~ound ~ nanometer , cau acc lerated aging of
the rebna. This should not be confused with cataracts and
problems that relate to hort-wa e ultra iolet. There is no
cause for concern for people who are ca uall e posed to
blue light, such as actor or tage crew, " ho may only
pend a few days a year working around blue creens.
H?we~er,. I:'eople who pend many weeks a year working
With slgl1lflcant amounts of blue light hould take some
precaution to limit their exposure. Excellent fil t red glasses,
known as "Blue Blocker ," are now available that will com-
pletely block ~ot only the UV but most blue light.
Stewart Filmscreen can produce tran mis ion green-
screen material; a polychromatic creen can be made from
Rosco black-screen rear-projection ma te rial and illumi -
nated with the appropriate filtered light to achieve any
desired backing color.
The strobing associated with GO-cycle AC-driven fluo-
resc~t I~mps may be essentially overcome by the us of
speCIal hlgh-frequency solid- ta te p weI' uppli s.
Reverse Blue Screen
This process was developed in I' sponse to a require-
~ent to be able to matte objects incorporatin g highly reflec-
tive surfaces, such as glossy paint (even blue paint) or
specular metallic material as well as details sucl, as mesh
I
thin w~e~, and the !ike. Such cl,aract risties have proved
to be ~cult, and m some ca e ,impo ible to matte by
conventiOnal blue screen or frontlit/backlit proces . The
process requires a sophisticated motion-control ystem
capable of multipl passes ~ re~tr~tion, and consequently
calmot be used for live-action filmmg. . s ubject characteristics, thi method of obtai ning matte
Rever blue screen derives its name from tile baslC
concept tl1at, instead of trying to ph?t?gra~h an opaque
object again t an illuminated cree!', It IS desll'able to p~o­
tograph an illuminating ource.agamst~ bl.ac~ or o~erwLSe
contrasting background. In tlU way, lirrutation inherent
in th blu sere n process, notably the tend ncy of.the
screen to reflect off tile surface of the foregrOlmd subject,
can be a\ oided.
TIle subject to be photoQTaph d, for .e xample a model
on a motion-control tage, i coated Wl tll a h'ansparent
med iwu, uch a lacqu l' or acrylic, conta~nin~ one or more
pho phors which are invisible Lmder white light. ~e s~b­
ject i phot graphed, illuminated b normal stage lighting
ources. A second pas i tl1en filmed, on tlle.same film I ~d,
but consecutive to it. This time th stage lights are extlJ1-
\rui hed and tl1e subject is irradiated Witll ultraviolet ra-
diation ~f a wa e lengtl1 of about 360 nan~llleter ~black
lioht). Thi proces i applied to top~mohon by ~Imply
filming alternate white light and bla~k light &:an:es ~ tead
of c mplete sequence. The ulh'avlOlet radlClhon 1 con-
vert db tl1e phosph l' on tl1e surface of tl1e ubject from
360 nanometer to either -150 (blue); 550 (green); or 650 na-
nometer (red) and re-emitt d a visible light. If a color
sto k (such as EK 5248) is bing u e~, this wi~l usually be
red 0 it wi ll record on tile finest-gram emulSIOn laye r.
The ubject is n w functioning a a!' illumil~atin.g
ource ratl1er tl1an a a reflector of light fallmg upon It. It IS
this ource which is photographed. Further refined by .tl1e
u e of a color sepa rating flit r at the ca mera lens, tile ~ ­
ag i formed primarily by tl1e selected pho phor coa.ru:g
on tile surface f tile model, witl1 relatively little ve tigtal
imaging from the model itself. (In tlle ca of red, a Wra tten
23A; blu , a blue dichroic plus a Wratte~ 2E; and gr en , a
gt'een dichroic alone.) In this way, va riations on tl1e mo?~ l
brought about b paint col r, texture changes, tc. ~~ mmI-
mized, as tl1e bject is to produce a mon.ochrom~tic tmage
Witll as unjform a den ity as possible. It 1 ometirne .help-
fu l to reduce th contrast range in tl1e subject to aVOid .the
juxtapo ition of briHiant white and jet black area (I.e.,
pace- huttle model ). but ~s sh~uld usually be ?one a
a matter of course in preparmg subjects for comros1~ pho-
tography, ince tile ensuing op~cal processes will build up
contrast in tl1e final compo Ite Image.
In addition to tl1e desired elirnination of restrictions on
provides the followin g advantages: First, tl1ere are fewer
steps and fewer pieces of film required in tl1e optical com-
po ition sequence. Second, e en under some extreme con-
ditions, uch a a subject l' ceding into the distance and
beco ming quite small , tl1e matte image r tains its int gri ty
and refu s to disintegra te, as happens when tlle same hot
is a ttempted via conventional blue screen. Third, camera
freedom increase, in that a backing scr n is not required
to be kept in tl1 camera view; cOrlSeq uently, tl1e cam ra can
make a 360-degree rum around a ubj ct.
The procedure in tl1e optical deparbnent is straightfor-
ward, fast and conomical. The original negati e matte
unage i printed to a high contrast tock \ria tl1e appropri-
ate Etlter. The exposw'e of b st con trast between the deal'
subj ct ar a and the opaque backgt'oLmd ar a, llSually a
density of app roxima tely 2.6 to 2.7, is printed. TIle selected
den ity tends to "pindl" tl1e subject image slightl , thus
affording a tight fit. TIle reverse i then print d from tl1is
matte, completing the set. The fu- t matte, or "burn-in," is
tl1en simply bi-packed with a positive of the o rigin al nega-
tive, printed and followed b a bi-pack of tl1 background
scene witl1 the "hold-out" matte.
A more complex version of this process provides for
tl1e addition of a contrasting pho phor backi ng (u ually
blue) and model mount which is recorded ia tl1e appro-
priate filter onto tl1e previou I recorded pho phor image.
Or, with appropriate filtration (Wratten #31) botl1 phos-
phors may be r corded slinultan ously. The result is th
creation of an inlage capable of providing b th male and
female lllattes in one generation. One ituation in which tl1is
is helpful i tl1e case f a model with extreme texture or
holes that carmot be adequa tely penetrated b the black
light. U us d alone, such an incomplete image would re-
sult in holes in tl1e m atte. However, when each side of tl1e
set of mattes is made from its own respective ph phor, tl1e
result is that dark area of tile burn-in matte r main dark
and do not permit th print-through of the background
scene.
SUdl matte can have the added property of contain-
ing lightly but importantly different information from
each other. Subtracting one matte linage from the o ther
therefore yields a third which represents the difference
between its two predecessors. This is known as a "matte-
455
difference-matte" and may be used to create additional
eff ct ( uch a the re-entry glow on a spacecraft). Further,
it naturally follows that thi concept can be extend d to
include the green record, obtaining a total of thrce original
matte plu an number of permutational d rivati es.
pogce, Inc., holds a Patent (#4,.H7,791) on Re erse Blue
reen and upplies th proc under license.
Front Projection Blue
This proces pr vid a method for producin a blue
r n f e ceptional purity, with great econ my and, if
needed, on a truly large scale.
Demand made for v ry large- cale blue creen com-
po it prompted Apogee t build a dedicated, high-power
blue flux front projector. Thi device, known a "Blue-
Max," incorporates th be tfeatures of both blu screen and
fro nt-projection compositing. From blue screen, we acquire
the ability to composite a final image in whjcll the fore-
growld and the background are of the same gen ration one
to th other. From front pr jection, we acquire the ab nee
of blue pill and the almo t unlinnted screen size plus the
mod t expense of operating a 5OO0-watt lamp rather than
a large tran nussion creen . Moreover, we can perform
multi-plane effects Wrudl permit the actors to appear both
in front of and berund portions of the blue fi Id, or we can
u flags to obscure apparatus uch as lights and rigging.
t th same tin1e, we ha e di pensed with the front-pra-
jection restrictions of poor re-photography of the projected
plate. B using a narrow band interference coated beam
plitt r designed to plit nI the de ired matting line, we
can I iminate the necessity f lighting the foreground scene
one top hotter to comp n ate for the one- top los of a
conventional beam plitter.
The "Blue-Max" con ists of the following ba ic ele-
ment:
1. The light sourcc, a 5000-watt Mercury-Xenon hort-
arc lamp.
2. A light collecti n and delivery system ba d on a
modified Abbe illlllrunation y tern in wrudl the arc is re-
imaged b an optical integrator and from there m dified
b lei to conform t th characteristics of the camera 1eJ1S
in use.
3. rie of filters d igned to isolate with great ac-
curacy the selected matting color: Red, Yellow (f rSodium
ap r two- trip proc ), Green or Blue.
4. An a tt~ u ation s~ tem Wrudl can modify the out-
put ?~ the projector dunng a shot in order to maintain a
peCIfied screen brighble level.
5. A selection of bean1 plitters of various reflection and
trcu: ~ sion ratios, induding some having the prop rty of
plJtting only the matting line in use, so as to reduce un-
necessary foreground light I .
6. A light ~ap incorp rated with the projector so a to
allow for relab ely unlimited camera movement.
The set~up for a "Blue-Max" shot is ery imilar t that
for co~ enbonal fro~t pr.i tion. It is perhap e en more
essen.tial to keep ambient Ii htcontamination off the screeJl.
The light I.evel at .the scre n i measured on a ground glas
mounted m ~e film gate by use of a fiberoptic probe con-
nected to a light meter. In fr nt-projection blue, it i not
nece ary to carry focus to the screen as in conventional
fron t projection.
Reverse Front Projection
In both front projection and tra nsnUssion blu - ereen
compo iting, extreme clo e-ups have presented various
pr blem . Indo e-up ph tography via transmi ion blue
?Iu~ spi~ is the principal villain encowltered. In front pre:
Jec~on, if a subject appr ach very dose to the camera l
pro~ect~r apJ:>aratu , the pr jected light will record on the
ub!ect m spite of the va t difference in gain between the
ubJectand the Scotchlite reen. Furthermore certain rul
have lo~g existed in front projection technjq~e regarding
th patial relationsrup between the camera, the ubject
and t!"'e screen. (See Fr nt Projection section.) The e rules
are duected at preventing th fringing of the subject that
re ult from having a soft hadow rendered at th ereen
the consequence of a relatively short subject-ta-camera di ~
ta nc: :,er us a relatively long ubjecHo-scre n di tance.
~dd l tlonal p~ob l ms are in tr duced if the subject includes
hlghly reflective surface, e.g., si lver lame dothing or pace
h Imet ; and all the e problems are exacerbated if th sub-
ject i backlit.
In "Blue-Max" compositing, these difficultie can be
: o!ved by the adoption of "Reverse Front Projection." In
Its. Imple t ter~ , Rev r e Front Projection can be de-
~I?ed as a radical rearr.angem nt of the ba ic front-pro-
Jection setup. In conventional front projection, in whicll a
camera and a projector are di po ed at 90 degree to eacll
other with a beam plitter arranged between them at 45
457

l.IGtflS
BEAJolSI'UTIEA
tPLATE GlA$S\ ~-4-~~
SCQTCHLIQHT
SCREEN
...
Figure 1. Diagram of reverse frOllt projection.
degre to both, a subject t be photographed i po itioned
in front of the camera/projector apparatus, and a front-
projecti n creen on which th proj ctor will form an im-
age is deplo ed be ond the ubject. TIle camera is thus able
to record and combine both the returning projected image
and th foreground ubject.
J.n Reverse Front Projection, the Canlera and projector
ar till at 90 de rees to each other, but separated b a con-
iderable di tance, and th for ground ubject i placed
between a very larg beam splitter (whicll may be plain
<>la s, or preferably a pellicle) and the camera. The front-
projection screen faces the projector instead of the camera,
while the camera faces the light trap normally confronted
by the projector. (See Figure 1.) TIle effect of thi~ arrange-
ment i to take the diverging projected cone of light from
the projector and deliver it a a converging cone of light,
having turned it90 d grees. W then po ition the camera
so that the nodal point of its lens coincides with the focal
point at which the projected cone of light con erges.
B this proc , we acquir all the advantages of front-
project d blue, in terms of the plll'ity of color as well as the
absence of blue pill, withouthavi..ng to project the blue onto
the subject. We have also eliminated the fringing resulting
458
from poor alignment of projector and camera nodal points,
a there is no shadow at all cast upon the screen by the fore-
ground subject. Fwthermore, we have elimina ted the ha-
l ing resulting from the backscat-tered light that occurs
when the ubject is backlit. This is due to a "diode effect"
produced by the arrangement f elements in Reverse Front
Projection. In normal front projection, a ray of light strik-
ing th back surface of a foreground ubject is reflected back
to the Scotchlite scr en and then r turns again along the
sa me axis, plus or millu om 2%,. Therefor some of the
light I' trikes the ubject, while ome pa th ubject,
making its way back to the camera to produce the objec-
tionable halo.
By contrast, the "cliode effect beamsplitter" handle the
ituation in the follOWing manner: a ray of light striking the
rear of the foreground ubject i reflected back toward the
b am plitt 1'; approximately 92% fit i pa sed through
the beam splitter to the black velvet screen, where it is ab-
rbed . 111 remaining 8% is reflect d back to the Scotchlite
screen, and from thence return to the beam plitter, where
again 92% is passed through and 8°Ic, is reflected towards
the foreground ubject. Thus, only 8% of 8%, or .64%, is
made available to the camera to record a halo. To be sure,
only 8eyo of the projected blue light is being made available
to the cam ra a l 0, but that i not a erious problem to the
Blue-Max with its massive output. It should al 0 be borne
in mind that ill conventional front projection, only a theo-
retical 25% of the projected light survives the journey to the
camera, so we are, in fact, sacrificing approximately one
and a half tops.
We sacrinc some d gre of camera flexibility in us-
ing Reverse Front PI' jection, as the camera cannot move
from the nodal point defilled by the projector unJe pro-
vi ion is made to move both the camera and projector in
synchrony. in some cases, it may be easier to move the sub-
ject in relation to the camera. Zooming is certainly possible,
a are all nodal-point move for the camera, and the e
should co rmo t requirements for close-up . Apogee has
applied for patent protection n Reverse Front Projection
a well as the "Blue-Max," and both are available to the
industry under licens .
Current backing mat rials include th following paints
and fabrics. Paints: Pal'am lUlt Ultra-Marine Blue #8580 (a
tough surface paint that resists cuffing, but i more appli-
cable to television than to fiim, as it lacks sufficient color
459
 aturation); 7-K Infinity Blue (for years the industry stan-
dard); Apogee Process Blue, Rosco Ultra Blu and Gothic
Ultra Blue. Fabric: "FRP 100" (flame retardant) and
"Tempo," (not flame-retardant though it ha uperior color
saturation and a felt-like te ture with a thin foam-rubber
backing), both avaiJable from Dalzians in ew York alld
Lo Angel ,and a new material from Ro co. Be ides these
there is a vinyl pia tic sheet material from St wart called
Ultimatte Front Lit Blue. Thi material, besid providing
a very clean blue, is also very durable - sturdy enough to
drive vehicl on.
Digital Effects Cinematography
by Denni Muren, ASC
The arriva l of theatrical-quality digital image manipu-
lation bring to the cinematographer new re ponsibilities.
It is important that we do om be t to under tand and even-
tually master the capabiliti s of this new t I. On the set,
we will soon b asked, "Can we keep shooting and fix it
digitally?" or "Can't w ju t paint out the wires?" As of
now, there ar no industry-wid stalldard defining image
quality, and there are only a halldfu] of computer artists
who know our e pectations. Our participation is vital. Per-
haps within thi decade entire films will begin passing
through a digital printer, where the choices of color timings
will be only one of a dozen possible alterations. The cinema-
tographer will need to be at these sessions to follow through
on his vision. He may have dlosen to light and xpose the
negative in pecific ways, knowing that with digital ma-
nipulation h wi ll later alter the image to be t create a spe-
cific mo d or Hecl.
MaJ1Y of these technique are avaiJable for TV at video
post houses. But we have no control over how a home
viewer dl00 es to adjust hi TV. In feature films, it is the
cinematographer who Call have the final say, because he
works wi th the color timer and often appro es the release
prints.
For a few years, digital mallipulation will be restricted
to pecial instances where the expense is justified. The work
will be don at a film effect house or a high-end video
hou e. One way to begin feeling comfortable with this tech-
nology is to tour a number of supplier' facilities. Ask to
ee their sample reel on film, not tape. Then trust your own
eye in evaluating the work. Since equipment co ts change
as technology advances, pricing should not be a umed.
Feel free to consult experts whom you trust. There is till
no ubstitute for experience on a el. On a show with diffi-
cult effects work, an experienced expert hould be there
wh never possible. Later, you may Wallt to check the final
manipulated fUm that has been cut into the workprint, and
project it if possible. It should be up t the video house to
ensw:e that a shot will intercut, but they may in fact have
very little film exp rience.
Here is a brief wnmarY of th three steps needed to
transfer fUm into a computer alld back onto film. Each tep
i controlled by a c mputer:
1. Input: The original negative or interpo itive i
scanned by a sensor, which produces the electronic equiva-
lent of a photograph. Each frame is subdivided into millions
of discrete dots, alld each dot's position, color alld bright-
ne s i stored on digital tape or di ks.
2. Manipulating:The digital tape or disks are read into
a computer where the image is reassembled on a monitor
for viewing. It can then be mallipulated with computer-
painting alld image-processing programs, either by an art-
ist a frame at a time or preprogrammed and recorded un-
attended, alld then tored onto digital tape or disks.
3. Output TIle digital tape or disks are read into a com-
puter where the image is put back onto film, either through
photographing a high-quality TV image or by laser all-
ning onto film alld reconstructing each dot' po ition, color
alld brightness. The film is then proces ed alld print d for
viewing.
It i during step two that we have all opportunity to
alter th image. We work with a computer artist who rLms
the computer, much like in a postproduction video suite.
For now, monitors are not exact representations of w hat
will how on film. But their usefuln lies in making judg-
ments of images relative to one allother or within the frame.
As we have learned to interpret how a set will look on film
by using our eye, we will need to Jearn to interpret how a
monitor's image will look on film. Today, the proc sing
of the images happen much more lowly thall in a post
suite. So before a job i completed, a wedge of one fraJne
Call be requested alld checked for final approval before
461
rwming the job. Here are a few p cillc manipulation tecl1-
niques now available:
Lmage Proc ing: This will become both a creati e tool
and a worry for cinematograph r . Color, contra t, satura-
tion, harpn , and even the apparent hape of objects can
be altered. ingl color can be changed, area can be is0-
lated, and the changes will onl affect that ar a. These tools
may eventuall be in the printing laborator , which will
make a compl tely new negative to be u ed for release
printing.
Painti ng: Wires or supports can be painted ut and not
appear on the film. This can make stunt work afer. Un-
wanted objec can be painted out. If a difficult effects shot
has an artifact, it might be easi r to paint the defect out than
tr to correct it at an earlier tep.
Comp i tin : For bl ue-screen work, in me cases the
quality of the blue background need not be prefect if the
compo ite i t b made digitaU . This means we can set
up fa ter. Th reen can be po itioned in difficult places
r at extrem angles. Green or r d creen may work bet-
t r, depending upon the color in the subject. Mattes can
be made from differences in color and brighhles at the
sa me time. Since the process i elf-contained within the
computer, th r are no problems wi th film shrinkage, un-
steadine , expo me fluctuation, or photochemical devel-
opment as there are with optical printing. The composite
i viewed on a monitor and adjusted at ever tep. When
pr perl photographed, comp iting can now be perfectly
e ecuted.
High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
by Don Mi kowich
Ea tman Kodak Compan ha developed a high-reso-
lution electronic intermediate y tern designed for the con-
temporary need of the motion-picture industr . This s -
tem can be used to scan and digitize frames of motion pic-
ture film 0 the can be interactively manipuJated and
compo ited at c mputer workstations. The digital pictures
can be recorded back onto fiJrn without compromising
image quality.
There are many ignilicant advantages to this technol-
ogy. By converting film to digital form (1's and D's in the
computer), fue imag can be end! Iy manipulated wifu-
out losing quality. The system is capable of accommodat-
ing fue full-resolution and dynamic-range of analog pic-
tures captured on currently a aiJable fine-grain 35mm
films. Witll tlUs technology it is as feasible teclmically to
combine 25 layers f imagery as it is to combine a imple
foreground and backgrow1d.lmage input and outpu t time
is approximately furee econds per frame at full resolution.
Th ystem can al 0 be used at one-quarter and one-half
resolution, which i comparable to NTSC/PAL and HDTV
image quality.
Applications faU into furee general categories - paint-
ing, image processing and compo iting. Painting includes
such applications as guide wire and artifact removal . It i
also po ible to repair ccatched or otherwise damaged
film.
Image proce ing includes such ap plications as tl1e
manipulation of colors, contrast, satura tion, sharpness and
even the apparent shape of images. Single colors can be
altered in isolated areas of individual frames. While tlUs
capability can be u ed to resolve problems, it also is a po-
tentiaUy powerful arti tic tool which gives fue cinematog-
rapher a second chance to alter fue emotional content as
well as fue quality of images.
. Digital image compo iting hould make fue bigge t
tmpact. There will be I stringent requirements for tting
up blue-screen photography since it i possible to olve
many problems at fue image compo ing workstation. For
example, blue-spill- blue reflections on shiny objects that
get to close to the blue screen - can be eliminated at tl1e
image-computing workstation.
The Kodak sy t m has fow· main componen t: a film
scanner, an image computing workstation the nece ary
software, digital data cassette recorders, and a film re-
corder.
The scanner uses a proprietary CCD trilinear nsor
with furee linear 4096-pixel photosite arrays. The array are
covered witl1 red, green and blue filters. These are opti-
mized to match tl1e dyes in contemporary color negative
film . A xenon light ouree and integrating filter provide
high-power diffused illumination.
463
 The scanner also employs unique ignal proc ing
electronics and a proprietary transport design using frame-
ind ed, pin-regi tration and film- urface p itioning. The
latter features are crucial for seaml compo -iting of dif-
ferent picture elements.
The image computi ng work tation i ba ed on cur-
rentlya ailable technoI gy. It incorporates a Sun rnicropro-
c r platform with VME backplane and UNIX operating
system. The workstation can be in a stand-alone or net-
work d environment. It pro id a previewing capability
on a id 0 monitor.111is allows th operator and members
of the creative t a m to make interacti ve deci ions in a very
tight loop. They can look at images compo ited in various
ways, make d eci ions, and view the resul in minute .
transput r-based, image-proces ing accelerator was
developed for the wor tation to pro ide high- peed im-
aO"e manipulation. In addition its capability was extended
to provide direct memory access (DMA) on the edge nodes.
The d ign fJ xibility a llows user to size the transputer
processing array to match their budget and their inlage-
proce ing interactivity and productivity needs. The sys-
tem i configur d with a minimum of 8 gigabytes of paral-
lel disk torage and uses a high- peed, industry-standard
SCSI-2 data bus for data transfer. On-line di k storage can
be increased b adding disk dri es to the array. Industry-
standard peripherals can be used, including the E abyte
8mm data recorder, and 00-2 digital cassette recorders
which can support data transfer rates in exce of 15 mega-
bytes per second.
State-of-the-art oftware has been developed for the
work tation. It use concepts and ymbol familiar to
people already working with images at video postpro-
duction faciliti , computer-generated image houses and
optical effects facili ties. Main features include interactivity
with lectable windows providing immediate updates of
proce sed images.
The software use flexible image proce ing tools, in-
cluding color grading, filtering, resizing, repo itioning and
painting. !mag can be imported from and exported to
other major software packages. Kodak has also licensed the
use of adjustable algorithms for blue screen compositing
developed by the Ultimatte Corporation. Ultirnatte has
been a leader in the development of flexible programs for
electronic compositing at NTSC, PAL and HDTV resolu-
tion. This is the first use of these programs for making film-
resoluti n comp ites. The latest generation of U1timatte
ofhvare provid filmmakers with greater fl xibility for
creating credibl compo ite . . .
Previou Iy, blue screen photography wa limited to
silhouett -style shots against rear-li t, perfect blue scre n .
The new algorithms allow actors to m ve in the foregro~ d
of front-lit blue creens and cast shadows. They can c11mb
on and around blu set pieces, and move within the back-
ground instead of just performing in the foreground.
111 final component is the film recorder. The recorder
uses three visible gas lasers to copy digital pictures onto a
high-re olution color intermediate film . Blu light is pro-
vid d by a 458nm Argon laser; gre n li ght by a 543nm
Helium Neon laser; and r d light by a 633nm Helium Neon
laser. Th film r corder also uses unique lenses and beam-
haping optics optimized for this application. ~e propri-
etar transport d ign employs the ame preo e frame-
indexed pin regi tration and film urface po itioning used
by the film scanner. .
Both the scanner and recorder are deSIgn d to work
at are olution of 167 pixels p r mm in the film plane. Thi
was sel cted to preserve the resolution of the original cam-
era film, and also to pro ide the maximum sample siz of
4096 pi els acro full-width forma uch as Super 35 and
VistaVi ion. Pr rving the aspect ratio of the Super 35
camera apertur , the system prOOuc an image with ~6
pixels across and 3114 lin Sdown. This is mor than twIce
the horizontal ampling of the 1125 line HDTV form at,
which has 1920 amples horizontall and 1035 visible line
vertically. The following table sununarizes th image di-
mensions for the formats upported by the scanner and the
recorder.
Horizontal Vertical Aspect
Forma t Lin Lines Ratio
Super 35 4096 3112 1.32:1
Academy
Aperture 3656 2664 1.33:1
CinemaScop 3656 3112 2.36:1
Vi taVision 6144 4096 1.50:1
For example, an Academy-aperture 35mm fram i
scanned to capture 3656 lines ofh orizontal resolution with
2664 picture elements, or pixels, on every line. To record
465
the range of density captured on the negative, while pro-
~iding "headroom" for creative digital image manipula-
tion, the sy tem accommodates up to 10 bits of information
in each of three color record every pixel.
Thi feature requir some 40 megabytes of magnetic
c mputer storage for e ery frame of 35mm film. One frame
would use the entire hard-disk capacity of many popular
pe onal computers. It' enough data to write om 8-10
milli n words in the English language. Remember, both the
anner and recorder can handle one frame of film in ap-
pro imatel three second .
There are other flexible alternatives. For example, the
y t~m pr~vides an ~ption for caruUng, storing and pro-
ce mg 8 bits of data ill eadl color record of every pixel for
applications not requiring headroom. The user can also opt
to work at one-quarter or one-half resolution, which re-
quires only Y<!.or V,6 of the storage space, respectiv Iy.
The eqLupment has b n designed in an op n arcl1i-
tectw· mode wmch provide compatibility with tandard
perip.heral. interfa.ce used in the computer industry. Also,
a ~gltal picture file format wl1ich simplifies th exchange
of Imag between workstations and between different fa-
ciliti ,has been developed.
ther applications for the mgh-resolution electronic
intermediate y tern include restoration of intage films
that have been marred by cratches, blotche and other
?arna e. It i~ even pas ible to r tore tom imag or miss-
mg parts of Lmages based on the image information in ad-
jacent frarnes. This hould prove to be a valuable tool for
protecting and preserving film that have cultural and/or
hi toric ignificance or that have potential value for future
r di tribution.
. onsiderable intere t ha been expressed to establish
Imag da tabases of stock f otage from live-action and com-
p~lt~r-generated image Iibrari s. Stock foo tage tor d in
dlgl t~l format would then be ea ily accessible. Th image
q.uabty ~ould be equiva l nt to first-generation nega tive
ftlm . Th iS would assure that s tock footage intercuts
moothly with live-action photography.
. ~er the long t~rm, it could eventually become prac-
tical to mtegrate a mgh-r lution electronic interm diate
. tern into the print distribution chain. A digital interme-
d,at~ could ?e used to generate a high-quality intermedi-
ate film ~~ch would be used as a printing master. This
would elimmate several generations of film from the re-
466
lea e-printing process, r ulting in a significant improve-
ment in image quality.
Computer Graphics
by Michael Whitne and Allan Peach
Computer-generated imagery (CeI) ha become an
important addition to the w rking world of th cin matoo--
rapher. ~eI is the i~LLlation of real or imagin d objec~
and envIronmen ts u lI1g computer-based mathematical
mod 1:;. Just as a director and cinematograph r light and
compose shot on an actual three-dimerlSional t the CGI
dir ~tor ~orks with an in teractive computer di piay to set
the Ilghtll1g and block the shots on a simulated et. The
d!rector c~ then transf r th computer created imagery to
VIdeo or film .
Computer simulation of reality can be quit eff ctive,
but imulated objects, lighting, and en ironmental effects
o.nly appro~te r~ality. Ligh.t may pa right through a
Imulated object Without castmg shadows, olid object
ma~ themselves pass magically through one anoth r, and
envLfonmental effects ma drift from the reali tic to the
comical within the same ne. The computer arti t needs
to be aware of the imperfection in the software' imula-
tion ?f the world. Typicall , the more accurately th direc-
tor Lmulates.a scene, the longer it takes th computer to
generate the I.mage. Because of this, the computer artist
mu t be cogrnzant of the co t of "reality" in tting up a
hot.
Cel for motion pi ture is an inherently ex p nsive
pr?Cess because ~f the time it takes to generate and r cord
a mgle frame of film. AIthough 11igh-end p rodu tion work
i till be t ser ved by sup rcomput rs and advanced work-
tations, computer-graphic oftware is fas t becom in o- a
prevalent commodity in th p rsonal computer world. TILi
tr nd, coupled with the proliferation of faster and more
in~perlSive.comput r ,i lowly reducing the c t of pro-
ducmg quality computer grapmcs.
Basic Tools and Terms
The. atomic .unit of computer grapmcs is the pixel (a
contraction of picture elemel/t). Low-resolution di play,
467
often found in personal computers, have resolutions f 640
X 4 0 pixels. This resolution is ufficient for mo t NTSC
video work. However, m tion picture work requires higher
r olution display with resolutions of 1280 pi els X 1024
line or greater. Upcomin high-~efinjtion tel~ ision ~s­
tems will have display approaching 2,000 honzontal pIX-
els b 1,000 vertical lines.
Th computer calculates the color for each pix I and
displa it by varying the inten ity of the Red,. Green and
Blue (RCB) ignal. To repre nt color as percelv~ ~y the
human eye, each pi el mu t pan a range of 16 mLUlon to
68 billion colors (256 to 4,096 intensity values per R, G, B
component). internally the computer stor~ the RGB ~al­
ues in memory, with between and 12 bits repre entmg
each R, G and Bvalue. Each pix I, therefore, requires 24 to
36 bit of storage. Even for th low resolution of NTSC
video, the computer mu t ca lculate and then store over 1
m gabyte of data for each frame. A single Academy-aper-
tur 35mm color n gative frame, at the theatrical screen-
ing r olution of 4,096 pixel 3,072 Lines, require around
56 megabytes of storage. A 65mm 5-perf motion-pi~ture
image requires a screen r olution of 6,000 X 2,500 pIXels
or higher. With 12 bits per R, G and ~ value, a ~ame would
require 67.5 megabytes of memory, l.e., 6,000 pIXels X 2,500
lin 3 colors (RGB) X 1.5 bytes (1 byte = bits). The com-
puter must calculate this data then move it.from its inter-
nal memory to the displa memory of the film recorder.
The film recorder display the data on a cathode-ray
tube (eRI) or writes directly to the raw camera tock with
a anning RGB laser. Thi mean that in order to make
comput r graphics economical, you must not only have an
e tremely fast computer, but you must al 0 have high
bandwidth pathway (called c"mll1els) between storag.e
devices, the computer and the film recorder. For compan-
son, personal computers with 2,400 baud mod ms trans-
fer data at 240 bytes per second. A high-performance CRT-
ba d film recorder, in order to record a single 35mm frame
in appro imately six seconds, needs the channels to trans-
fer 56 megabytes of data at 10,000,000 bytes (10 megabytes)
per ond.
Currentl , no comput r can create computer graphic
fram at film resolution in real time. Often a frame may
take from everal econd to many hours to compute and
record. Whole scenes often take day to weeks of computer
time. Because of these factors, computer graphics can be
expensive, but the virtue f computer imagery often out-
weigh the costs.
2-D and 3-D Images
Two-dimensional computer graphics are a taple of
video postprod uction houses. The low resolu tion of vid~o
allows real-time manipulation of images by the graphic
artist. The user interface of a two-dimensional tem is
usually a graphics tablet. Th artist uses an electronic tylus
to draw or painton the tablet much as a painter would use
a brush and canva . Because of this, these computers are
called paintbox sy tems. Video artists use paintbox sy tem
to create special effects and to manipulate the original video
ource material. For example, a paintbox system can re-
touch tape dropouts or remove unwanted object .
Digital frame stores are memory devices that can and
store complete frames of video in a digital format. ~veral
companies make two-dimensional computer graphics sys-
tems, such as the ADO, that utilize digital frame store to
do freeze frames, zooms, video compression and expan-
sion, video positioning, change of aspect ratio, program-
mable patterns, picture flips and tumbl~, etc. .
Three-dimensional computer graphics are b mg used
more and more in the motion-picture field. From pioneer-
ing efforts such as Tron and The Last Starfighter .to more re-
centspecial-effects extravaganzas such as Terl1llllato~2 and
LnulIlmuwer Man, three-dimensional computer graphiCS can
create images that would be impossible to produce using
normal special-effects technologies.
Modeling
The creation of three-dimensional computer graphics
involves several steps. The first of these i the modeling
process. Modeling refer to the creation of t1:e simula,t ed
objects in the computer' memory, the modeling f o~ti,ca l
elements such as Light, tran parency, shadows, r fl Ctivlty,
etc., and the simulation of camera placement and move-
ment within the computer-generated world.
The computer constructs objects from a seri of p .ints
defined by the model maker. Th points represent locations
in a Cartesian coordinat tem. Often the model maker
may use several coordinate ,Ysterns to facilitate ~he con-
truction and interaction of bJects. These stored POints (the
object database) can represent the vertices of polygons or the
469
control pints of m re complex can truc uch as plines
or 1IIIrbs (mathematical repr entations of complex curves).
The computer can create a implifi d version of th object,
ca ll d a wire.frame, by simply coml cti-ng the poin t with
Lin . This wire-frame model is a useful representation of
the object as the co mpute r can render the wire frame
quickl . This all w the computer artist t pre i w the
c ne in r a l time or near r al tim . Eventually, howe er,
the computer must create surface on the objects to facili-
tat realistic lighting and shading.
The c mputer artist assigns attribute to the object's
surfaces. The e can include color, hinine (non-reflective
to highl reflecti e), and opacity. Recent features in CGl
ftware allow for more realistic-looking atmospheric ef-
fects and the creation of organic objects uch as trees and
hrubbery.
Object may have pictllre textllres projected or wrapped
on their urfaces for a more natural effect. These textures
are h· o-dimensional pictur that give the urface of the
obj t the appearance of being made from real materials
such as, for example, wood or concrete. Parameters for
blimp moppillg are also mod led in the computer. An ex-
ample of bump mapping might b the dimples on a goLf
baU or the pitted urface of an orange. Procedural urface
effects are formulas for creating urfaces and are useful
replacements for scanned te ture maps.
Lighting is al lmulated in the modeling tage. The
computer artist mu t take into acc Wlt many of the con-
cern of a traditi nallighting dir ctor. Computer lights
corne in many forms from distant lights that simulate the
lm, to point lights and spot lights that slmulate man-made
light ourc . Lighting the scene invol es placing the lights
in the simulated three-dim nsional pace, adjusting their
inten ity, the angle of their cone, their direction and their
color.
The computer can also imulate camera attribut s such
a depth of field, focal length, aspect ratio, etc. Once the
obj ct models are in place, the modeler can po ition the
camera an where in the imulated thre -dimensional
space. Thi is a major advantage ver tw -dmlen ional
animation, whele acll cllange in camera position I' quires
a new drawing of all the obj cts in the scene. The computer
modeler doe not n ed to reconstruct the objects to create
a new shot. He can imply reposition the camera.
The next step in the modeling proces is specifying the
movem nt of any animated objects and any movement of
the camera. The computer can be an excellent aid in this
animation process. The computer animator crea tes key
.frames and tells the computer the method of interpolotio1l .
The computer then creates the in-betweens.
In addition, traditional animation studios are turning
to computer graphics to a ist in the cel animation proces .
With CGl, the anin1ator can create a computer aided cam-
ra move through a three-dimensional world and then
print the cene as two-dimensional perspectiv drawing
directly onto ani-mation cels. Artists can then use the com-
puter-generated lines as guides to ink and paint the cel
or use other specialized computers to do the ink and paint
work. The e proce ses can save hours of an animator's
time in figuring ou t complex motion and perspectives and
red uce production costs. Recent examples of computer-as-
sisted animation and digital ink and paint include Beauty
and the Beast, Femgully and Alnddi1l.
Rendering
Rendering consists of taking the digi tal attributes of the
model, tlle lighting and the camera and crea ting an image.
Rendering is a complex proces and requires much more
computer power than the modeling stage. Before expend-
ing the time and money to render an entire shot, the com-
puter artist may wish to render ingle key frames of an
animation sequence to check that the simulated i-mage is
the desired one. The artist may also render wire frame or
low-resolution approximations of the shot to get a feel of
the look of the animation befor fully rendering the scene.
Because the objects in the computer-generated seen
are only lmulations, they act quite differently from real-
world objects that must obey tlle rules of physics. If not
properly anirnated in iliree dimensions, computer objects
may interpenetrate one another, destroyi-ng the illusion of
solid, real objects. If not properly constructed, seam may
show between supposedly seamless parts. The artist may
dlscover unwanted artifact created by the ize and shape
of the plxelS, the can Lines of the morutor, or errors in tex-
ture mapping or sW'face generation for th first time in the
rendering process. The modeling and rendering cycle is
often an iterative and illteractive one, with the CGr designer
returning to the modeling tage to correct problems that can
only be detected after rendering.
471
 Final render d images can range from simple wire-
frame appro imations of bjects, t highly faceted bjects,
to reali tic SII/OOtil shaded objects. The tyle in which an art-
i t renders an image is often a factor of aesthetics tempered
by the pragmati m of m eting a production deadlin or
budg t constraillts.
During th renderin proc , the computer may also
control a scanner to digitize film fra me and to compo -
ite them with the computer-aenerated images.
Scanning
The scnltlter i a devi e that translates an lmage from
prev iou lyexpo ed film into a di gita l format. Current de-
vice u c a CRT or la er to can a film frame on a pOlnt-
to-polnt basi or use a charge-coup led de ice (CCD) to
digitize the frame by area or line b line.
The CRT or laser is the II/oving pot illumination source
that an the imaae at a c nstant intensity. Controlling the
bean1 diamet r can determine the ize of the pixels and thus
t~ler . 0 Iution ofil thes~aIlJ1~dimag . As the beam scan the
film frame p Ixl?1by plxel, Light gathered by an optica l ys-
tem pa ses through dichroic filter and plits into red, green
and blue components. Th intensity of the light hitting R,
G & B light sensor converts to an analog eJ ctrical ignal.
An analog to digital conv rter translates the analog signal
into a digital value for ead1 color.
CCD SCallJlerS utillz a technology employed in pro-
fessional video ca meras. Instead of a scanning light source,
the CCD scanner use an incandescent or xenon Light source
similar to the ptical printer. The number of pixel elements
in the CCD arra determines the r olution of the canned
image. Grid nrmy of 2,000 pi els by 2,000 lines or 4,000 pix-
el by 4,000 Lin enabl canning an entire frame wIllie
holding the film on fixed registration plns. Lille nrrays of
2,000 t 4,000 pixels require that the film be rolled past the
CCD t scan th entire film frame.
The computer captures the number stream produced
by the scanner and creat a pixel array database in a for-
mat compatible with th database of a simulated image.
The time requir d to scan a fram varies from under five
econd to se ral minutes depending on the device and
the re olution.
The computer can composi te both foregrmmd and
backgrolmd el m nts in what might be call d digital fillll
prill till . Although the computer can use any color to ex-
tract a matte, it is most practical to use a pectrally pure
color uch as U1timatte blue or green. However, it is not
nece sar to have a blue- or green- creen exposure lim-
ited to one color record of the film a is needed in film-
based matting sy tems. The same qualification applies,
howev r, in that the backgrmUld screen color cannot be
in the foreground s ubject.
Recording
CRT and la er-based fillll recorders progr ively ex-
pose eadl pixel onto film by electronically controlling the
position and intensity of a CRT beam or by m chanically
deflecting R, G, B laser beams. Recorders (and scann ers)
that deflect in both the X-axis and Y-axis us traditional
registered pin film movements. Other laser recorders de-
flect in the X-axis only and rei on roIling the film smoothly
in the Y-axis to record the film frame area. nce the me-
chanical tability problem are re 01 ed, an advantage of
laser-beam record ers is that they have sufficient light out-
put to expose higher resolution lab intermediate film stocks.
Film exposure time in exi ting film recorder vary from
under ten seconds to severa l minutes per frame depend-
ing on the device and resolutioIl-
It is important to addr several issues before filming
a CGI hot: how the computer will translate the calculated
pixels into color expos ure val ues and how the spectral
emission charact ristics of the cathode ray tube (CRT) or
RGB laser beanls will match the film s nsitivity curves. The
computer can d efine coLor values according to a system of
hue,lllll1inance and saturation, or according to a system of
Red, Green and Blue values. In either case, three sets of
numbers describe the color of each pi eJ in the final image.
Color calibratioll, which is the relationship beh"leen the ca l-
culated color space and the actua .l film exposure, is
achieved tlu'ough the use of a color look-up table (CLUT),
and otl1. r matrix transform color corrections.
Th CLUT i a graph of film density plotted against
calculated color exposure. The technician doing color cali-
bration derives the CLUT from carefully plotted cur es
determined through densitometry of the exposed negative.
Using the CLUT the technician matdles the emission en-
ergy of the CRT or laser, combined with high-efficiency
RGB filters, to provide exposure in the straight-line portion
of tl1.efilm exposur CltrVe. The computer accomplishes this
by translating coLor space numbers into the RCB exposure
473
values determined from the color look-up table. It is pos-
ible, through the use of the ClUT, to precisely control film
image contra t. It is often useful to use logarithmic repre-
entation fo r the pixel value . Logarithmic pixel values
translate ea ily to logarithmic film density during calibra-
tion of scanning and recording devices.
One problem that is typical for high-resolution CRTs
i the creation of an unwanted halo by internal glass reflec-
tions in the CRT facepla te. The h alo affects the image in the
form of an unwanted exposur surrounding the highlight
areas. Tedlniqu s to reduce thi problem indud the ad-
dition of a neutral-density p anel bonded to the sw-face of
the CRT, the ti n ting of the CRT faceplate, and the bond-
ing of a thick cl ar panel to the CRT faceplate.
Image Processing
Image processillg, a branch of computer graphics, in
orne way represents the rever of the computer graph-
ics process we have been describing. Image processing in-
volves the computer modifying the data from a tradition-
ally shot piece of .film or video. A film canner or a digital
video process fir t digitizes the images into a form the com-
puter can lise. Th computer can then manipulate the digi-
tal representation by changin g the attributes of the pixels
that make up the image.
Image-proce sing teclmique can sharpen or defocus
an image, olarize or reverse an image's colors, or reposi-
tion the image. Additionall ,one image can be trans-
formed into another through a technique called /IIorplrillg.
For year the aerospace indu try has used image pro-
cessing tedmiq ues to enhance satelli te space footage taken
under sub-optimal viewingc nditions. Today, image pro-
cessing creates fantastic effect for rock videos and special-
effects films.
Summary
Producing effects for motion pictures is at the high end
of the computer graphics world. It i here that all the tough-
est problelllS ofCGI OCClli. Although computers are becom-
ing more powerful, the software needed to create realistic-
looking envirolUuents, effects and character is still tech-
nically difficult to produce. Recording and scanning mo-
tion-picture-resolution film requires complex equipment,
wh ile generating, moving and s toring the enormous
amounts of data needed by the computer can be time-con-
474
suming and expensive. Still, CGI is here to stay, and ver
evolving!
It is important that the cinematographer under tand
the vocabulary of computer-generat d imager . As the
computer artist tak a place beside the traditional pedal
effects artist, the a thetic goal remains the same - creat-
ing vi ual magic that will intercu t with the camera imag-
ery of the director of photography. To fully utilize computer
sim ulation, it will b c me necessary for all those involved
in the various phases of the moti on-p icture industry to
lUlderstand its grea t creative potenti al, as well as its limi-
tations and cost.
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer
by Linwood G. Dunn, ASC
Former president, Film Effect of HollY""ood
The earliest optical printers were custom built by the
major studios and fi lmlaboratorie ,and were usually d -
sign d and made in their own shop to fit their particular
requir ments. Mod rn tandardized optical printing quip-
men t, capable of creating the innumerable effects hereto-
fore pos ible only in the major studios, became available
to the entire motion-pictw-e industry in 1943 with the in-
troduction of the Acme-Dunn Optical Printer, designed and
built for the United States Armed Force Photographic
Uni . later the Oxberry, Producer rvice, Research Prod-
ucts, and other optical printers appeared on the market.
Commercial availability of this typ of eq uipment greatly
stimulated and widened the scope of the spe ial- ffects
fie ld. Even the sma ll st film produc rs now could make
motion pictures with p cial effects limited only by theLr
imagination and budgets, utilizing the rvices of growing
numbers of indep ndent special-effects labora tories which
could now operate competitively u ing equipment avail-
able to all .
Developments 0 er the years f more sophisticated
equipment,new duplicating films, pedal-purpose lenses,
and improved film-proce sing techniques, as well a
skilled technicians, have in creased the use of the optical
printer to a point where its great cr ative and economic
475
value is common kn wledge in the motion-pictLlIe indus-
try. In more recent ars, the adaptation of computer tech-
nolog to the opticaJ effects printer has ba ically simpli-
fied the control and accuracy of some of its important func-
tions, thu making it much easi r to produce certain com-
plex visual effect at lower cost a well as to greatly ex-
pand it creative scop . This ha made it po ible to pr -
gram, record, and to l' p at the movement of certain of its
device with such a degree of accuracy that area-blocking
nmcti n can now produce trave ling-mat te compo ite
scenes that were her tofore highly impractica l, if not im-
po ible. ne can trul sa that the creati e capability of
the modern visual effe ts optical printer is onl limited by
the creative talent and technical kills of tl1e operator. In
recent ar such major film productions as Star Wars, Tile
Black Hole, The Empire trikes Back, and COCOOI1 have all uti-
Uzed tl1e full capabilities of tl1e modern optica l printer to
create a whole new w rld of imaginative creativ ity through
their extensive u e of ery sop hi ticated motion-pictLlIe
vi uaJ effects. The foil wing list of ome of the work that
is done nth modern optical printer will illu trate its vast
scope and tremendous importance to modern filmmaking.
Transitional Effects
Emp loyed to create a definit d1ange in time or loca-
tion be tween scenes. The fad e, lap disso lve, wipe-off,
push-off, ripp le di lve, out-of-foc us or diffusion dis-
olve, fUp-over, page turn, zoom di olve, spin-in and out,
and an unlim ited variety of film matte wipe effects, are all
typical amples of th man optical tran itionaJ effects
possible.
Change of Size or Position
May be used to elimina te w1wanted areas, obtain
closer angles fov extra editing cuts, reposition action for
multiple- xpo ure framing, ind uding montage, and back-
ground f r ti tles.
Frame Sequence Modification
Screen action may be ped up or lowed down in or-
der to: con ert old 16 frames-per- econd il nt film to
standard 24 frames-per-second sound sp ed; change
speed of action and I ngth of certain scenes or sections of
scenes; prov ide spot-frame mod ification to give realism to
476
specific action in fights, falls, chases, etc.; hold a specific
frame for freeze effects and for title backgrounds; add f ot-
age for comedy effects; rever e direction of printing to
lengthen action and for special-effects use; extend scene
through multiple-frame printing for action ana lysis in in-
strumen tation, h'aining and educational film .
Optical Zoom
OpticaJ zoom is used to change frame area coverage
and image size dLlIing forward and reverse zooming action
in order to: produce a dramatic or impact effect (according
to speed of the move); counteract or add to the speed and
motion of camera zooms or doll hots; re-frame by en-
largement and/or add footage to eith r end of camera
zooms or dolly shots by extending the range of moves;
momenta rily eliminate lffiwcmted areas or objects by zoom-
ing forward and back at specific footage points (such as
when a microphone or lamp is accidentally framed in dlll'-
ing part of a scene); add opticaJ zoom to tatic scene to
match camera zoom or dolly in a uperirnpo ure. The out-
of-focus zoom also is effective to depict deliri um, bUndnes ,
retrospect, transition, etc.
Superimposure
Superin1posure is tl1e ca pability used to print an im-
age from one or more fiJms overlaid on one film . Thi is
commonly done in positioning title lettering over back-
ground. Also u ed for montages, visionary effects, bas
reUef; adding snow, rain, fog, fire, douds, Ugh tning £lash ,
sparks, wa ter reflections and a m riad of oth r light effects.
Split-Screen
Employed for multiple image, montage effects, dual
roles played b y on actor, and for dang ro us anima l
shown appearing 111 the same scene with people, as in
Bringing Up Baby, which shows Ka therine HepbLlIn work-
ing with a leopard throughout the picture (in this film, the
split screens move wi th the action). Ma tte paintings often
utilize this technique when li e-action ar a require ma-
nipulation within an involved composite cene.
Quality Manipulation
The quality of a scene, or an area wi thin a scene, may
be altered in order to create an entirely new scene or spe-
477
cia! effect or to match it in with other scenes. There are in-
numerable ways to accomplish this, such as adding or re-
ducing diffu ion, filt ring, matting and dodging area, and
al tering contra t. ften libraly stock material must be modi-
fied to fill certain ne ds, SUdl as creating night scenes from
day; r producing black & white on color film through fil-
tering, printed rna ks, or appropriately coloring certain
areas through localized filt ring; and the combining ofcer-
tain areas of tw or more cenes to obtain a new scene, SUdl
as the water fr m ne ene and the terrain or clouded ky
of another.
Adding Motion
Employed to creat the effect of spinning or rotating,
as in plane and auto interiors and in certain montage effects;
rocking m tion for boat action, sudden jarring or shaking
the scene for e pI i n and earthquake effects; distortion
in motion through p cial lense for drunk, delirious and
visionar effec .
General Uses of the Optical Printer
The preceding represents some of the special catego-
rie of effect that can be produced on the optical printer.
The following are a few of the more important general tech-
nique empl ying thi u eful cinematic tool.
Traveling Mattes
U ed to matte a for growld action into a background
film made at an ther tin1e. The various matte systems in
use today require the optical printer in order to properly
manipulate the parate films to obtain a realistic quality
matclling balanc b tw n them when combined into a
composite. U of this process has greatly increased as
modern t c1lll i q~l e produce improved results at reduced
costs. Motion COflb'ol, referred to earlier, has greatly w id-
ened the scope i f thi visual-effects category.
Blow-Ups and Reductions
TIle fixed et-up optical printer is used for 16mm re-
duction negativ s and prints, and for certainlirnited release
printing from 35mm originals. This is utilized when small
volume makes thi procedure more economical than
through a convert d negative, and when maximum qual-
it i of gr ate t importance. Enlarging from 16mm to
478
35mm color or black and w hite is a very importcU1 t nmc-
tion of the optical printer. Many fin theatrical films, SUcll
as the Academy Award-winning The Sen Around Us, The
Living Desert, and Scenes From n Mnrringe, have been pho-
tographed in 16mm, and have enjoyed great financial suc-
cess through 35mm release prints made from 35mm blow-
up internegatives.
Special new lenses, film raw tack and il11lnersed -
movement printing have enhanced the overall quality to a
point where the 16mm-35mm blOW-Up medium is pres-
ently enjoying very successful commercial usage. Conver-
sions between 65lJUll and 35mm also are an in1portant func-
tion of the optical printer. Production made in almost any
film format are being relea e-printed in different types to
meet certain fueatrical distribution requirements. The Con-
cert for Bangladesh was the first feature-length film to be
enlarged from 16mm color internegati e directly to 70mm
theater prints.
Anamorphic Conversions
The standard optical printer equipped with a specially
designed "squeeze" or "unsqueeze" lens can be used to
produce anamorphic prints from "flat" image, or to re-
verse this function. The possibility of the "flat" or spheri-
cal film being converted for anamorphic projection with-
out serious loss of quality has greatly widened this field of
theatrical exhibition. The manipulation available on the
optical printer also make it possible to can and reposition
any scenes that require reframing wh n converted to or
from wide-screen proportion.
Doctoring, Modifying and Salvaging
Some of tlle important uses of the optical printer are
not recogrLized as special effect in th finished film, an d
often are not apparent as such even to skilled motion-pic-
ture technicians. One of these applications is tlle field of
"doctoring" by modifying scenes which, for a variety of
reasons, may not be acceptable for use. This includes sal-
vaging scenes tllat are completely unusable due to some
mechanical failure or human error during photography,
and also the modification of stock film material through the
various methods noted to fit specific requirements. Many
expensive retakes have been avoided by the ingenious ap-
plication of such optical-printing reclamation teclmiques.
479
llle liquid, or immer ion, film gate produces dramatic l' -
suit in th r movalof cra tches.
Citizen Kane i an e cellent example of scene modifi-
cation cr ated n th optical printer during the po tpro-
d ucti n period. ew idea were applied to exi ting prod uc-
tion scen for which new supplemen tary scene were
photographed and integrated to enhance and create ari-
ous new c nc pts.
In It' . A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, an inlportant en
was ph t graph d in which a truck was upposed to back
into a hack and kn ck it over. The breakaway hack was
riO'O'ed to collap \ hen wires were pulled on cue. Signals
becam cr sed, and th hack was pulled down well be-
fore th truck t uched it. very costl retake was indicated,
so th ptical printer wa called to the rescue. The task of
correctin th IT r thr ugh a plitscreenseemed relati ely
imple until it \ a di 0 ered that the camera panned with
the fallina hack. It th n became necessary to plot and move
the plit matchin point frame-b -frame on the optical
printer to f II \'\1 the pan. Through thi tra eling pHt-
creen t hniqu , the progres of the shack' falling action
wa d la ed until tile truck had readled tile point of im-
pact. Perhap tile ntire co tof the optical printer was a ed
by thi al aging job alone. Such dever techruques have
been u ed man time to bring e plosions dose to people
working in a Cen , Udl a in aile Mill lite to Zero, where a
Line of -call d r fug was "blown to bits" by artillery
shelling. plit re ns in motion, and trick cuts, with super-
imposed sm ke and flame, did the job in a most effective
manner.
N ew Systems
Th pti al printer i being used to develop new h ri-
zons in til creation of p cial camera moves within an
over iz d ap rtur . Thi i particularly effective in tile cre-
ation of cam ra movement in a compo ite scene, sudl as
one involving a matte painting, thereby giving a greater
illusion of reali ty. Vi taVi ion and various 65= nega tive
format, including 16-perforation Inlax and 8-perfora tion
Dynavi ion, a well a standard 5 perforation frame lend
tllemselve t thi techruque.
Copying ont 4 p rforation 35mm makes po sible
pectacular pan, z oms, doUy shots, etc. without sacrific-
ing cre n quality, and with full control 0 er such move-
ments, aLI of ~ hich i created on tile optical printer in the
internegative stage and mad e dw-ing the po tpro-d uction
period . Use of tlus tedlJuq ue make it possible to avoid
time-consuming and complicated s tup during produc-
tion, with the added advantage of fl ibiLity in later dlange
of id as.
Probably ilie most exciting new ptical printing devel-
opment has been in tile field of el ctroni . The adaptation
of video image transfer through phi ticat d high-resolu-
tion canning sy tems in conjunction with the new devel-
opments in cailiode-ra tubes, I n , film-moving mecha-
nism , special-purpose film raw tocks and the latest re-
search in electronic image compo iting, have opened up
exciting new vista in pecial isual H cts. The modifica-
tion of filmed color motion-pictur imag through com-
puterized electronic transfer back to film i making it po -
ible to create photographic ffec n fUm or tape faster,
more economicall ,and with a ope of creativity hereto-
fore not po ible. The ability to ea il and quickl transfer
areas or moving objects from one film to another through
their instantaneous electronic ' lati n and If-matting will
be of tremendou economic benefit in this area of film pro-
duction, as well as in stimulating creati ity in the wider use
of special effects.
Aerial Image Cinematography
by Mehrdad Azarmi, PhD.
An image which is form d by a I ns in the air instead
of on a film or on a grOlUld glass i kn wn as an "aerial
image." Such an image can been and photographed but
it cannot be touched or felt. Th image which is observed
through a telescope, a nlicroscope or a imple magnifying
glass is an aerial image. Because of it clarity, sharpness and
it intangible presence, it has led the cam eraman to tile
development of ilie tedlJuque of "a rial image cinematog-
raphy," which is, in fact, a meiliod of combining two im-
ages: an aerial image, and another image which i recorded
on film. The aerial image can be modified, enlarged, re-
duced or distorted when combin d with the cine action
footage. Aerial image can origina te from a film, artwork or
simply from an object. Selecti n of the tool and tile tech-
481
nique is determined by the combination of the elements
involved. The technique of aerial image cinematography
can b divided as follow :
The Technique The Required Tool
Film-t -Film erial Image Optical Printer
Film-to-Artwork riallmage Animation
Stand
bject-to-Filrn bj ct-to-Film A.I. Optical
Printer
R gardle of th m thod used, an aerial image pro-
du d b a lens i alway up ide-down but not flopped
ov r. This imple rule of thumb aid the cameraman in
correct po itioning of the obj ct, the artwork or determin-
ing the head-tail and cell- mul ion orientation of a roll of
film wh n thread ing an a rial-image projector.
Film-to-Film
TIl most predominant a rial image teclmique i film-
to-film, and the use of an aerial image optical printer i in-
evitabl . The praces is u d in a variety of effects when-
ev r two r more elemen are involved, such as traveling
matt , titles, wipes, multi-panel and split screens. TIle tool
emplo ed for this purpose i either a dual-, triple- or qua-
druple-head optical printer which combines image axes
through partiall reflecting mirrors. An addition to thi
equipment, a well a to the animation stands, i a multi-
axis electronic motion-eontrol y tem with a memory bank
and pia back system which allow for automatic
r photography of certain effect and complicated, time-
con uming moves. The dual-headed aerial-image optical
print r is used predominantly throughout the industry, and
it has proven to be adequate for most purposes. The triple-
and quadruple-head printer find their greatest applica-
tion in composite photography of traveling-matte shots,
SUdl a the blue-screen prace , where the operator can ac-
tua ll y photograph the background and foreground ele-
ment irnultaneously with their respective matte . The
cameraman, in this case, ha the pri ilege of observing the
compo ite image before hootin~ in order to reassure him-
If of an accurate matt fit. He can then zoom, enlarge or
reduce during the same operation.
482
In spite of the ver atiUty of tI,e triple- and the qua-
d ruple-head printer f r traveling-matte shots, m t cin-
ematographers prefer to work Witll a dual-head a rial-im-
ag optical printer becau of the loss of light in th beam-
plitter modules and tI,e complexity of its alignment. Com-
posite matte hots are photographed on a dual-head printer
in two parate operations. fter a perfect one-to-one, first,
th foreground and the female matte are photographed;
til n, the background and th male matte are hot in nc
on the same piece of film. In order to a oid the po ibiIity
of any misalignment during both operations, the matt - are
intentionally threaded in the arne projector head, prefer-
ably in the front module, b which the matte ar gener-
ated.
Bef re actual compo it photography, the op rator
may check clippings of th male and female matt bi-pack
in sync in the main projector, looking for a very thin and
v n white margi n wh re the mattes fit together. H may
ven go further to the extent of rwming botl, matte in ync
and bi-pack, carefully looking for tile consistency of the
ame contour and possible matte hrinkage. Since various
el ments are photographed in eparate modul in film-to-
film aerial image cinematograph, two ad antage are in-
herent in the system:
1. The proces eliminate the possibility of ewton
ring, a phenomenon \ hich frequently appear wh n two
pieces of film are sandwiched together in bi-pack.
2. The elements d not necessarily have to be of the
same ize. Thirty-five miLlim ter titles, for e ampl , can be
reduced to fit a 16mm footage . By the ame token, a
hrunken matte sometim can be modified in ize to fit the
action footage.
Film-to-Artwork
The tool for thi In thod i basicall y a n animation
stand with an aerial-i mage projector installed on its side
below tI,e stand. A 45-degree mirror carries tile proj cted
imag through the conden er lens above the mirror and
brings it into focus at the same level as the animation eels.
TI,e serial image, in this case, is percei able only through
the camera lens. The cam raperson tanding on the ide can
ob rYe the image by placing a tracing paper on th peg
Wlit; otherwise the image i imperceptible. Anew addition
to some of tI1e recent electronic motion-eontrol systems al-
lows for an interlock horizontal rear-projection onto the PROJECT/ON LENS
artwork.

r
FIELD LENS
Many optical effects can be ach.ieved through this
method, particularly combining live-action footage with
artwork, wh re the movement of animated artwork has to
correspond to that of the live-action frame by frame. The
projector whidl is equipped with registration-pin move-
,I t
ment carries color positive or eparation master. The cam- <..
era carlies color negative stock. The artwork, which has a \..
self-matting function, is illLLminated from above front. The 1', . . . /
top lights have no effect on the background image sin ce STATIONARY
there is no reflecti ve smface involved in the projected aerial
image. Nevertheless, polarizing filters are recommended
for the top lights to eliminate multi-reflections from the field
lenses.
Byero -wedging the artwork together with its back-
ground image, the proper expo me and filter combination
is achieved for each element. TIle color aberrations often
observed in such tests are normally due to improper flat-
ness of cels. It i e entia!, ther fore, to select the proper
material for thi purpose. Kodak Triacetate #21 has dem-
onstrated con iderable stability with respect to this prob-
lenl.
Film-to-artwork aerial-image Cinematogra phy has its
own di advantages. The camera-field lens-projector in the
aerial-image animation stand hould be considered a single
optical system with a fixed central optical axi . The aerial PR.OJECTOR
image must b centered on the condenser lenses and in
sharp focus on the cel area. The camera lens mu t be cen- ..y .........
tered and focu d from the proper distance to cover the AERIAL IMAGE PROJECTOR ZOOM
field conden er lenses. Any de iation of the aforemen-
tioned elemen can produce les -than-satisfactory results.
printing ikkor lens i used to enlarge or reduce the frame
by over four diameter and this image is then projected by
Ae~ial-I~~ge Zoom for Oxberry a syst m consisting of a field lens and a projection lens. The
Anlmahort Stand projection l~I1S.system must stay at a fixed position to gen-
I erate the aenallillage, but the 150rnrn lens and projector can
Although it is not pos ibl to zoom the camera while
u ing all. aerial image on an animation stand, it is possible be moved to enlarge or reduce the generated image. The
to zoom the aerial image itself. TIle area taken by the cam- zoom aerial image unit is available with an automatic fol-
era lens will still be the same 10 Y.z field of the table top con- low-focus system. In order to keep the light intensity con-
den er, but the aerial image generated will be a zoomed stant during a zoom, an automatic lightvalve system is also
version of the frame in the aerial-image projector. available. This lightvaJve operates off a cam that is shaped
To generate a zoom aerial image, the standard aerial- to keep the intensity of the projected inlage constant over
image projector i replaced b an aerial-image configura- much of the zoom range.
tion very similar to that of an optical printer. A 150mm

485
 LIVE fOOTAGE
PROJECTOR
Object-to-Film
Thi method allow th aerial image of an actual ob-
i ct to be comp ited w ith live footage. Th r quired tool
i an aerial-image optical printer in which th ae rial pro-
j ctor is replac d by a tandard animation plate mOllllted
ome ten feet a\ a ' from the main projector. Thi distance
allow ad quate reduction of an object mow1ted upside-
down on the gr w1d glass whil permitting suffici nt depth
f field for sharp focus through the aeria l-image lens in-
stalled behiJ1d the main projector aperture. L1 one pass, the
footage in th main project r i recorded w hile the object
is backl it, thu appea ring as a iJhouette who e backgrolllld
illumination er es as printing exposUl'e for the film. The
footage is then r mo ed, and the object backed by a black
card or ve l t i then frontlit and photographed on the
ame piece f film. The result appears as a matte hot with
a perfect fit.
In ord r to achieve a well-balanced expo ure and con-
trast, both th bject and the footage must be cro -wedged.
with "Film-t -Artwork" previously describ d, the pro-
jectorfilm m u t be color positi ve or separation masters. The
backgrolmd exp sure can be filtered behind th main pro-
jector apertur J' r large filter can be mount d directly in
front of tl1e li ght SOUl'ces or b hind tl1e animation g lass.
When fron t-lighting the object, adeq uate attention must be
paid to the contrast. Flat lighting is preferable, ince a real
object is photographed with a prerecorded film.
This m th d can al 0 be used for combining animated
art work \ ith live-action footage. However, because of ilie
lack of requirements for depth of field in the artwork, an
aerial-image ani mation tand may prove Ie s cumbersome
for tlti particular purpose.
486
Special Techniques
Aerial Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC
Motion pictures often require sc nes photographed
from the air, principally utilizing fixed-wing planes and
heUc pters.
In addition, there are occasional demands for shots
made from gliders, ba Uoons, and wltile skydiving. Many
fixed-wing aircraft have been adapted for various cam ra
mountings.
When photographing air-to-air it i necessary to con-
sider which camera aircraft is correctly matched to ilie air-
craft being pictured in r gard to safety, peed and maneu-
verability. The cinematographer must also decide what i
ilie right kind of camera mount for the job, budget and type
of camera ship available.
Most fixed-wing aircraft permit operating the cam ra
from one side or ano tl1 r. An exception would be specially
adapted aircraft with a photographic nose section and / or
open tail. In any type of fixed positi n, rigid mow1ting is
desirable to minimize vibration. All crews, nuts and bolts
should be safety wired or taped.
The Astrovision y tem permits the use of a relay lens
unit through eiilier the top or bottom of a Lear jet. Zoom
lenses carmot be used with tI1is system. The maximum lens
opening i f/6.3/T-7.2. The Vectorvision wtit, another re-
lay lens system, will zoom as well as roil tl1e horizon 3600
witl1 a maximum lens opening of f/2.8 / T-3.
Helicopters are ltighly favored for aerial photography;
they perntit a large range of movability and air spe d s.
Tyler Camera Systems is a major manufacturer of helicop-
ter mounts; a listing of these and other makes are found on
page 256. The door /side mounts allow for h'ee movement
of the camera in all axes as well as control of camera and
zoom lens functions while using ilie mOllllt. Tyler has two
size mounts; Middlemount for video, Arri 16mm, Arri liC,
Arri 35 III; and the Majormount, for Arri nc, Arri 35 ill,
Mitchell Mark II (with special horizontal magazine
adapter), as well as Imax, VistaVision, 65mm and other
heavier camera packages. Continental Camera also has the
M & M side mounts for most video, 16mm and 35mm can1-
487
era . The Magnum Elite mount handles cam ra packag
up to 100 pOlmd .
arious bell mow1ts (\ hich fit under the helicopt r)
are available. A quick mount/ relea e nose mount by Tyler
Camera ystem offer remote controls and camera read-
out iJ1Cluding tilt and video-a i ted viewing. Larger than
norm al formats uc h as Vi taVisio n, 65mm Imax,
Omnimax, etc., ne d to be mOLU1ted fairl y far forward to
clear the kids and nose from the field of view. Most no e
and belly mow1t require the us of a prime len or a very
short ran 'e zoom. Zoom lense hould ha e remote con-
trols for focusing a \ ell as focal length adjustment. Remote
aperture control i advan tageo us on all lenses. The
Wescam, pacecam and other ball mount units incorporat-
ing gyro copie and r mote control operation are especially
useful for making extremely LU1d rcranked hots, long len
shots, and ~~t'Tining certain angl s not available from other
mount p slbons.
Tyler ha a new, three a i gyro-stabiLized ball type
mount (kygro). ompared to previou mounts of this
tyle, the Tier gyro mount has a fa ter pan and tilt rate and
is designed to allow the heLicopt r wilirnited flight maneu-
vering. The mount can be automatically locked into po i-
tion, which allow the shot to go from gyro-stabilized and
level to b coming part of the h licopter and going off-level
as a POV of thEl helicopter. The mount does not have a sepa-
rate out ide housing and window like previou mOlU1ts of
this type, thereby eliminating aJ1Y chance of seeing re.£lected
Light on the inside of the window.
Sk diving cinematography i done by p cially quali-
fied skydivers, usuall wearing a helmet-mounted camera
or cam ras. The m t common 35mrn camera used for this
purpos i a modified and motorized B II & Howell
Eyemo.
lncid nt Light readings CaJ1 sometimes be taken in
aerial situations. It may prove necessary to have the piLot
turn or tilt the aircraft for this pmpose. Most exposures are
based on a consideration of spot meter readings and cal-
culation of ubject gray scale. Light conditions may change
during a hot.
ll1e pilot of the aircraft ha to under tand the shot and
how the cinematographer plMS to photograph the scene.
He will be flying the aircraft for the positions needed. It is
not usually safe for the cinematographer to directly control
an aircraft being photographed; he should commwucate
through the pilot of the camera hip to the other pilot.
Wh n working in the United States it is important to
know that there are Federal A iation Administration regu-
lati~ns requiring certification of anything that is added to
an auuaft. (Most other cow1tri have similar regulation .)
.. 1: 337: Field inspection of a specific mount on a spe-
CIfic aircraft must be done before each use.
2. STe: Allows mOlU1ts on any 11lU11ber of a particu-
lar make and model of aircraft.
Before the flight, pilots, camera crew and all other con-
cerned parties should discuss all hots for safety and effi-
ciency. Familiarity with the safety guidelin et up b the
Industry Wide Labor Management/Safety Committee i
essential.
Guidelines: Fixed-wing Aircraft,
Helicopters, and Skydiving
1. Except where necessary for takeoff or landing, the
FAA prohibits the operation of an aircraft below the
following altitudes:
A) Over Congested Areas
o er any congested area of a city, town or settle-
ment, or over any open air assembly of persons, an
alti tude of 1000 feet above the highest obstacle
within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the air-
craft.
B) 0 er oth r than Conge ted Area
An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, e cept
over open water or spar Iy populated areas. In
that case, the aircraft may not be operated clo er
than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vel1icle, or struc-
ture.
The pilot must obtain a proper waiver before op-
erating an aircraft in the situations outlined above.
Thus, the pilot must either have his/her own FAA-
approved motion picture manual or operate under
an FAA-approved company manual A certificate
of waiver, which i usually incorporated in the
manual, must be in effect.
2 A) Before a snmt or sequence is to be performed
all persons involved shall be thoroughly briefed.
There should be a dry mn on the ground at the site.
489
 B) Per FAA guidelines, the persons nec s~ary for
the filming wi ll be briefed as. to any po~en~al haz-
ard and af ty questions pnor to the filming.
C) A pre-planned stunt will not be changed in any
way without th authorization of the pilot and the
aerial c rdinator, if any.
D) If th re i a question as to the safety of any aerial
filming quence involving low, over-the::amera
hot . a bri fing will be held between the pilot and
c ncerned per ons as to whether the use of a
locked-off camera is necessary.
3. Onl pers ns and crew necessary for the ~urp se
of filming will be in the area. F~ regulabons re-
quire all oth r personnel to be fi e hundred <S?O)
feet awa fr m the £lying aircraft. All persons WIth-
out written or erbal permission hall be excluded
from the area.
4. Communkation between ground and air must be
maintain d at all times during the operation of th
aircraft.
5. Wh re required b the FAA-approved man~al or
appropriate governmental agency, there will al-
a be an aerial coordinator on the ground when
an aircraft i in the air or taxiing. An aerial coorili-
nat r will be appointed by the holder of the manual
or the d ignated chief pilot.
6. If af ty b comes a que tion at any time, the aerial
coordinator or the involved pilot shall have the au-
thority and re ponsibility to call an abort of the op-
eration.
7. A) Aircraft engines shall not be started and the
aircraft hall n tbe taxied in spectator, castor crew
area unl appropria te measures are taken to
p reclud cr ating a hazard to specta tors, cast or
cr w.
B) a t, crew and equipment shall be pr~~ected
from debri thrown back by airplanes taxtmg or
taking off.
C) If an aircraft i being filmed with the engine r~1­
ning, adequate safety precautions shall be taken m
connecti n with activity in fron t of the propeller.
which includes designated ground personneL
8. No smoking is permitted within one hundred (100)
feet of the aircraft or upport truck.
9. A) Aircraft structures can be damaged easily whi le
on the ground. Never push, hand! , it on or in, or
lay any objects of any kind n an aircraft without
the pilot's permis ion.
B) If a foreign object fall into Or against an aircraft,
report it immediately to the pilot or aerial coordi-
nator.
C) ever allow cast or crew to occupy an aircraft
while engines are tarted or running, unle s the
pilot is in full command.
1o. E~cll end of an opera tiona I runwa or landing area
should ~ cleared during take-off and laniling and
appropnate afety equipment when fiJming the
take-off or land ing.
11. Acrobatic maneuvers hall be conducted in a direc-
tion which will mo t nearly parallel the boundaries
of the designated crew and equipment areas or in
a direction away from uch area .
12. The front of the tudio call heet hould contain a
statement to the effect that "An aircraft i being
used and will be flown in clo proximity to crew
and equipment. Anyone objecting will notify the
production manager or 1 t AD prior to an film-
ing."
Helicopter Safety Procedures
1. Communication betwe n growld and air hall be
e tablished at all tim dw·ing p ration of the he-
licopter using one ground contact.
2. The inilividuaf attached to th h licopter uppo rt
truck shall be designated a th p r on to supervise
afety arowld the helicopter.
3. No smoking within 50 feet of th helicopter.
4. Unless you are needed - r main at lea t 50 fe t away
from the helicopter.
5. Ex~rcise extreme caution when working arowld
~elico~ters especially wh n the helicopter engine
IS runrung. Leave and approach the helicopter from
the front-with caution. At all tim ,keep your eye
and head forward .
491
 6. Avoid rear and tail ections of h elicopter a t a ll
times.
7. ever walk under tail ection of helicopt r.
Do not e tend an equipment verticall into rotor
blades, uch a cameras, lights, ound bo 01, etc.
Carry all equipm nt parallel to ground within 50
feet of helicopter.
10. Pilots are the authoritie concerning all helicopter
operations-if ou have questions a k th m .
11. ever, under an circumstances, throw anything
uch as grip tap , dothing, paper, etc. around the
helicopter-wheth r it is nmning or not.
12. The landing area hould be deared of debri and,
where nece sary, w t down.
13. Avoid rear area of h licopter at all time.
14. Protect your ey a well as your equipment w hen
helicopter is landing or taking oH.
15. Plot plans and graphic will be prepared to locate
landing sites, and location, as well as type of ex-
plo i es or quib .
16. The pilot in command will have final approval as
to aerial traver and hovering po itions of the air-
craft.
Safe Practice: Parachutin~ Skydiving
The following rec mmendations and guidelines are to
aid in the promotion f f ty with respect to parachuting
and kydi ing film sequ nces. Adjustments may have to
b made in any glv n ca e as circumstance warrant for
the safety of the per on involved in the parachuting or
kydiving activity or on the set or location.
1. Radio communications shall be maintai ned be-
tween th aircraft carrying the jumpers and the
landing site at all times. Grotmd signal (Smoke,
panel, etc.) hall be provided a a backup.
2. The "parachuting coordinator" hall be a qualified
jumper. When nl one jumper is employed, that
jumper hould b the coordinator.
3. The parachuting coordinator hall determine
whether or n tsecurity is necessary to e dude non-
e ential crew and non participating pectators
from. the land~ng area . Open field landing may not
requlIe secunty.
-l. The pro~ucer ha!l require each parachutist or
parachutmg coordmator to hold a United States
Parachute 'ation profes ional exhibiti n rat-
ing, or present satisfactory evidence of th n ces-
s~ exp.erier:ce, knowledge and kill requir d to
attam this rating. USPA Exhibition Rating ar i-
ued to members who have a Class D license who
~ave ~ccompJi hed 10 ucce si e pre-declared
Jumps mto a 10-m ter (32 foot) diameter targ t area
landing ~10t mor than 5 meters from target center:
Alliandmg mu t be made standing up.
A ~um of 350 jumps on the canopy ty pe to be
used IS recommended.
5. Parachutist wh hold a USPA Class D licens with
an Exhibition Rating, who certify that they will use
a stee:able squ~e main and reserve canopy, will be
permitted to eXit vel' or into a conge ted area . ll1e
selected landing area must permit the jump r to
la~d not?oser than 16 feet from any pectatorand
will not mvolve pas ing over non-participating
persons on the urface at an altitude of les than 50
feet.
6. All jump hall be c nducted in accordance with
Federal Aviati n Regulations Part 105.
7. The parachuting coordinator will d e termine
whether ~r not t~e visib.ility, ~oud ceilin height
~d v~oo,?, of wmd, a It applies to the particular
Situation, I afe or w1safe. (Landing area ize,
ca~opy type, ~umb r of jumpers and plann d tunt
Will be taken mto consideration.)
8. ~efore each jump is to be performed, all p rsons
mvolved shall b thoroughly briefed. There should
be a dry rW1 on the ground at the site.
9. All equipment, prop, wardrobe, etc., shall b made
available to the co rdinator prior to the stunt/jump
fo~ safety evaluation. Final safety approval rests
~ Ith the coordinator with respect to equipment and
wardrobe u ed in the jump.
10. The coor~inator hall have the respon ibility to
temporal'll hold or cancel the authorized opera-
493
 tions if at any tim the safety of per ons or prop-
erty on the grolU1d or in the air is in jeopardy or if
there is a contra ention of the terms or conditions
of an FAA letter of authOlization.
11 . The FAA requir that eacll reserve parachute be
packed b an appropriately rated paracllute rigger.
If a parachuti t ha a malhU1ction on the job and
use hi reserve chute, a spare parachute or the
presence of a certified rigger can usually sa e many
shooting hour .
12. All operations involving fixed wing aircraft and
helicopters shall c nform with the guid lin s estab-
lished by the Labor Management Safety Commit-
tee.
13. All pilots must b famibar with the d ropping of
jlU11pers, including the peculiarities of the operation
to i.t1C~~Jde flight with the door removed, FAR Part
105, rehearsals of all exi t , all grOlU1d igna ls, sig-
nals to abort jLUnp, pilot's respon ibilities, provi-
sions of all Lette of Authorization or waiver .111e
pilot must anal ze weight and balance of the air-
craft with jumper in exit position.
14. Jumps near or into p tentially hazardous landing
areas (water, power lines, etc.) should b consid-
ered carefully.
Pickup boats and flotation gear should b available
when the po sibilit of a water landing exist and
each boat pi) t hall participate in the pre-jump
briefing.
On intentional water jumps there hall be one
pickup boat for each jump r.
] 5. Lighting for night hot should be reviewed with
the Parachute oordmator. 111e landing ite for a
night shot should b viewed duri.tlg daylight h urs
before jumping.
II the above gllidelines aJld procedur are in-
tended to conform with applicable law and gov-
ernmental regulations and in the event of aJ1Y con-
flict, appbcabLe law and governmental regulations
will prevail.
494
Underwater Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC.
All good underwater cinematographer must have
one thmg in common; they must also be experienced ruvers.
It is not enough to put good cinematographers underwa-
ter and expect good resul ts. They should be good enough
divers with enough experience underwater to enable them
to be unconcerned with ruving techruques. They must be
at ease with the camera under all conditions, anticipating
being swept around the ocean floor aJld still be able to op-
erate the camera efficiently.
And it is well to remember that underwater filming
can be - and often is - hazardous and difficult. Experi-
ence underwater counts for a great deal.
Not enough can be said regarding safety. Knowledge
of diving physics, awareness and common sense are man-
datory. Following are the safety guideb nes set by the
Industry-Wide Labor Management Safety Commjttee for
situations where scuba equipment is used in filming:
1. The finalization of an underwater location shall
depend upon the safety and health conditions of
the location as determined by supervisory film in-
dustry personnel- one of whom shall be a certified
diver in consultation with the director.
2. Any person using scuba equipment while filming
or being filmed underwater shall be a certified
ruver, with the exception of players who are essen-
tial for an underwater close-up. When this excep-
tion arises, for safety reasons, these players shall be
under the supervision of a currently certified in-
structor, and shall have received sufficien t instruc-
tions for the job a t haJld. The ap propriate depth for
safe filming shall be d etermined by the certified
insb.-uctor supervising the safety of the player or
players. Players who are not certified divers shall
not be required to work in depths in excess of ten
feet.
3. All safety divers shall be duly certified and when
scuba is used, he or she shall be equipped with an
alternate air supply, i.e., Octopus or bail out bottle,
etc.
495
 4. Any person performing a stunt where water safety
is involved hall r quire properly equipp d afety
diver or di er .
An person performing a tunt where the po ibil-
ity of being trapp d underwater exists hall have
tand-b breathin equipment immediatel avail-
able.
For dives below 30 feet each individual diver hall
be concerned \ ith foll wing his or her decompres-
ion procedure a nec ary and safety rul hall
be available at appr priate departments and on the
job site.
a. Any individual de ignated to log dive haJJ be
a certified diver and hall be knowledgeabl a to
proper logging pro edw'e .
b. The company will determine the neare t I ca-
tion of decompre i n chamber and meth ds of
transportation to that dlamber and notify aU con-
cerned persons.
c. FlU1.ctional recall y tem equipment hall be
made available on ite.
7. It hall be the resp nsibitity of the company to en-
ure that an per on u ing re-breathing equip-
ment or mixed !ffi Y terns \ ill have been properly
train d in the use of the equipment.
Scuba tanks when transported to and from location
wiU be secured in uch marmer as to pre ent them
from rolling or all wing the val to be truck by
oth r objects.
9. When not in u , cuba tanks shall be quipped
with valve cover and hall be stored in the hade.
LO. Adequate medica l oxygen (100% oxygen) and re-
sllscitatibn equipm ntshall be available a t all times
when scuba equipm nt is in use. Do not u e the air
in the cuba tank a they do not contain 100% oxy-
gen.
11 . 0 electrical power other than DC shall be u d in
the \Vater or in a vicinity which could lead to con-
tact with the water.
In filming underwater theatrical or television produc-
tions the cinematographer i c ncemed with telling a fic-
tionalized tory rather than photographing a real experi-
496
ence such as a scientific xpedition or a documentary fi.ln1.
When working with a cript, actors and a director, and
being confined to telling a tory the situation doe not al-
way permit the freedom to photograph seen of reat
natural beauty unless th ria place for them in the script.
Filming may be done in a natural ocean location under
optimum condition or in a tudio tank with all th facili-
ti one usually associat \ ith a tudio operation. Th key
to a u fuJ underwater production is planning. Fi t, the
dir ctor, and underwat r cinematographer r dir ctor/
cam raman and taJent talk over the scenes abov water.
After blocking out the action, the players (or their doubles)
walk through the acti n top ide.
Entrances, exits and tinting hould be rellear 0 that
ev ryone completely lmde tands the seene t b photo-
graphed .
ometimes the players are experienced enough in ei-
th r skin diving or scuba diving to perform underwater
cenes, but in many ca doubles or stLmt people will be
1I d . TIle sam e holds trll with directors. If they ar not
experi nced diver th y may leave the actua l filming to the
underwater cinematographer.
Equipment
An good profe ional-type motion pictur camera
can be adapted for underwater cinematograph . Und r\Va-
t r fiJms have been ucc fuJJ made in all formats indud-
ing 65mm and 3-D. There ar many housing d ign , both
tubular and irregular cubic, for various purpo . For ta-
bility underwater the hould have lightJ n gative buo -
ancy. Film capacity of 400 ft. i mo t comnlonJy u ed in
underwater camera h using design. Such functions a fo-
cu ing, aperture, and cam ra peed ideally should b on-
troll d outside the housi ng whi le operating LU1d rwater.
It is important to have ea y access to the ca mera so tha t
the lenses and/or filters an be changed or adju ted on
d ck.Filmandbatterie willn dtobechangedea i1yand
quickly. It is a great advantage to have a camera w hidl
permits through-the-len vi wing and offers a dar, ea ily
r ad image. A ports finder may be more convenient when
fast action is being photographed.
Th camera ideally hould be balanced in the hou ing
so that the cinematographer can take a deep breath and go
up or exhale and go down with it. Camera are quite mo-
bile underwater.
497
 The cinema tographer can become a crane or dolly
because of individ ual requirem en ts and familiarity with the
equipmen t, many of the people who make a speci.a lty of
underwater photography design and/or own theJI own
equipment.
Lenses and Lens Ports
Ports ar available both with a flat surface and as a
corrected dome. With a flat port the magnification created
by the wat r (air to water refractive index is 1.33) causes
the camera I to assume the characteri tic of slightly
longer lenses and objects appear closer by ~. The corrected
dome port p rmi the lenses to function with their true
focal lengths. Th dome radius is critical ~d its center ?'lust
be on the nodal point of the lens to function correctly, if not
diopter will be necessary, usually a +2 will bring objects
into pr per focus. Th dome port can be of advantage when
working in areas of low visibility or in a confined pace or
\ ith extremel wide-angle lenses.
Both glas and plastic ports are available. Glass can be
more perfect optically and it is virtually scratch-proof. PIa -
tic i trong r, but is ulnerable to scratching (a cratch on
the out ide of th port will be filled by water and not be
apparent, but a scratch on the inside is a ~ferent ~a tter).
When the h u ing i used above or at split level With the
water, th front port (preferably flat) can be kept dear of
water drops with the us of a wetting agent. Wide-angle
or hort focu lens are usually preferred because of the
magnification due to water, and the necessity to .work <:!ose
to the ubject becau e of cattering and absorption of ligh t
by the water. The increased depth of field afforded is also
a factor. For 35mm film, a commonly used lens is the 16mm
Zeiss Distagon, and for extrem e wide-angle, a 9.8mm is
u eful, alth ugh di tortion is more apparent; a dome port
is reco mm nded for this lens.
ther len e up to 75mrn are useful for cl ose-up .
Con'esp nding len e for 16mm photography are lOmrn
and 8.9m.l11; th IOmm is relatively distortion free. For 35mm
anamorphic photography, the 30mm and 35mrn lenses are
preferred. A flat port i recommended for anamorphic
lense . Accurat und rwa ter focusing presents no problem
if the di tance i judged by eye; if the distance is measured
by tape, the lens is focused at 75% of the measured distance
(with no diopter).
498
Care Of Equipment
At the end of a day's work and if po sible when cl1cmg-
ing magazine the camera hou Lng h uJd be wa .hed off
wi th fre h water. This will help pr erve the hou mg and
will also minimize the chance of salt pray damaging the
camera mecharIism and in particular the lens. When the
camera and hou ing are removed from the water they
houJd be immediately placed in the hade. Thi is espe-
cially true in the tropic where even a mi.nim~ expo ure
to the sun can cause heat inside th camera housmg to dam-
age the film. . .
All film manufacturers now have fa ter, finer gramed
negati e emulsions a ailable in 16mrn, 35mrn and 65mm.
egative tack is preferred for und rwat~ r work ov~r re-
versal films as it has a grea ter e po ur labJude and lelds
better prints. It al tran fe~ well t~ ta~ and is id~al. for
tele ision production. For direct projection of the ongmal
high speed reversal col r film are available.
The Environment
Even under the best po ible conditions, filming lm-
derwater presents the cinematographer with numerous
photographic problems not encount red on lcu:d . Atmo-
spheric haze, with the accompan ing de aturatJon of the
warmer color tones, 10 s of detail and contra t, ha its un-
derwater counterparts in turbidity and color ca t. Turbid-
ity, caused by suspended matt r arying from small and
particles to micro copic organi m 'uch a plarikt n, re-
duces light by absorption, diffu the image, and reflects
direct front lig~t into the len ("ba~k catt r"). Turbidity
affects the quality of underwater cm matography more
than any other factor. Vi ibility may be reduc d from many
fee t to just a few, an d vice ver a.
Water absorbs the longer wavelengths of light (reds
and yellows); therefore, the farther th light must trav~1
from source to subject to lens, the Ie reds and yellows will
register on the film. This can b partia ll overcome by arti-
ficial lighting and sam tim by I ctiv use of !<odak
color compensating (CC lens flIt r . Photographic tests
with thesefiltersi ugg ted . L f olorcontra tre uJt-
ing from the selective filtration of underwater light can be
reduced through careful ubj ct color election.
This will appl to w1derwat r ts, pr p and even the
t pe of wardrobe worn b actor. alar intere t ma be
499
added t obj t beyond the range of red or orange b:ans-
mission thr ugh the u e of bright blue, green and yellow.
Whit must b u ed with care because its reflective q uali-
tie tog th r with underwater scattering will produce a
haze eff t. (Und Iwater visibility of production equipment
can al b increa ed b gi ing it a bright chrome yellow
finj h.)
atural Light
Optimum underwater cinemato!!Taph is usuall ob-
tained to a rna ' imum depth of 50 ft. At greater depths
thing app ar more m nochromatic. There are also more
diving pr blems and camera housings are subject to greater
tres. aturalli ht reach the ocean's surface either a
direct ra from the un or as light diffused b clouds or
other atmo ph ric conditions uch a du t and water a-
por. clear, and ocean floor is a great asset to good un-
d rwater camera work becau e underwater light is re-
flected from the ocean floor back into the water. When
ho tin unden ater in da light conditions with tungsten
(3200K) film, with ut additional lighting, it is advisable to
use a # 5 camera filter. TIti ubtracts ome of the blue from
the water, p rmitting a truer rendering of kin tone on
humans in th c ne. If the negative is fully exposed, orne
further correction ma be possible in printing from the
negative.
TIle inten ity of daylight for underwater filming d -
pend als upon th amount lost by reflection from the
water' urfac.
TIli depend n SUcll variables a un angle, surfac
roughn ,and cloud cover. TIle light los due to reflection
ilea t wh nth lU1 i directly overhead and do not start
to become a pr blem unti l the sun is below an ang le of
about"'O d gre s. In tlle latitudes of the United States, SlU1
height i genera lly optimum between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. in
tl1e umm rand 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. in tlle winter.
Artificial Lighting
Und rwat r lighting is often necessary or desirable
both in tudi tank conditions and in tl1e open ea. Fill and
set lighting f r p rf rmer , night effect filming and other
conditions that require special Lighting are often a part of
underwater work. The u e of artificial light is an excellent
method f re t rin r correcting color in lU1derwater 00-
500
ematography. The effect of lmderwater filt ring varies from
area to area, but as a general rule r d is lost at about 10 feet.
Using artificial lighting will often add tl1e nec ssary color
compensation needed to record an lmderwater cene more
accurately. A number of excellent lmderwater lamps are
currently available on the market. Tun ten halogen w1its
are a ailable in 2000 watt and 1000 watt ize , witl1 alumi-
num reflectors in a pre ure re i tant hou ing. Smaller
lamps, usually battery powered, are al a ailable. These
w1its are generali 250 watt and are useful in hooting very
dose to the subject or as a fill light. Speciall constructed
HMI w1its are also available, e tra care and ground fault
interrupt protection is necessar due to C power source.
Large underwater area can al be illuminated by
uspending lights from an 0 erh ad grid r netting ta-
tioned at tl1e proper deptl1 b means of floats and anchors.
Submerging tl1em minimizes movement of tl1 light due to
wave action.
Lighting and Exposure
Lighting underwater i imilar to top ide lighting,
except that cross lighting i preferable to front lighting.
Front lighting should b a oided b caus it lights turbid-
ity "backscatter." The e ception to tl1i i in crystal clear
water where a front light can b u d without difficulty.
Front light sometimes can be u ed for fill.
Either a reflected or incident expo ure meter i satis-
factory. When taking an exposure r adin at the subject,
remember that water acts as a filter 0 one must compen-
sate for the distance betwe n tlle camera and tlle ubject
and adjust accordingly. A rule of thumb' Y.l to Yz top. An
wlderwa ter reflected light met r whicll works on a gray
cale principle, SUdl as the Sekonic Marine 164B is ideal.
This type of meter requires no calibra ti n after tl1e shutter
speed and tl1e ASA rating hav be n et.
Under daylight cond ition, exp ure are based upon
tlle reading of the general area in whi h tlle c ne is staged.
The reflected light reading is made from al ngside the cam-
era and directed toward tlle action. The importance of the
angle of the shot as a factor in calculating expo ure cannot
be overemphasized when working in ocean waters; there
will be exposure variance fo r up, down and horizonta l
moves.
501
Night Effects
Simple W1derexpo ure can prod uce acceptable W1der-
water day-for-night photography. Liai on with the labora-
tor hou ld help in producing the desired night effect.
Undere posure tend to increa e the sahtration of lmder-
wat r color and accentuat the blue component f open
water in th baekgrOlmd, thereby enhancing the night f-
f t. The illu ion can be int nsified if light ripples from thc
watcr urface are allOl ed t pIa aero the ne. Scatter-
in will cau e them to appear a tiny light beam moving
through the water. When h oting night-for-n.ight, over-
head lighting can be utiliz d for a moonlit effect
Studio Tanks
Mucll Lmderwa ter p I' d uction p hotogr aphy may b
done i.n studio tanks. These tanks w i ll vary in si.ze and may
eith I' b constructed insid as Lmd stage or bu ilt outd oors
on the stud io ba,ck lot. They are us ually about 40 or 50 fee t
indiameterwithdepth ran ingup to 140r1s feet. ut ide
tank are generally built above groW1d, sometinle with
provi ion for a painted backdrop.
M t tanks are equipped with straight r rcducing
port fr m which camera can be set up to sh t into the
tank. The traight port i a flat window looking into the
tank. Reducing p rts are primarily used in photographing
miniature or hooting into a confined LUlderwater et.
The arc c nca e gla s pI' viding an angle imiJar to that
fa \ ide-angle len, also pcrmitting more leeway in pan-
nin . TIle gla should be cry tal clear. Since tcu1ks are 10-
cat d within the confines f the tudio there i amp le p ro-
visi n for usino- all type of tudio lighting units. I.n ide the
tarLk malleI' wl itssuch a ' tho previously mentioned may
bused.
Minia tmes are usuaJly photographed in a tank an d the
sam rules for filming spc ds apply as in topside min ia tme
p h to ra phy. In fil ming l11 inieltu res, to sim uJel te deep wa-
ter, it i important to reduce light ripples by stretching a
aim over the tcu1k or letting it float on the water. The deep
ocean ha no ripple. Light that has not been diffu ed will
cause Welter ripple and give away the depth of the water,
thereby de troying the illusi n. lnc.identalJy, even though
tanks are quipped \vith h otin u ports the best angl and
ccunera movements are obtained by diving into the water
with the camera ju t a if on a natural sea location.
502
Safety Bulletin No.8: Guidelines
for Insert Camera Cars
1. An Insert Camera Car shall be a vehide tha t is
pecifically engineered for the mOW1ting of cam-
eras and other equipment for the primary pur-
pose of photography from a stationary r mov-
ing vehide.
2. A camera car hall be safety checked before and
after use on a minimum of a daily basis by quali-
fied experienced personnel - specifically brakes,
tires, electrica l ys tem and towing equipment.
3. All rigging of equipment shall be done i.n a safe
mCUlner by qualified, experienced per onnel.
4. An Insert Camera Ccu' used for n ight fi lming shall
be provi.d ed with two portable tail light which
w ill be allixed to the towed vehide to provide recu'
lighting in case where said vehide's light are not
operati ve.
5. Maximum passenger allowances - Operation of
Insert Camera
Cars Transporting Production PersOlln I: All in-
volved per onnel should be made aware that, as
mandated by the California Administrative Code:
TIle number of emplo ees". .. transported on ve-
hides ... shall never exceed a nW1lber which may
end anger the afe handling of the vehicle..." Ac-
cordingly, the Ind u try Subcommittee to lnvesti-
ga te Safety Asp ect of Insert Cam era Ca r here-
wi th recomm nd the fo llow ing m aximum be
applied when transporting p ersonnel by Insert
Camera Ca r (dul' ing rehearsa l and principa l
p hotogra phy seq uen ces): That number should
never exceed nine (9) incl uding the d river. In ad-
dition, it is b:ongly recommend ed tha t any per-
son not direc tly needed for actual shot sequence
. ot Be Allowed on The Vehide At All.
6. Equipment not e ntial to the shots in progress
shall not be tran ported on the Insert Car .
503
 7. ommuni ation regarding In ert Car shall be
pr' ed d by a meeting on the site of the event
with all p pie concerned. This meeting should
in Iud a "walk-tl1fough" or "dry-run" with the
driv r and all f the per ons invol ed in the ev nt.
n und rstanding of the intended action, po ible
d iati n and auth rity to abort should be made
clear. Fall wing the above and before roUing cam-
ra , hould an ub tantive change become nec-
ar, ' the director will again cali ali per on in-
volved in the hot to another meeting to confirm
c eryone' under tanding and agreement to aid
han
R ar t \ in - no per onnel not being ph to-
graphed hali be on to' bar or exterior of towed
v hicle. This d n t include towed cam ra plat-
form uch a trailers designed for said \'.'ork.
It hall be ma ndatory that a cop of these rul be
in th glove box f the vehicle at all tim .
10. It i recognized that there can be unforeseen or
uniqu ituation which might require on- ite
jud m nt diff ring from these guideline. Such
jud m nt may ha e to be made in the inter t of
the af t f ca t and crew.
Arctic Cinematography
Mo t of the difficulties encOlmtered when using mo-
tion-picture equipment in the Arctic are ca u d by extreme
cold and very low relative humid ity. Average te mperatures
may va ry from 45 0 F (7 0 ) to -45°F (-43° C), temperature
as low as -80° F (-620 ) have been recorded. (Sud1 10w tem-
peratu.re mayal a be encount red at very high altitud .)
The lubricatin oil u ua lly used in photographic
equipment in mar temperate climates will congeal in an
arctic nvironm nt that moving parts of cameras or other
equipment will not operate. Leather and rubber also be-
come brittl at the temperatures. With motion-picture
films, 10 of moi ture from the film emulsion when the
original packin mat rial i opened may result in film
504
emu lsion shrinkage and brittlen s , and subsequent film
curl in the camera gate. SUd1 djfficu lti ar not minimized
by using films with a polyester ba e unle these films (or
those with a triacetate ba e) have a g latin coating on the
upport to compensate for emul ion hrinkage. It i the
effect of the very low relative humidity (Ie than 5%) and
its emulsion drying characteri tics that produces film curl.
(Small heaters are sometimes u d in camera to prevent
film brittleness when working und r condition of extreme
cold, but under certain condition thi practice could actu-
ally increase the chance of emulsion hrinkage by further
reducing the re!ative humidity in th film d1amber.) TI1e
film peed is also lowered b e tr m cold and rna be
about one lens opening lower at -50 0 F (-46 0 C) to -70 0 F
(_57 0 C) than at 60 0 F (16 0 C). Film b m progressive!
more brittle as the temperature drop belm 00 F (-1 0 C),
but there is no marked change at any on temperature.
E en at sub-zero temperatur , film emul ion that retain
its proper moisture content in the ori inal package (equiva-
lent to equilibrium at -ill to 60% RH) i more fie ible than
film that ha been aUowed to becom too dry. Film can also
be bent with the emulsion side in with I chance of break-
ing than if bent with the emul ion ide out. Whether the
film emulsion cracks or the film upport breaks at very low
temperatures depends on (1) how n the film i exposed
after removal from the original package; (2) the care taken
in handling the film; and (3) on the typ and condition of
the camera in which it i u ed.
Temperatures generally encountered in the Arctic will
not cause polye ter bas films to break.
Preparation Of Equipment
While the difficultie of photography under arctic con-
di tions can be severe, they are by no means insurmoun t-
able. Careful advance prepara ti on will pay ric h d ividends
in the fo rm of easier and mol' I' liable quipment opera-
tion and better pictorial results. The first tep in preparing
for filming in the Arctic, high mOlm tain regions, or in LU1-
heated aircraft at high altitude i to elect th mo t suit-
able equipment with due regard for the work to be done
and the re ults desired .
Each kind of camera has i adh r n
seems to be outstandingly uperi r to th
considering the working conditi n , g
505
tates that the camera or cameras selected should be com-
pact, lightweight, easy to use, dependable, adap table, and
portable. In choosing a 160101 motion-picture ca mera,
many arctic explo rers prefer the ease and convenience of
magazine loading. Threading roll film can be very difficult
under conditions of extreme cold. Certain camera mooels
are advantageous fo r low-temperature use because large-
radius bends in the film path and low film accelera tions
help prevent broken film. For best protection of the film
emulsion at extremely low temperatures, film travel roll-
ers sho uld have a diameter no smaller than Yz in. (13mm).
Electric power, if available from a reliable source such as a
genera tor or vehicular power system, is more dependable
than spring·d.riven o r battery power. However, under field
conditions, a spring--driven mo tor may prove more reliable
than an electric mo to r drive that depends on portable or
storage batteries which can fail when subjected to extremely
low temperatures.
Cameras sho uld be winterized for satisfactory service
under fri gid conditions. Some camera manufacture,rs pro-
vide a winterizing service for cameras that are to be used
at low temperatures over a long period of time. Winteriz-
ing is a hig hly specialized operation, best entrusted to the
manufacturer or a competent independent camera service
representative. Essentially, the procedure caIJs for disman-
tling the camera and removing the original lubricants. The
shutter, lens diaphragm, film transport mechanism, and
other moving par ts are then re-lubricated with materials
that will no t thicken when the camera is exposed to extreme
cold. Powdered g raphite is in some cases still used for this
purpose. However, so-called "broad-range" lubricants
(such as Teflon and silicone) are becoming increasingly
popular, not only because of their effectiveness at low tem-
peratures, but also because they can be left in the camera
permanently. In fact, such lubricants are being used in
manufactu re. Hence, a camera that has been lubricated with
a broad-range lubrica nt, either in manufacture or as part
of a winterizing opera tion, need no t be de-winterized and
re-Iuhrica ted when it is returned to use under normal con-
ditions. When cameras are s tripped down for winterizing,
weakened or damaged parts may be discovered and should
be replaced to avoid possible failure under the extra stress
of severe a rctic temperahlres.
It is also sometimes necessary to machine parts to al-
low grea ter clearance ben-veen components. This is because
506
aluminum and ce rta in all oys have greater coefficients of
thermal contraction and expansion than s teel. Since small
levers and knobs on cameras are difficult to opera te when
the photographer is wearing thick gloves, ex tensions can
sometim es be added to levers, and small knobs can be re-
placed with larger ones.
It may be helpful to ru n even recently win terized
motion-picture cameras for a period of three or fou r hours
to break them in thoroughly. A piece of film three or four
fee t long can be spliced end to end (to fonn a continuous
loop), threaded into the camera, and allowed to run dur-
ing the breaking in. In cameras intended for use wi th film
magazines, the loop should be formed in a dummy maga-
zine. After the breaking-in period, the camera should be
checked for speed and general behavior. It shou ld be noted
that, a lthough magazi ne-type motion-picture ca meras can
be Winterized, the magazines themselves are not winterized
and may jam und er condi ti ons of extreme co ld . If film
magaz ines are used, each day 's working reserve carried
in to the field should be kep t as warm as possible under the
cinematographer's parka. Another possibility is to carry the
film supply in an insulated thermal bag, along with one or
n-vo small hand warmers.
Before your location shoot, a test run should be made
in a refrigerator or freezer capable of reaching temperatures
as low as _300 F (_34 0 C) or -loa F (-40" C). Even "winter-
ized" cameras can fail in use bccause some detail was over-
looked in preparation, so this fina l test run is quite impor-
tant. TIle film and camera sho uld be cooled for a t least 24
hours prior to the test. This long period of pre-cooling is
o ften overlooked, and the test becomes invalid.
Motion-picture ca meras sho uld be g iven as much pro-
tection from icy \,v inds as possibl e during use. When bat-
tery-dri ven motors a re used on cameras, the motors and
batte ries sho uld be kept as wa rnl as possibl e. A Aat black
finj sh o n the cameras has so me advantage in the Arc ti c
because it absorbs hea t w hen the sun is shining. Covers
mad e from black felt material o r fur and fitted w ith eye-
lets or other suitable fa steners protect the ca mera from
frig id winds and help to retain its initial wa rmth fo r a time.
Snaps and slide fasteners are no t recommended for use in
s ub-zero temperatures. Small magazine-type motion-pic-
ture cameras can be hung inside the coat to obtain some
warm th from the body; you may even need to wrap a
chemical heating pad a round the camera. Inspect the
507
camera' lens eCich time it i removed from the clothing to
take a picture. The C1mowlt of "body stCitic" genera ted W1-
del' cold, dry conditions can cause the lens to attract lint
from the clothing.
Tripod hould al 0 be conditioned properly for u e
in the Arctic. Wh n lubrication is required, there ar oil
available for u e at temperatures down to -70 0 F. Tripod
h ads for moti n-pi ture equipment should be winterized
if they include gyro, motor, or other revolving parts. As
noted previou I e treme cold causes leather and rubber
to become brittl. \ a leather dressing of good quality
should be rubbed int leather carrying cases and leather-
CO\ ered camera to prevent the ab orption of moisture.
Rubber hould b eliminated wherever possible.
ilk or lightweight cotton gloves under hea y woolen
mittens are rec mmcnded . Gloves or mittens made from
wlborn lamb kin are excellent for arctic weather. Silk
glov will k ep the hand warmer and ",rill afford consid-
erable protection when th outside mittens are remo ed for
10adin<7 the cam ra, adjusting the lens, etc.
Equipment and Filming Technique
In tlle rctic or on mowltain climbing expedi tions, as
the altitude and the subsequent cold increase, breathing
become difficult, and it involve a great effort to work
normall . R acti n are low. Therefore, everything per-
taining to th u f the camera hould be made as simple
as possible. Expo ure stima tesmay be poor when tl1e fac-
ulties are dulled, 0 expo ure all d other data should be
printed on a card and fastened to the camera or its cover in
plain view .
C rtain general cold-weather recommendation are in
order for any a?l ra, ti ll or motion-picture. Breatlling on
a lens or any oth l' pa rt of tlle Call1era to remove snow 01'
other material will ca us condensa tion that freezes installtly
and is very diffi t ult to r move.
An important factor to keep in mind is the ever-present
danger of fro tbit ,a particular threat when hands or face
come in direct c ntact wi th the metal of the camera body.
Camera that are u ed at eye level and must be brought
close to th face for proper viewing and focusing should
have tlleir e p d metal areas covered w ith heavy elec-
trical tape, pia tic foam, or ome otl1er insulating material.
Under no circwll tanc hould tlle photographer tOUcll the
508
ca mera or other metal equipment with ungloved hands,
becau e the skin will freeze to th - cold metal almost in-
tantly. A painful loss of skin almost alway results.
A thoroughly chilled camera CaJU10t be u d in a warm
room Wltil its temperature equals the surrounding warmer
temperature. Conversely, a warm cam ra Calmot be taken
out into a blizzard because the bl wing and drifting snow
will melt upon triking the warm camera, and oon the
instrlunent will be covered witl1 ice. Loading film, even
during a driving snowstorm, can b accompli hed with the
use of a large, dark plastic bag, big enough to fit over tl1e
head and shoulders.
A deep lens hood ' very de irable for filming in tl1e
snow. It will help keep tlle len dry even during a fairly
evere storm.
Film
Great care must be used in handling film in sub-zero
weatl1er. The edges of cold, brittle film ar tremel sharp,
and unless caution is ex rei ed, tl1 y can cut the fingers
severely_
It is important that film be loaded and exposed
promptly after removal ITom the origina l packing, not left
in the camera for long period of time. U motion-picture
film is allowed to stand in the camera for a day or so, tl1e
film may dry out and break where the loop was formed
when the camera is again started. The fi lm i adequately
protected against moistme 10 s a I ng a tll riginal pack-
aging is intact. When loading tlle camera, make sme tlle
filmaJld the camera are at the same temperature - if pos-
sible, load the camera indoors.
Static markings are cau ed by a n lectros tatic dis-
c1large, and they appear on the deve! p d fi lm emulsion
as mal'ks resembling lightn ing, tree braJ1Ches, or fuzzy
spots. When static difficulties occur they can usually be
traced to the use of film which has a very low moisture
content.
Static markings are not likely to ocwr if tliefillll is loaded
and e-tposed within a sliort tillle after tlie original package is
opened. In general, field photography lmder arctic condi-
tions involves subjects of extremely low brightness scale
and very high levels of illumination. For tl1is reason, high-
speed emulsions are not generally u ed outdoors. The best
choice of film is a mediwn-speed material such as Eastman
509
Plus-X egati e Film 5231 / 7231, Ea tman Color egative
Film 52-! / 724 , Eastman Ektachrome Film (Daylight)
5239/ 7239, Agfa Color egati e Film XT100, Fujicolor
egative Film F 125 5 0 / 630, Fujicolor Reversal Film
RT125 (16null I1ly-8427), or Fuji N gative Film FG 71112/
RP 72161 . Exposmes sho uld be held to a m inimum a nd
overexpo ure hould b avoided.
When pictures are to be made lll1der low-level light-
ing c nditions, uch a at twilight, r indoor wlder e ist-
ing artificial illumination, a high- peed film, such as
Eastman.J.-X gati e Film 577-l/ 7224, Eastman Color EXR
High-Speed egative Film 5296/7296, Eastman
Ek tsch rom e High-Speed Film (Day ligh t) (16 m111 only-
7251), Eastman Ekrnchr me High-Speed Film (Tlll1g ten)
(16mm onl -72 0), Agfa Color egative Film XT320,
Fujicol r F 500 olor e stive Film 570/ 8670, or Fujicolor
Reversal Film RT 500 (16mm onl -842 ) h uld be u ed .
Storage
Ifs cold camers is tsk n indo r where iti warm and
humid, conden stion msy form on the lens, film, and cam-
em part. If the camera i then taken back outdoor b fore
the c ndensed moistme evaporat , it will freeze and in-
terfere \ i th op rs tion; th condensate can aI 0 cause metal
par to rust. On wa to olve th.i problem i to lea e the
camera, when not in u e, in a room at about 32°F (DOC).
T. R. Stobmt, who fil med th fi rst conq uest of Mt.
Evere t, p refer to seal the camera i.n an airtight poly thyl-
ene or rubber bag and th 11 take the camera into the warmth
of ind or . An condensation tak place outside th bag,
not in ide, and the camera remains both dr and warm.
Thi method ha the ad anrnge of keeping the camem from
becoming" aturated in cold" for long p riods of time.
There is no problem Ul taking warm equipment back out
ultO the cold, prhvided the snow i n' t blowi.ng.
When a ca(T1era i left in its case outdo rs, the case
should be msd reasonabl airtight. In the rctic, blown
now becomes a fine as dust or iltandcan enter the mall-
est lit or crevice. If allowed to enter the camera arolll1d the
hutt r or other mm ing part, th now wiJl affect the op-
eration of the quipment. The sp ed and tim ing of motors
shou ld be check d frequently. Batt ries should be checked
ev ry day and r dlarg d at a base every night, if possible.
Tropical Cinematography
Hea t and humidi ty are two basic sources of potential
diffjculty when using or storing photographic good s in wet
tropical climates. Heat alone .is not the worst fac tor, though
it m ay n ecessita te special equipment care and processing
techniques and may shorten the life of incorrectl y stored
light-sensitive materials. High humidity is by far the greater
problem because it can cau e serious trouble at tempera-
tures only slightly above normal, and iliese troubles are
greatly increased by high temperatures.
Ass ciated with these conditions are several biologi-
cal factors - the warmth and dampness levels en cOlmter d
in the tropics are cond ucive to the profuse growili of fwl-
gus and bacteria and encourage the activities of insect.
Many photographic and other related products are "food"
for these organisms - gelatin in films, filters, leailier, ad-
hesives, and so on. Even if fwlgus, bacteria, o r insects can-
no t attack m a terials directly, tiley can develop an environ-
ment tlla t can . FWlguS can also eitiler directly or indirectly
induce corrosion in me tals, attack textiles and lea ther,
change tile color of dyes, attack glass, and cause a great
variety of other forms of deterioration. The probability of
damage is greater witil frequent handling and transporta-
tion, especially lll1der tlle difficulties met in hlll1ting and sci-
entific expeditions and in mili tary operations. Ex posure to
harm is grea ter w hen equipm ent is used out of doors, on
tile grolmd, or in makeshift facilities.
Atmospheric con dition, wiili respect to moisture con-
tent, is usually described in terms of "relative humidity."
This is tile ratio, expressed as a perc ntage, between the
quantity of water vapor actually present in tile air and tile
maximum q uantity which tile air could hold at ilia t tem-
perature. Thus, if a given sample of air contains only h alf
as much water as it w ould at saturation, its relative humid-
ity is 50 percen t.
When tile temperature rises, a given space canaccom-
moda te more water vapor and hence, tile relative humid-
ity decreases, and vice versa. When air (or an object) is
cooled sufficiently, a saturation point (100 percent relative
humidity) is reached , and below this tempera ture drops of
water or "dew " ar e deposited . In an y locality, the tempera-
ture is m uch lower a t high altitudes, 0 tilat dew is likely
to form on objects following tileir arrival by air transport,
511
e p cially when high relative humidity is present at ground
Level. In tropical climates, thi "dew point" is often only a
few deo-re b low the actual temperature during the day
and is ~eached when the temperature drops at night.
The amount of moistur ab rbed by films and by non-
metallic par of equipment i determined b the relative
humidity of the atmosphere. Therefore, the m i ture ab-
orpti on of ph tographic or other equipment can be re-
duced by lowering the relati v humidity, either by remov-
ing some of th moisture with a desicca ting agen t or by
ra ising the tempkrature of the atmo phere wher the quip-
ment is stored.
Extrem s of relative humidity are a serious th.reat to
aU photographic materials, even at moderate temperatures.
t high temp ratufes, the effects of high humidity are
greatly accelerated, particular! if the relativ: hLlmi~ty
remains above 60 percent. E tremel low relabve hunud-
ity, on the other hand, i not quite 0 serious, but if it IaJ.ls
blow 15 percent for a considerable time, a is c mmon m
desert region , an electric humidifier should be in taJled
and set to maintain a relative humidity of 40 to 50 percent
in the storage area.
Storage of Iphotographic Materials
Sensitized photographic ma terials are peri hable prod-
ucts when stored under extrem conditions of high tem-
p rature and high relative humidity. Proper torage is
therefore imp rtant at all time . Fortunately, adequate pro-
tection of sen itized materials can be accompli hed at rela-
tively 10\,,' co t and without etreme method . Lightweight
portable re£rigerat rs or other cooling wlits are a ailable
from expedition utfitters and other imilar quipment
uppliers. 0 iccants are available in bulk or kit form for
red ucing the m isture content of the ahn~sph re wh:r.e
film is to be tored. Further, p rtable electnc d hUl11ldifJ-
er are also available to reduc the relative humidity in
larger quarter, uch as work r ms, to aid in the comfort
of the occupants. nd finaUy, the film packaging reduces
the pos ibilit f damage when the material i tored tm-
der recomm nded conditions. U ually, there will be Little
or no adve effect to the film if it is stored and handled
as described blow.
Black & \·vllite films can be tored atnormal room tem-
peratures in an air-condition d room. Color film should
512
always be tored in a refrigera tor at 55° F (13°C) r lower.
To a aid moisture condensation on the chilled s urfac of
the material, take film cans out of th cartons and allow
35mm rolls to warm up from 3 hours f r a 20°F to 5 h urs
for a 75°F temperature ri e above torage temperature.
16mm rolls take about l-3 those times.
When the origina l packaging eal has been brok n,
fiJms hould be exp ed and prace d a oon as pos ible.
Sinc the air in a refrigerator is moi t, partiaUy used pack-
ages should be returned to tlle reh'ig ra tor in a sea led con-
tain r containing a desiccant to absorb the moistw'e wi thin
the container.
In general, d o not keep more fi lm than nece sary in
tack, particularly when good storag conditions are not
available. Photographic materials can al 0 be affected b
tile chen1ical activity of fumes and ga e . Consequently,
film hould not be t red in newly painted room or cabi-
nets. All films hould be proces ed a oon as possible af-
ter e posure. If ou are lmable to do thi for some rea on,
enclo e the films in an airtight jar or can togetller with a
desiccant and place them in a refrigerator. Expo d films
can b kept for severa l days in tl1is way.
Preparation and Protection of
Equipment
To save time and avoid damage, cameras and other
equipmen t should b made read well in ad ance of de-
parhtre.lt is well worthwhile to ha e the equipment thor-
oughly overhauled and cleaned, pref rabl by the original
manufacturer, who hould be advi ed a to the type of cli-
mate in which it will bused. Ca e ,packing material, and
moi hlre-absorbing material (desiccant) should be obtain d
for the equipmen t and su pplies. Protection during tra ns-
portati.on and storag i rea dily obta ined by the us of her-
metica lly sea led ca ns, metal-foil ba s, or other wa ter/va-
por proof containers, and a suitable de iccating agent. Lf tile
containers have been properly sealed and contain an ad-
equa te quantity of desiccant, they will protect the content
practically indefinitely. There is, how ver, one reservation
and caution: if preci ion instrument that require lubrica-
tion with certain typ of Light oil are subjected to high
temperatures wlllie in such packing, the oils may e apo-
rate, lea ing a gummy r sidue on the instrument bearing.
This ituation may prevent proper equipment functi ning
513
wltil the equipment can be cleaned and re-lubricated prop-
erly.
The protection of equipment that is in active use re-
quires a omewhat dillerent approach. The relative humid-
ity can be lowered in an equipment storage cabinet that is
not used for film torage by burning electric light bulb or
operating an electric resistance heating unit continuously
in the lower part of the cabinet. The number of lamps
hould be adjusted to keep the temperature about 10" above
th a erage prevailing temperature. Air spaces and mall
hoi hould be provided at the top and bottom of the cabi-
n t and through the hel to allow a slow change of air
t carry off moisture introduced by the camera and equip-
ment. The positions of the hoi hould be staggered on the
diff rent helves in order to produce a more thorough
chang of air. Since high relative humidity favor the
growth of fwlguS on lense , filters, and other surface, stor-
age in such a cabinet wil l help red uce the fwlguS grow th
and may prevent it entirely.
Electric dehumidifiers are now appearing in store in
man of the larger citie in tropical regions. With the e
uni , whole rooms and their contents can be dehumidified,
pr vided they can be closed to outside air penetration. In
dehumidified room, the humidity will not increase rap-
idl during hort powerfailur , as it would in heated do -
ets or cabinets. In a mall, tightl sealed room, an average
Wlit in operation for 12 hours out of 24 can keep the rela-
ti e humidity below 60%. This hould be checked about
once a m nth with an RH meter or sling psychrometer.
When it is not practical to use a hot cabinet or electric de-
humidifier, equipment h uld be tored in an airtight case
c ntaining plenty of d iccant. Two cans of silica gel the size
of shoe-poli h cans will do a very good job of drying equip-
ment in a ealed ten-gaUon paint can (one with a ga ketand
a "p wld hut" lid).
A half-polmd bag of ilica gel works weU in a gasketed
55-gallon "open top" drum that can be sealed with a cover.
H wever, where shipment and handling are involved or
wh re the containers are to be opened briefly a few times,
d uble or even triple the quantity of gel will provide a re-
r e of protection. Properly dehydrated contain rs will
momentaril feel c 01 to an inserted hand due to rapid
evaporation of the normal kin moi ture. The sensation is
brief, but can be easil detected if one i looking for it. Its
ab ~nce means the silica g I needs replacement or regen-
eration.
if none of tllese m thod are practical, and th quip-
men~ must o~ ~ece it be left in an atrno phere of high
r lative hunudJty, th equipment should be opened and
e posed to the un at frequent intervals in order t drive
?ut moi ture. ~e e ur , however, hould be kept hort
111 order to a Old overh atin . Cameras load d with film
hould not be e posed t the un any more than nec sary.
Cameras should alwa be protected from e ce ·ve
h at because man of the lenses used on camera are com-
po ed of several elem nts of gla cemented tog ther. Be-
causesomecementsm Itat 140°F (60 oq and begin to ften
at 120° F (49°q, it i ob i u that the lens lement miaht
become separated or air bubble might form if the lens w~re
heated to such tempera tlLre . Cameras sh uld not be
han~ led roughly or subj cted to sudden jaJTing when used
at high temperatures b cause any slig ht shock might
c11ange the position of the len components.
Maintenance of EqUipment
. ~ne of tlle ~est'protective measures that can be sup-
plted U1 tlle trOpiCS I t thoroughly deall ever pi ce of
photo~aphicequipment at frequent interval and pose
~t t alr and un when v r practical. Thi i particularl
Imp rtant for retardin the corro ion of metal urfac and
th growth of fungu or mold on lens surface and on
leather CO\ ering . Lens cI aning fluids and pap r n won
the market are recomm nded for cleaning len . During
the tropical dr sea n, r in an desert area, an du t
hould be removed from th len ltrfaces with a abl or
camel hair brush bef r th lens tissue i u ed, to a oid
ratche . Lens cleaning ti ues containing ilicon hould
n t b used for coated len . They leave an oily film that
~hang~s the c~l orcilaracteri tic of the coati ng and r d uces
Its anti-reflection propertie . Thi film is almo t imp ssible
to r move.. L~at h er covering and cases can be t b kept
cI an by wlpmg tllem ften and thoroughly with a clean,
dry d~th. Frequent cleaning and polishing will minima
c rro Ion on expo d m tal parts.
Black & White Film
The ~osure of black & white film in tr pical area is
trongly mfluenced b the illumination in the ubject
shadow areas. The m i tur and dust content of the atmo-
515
 phere ar important b cause hadows are illuminat d only
blight cattered b particle upended in the air, except
\Vh re upplementary lighting or reflectors are used . Thu ,
wher th atmosphere i very dr and dear, objects that do
n t receive the direct light f th un appear, both to the
eye and t the camera lens, t be in deeper-than-normal
hadow. In relrio115 like th uth\ tern United tat or
central e ico, for e ample, the brightnes range of aver-
age outdoor ubjec is much greater than it i in I dear
dimat . In photographing p ople, thi effect and th high
po ition ofthe sun combine to put the eyes in deep hadow
and e en sometimes give th ffect of backlighting. There-
f re, it i be t to a oid taking pictures, particularly dos -
up f people, when the lUl i overhead; if you must take
cI -up of people, use refl ctor or booster light to often
the hadow .
Exposllfe meter shou ld always be used with a rea n-
able amount of judgment and experience, and this i pe-
cially true in locations with uch unusual atmospheric and
lighting conclitions. In th jungle areas of South and Cen-
tral America, the local farm r often clear and burn large
quantitie of trees and brush dllfing the dry ea on. TI,e
moke, compo ed of olid particle, hangs in the lower at-
mo phere and is not ea ily penetrated e en with filter.
I 0 , at the height of the wet ason in man localiti ,the
water haze become almo t a impenetrable as a heavy
doud . Distance photograph is best done a few weeks af-
ter th clo e of the \ et se on and before burning begins,
r a f \ weeks after the first rains of the wet a n have
ttl d the smoke particle and before the onset of th wet
ea n haze.
If exten ive photo raphic work in the tropic i
plarm d, the de elopment fa few test exposur may pre-
v nt major fa illlfes. It i u ually sufficient to determine a
ba ic exposure which can then be modified to suit o~er
films or condition. Allowance hould also be made for
diff rent typ of subject. Bach scenes, for example, gen-
erally r quire about one t p Ie exposure than an aver-
a ubject.
Color Film
In general, the e p ur of color films should follow
the me ba ic recomm ndati 115 given for temperate zone
exp llfe, with due regard to Ii hting and scene classifica-
ti n. There are, however, om differences in th lighting
516
c nditions and scene characteristic in the tropics which
ju tify special consideration.
1. During the rain ea on, a light haze is enerall
present in the atmo ph r . When this haze is present, the
di k of the un is clearl discernible and fairl distinct had-
aware cast. Under th conclitio115, the expo ure h uld
be increased by about ne-half stop over that requir d for
bright urilight.
2. Frequently the brightne of beach and marine
seen i appreciabl greater than that encountered in tem-
p rate zones. With such cen the camera exposllfe hould
be decreased one full top from that required for a erage
subjects. It should be r m mb r d that th term "average
• ubject" as used in exp me tables applie to a ubj ct or
cen in which light, m dium and dark areas are ro ughly
equal in proportion. It h uld not be taken to mean "u ua'"
for a particular location r area. For instance, the usual
d ert cene is a "light subject" rather than "averag ub-
ject," and hould be xp ed as such.
3. When the un i high overhead, heavy hadow are
ca t across vertical urface, very mucl1like tho occurring
in ide-lighted subjects. Therefore, the expo ure h uld be
incr a ed one-half-stop m r than normal, just a is r com-
mended for side-lighted scenes. For close-up having im-
portant hadow areas, a full- top increase in e po ure is
need d .
.l, Many objects in th tropi , not anI painted build-
in and light colored fabri ,but even the leav of many
plants and trees, have a high reflectance for direct lighting.
Consequently, with front top or back lighting th hould
be con idered a erage ubj cts.
5. Very often the col r of nearby objects will be af-
fect d by the green light reflected from nearby bright gr en
foliage. Similarly, in courtyards or narrow str et , the side
that is in the shade get much of its illumination from the
opp site swillt wall, whid1 may b strongly colored . There
is litll that can be done to correct for this situation, but it
h uld be recognized a a po sible cause of poor re ult in
color picture .
517
 Day-for-Night Cinematography
The peed of modern color film makes it p ible to
hoot night-f r-night scen . However, there are night
cene that ar impractical to illuminate artificially and
actuaU . film at night. Shooting Udl cenes da -for-night
eliminate the additional pr blems and e pen of night
hooting and can deliver excellent pictorial re ult .
Tedmiqu . for filming day-f r-nightscen in color or
black & white var grea tl y b ca use of the many factors in-
volved. Cinematographers natmally differ in til ir interpre-
tation of what c nstitutes a night effect. The overall effect
mu t be one f darkne . Pr e ing laboratori differ in
their negative pref rences, although mo t pref r ufhcient
d n it on til riginal negativ ince it is alway p ible
to "print do\ n" for a darker eH t, but impo ibl to ob-
tain a ridl, fujj-bodied print fr m a tllin, had owl origi-
nal negative (if black hadow are d ired, the ne must
print at cent r cal or hi~her).
Choice of filter and degree of undere p ure" ill
var accordin~ t k condition , color and contra tof sub-
ject and backgr und , tile sb'ength, quality and dir ction of
sunlig ht, an d Ih particula r eff ct desired. V ry generally
peaking, tile mo t c nvincin:> day-far-night shots, in either
olor or black & white, are made in trono sunl ight, wlder
blue skies and with low-angle back-ero lighting.
Direct ba klighting rc ult in a "rim-light" effect
which, altllou h pI a ing in a I n hot, lacks th n essary
three-dimensional, half-illuminated facial effec required
in medium and cl hots. Fr nt lighting will flatten and
destro all had w. ide and fron t-cross lighting i per-
mi ible but n t a effective a back-cro s illumination.
ince produ tion doe not alway permit h ting w hen
conditions ar exactly right, and ince da y-for- night shots
mu t sometim b made all day I ng, often th choice of
un angle mu t be compromi cd. Under these onditions,
avoid front lighting a much a possible and tay witil any
un angle that r ult in partial illuntination, pr fe rab ly
with hadow toward the camera.
kies give th mo t troubl , ince they \ ill invariably
r ad too hi~h and are difficult t balance a ain t fore-
gr und action. raduated neutral den it filt r , which
c ver the k ar a onl , and Pola creens, wh.ich will
dark ntlle kywi ththe unatc rtainangles,areb thuse-
hll for either col r or black & white films beca u e they do
518
not affect color valu and can be used in combination with
other effect filters.
eutral-density filters will tone down a "hot" ky,
even if it is bald white. A partial or graduated neutral-den-
sity filter covering only the sky will therefore be very use-
ful for bringing the ky into exposme balance with the fore-
ground. Care must be taken, however, tllat action doe not
cross the demarcation line between til hitel' material and
the d ar glass area. Pola Screens are most useful when tile
sun i directly overh ad at righ t angl s to the camera.
A Pola Screen should not be employed if tile camera
mu t b panned through a wide arc, since the polarization
will vary and the ky tone will chang in density a the
camera revolves. Typical underexposure is l Y! to 2Y! top ,
rarely more. Brilliant wilight will require greater under-
expo ure, gray day Ie s. The underexposure can be
handled in several way . One is by ignoring the filter ex-
posur increase required, if it is dose to the amount of un-
derexpo ure desired. For instance, the filter being em-
ployed may require two tops increa e in exposure for a
normal ffect. The increa e is ignored and the diaphragm
set for the exposure witllou t tile filter, tllUS delivering the
necessaq underexposme for the night effect. Or, a neutral
density of the desired strength is employed and its expo-
sure increase ignored.
Proceed as follow : insert tI1e effect filter, or combina-
tion of hlters for the desired effect, and aUow for tIleir ex-
posure increase as in normal filming. Add tile desired neu-
tral (a .30 for one stop,.50 for a stop and one-half or a .60
for two tops). Ignoring tile neutral filter's exposure in-
crea wil l automatically underexpo e tile negative by the
n ce sary amount. Thi is a quick and effective method in
fast pr duction shooting where night effects are sudde.nly
required and little or no time is availabl for computations.
. .. If. the sk~ is not sufficiently blue to filter properly, and
if It IS ImpossIble to use a graduated neutral-density filter,
try to avoid the sky a much as possible by shooting against
buildings or foliage, or choose a high angle a nd shoo t
downward .
. Th . contrast between the players and the background
IS ery Important ince a definite separation is desirable.
Dark dotl1ing, for instance, will merge witll a dark back-
ground and the player will be lost. It is better to leave a dark
?ackgr?und an~ players in lighter, although not necessar-
ily whit , clotl1ing than to have a light background and
519
player in dark clothi ng. The latter comb ination w ill result
in a sill, uctte, rath r tha n a nigh t effect. This i the rea on
tha t back-cr slighting i preferable, so that the back-
grOlmd i not illuminated and the players have a defi.l~t
separation thr ugh edge Lighting, which aI 0 m1parts shim-
mering hi hli ht .
Black & White Film
Reversal Color Film
T pical blu night effect can be ob~ed with re~er­
sal color film balanced for exposure WIth tungsten Light
bremo ing th Wratten 85 filter and Lmder exposing H~
stops. Lf the blui h effect is too great, an ultraviolet-absorb-
ing filter can be used to fil ter out theexces ultraviolet. Flesh
tones in closeu ps can be adjus ted by L1 ing gold reflectors
0
or 3200 K fill Lights to light actors face . Car must be taken
that ~he a~tors ~e not over-lit or that ueh light appear as
ambIent Ligh t With the SLm acting a a moon light key.
Negative Color Film
. A cin~atographer hooting da -for-night with nega-
tive color fJim should check with th proc ing laboratory
before the production begin . Laboratorie have a far
greater range of color correction available than the cinema-
tographer has at his ill po al durin the ori inaJ photog-
raph . They may add or ubtract any col r, or combination
of colors, provided the original n gati e h ufficient e _
po ure. Once the 85 filter i remo ed, h we er, it i often
impo ible to restore normal color balance to the film .
If the 85 filter i remo ed, it hould be replaced with
an ultra iolet filter, which will prevent er po ure of the
blue sensitive layer and keep the n gativ within printing
range. Warmer effects may be obtain d b ub tituting a
Light yellow filter for the 85. A Pola Scr n may al 0 be used
to dark~ a bl~e s~y ~nd provide the required undere po-
sure (by IgJlormg Its filter factor). It will have no effect on a
b~ld ky, but it will act as a neutral-den ity filter and pro-
Vide the needed undere po ure. Rememb r U,at approxi-
mately ~-stop exposure is gained b r movin<> the 85 fil-
ter. TI,is mu t be included in expo UTe calculations.
Infrared Cinematography
. B~cau~e cinematography by infra r d ligh t has had lim -
Ited plctonal use, this wi ll be a brief review. For more in-
for ma ti on, refer to Kod ak p u blication n umber N-17
"Kodak Jnfra red Films" and M-28 "Applied Infrared Pho-
tography." Infrared for p hotographic pu rpose is defined
a U,at part of the spectrwn, approximately 700 to 900 na-
nom ter ,which is beyond the visible red, but not as far as
would be sensed by h uman a heat.
All infrared films are sen iove to heat and hould be
~ept refrigerated before exposUT and during any holdin<>
time befor.e processing. While no longer Ii ted as a reguJ~
cata logue Item, Eastman Kodak still manufactures a B & W
521
infrared sensitive film, Kodak High-Speed Infrared Film
2481, and a modified color sensi tive film, Kodak
Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236. Both of these film are on
E tar base. Before deciding to use either film in a produc-
ti n the manufacturer houJd be contacted regarding its
a aiJability, minimum order quantities and delay in deliv-
ery.
Black & White Films
For pictorial purposes, the greatest use of infrared sen-
iti e film for motion-picture photography has been for
"da -for-rught" effects. Foliag and grass reflect infrared
and record as white on B & W film. Painted materials which
vi ually match in color but do not have a high infrared re-
flectance will appear dark. Skies are rendered almost black,
douds and snow are white, shadows are dark, but often
show considerable detail. Faces require special makeup and
clothing can only be judged by testing.
A uggested El for testing prior to production i day-
light EJ 50, tungsten EJ 125 with a Wratten 25, 29, 70, or 89
filter, or daylight EJ 25, tungsten El 64 with 87 or 88A (vi-
sually opaque) fil ter. Infrared light comes to a focus farther
from the lens than does visual light. An average correction
for 010 t lenses is 0.25 % of the focal length of the lens
.0125mm (.005 inches) for a SOmm lens.
Color
o human can see infrared; color film can only record
and interpret it. Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236 was
originally devised for camouflage detection. Its three im-
age layer are sensitized to green, red, and in.fTared instead
of blue, green and red . Later applications were found in
medicine, ecology, plant pathology, hydrology, geology
and archeology. Its only pictorial use has been to pr duce
w ird color effects.
In u e, all blue light is filtered out with a Wratten 12
filter; vi ible green record a blue, visible red as green, and
infrared as red . The blue, being filtered out, is black on the
reversal color film. Because visible yellow light is used as
well as infrared, focus is normal, and the use of a light meter
i normal for this part of the pectrum. What happens to
the infrared reflected light i not measurable by conven-
tional methods, so testing is advisable. A suggested EJ for
t ting prior to production i daylight EI 100 with a Wratten
12 filter.
Ultraviolet Photography
. There are two ~ tinctl different techn.iqu for tak-
109 photographs u 109 ultraviolet radiation, and ince
the. are often confused with each other, both will be de-
cnb d.
In the fir t techniqu , called reflected-ultra iol e t
p!10tograJ:'h~, the photograph i made by invisibl ultra-
v.lOl. t radIatIOn r f1ected from an object. This method is
I m~l a r t~ conventi onal ph tography in which you pho-
tograph lig ht refle~ted from the subject. To take p ictures
by reflected ulh'avlolet, 010 t conventiona l fi lm ca n be
u ed, but the camera I n mu t be covered with a filter
ucl~ as the Wratten 1 A, that transmit the invi ible ul~
~avlo l et and ~o""s no vi ibl light to readl the film. Thi
I tru uln:avlOlet pl~ot~gr~p.h ; it is used principall to
how details otilerwl e 111 1 Ible in scientific and techni-
cal photograp~y. ~eflect d-ultraviolet photograph ha
almo t n appbcabon for motion picture purpo ; if ou
~ave qu~ tio~ ~bout. reflected ultraviolet photograph
informatIOn IS gIVen 10 the b ok "Ultraviolet and Flu _
r cence Photography," a aiJable from Ea tman Kodak
Co.
TI~e second technique i known a fluorescence, or
black~lI~ht, phot~gr~phy. In motion-picture ph togra-
phX' It IS U ed prU1C1pally for it visual effects. Certain
O?J ct , "".hen subjected to in vi ible ultraviolet light, will
glv off VI Ible radiation ca lled fluorescence, wh ich can
be photograp J~ ed with conven tio na l film . Some obj cts
flu o~ ce particularly we ll a~ld are described a bing
flu? , cent: They call be btall1ed in variou form uch
a 10k, pa.l11.ts, crayons, paper, clOtll, and some ro k .
Some p!a bc Items, bright-c lor d artides of clothing, and
co.metic are also typical obj cts that may f1ucre ceoFor
object that don't fluor ce, f1uore cent paints (oil or
wa.t r base), chalks or cra on can be added. Th ma-
terial ar sold by art uppl tores, craft shop, d part-
ment tores, and. hardware tores. Many of the it m
can al 0 be obtamed from Wildfire, Inc., 10 53 Venice
523
Blvd ., Lo Ang Ie , Califo rnia, 90034, which man ufac-
ture th m sp cially for the motion-p ictme industry.
Fl uor cell e may range from violet to red, depend-
ing on the material and the film used. In addition to the
f1uore cence, the obj ct reflects ultraviolet light, which is
tronger ph tographically. Mo t film has considerable
ensitivity to ultraViolet, which would overexpose and
wa h ut th image from the weaker visible fluorescence .
Ther for, to photograph onJ the fluorescence, you must
use a filt rver the camera lens ( Udl as the Wratten 2B,
2E or 3, or qui alent) to absorb the ultra iolet.
The wavelength of ultraviolet light range from
aboutlO to -l00 nanometer. Of the generall useful range
of ultraviolet radiation, the most common is the long-
wavelength 320 to -lOOnm range. Less common is the hort
to medilml-\ a clength range of 200 to 320nm.ln fluore -
cence photo raphy you can use long-, mediwll-, or hort-
wave radiation to e cite the vi ible fluore cence depend-
ing on th mat rial. me materials will fluoresce in one
type of ultraviol t radiation and not in another.
C rtain pr caution are nece ary when ou use ul-
tra i let radiation . Warning: You must use a omce of
hort- or medium-wave ultra iolet with caution becau e
its ra cau w,bunl and severe, painful injmies to eyes
not prot cted b ultraviolet-absorbing goggles. Read the
manufactur r' in tructions before using 1.11 traviole t
lamps.
Eye p rot ction i generaJly not necessa ry when yo u
use long-wav ul traviolet beca use this radiation i con-
sidered harml . However, it's best not to look directl y
at the radiati n urc for any length of time, because the
fl uid in yom y s will fluoresce and cause some d iscom-
fort. Wea ring gla eyegla ses will minimize the discom-
fo rt fro m long-wave so urces.
Th r ar · many sourc s of ultraviol t radiati on, but
not all of th n~ ar uitable for flu orescence ph otography.
The be t ultra"'iolet ources for the fluorescence technique
are merclu'y-vapor lam ps or ultraviolet fluorescent tube.
If an obje t f1uo re ces u nder a continuo us ultrav iolet
ource, ou ca n see the fl uorescence w hile you 're photo-
graphing it.
Since th brightness of the fl uorescence i rela ti vely
low, the ultraviolet ource must be positioned a close a
practica l to th ubject. The objective is to produce the
maximum fluorescence w hile prov id ing even ill umina-
tion over the area to be photographed .
Fluorescent tubes designed especia lly to emit long-
wave ultraviolet are often called black-light tubes because
they look black or dark blue befor they're lighted. The
glass of the tubes contains filter material whidl is opaque
to most visible light but freely transmit long wavelength
ultra iolet. These tubes, identifi d by the letter BLB, are
sold by electrical supply store, hardware store and de-
partment stores. They are a ailable in lengths up to 4 feet
and can be used in tandard fluorescent fixtures to illu-
minate large areas. Aluminum-foil reflectors are available
to reflect and control the light.
Mercmy-vapor lamps are particular! uitable for
illuminating small areas with high ultraviolet brightnes .
When these lamps are designed for ultraviolet work they
usually indude pecial filter which tran mit ultraviolet
and absorb most of the i ible light. Mercury va por ul-
traviolet lamps are available in two typ ,long-wave and
hort-wave. Some lamp include both wavelengths in the
same wlit so that they can be u ed either eparatelyor
together. If you use a light ource that does not have a
built-in ultra iolet filter, you must put such a filter over
the light ource. TIle filter for the radiation omce is called
the exci ter fi Iter.
You can use a Kodak Wratten Ulh'aviolet Filter, o.
18A, or Corning Glass 0.5840 (Filter No. CS7-60) or o.
9863 (Fil ter No. CS7-54) for this purpo e. The Kodak Fil-
ter, No. 18A, is available in 2-and 3-inch glas squares
h'om photo dealers. The deal r may have to order th e fil -
ter fo r you. The Corning Glas is availabl in larger sizes
from Corning Glass Works, Optica l Photo Products De-
partm ent, Corning, New York 14830. The fi lter yo u use
must be lmge enough to compl etely cover the front of the
la mp . The scene is photographed on a dark se t with only
the ulh'aviolet sow-ce illuminating the subj ct. In order for
the film to record only the flu orescen ce, use a Kod ak
Wra tten gela tin filter, No. 2A or 2B, or a n equi valent fil-
ter, over the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet. Wh en
used fo r this pw-pose, the fi lters are ca lled barrier fil ters.
Since the fluoresce nce image is vi ible no focusing correc-
tions are necessary. Focus the camera the ame as for a
conven tional subject.
525
 Determining Exposure
lany expo ure meter are not sensitive enough to
det :~"line e posure for the f1uore cence. n extremely
nsl~ve exp? ure meter h~uld indicate prop rep ure
of bJects whICh f1uoresc bnghtl under inten e ultravio-
let if ou make the meter r ading WiUl a 0.2 r 2B fil-
ter ver the meter cell. If ur e po ure meter i n t n-
itive enough to resp nd to the relative brightn of f1uo-
rc ~nc, the mo t practical method of determining po-
.ur 1- to makeexp sur t t u -ing iliesame typeoffilm,
fdter , and etup you plan to u e for yo ur flu re cence
phot graph.
Films
While either black & white or color camera film can
be u ed for fluoresc nc photography, co lor fi lm pro-
duce t~le Illost dramatic r ult . The da ylight balanced
films W ill accen~uate t~e red and yellows whi l Ule tung-
ten-balanced film wIll accentuate the blue. Since fluo-
re c nce produces a relatively low light level for phot g_
raphy, a high-speed film u h a gfaXT320, Ea tman
E R 500T (5296), Ea tman H Day (5297), Fujic I r F 250
D ( 560) or Fujicolor F 00 ( 570) i recommended.
Special Considerations
ome len and filt r will al 0 fluor ce under ul-
traviol t radiation. Hold th lens or filter close to th ul-
traviolet lamp to look for flu r ence. Ruor en of the
len or filt r will cause a 0" n ra l veilino- or f g in our
pictur . Tn evere ca , the f g comple~ly ob cure ilie
ima e.If a len or filter f1uore ce , you can still u it for
f1uOl'e cence photograph if you put the recomm nded
ulh'a violet-absorbing filter over the camera len or the
fi lt r th at flu ore ces. lt also h Ip to position th ultravio-
I t lamp or u e a matte box to prevent the ultrav io let ra-
diati n from triking the len or filter.
526
Shooting 16mm Color Negative
for Blowup to 35mm
b Irwin W. Young
Chairman of the Board, Du Art Film Laboratori Inc.
ote: Shootillg 16111111 for blowup to 35111111 requires prepa-
ratioll alld plmmillg. 01llwrn , Iel/ses alld magazines should be
thoroughly checked alld tested. Wizell shootillg 16111111Jar blowup
to 35111111, preparntioll is IlIore critical than if hootillg J 611I111 for
J 6111111 prints.
TIle difference in picture quality betw n 35mm films
hotin 16mm negati ve and those shot in35mm negative is
due primarily to differenc in graininess. The 16mm frame,
blown up to 35mm, i enlarged approximately 3 to 4 times
it original size, greaUy .xaggerating grain size. To main-
tain the finest grain tructure in 16mm color negative,
proper exposure and normal processing is mandatory to
in ure maximum latitude and detail with mininlUm grain
in ilie shadow area of th blowup. When in doub t, if light
i available, it is advisable to lean to overexposure. [n fact,
contrary to what occur in black & white nega tive, where
density is created b a buildup of grain, color n gati e has
I grain in areas of higher density. An overexp sed color
n gative of up to one top would tend to produce a blowup
wiili the least amount of grain.
Fla hing and toning hould be a oided. These proce-
dures increase grain, especially in the areas of no expo ure.
An underexposed negative hows more grain than a prop-
erlye posed negative. TI"lis grain is most apparent in weak
hadow areas. Force proe ing increases grainin to ilie
ext nt of Ule forcing. 16mm color negative has con iderable
latitude and it is recomm nded that scenes that ar under-
expo ed up to one stop b processed normally. Thi under-
exposure has a lesser £feet on the grain size in the nega-
tive ilian force proces ing. There are a number f psycho-
logical factors which affect the viewer's awaren of grain.
When ilie picture is not sharp, the eye, struggling to focus
the mage, tends to focus n ilie grain, making it much more
apparent.
Definition is also a function of contrast. Low-eontra t
pictures tend to be I harp and, ilierefore, appear more
grainy. High contrast limits the detail in ilie highlights and
hadow . If po sible, it is advisable to ha e a black refer-
527
enceand a white reference in ascen .These reference points
can be quite mall. The eye, looking at a picture, seardle
for these reference pints and, if there are none, tends t
focus on the grain.
Special effects which require the blowup negative t
be mor than one generation away from the 16mm origi-
nal should be avoided . The build-up in grain and loss in
pictme qunli ty due to thi additional generation is gener-
ally lUlde irab le.
Composing 16mm for blowup to
35mm
The a pect ratio f a picture frame is the relationship
between it width and height. TIl ratio of the standard
16mm and 35mm frame is 1.33:1. Reducing the height of
the pictur while maintaining the width wi ll iJ1CreaSe it
aspect ratio. This is d ne in 3511ll1l projection by using a
mask to I' p equally the top and bottom of the p icture
frame. 35mm prints arc projected at a 1.85:1 a pect ratio in
the United tate and at 1.66:1 in Europe. On TV, the pic-
ture is vie I ed at a 1.33:1 aspect ratio.
Th.i diagram sh ws the area fa 16mm camera £ram
that the vi wer will v ntually ee w hen cr ened at an
aspect rati of 1.33,1.66, and 1.85.
.w .
[~J1·
• , , >,>
133:1 1.66:1 1.65:1
When shooting a 16mm fi lm f I' 35mm blowup, th
amera per on should compose th subject bing photo-
graphed fo r wide-so'een projection.
A properly comp ed 16mm negative can be b lown
up to the tandard 35mm aperture ize (style A, PH22195-
199_ A I). This negative produces a 35mm print in a
1.33:1 asp ct ratio. TIli print can b used for TV and pr -
jected theatrically in the United Stat s and Europe with the
appropria te mask. 111 aspect ratio of the pr jection mask
and the £I'ami ng position of the 35mm projector determine
what part of the fram wiJJ be screen d .The standard Acad-
emy lead I' is llsed b th projection ist to center the picture
528
in the aperture of the projector. li equal cropping of the top
and the bottom of th picture elimina tes important picture
information, ertical scanning can be used in making the
35mm blowup n gative. Scanning enables 0 1.1 to dlOse the
part f the pictur 0 1.1 want projected wide screen. Here
you have the dloice of losing pictme information only at
th top or bottom or in a varied combination of the two.
Blow up negatives that are scanned for a 1.85:1 or 1.66:1
aspect ratio req uire a £ram line which fixes the de ired
aspect ratio. This frame line guides the pr j ctionist in fram-
ing the picture pI' perl . Print from these nega ti ve c m-
-II-. .•-
pared to a standard print look a follows:
-••-~..•• .. \. •••
), .
•
•
- •
133:1 1.66 :1 165:1
35mm print made from a 1.85:1 or a 1.66:1 negati e
carmot be used for tele\ ision unless the image is enlarged
in the t lecine dlain \ hen transferring to videotape before
broadcast. Cropping would ha e to be don on th I ft and
right side of the pi w'e to adlieve a 1.33:1 a pect ratio. More
cropping on the 1 ft and ri gh t side is required on a 1.85:1
aspect ratio prin t. Prints from a scalUled 1.66:1 negative aJ'e
acceptable in thea trical screening for both domestic aJld
foreign 1.1 e. Prin ts from a scanned 1.85:1 bl wup negative
when ' cr ened foreign at 1.66:1 aspect ratio show a black
bord r at the top and bottom f the projected image.
We recommend that aU anning i done a t a 1.66:1
aspect ratio and that the blowup negati ve be made with a
frame lin producing 35mm prints in which the picture
information is fraJn d in a 1.66:1 aspect ratio. Since ther is
not m udl d iHerenc in pi ctLU' size between a 1.66:1 and
1.85:1 a pect ratio, this type of blowup nega tive enable yo u
to ma k satisfact r prints for both dome tic and foreign
relea e.
Super 16mm
The Superl6mm format wa designed to provide the
!!Teate t possible p icture area on a 16mm original for en-
D . 1
largement onto 35mm for wide screen th atnca presenta-
tions. It achieves a wide-screen format on ingle-perforated
529
16mm ca m ra film by extendi.ng the pi.cture area of the
LUlperforat dar -a of the camera original. The Super 16mm
apertur produc an original image with an aspect ratio
of 1.66:1. Th blowup from this image can be cropped
slightl in pI' j tion to ield the 1.85:1 aspect ratio. The
increa in the u ful picture area of a Super 16mm fram
results in a ub tantial increase in the image quality obtain-
able in a 35mm wide-screen blOWUp,
To ptimize imaae qualit when shooting Super
16mm c lor ne ative for blm up to 35=, follow the same
recommended p ';Ire practic a ,...,hen hooting regu-
lar 16mm c I I' n gab\'e for blowup to 35mm.
uper 16mm i a complete y tern requiring appropri-
ately modified laboratory, editing and screening facilities
a well a a modifi d camera. Principal camera modifica-
tions are: enlar tin th aperture,remarkin the viewfinder
and ~e-eenterin th len mowlts. It may be necessary to
modJfy th pI' ur plate and other parts of the film trans-
p rt mcchani m in b th the camera and magazine to pre-
vent crat hin in th e tended area of the frame. Lense
hould b arefuU ho n to b ure that they provide a
wide enough co erage to accommodate the wider frame.
an ~ ide-an Ie 16mm len e cau e vignetting in the
Super 16mm frame. Cameras are available which have been
pecificall d signed for adaptability to Super 16= and
omec nventi nal16mm cameras can also be modified for
Super 16mm.
uper 16mm camera and maaazines should be thor-
?u~hl test d bcf re u e in production. Editing and pro-
Jection equipment mu t b modified to di play the entire
Super 16mm frame. uper 16mm film sent to the labora-
tory should be . Iearly identified so it can be handled prop-
er! . Wh n a pi ture hot in Super 16mm has a televi i n
or 16mm I' I a c, the uper 16mm image must be converted
to an ~magc with a 1.3 :1 aspect ratio by sacrificing part of
Ule Width f Ule frame. Thi is achieved by re-centering Ule
frame via an optica l printer 0 that an equal amo unt i
cropped on ea h id of Ule frame.
Composing Super 16mm for blowup
to35mm
Thi diagram how Ule area of a Super 16mm cam-
era fram Ulat the i weI' will eventually see when screened
at an apt rati f 1.33:1,1.66:1,1. 5:1.
1 .33:1 1.66:1 1.85:1
The aspect ratio f th pictur frame of a uper 16mm
negative i 1.66:1.
When hooting uper 1 mOl f I' blowup to 35mm, the
cameraperson should comp th cene f 1" ide-screen
projection. A properl comp duper 16mm negative
hould produce a 35= negative havin an a pect ratio of
1.66:] . Projecting a print made from U"lis native at 1. 5:1
will crop equally the top and bott m f the picture frame.
If important image infomlati n i lim inated, ertical scan-
ning can be used in making the 35mm negative. Blm up
negativ that are scanned for a 1. 5:1 a pect ratio require
a frame line whidl fixes the d ired a pect ratio. Vertical
scanning in Super ]6mm hould be avoided because for-
eign prints are screClled at a 1.66:1 a peet ratio.
This aspect ratio enables you to how aU the informa-
tion recorded 0.11 the Super 16mm n gative. Televi ion and
standard 16mm prints how the picture information in a
1.33:1 aspect ratio. The Super 16mm image, in order to be
converted to this aspect ratio, mu t acrifice part of the
width of the frame.
Titles
To be sure U1at your titl ar ' uitable for different
aspect ratio requiremCllts, compo Ul titles so U1ey will
not be cut off horizontall y when proj cted at a 1. 5:101' be
cut off vertically when viewed at 1.33:1 f I' television. If an
action backgrOLmd is used for main and end ti tles, th ac-
tion scene should be blown up to a 35mm ma t I' posi tive.
The tiUes with dear letter on paque black backgroLU1d
should be shot in 35mm hi-con . U ing the rna tel' po itive
and the 35= hi-con tiUes a dupe negative of Ule main and
nd titles is manufactured . Where title do not ha e action
backgrow1ds, it is often advisable to ph tograph the title
scene completely in 35mm to maintain maximum quality.
r
Splicing for a blowup requires extra care.
SCRAPE PICfURE ONLY - NEVER SCRAPE EMULSIO FROM
BLACK LEADER.
For a blowup. the 16mm originaJ can be spliced in the
~tandard 16~m A & Bformat. Besides normal care in splic-
mg for cleanhness and assurance that the splice will hold,
the conformer must be sure when making a 16mm splice
fo~ blowup that th~ cemented overlap of the splice main-
tams the proper pIlch (xl between the perforation of the
splice which is the first frame of picture negative and the
perforation of the first frame of black leader.
. If this pitch or distance between these two perforations
IS no! the same stand~rd as the pitch between any two per-
forations where a sphce does not occur, there will be a ver-
tical j~p in the picture at the screen change. The reason
for this IS that the registration pins on all 16nun full-immer-
sion optica l wet gates are either one or two perforations
~way :rom the frame being exposed. Thus, the fra me be-
Ulg pnntc? is ~n a position estab lished by a perforation on
the Opposite Side o f the splice.
If the s plice is off-pitch, as described above, the first
frame o~ .the first .t wo frames after the splice are improp-
~rly positIoned , WIth the adjustment conting on the follow-
Ing frClme when the pin is registered after the sp lice. This
problem w ill not show up when yo u make a 16mm con-
tact print from youI' A & B origina l becCluse, on the 16111.m
continuo us printer, the sprocket teeth register the film and
the r~\~ .stock.at th~ area o f ex posure. To help minimi ze the
possibi li ty ofJlImpmg spli ces, physicalJy dleck YOll r splicer
befo re you conform the negative. Be sure that the distance
between the pin that positions the black leader and the pin
that posi tions the negative is correct.
Splice some negative outtakes in A & B roll form and
from this negative make a test print using theoptica1 printer
532
w ith the 16nun immersion wet ga te tJ, at wi ll be used to
make the blowup. if jumps occu r in tJlis print at the splice,
recheck all adjustments in your splicer and re-test.
Zero-Cut Editing
To completely avoid the possibility of jumping splices,
the negative can becutintoA & B zero-cutformat. The zero-
cut method; with a minimum of four frames for an over-
lap. will eliminate the splice-jump problem, but 16mm con-
tact prints made from zero-cut negatives wiJJ have a one-
frame dissolve at the scene changes. Quite often this dis-
solve is noticeable when viewing the print.
Since Super 16nun contact prints with sound cannot
be made directly from a Super 16mm negative, there is no
purpose in cutting your Super 16mm original negative in
the conventional A & B roll format. To avoid the possibil-
ity of jumping splices it is advisable to cut the Super 16mm
negative in A & B zero-cut format.
Laboratory Procedures
The work print and the 16mm A & B original should
be delivered to the laboratory in rolls up to 800 feet in
length. The workprint rolls should represent the 35mm reeI-
length format, where up to 2000 feet of 35mm goes on each
reel. This conforms to standard theater projection practice.
The laboratory prepares a contact 16mm a nswer print,
which is screened by the filmmaker and the timer for cor-
rections. NOTE: Super 16mm con tact prin ts w ith sound
cannot be made from a Super 160101 nega ti ve.
Using the corrected color timing and, if required , the
filmmakers' scalming data, the 16rnm o r Super 16mm cut
negative is optically enlarged to a 35mm master positive
from wltich a dupe negative is made. Before the blowup,
an additional printing operation is necess(lry, to create a
clea r picture frame in the 35mm negative. This is done so
that the prints mad e from the negative have a black frame
line to help the projectionis t center the picture on the screen.
If the blowup negative has been scanned, the frame line size
is determined by the picture aspect ratio used in scanning.
If it has not been scanned, the fiJmmaker can decide upon
the frame size. The processed negative is then syndlrortized
with the 35mm sound track for the manufacture of 35mm
release prints.
533
 Stereoscopic Motion Picture
Technology
by hei topher Jame Condon, 3-D Consultant
President, tereoV i ion lnt rnational, Inc.
orth Hollywood, California
Tl1rce-dimel -ional ( tereoscopi ) films, when e pert!
photo raphed and projected, can result in motion pictures
\ ith amazing r Wldne and depth. Recent" tate-of-the-
art"e amples hownatth m parkshavepr nthatth
films can be the mo t reali tic visua l m diWll - ometim
even e ceed ing th ca pabilities of our °two-ey dO percep-
tion. Thi e citing effect can now be achieved in local cin-
ema if the proc is better lLl1der t d b producer and
exhibitor. First the must be willing to put f rth coopera-
tive effort, integrit , reasonable r ources and plarming.
TI,e ba ic technolog f filming and projecting stereo-
copica lly has been w idely known for many yea rs, and has
been gr atly simpl ified during the pClSt two decCides.TIl re
are two main y ·tems for 3-D cin matogrClphy. The lig ht-
weight, mobUe sillglc-cnll/crn (dual image) ystem is uitabl
for theCitrical featltre films. TI,e heavi r, more complexdllnl-
cnll/em method i more u ful for ICirge-screen theme park
or enue films. The variou three-dimensional camera y -
terns currentl CI ailable ar :
1.) HI ES-LAB offer CI very s phisticat d dual ca m-
era rig f r rental. This system reqlur S tl,at on of tl,e cam-
era be pointed d wnward toward a horizontal beam plit-
ter. Thi camera must be operated in re er e. The oth r
camera points forward. Thi rig accepts mo t interlocked
35mm, 5mm (five and eight-perf), and video camera, and
allow the \-vide t-angle len of an 3-D tern. State-of-
tl,e-art nvergence and 3-D videotap options are available.
The Di ney 65mm dual ca mera 3-D ystem is inli lar, a is
the hug £MAX 15-perf3-D ystem.
2.)SfERE P CE2000. dllal65mmcamera y tern.
U a ertical beam plitter. Thi tern featur OS as
well a tudio eU-blimped versions and ha interchang-
able I of 50mm, 70mm, 5mm, lOOmm, and 150mm
focallengtlls. Pr jection i by interlock d 70mm projector.
3.) TERE V1SION hCls a Illunber of 3-D camera sys-
tems. tereoV i i n Wide creen is a distortionJess high
definiti n single trip 35mm 3-D sy tern. B far the world's
534
most widely used, it is a true dual optical channel, patented
camera lens, not a relay y tern. It stacks both the left and
rioht
0
images preci Iy onto each frame. Can b blown up
to 70mm. Focal I ngths a re 15mrn extreme wide angle,
20mrn, 24mm, 32mm, 50mm, 62mm, and 90mm. The sym-
metrical image spacing of .374" allows easy optical effects
printing. Availabl in B CR style camera n:OWlts such a
hard fron t Arrifl x 35, BL4, Ultra-Cam, Mitchell B CR,
MovieCam and thers. Special models are also avaUable for
Panafle , Arriflex IJC, PL and BL. t reoVisi n also ha a
35mrn Academ (1.33:1) format 3-D y tern compatible
with video format. StereoVi ion 70 hoots two ide-by- ide
image onto each standard 65mm frame, and i fully con:-
patible wi th Ru sia's St r o-~ ino. No beam pUtter I
needed, increa ing depth-of-field harpne s. II of th
above y terns require only one pr jector using a patented
pedal di tortionless polarized dual optical channel le~.
Al available i a St reoVision dual camera 35mm ng
and a ingle-camera Stere Vision Tenperf 65. The latt r i
a 10-p rf above/b low single 65mm 3-D camera syst I~ ,
suppli d with 55mm, 80mm, and 135 1~ 3-D lenses. Th iS
camera hoots two 5-perf 70mm stereo Image, above/be-
low renderino th same ize imag a heavier more com-
ple~ dual70~ rigs. It us a specia ll 0-perf 70 projector
and a 10KW enon lamp. tereoVi ion also supplies a larg
variety of 3-D pr jection optics for 35mm and 70nwl pro-
jection, which it rents directly to theaters.
4.) DlMENSlON 3 was design d by stereographer Dan
Symmes. It has a focal length of 35mm and has .in1ilar cha:-
acteri tics to StereoVision Wide Screen 35. Tlu ystem I
in the prototype tage and i a aila?le in B CR r;.'0Wlt.
Other m Wlts are a ailable on peoal order. (.374 m-
metrical image pacing.)
5.) MARKS DEPIX i a 35mm single-eamera system
(two tacked image ). Foca l leng th are 18mm, 32~ m,
50mm, and 85mm. It u e a unique method of eparatLl1g
the imag by polarization. This r ults in a two-stop 10
of light, however. (Spacing is.3 7'.)
6.) ARRIVlSIO i a 35mm rela 3-D y tern that con-
verts to ariou focal lengths. It is attached to the camera
base by means of a pecial upport bracket.and uses rem v-
able optical components and ca ms t obtaLl11 mOl, 32mm,
50mm, and 85mm focal lengths. Arrivision is designed to
be used wi th pecially modified Arrillex cameras only.
(Two tacked images, .366" pacing.)
535
r
7.) OPTlMAX III attaches to the 35mm camera with a
support bracket. It has relay focal lengths of 16mm, 2-lmm,
35mm, 5Omm, and 85mm. (T \vo stacked images, .38T spac-
ing.)
8.) IWERKS 3-D is an 8-perf 70mm system using the
DUAL camera beam sp litter method for photography. Fa-
cal leng ths are 50mI11, 6OmlTI, 80mm, 10001111, and '150mm.
Iwerks offers 870 3~D projectors tha t are s ta te-o f-the-art, 30
frames pe r second.
9.) [MAX 3-D is a very large format (IS-perf 70) huge
dual-ean)cra rig. A range of focal lengths is available. The
IMAX company has also developed a dome 3-D process,
which uses liquid crystal \'iewing glasses. Interlocked dual
Imax projectors are currently used for extremely large 3-D
screen images. A single projector, dual-image projector has
been developed.
10.) STEREO-KIN070 isa syste m tl,at was d eveloped
by N. I. K. F. I. in Moscow. It is a s ingle-camera, side-by-
side image system with a wide range of foeaJ lengths. The
cameras range from small "handheld" to studio self-
blimped. Special70mm lOKW projectors are used, compat-
ible with Stereo-Kino projection optics, designed for mini-
mum distortion. (26..4mm spacing.)
II.) STEREOSCOPE is a single-strip 35mm 3-D system
designed by stereographer John Rupkalvis. It is intended
pri..In<l rily forspeci<l l-effec ts photography, using longer that
normal focal lengths. (,374" symmetrical spacing.)
A number of special optical effects companies also
ha\'e built dual-<:amera 3-D rigs. These are intended mainly
for 3-D matte photography, miniatures and motion-eontrol
work.
All of the above systems (excep t for lMAX Dome 3-
D) are intended for use w ith the current "state-of-the-art"
polarized p rojection method , requ iring a s il ver screen and
ncutral polari zing glasses. Nea rl y a ll o f the major theme
parks and o ther spec ia l venues usc this method. Approxi-
mately 2,(XX) theatrical venues in the USA and Canada also
have silver screens, waiting for a new wave of better 3-D
movies. Further information is available from the indi-
vidual companies.
Very special photographic technique is essential for
effective 3-D cinematography. Some 3-D consulta nts may
prefer computers, formulas and con vergence tab les. Books
such as Li pton's "Founda tions of the Stereoscopic C inema"
536
can be of help. However, for truly effective results, with-
out costly 3-D erTors, produce:~ are advised to en~ge only
an experienced 3-D consultant m the pre-pr<x:tucbon stage,
as well as during the shoot and postproclucbon.
Optical "Flat" Projection
Sing le-strip 35ml11 3-D films ca n easil y be conve~ ted
for s tan d ar d fl at project io n by maki ng a n op tI ca l
internegative for non-3-0 prin!s. For c?nve rting .35mm
wide screen, the usual method IS to optically repnnt one
of the two stereo images anamorphically, as was done with
the Techniscope process, or crop sLightly for 1.85 or 1.66 flat
format. For single-camera 70 side-by-side, simply con~ert
one side to 70mm blow up o r 35mm 1.85 to 1.66 reduction.
For dual-ea mera systems, no change in the print is neces-
s<lry. Either left- o r ri ght-eye reels can be show n ind epen-
dentl y as " flat" films.
3-D Projection
Precise theatrical projection is a very important factor
in the success of a 3-D film. Proper installation and align-
ment of the special 3-D projection optics requires expertise.
Pre-screening of the 3-D print is absolutcly ~ecessary. L~­
properl y aligned 3-D ima ges can cause aud Ience eye d iS-
comfo rt. Imbal anced or u nd erpowered illumination ca n
ruin the dimensional effects and can spoi l the enjoy ment
of even the best 3-D photography.
The StereoKino Group of Moscow has achieved great
success in single-camera 70mm stereo-cinema~phyand
70mm sterro-cinema projection and has established 60 spe-
cial 3-D theaters in the former USSR Stereo--Kino was re-
cently awarded, for the first time in this field, ~ T~icaJ
Achievement Awa rd by the Academy of Mohon Picture
Arts and Sciences. At least two Am erican co-productions
are plalUled.
The future s uccess of theatrical stereoscopic motion
pictures depends upon a high degree of professional excel-
lence. It will also require intcmational standards and c0-
operation between innovative writers, art directors, creative
directors, proven stereographers, trained 3-D camera per-
sonnel, dedicated distributors, the finest exhibition engi-
neers, and skilled projectionists.
537
 3-D Cinematography
by DanielL. Symmes
Spatial Technologie Incorporated
3-D films create an illusion - a synthesis of how hu-
mans see. Sa ically, all true 3-D (with the exception of ho-
I~graph. ) takes two (or mor ) images of a gl en scene. The
\: Iewpo~ts (lenses) are gen rall parated horizontally
(mt raxlal) by around 2.5 inches, relating to the distance
between our eyes (interocular). The two images ar then
selecti ely viewed: the left ~age is seen only by the left eye
and th nght by only the nght eye. The visual selection is
generally accomplished with polarizing projection filters
and appropriate polarizing viewing glasses. The two im-
ages are. ~en by the brain.a a representation of the depth
~f the o ngmal scen e. If the cr en image were life-size, the
film would be viewed as a stag play and simula ted 3-D
would be no problem; it would also n ot h ave the dramatic
impact of dose-ups, moving viewpoints, and intercutting
cene~ photographed by len es of different focal lengths.
. Smce the creen image is larger than life-size and is
Vlewed by per:s~ns at various distances and angles r lative
to ~e screen, ~t ~s neces ary to control the synthesis of the
3-D lJ11age. This IS accomplished by adjustments of conver-
gence, interaxial distance, focal length, and camera distance
from the subject. Proper adjustments present an image that
a viewer's brain accepts as "real" or produces a dramatic
effect intended by the filmmaker.
While the basic principl~ of3-D may be easy to grasp,
the actual techni.ques of 3-D anematography are quite com-
plex. Mathematical manipulation provides perhaps 75% of
the needed information; the balance comes from experi-
ence, ~e t , and instinct. Obviously, this process requires
expenenced sLl pervi ion. This, and the fact that 3-D is a
specia l effect, illustra te the need for a 3-D consultan t.
It i the consultant's job to know from experience wha t
doe and does not work. Ey fatigue is the most common
problem associated with 3-D, and while it can be cau ed
by poor'proje~tion tecJULiques, it is generally initiated in
production. It IS not the consultant' job to tell the director
of photography how to do his job or to tell the director how
to shoot hi film. As with special-effects systems, there are
rule and techniques that can help a production avoid
538
costly and damaging problems. The consultant will help tlle
director and cameraman adueve on the screen what they
ha e in their mind .
Preparing to shoot in 3-D should be approadled as
thoroughly as conventional film.ing; leflSes mu t be dlecked
for resolution, distortion and T-stop accurac I. An defi-
ci nc in these area hould not be accepted ju t becalISe
you are working \ ith pccialized equipment. There are no
e cuses for poor optical performance. in addition, ou
hould test exposure and color balance betw en the two
images; focus and convergence Limits and accuracy; and for
odd optical phenomena. The e areas relate pecifically to
3-D optical systems and apply to single- and double-cam-
era 3-D. Optical pI' bl m can include flare, gho t images
and other visible distortion that would also be unaccept-
able in normal (2-D) phot graphy. lf you intend t u e po-
larizing fiLters on the filming syste m for reflection on h'ol,
ky effects, a nd so on, it would be wise to test for exposure
imbalance behveen the two images and oth I' a nomalies.
Systems using mirrors, and ven prisms, som tim yield
odd re ults due to polarization ( ee "Filters" ction).
llle primary concern in 3-D filming is preventing e e-
train in audience memb rs. lllis invol es far more than
III rely looking at reference charts or making an "informed"
gu . The real qu tions come down to where to con erge,
how close the subject rna come to the cam ra, and how
far back the background can be. As a very general rule it is
b t to con erge on or near the main ubject.
Unfortlmately, orne cenes shot th.i way will cause
eye train. The only effecti e method of de termining con-
vergence is with a combination of rna tllema tica I and pe-
riential skills. Strict mathematics fall hort becau e numbers
need to be interpreted. However, a 3-D conslLltant without
,.. sound mathematics is only g uessing. This asp t cannot be
ov remphasized and i the s hortcoming of many CUlTent
3-D p rod uctions.
Many films made s ince the late 1970s, iJlcJuding the
m t r cent, sh wexc ive parallax (too much "depth ").
Without glasses, imag are double to an extrem . With
gla e, many spectators feel the exces ive depth in the way
their eyes have to exerci e. This is often d cribed as eye-
train.
Yet,ifonewatch 3-D films of the 1950 (Hol/seof WI1X,
HOI/do, Phl1ntolll Ofthe RI/e Morgl/e, Miss Sl1die Tholllp50II, etc.)
without glasses, tllere i an impre ion of bing able to see
539
the image with a minimum of "doubling".ln other words,
the picture looks fairly dear. With 3-D glas , the depth
effects are extr mel sati fying.Ob iously, parallax mllst be
controlled forc nfortable viewing by the entire audience, not
just a few with uper eye muscles.
Th perception of 3-D is an individual and therefore
subjecti ve experience; no two people ee 3-D q uj te the same
way. What may be great to one viewer may eem poor to
another. Director and producers mu t be made aware of
this so they ma avoid making deci ions based on poten-
tially bia ed perc ptions.
A final factor that is often overlooked i the proper
projection of both dailies and release prints. The camera-
man h Lud be aware of projection problems that may re-
flect on his work. lmprop r projection can re ult in expen-
sive, needles reshootin . Working with 3-D projection
equipment supplier and a COnslUtant, ou should have the
picture brightn up a high as po ible. Balance the illu-
mination of the two image. Make sur both images are the
exact ame size aJld focus. Make sur the proper metallic
screen (high ga in or silver) i installed and that it is clean.
See that the 3-D pr jection optics and projector are align d
properl 0 the two image register properly on the screen.
Lastl , be sure to use good-quality 3-D glasses.
With proper handling and expert consultati n, 3-D can
be an entertaining e perience.
Synchronizing Methods for
Picture and Sound Systems
by]olm Mosely, CAS
Early Systems
far back a 1 97, Edi on had the idea of combining
ound and picture. He accomplished ynduonization b
mechan.icaJ mean , making the first u e of a "Double Sy -
tem," i. . a system in whidl picture and sound track are
recorded eparately. Many demon tra tions were giv n
prior to World War 1. Eug ne Laust introduced the first
"Single System" during the ame time period wi th pictLLfe
and soundtrack r corded on the same film.
540
These de ices were regarded as curiosities by the e-
rious motion-picture makers, who created their
"photoplays" as silent drama, telling their storie punctu-
ated with title cards when needed. The silent films were
customarily projected in tile theater to the accompaniment
of pianos or theater organs. It was not until the fanlous
collaborative exper iments between the Bell Telephon
Laboratories and the then-fledgling Warner Brothers Pic-
tures tilat tile sound motion picture became a erious chal-
lenge in the theatrical market. The Warner Broth rs threw
down the gauntlet on August 6, 1926. However, the date
that is considered to be the formal introduction of sOlmd
to thea trical feature films i October 26, 1927, w hen the
Warners laLUlched The Jazz Singer.
During the early days, two sound recording and re-
producing system were u ed ide by side: the disc re-
corder, which wa a synduonous version of the phono-
graph recorder, and the film recorder. lnitiall the disc
record gave better sound quality and was in commercial
use in th aters all over the world until the early 1930s. By
that time, the sowld-on-film systems had improved suffi-
ciently to displace the disc as a theater reproducing system.
Being able to cut the soundtrack in the same way as the
picture wa a major editorial advantage and film record-
ing quickly became the preferred medium. However, sine
it was impossible to hear a film recording immediately af-
ter itwas made, th disc recorder survived for thi purpos
until tlle inh'oduction of magnetic recording in the early
19505.
Synchronous Motors and Selsyns
In both case , the above ystems were dri en by syn-
chronou motor. These normally took the form of a 220-
volt 3-ph ase AC motors designed to run at 50 or 60 Hz,
depending upon the geographic area of the world wher
1 they were intended to operate. (60Hz for North America
and part of As.ia and 50Hz for the re t of the world .) The
tator windings of these motors produce a rotating mag-
netic field in the armature area of each motor. The speed
of rotation is the same for all motors and tile armatures are
shaped so tilat each and every armatlLfe turn in unison
witil the rotating magnetic fi ld. Th.is makes all motors turn
in synchronism. After these motors come up to speed, they
function as though they were mechanical Iy interconnected.
541
,r
The selsyn elec trical interlock system adds re fin e ment.
Ln contras t to the synchrono us motor, if one armature is
held statio nary, all armatures that are connected on the
sa me ci rcuit or "bus" will remain stationary and the elec-
trica l fie ld s of a ll a rma tures w ill rota te in unison. This is
achieved by giving the armatures windings and poles simi-
lar to the s tator windings. Six w ires a re brought out and aU
arma tures a re connected in parallel, making them operate
as though they were mechanically interconnected. An ad-
ditional synchronolls motor is mechanically linked to a
selsyn I110LUlted 0 11 the sa me bed. lll..is combination is called
a "dis tributor. " In opera tion, a ll of the fields are e lectrically
excited. after w hidl the armature of the distrib uto r motor
is made to rotate. Thus, a ll of the selsyn motors are e lectri-
call y inte rlocked from a s tanding s tart mark, the n come up
to speed toge ther and drive together under the rotational
pmver of the distributor n1oto r. In addition to be ing used
as a ca mera and recorder d ri ve during photogra p hy, the
se lsy n system has bee n used for practically all sco rin g, re-
recording, ADR, Foley and d ouble syste m projection. Since
the rotation of a se lsyn syste m is strictly a direct fW1cti on
of the drive motor, it w ill be appreciated tha t these system s
ca n be made to operate over a w ide speed range and bi-
directionally_ Virtua lly a ll dubbing (re-recording) syste ms
have taken adva ntage of this p henomenon .
A third multi-duty motor system was used for a time
in v.lhich the motors con tained multiple w indings, enabling
them to be used as sy nchronous, selsyn and OC systems.
When opera ted as a synchrono us motor, the a rmatures are
connec ted 50 as to form fixed pol es which rotate in the
magneti c field of the stato r in a ma nner simila r to the ar-
ma ture of a synd1fonous motor. When operated as a sel-
sy n inte rlock motor, the a rm fl ture w indings a re connected
so CIS to conform to the selsyn sys tem. When powered by
DC, these mo tors operate as a compOLmd DC motor and
as a 3-ph ase 220-vo lt AC gene rator. By interconnecting
these motors app ropri a tel y, a se lsyn drive system results.
In practice, \"'hen operCl ting from OC, the speed o f the dri ve
motor is established by a rheos ta t in the supply lines. The
correct speed is verified by a visual tachomete r, usua lly a
reed me te r. Due to the bu lk, weight and power requirement
o f a ll these systems, they have been largely replaced in the
field, s lowly over the last 20 years, by c rysta l m otors in
ca meras a nd by stepping motors a nd servo systems in
postprod uction eq uipme nt.
542
Regardless of which system is used , the s tart of each
take is marked by a dapper board or slate. The sla te has the
picture information w ritten on it, usually in chalk. The top
contains a hinged p iece of wood. The dapper operator
waits for camera and sound recorder to be running at fu ll
speed, the n announces the take followed by the word
" Mark." At that point, the upper section is brought swiftly
down so that it makes a loud crack. TI1e editor looks for the
frame w here the slate closes and places a china marker cross
on it. The sprock.eted magne tic film, which is a direct trans-
fer of the 14" tape, is placed in a sound reader. TI1e editor
lis tens for the announceme nt to make certain th a t it is the
correct take and U1en finds U1e start of the so und where Ule
top hits Ule board. Th is point is a lso marked w ith a chin a
marker an d the two films run together with sound and
picture sy nchronized.
Early Sync-Pulse Systems
The advan tages of '14" tape as a recordin g medium for
motion pic tures and telev ision were recognized as early as
1948, bot h b y Colone l Ri chard Range r a nd Sherman
Fa irchild. In both the Ranger and Fairchild syste ms, a syn-
chronizing pulse is taken from the came ra's synchrono us
motor power source and recorder on the tape as an index
of camera frame speed versus SOWld timing.
The synchronizing recording of the Ranger system is
in the cen ter of the studio track and is recorded with a spe-
cial magnetic head oriented approximately 90 d egrees with
respect to the audio recording. This orien tation prod uces
a synchronizing signal tha t is self-canceling, or in push-pul l
w ith respect to the aud io s igna l, and therefore d oes not
cause any in terference. On playback, the synchroniz ing
signal is amplified to con trol the frequency of an oscilla tor.
When no signal is present, the oscill a tor is locked to the line
freq uency, w hich is a lso used as a reference. Any variation
in frequency from the refe rence is used to correct the speed,
thereby main taining proper synchronization.
The Fairchild "Pic-Sync" system uses a 14 Khz ca rrier
s ignal tha t is mixed togethe r w ith the audio s ignal. In re-
production the two signals are separated, with the audio
goin g through a low-pass filter. The carrier signa l goe.:;
thro ugh a high-pass filter and is demodulated to obta in the
sync s ignal. TIlis s ignal is amplified and fed to a small syn-
chronous motor coupled to the reproducing tapedrive cap-
543
 tan and either adds or subb'act power to the power driv-
ing the tape to maintain synchr nism. A starting .d evice
u ing pecial beep tones, pac done econd apart, IS used
to tart the tape in ync with the picture.
The Sw' compan Perfectone introduced a system
in 1959 whereby a ynchronizing ignal wa recorded in
pu h-pull on the edge of the tape, allowing room for a 200
mil sound track down the midcll of the tape that i com-
pi tely isolat d from the sync ignal. The playback device
i the sam a th Ranger syst m.
It was particularly co mmon for manufact urers of
documentary cameras to include a pulsing device driven
by the camera. An interconn cting cable feeds the sound
recorder with a SO or 60 Hz pu l e, whidl would be repro-
duced b the Ranger system. Th re were a number of other
de ices on the market for a time which were proprietary
to individual manufacturers, but their use wa relatively
in ignificant.
Current Synchronization Systems
and Time Code
Virtually all motion-pictLU'e OLmd camera toda y are
driven by crys tal motors that maintain precise peed accu-
racy. Field ound recorders rely on SO or 60 Hz ynchro-
nizing tracks or MPTE/EBU time code. Time code dis-
plays digits denoting hours, minutes, second and frames.
There are additional digits available by selection (known
a "User Bit ") that can be allocated for special purposes
although they bear no direct relationship to a particular
frame. For e ample, producti n date, number, etc. can be
entered as user bits. Time code can be selected to rWl at 24,
25 and 30 fram and there i a pecial frame rate of 29.97
(ca lled the "dr p frame") for u with NTSC color televi-
sion systems.
Lightweight battery-op · rated syndu'onous tape re-
corders manufacture by two Sw iss companie , Nagra and
Stel1avox, are in general us throughout the motion picture
indu try worldwide. With the growing use of video sys-
tem for editin and for electronic cinematography, the
MPTE/ EBU time codes are gaining popularity. The great
advantage of time code is that ver frame of picture and
track is indi iduall marked, thereby simplifying ynchro-
nization. Some m tion-picture cameras record time code
on one edge of the film continuou Iy, wherea all profes-
544
sional video recorders contain a dedicated time code track.
A compromise y tem is also in use, wher by an intelligent
slate i used. The tak information is written on th late
conventionally, but running time code i displayed in the
middle of the slate. The ame time code will be feeding the
sOWld recorder. By phy ical examination of the picture and
by u ing an electronic reader on the track, the required
fram can be easily id ntified. Tim code i usually placed
in th center of the 1,4" tape between two audio track. The
time-code track is sca nned by a tim -code reade r which
display the time and frame information. It is not possibl
to u m no tape recorders with timec de, since time code
interfere with the audio signal. However, there is a com-
promi arrangement that is economically advantageou ,
which will be discu ed in a later paragraph.
Digital Audio Tape (OAT) Recorder
It must be apprecia ted that analog tape recorders ha c
evolved and improved over the last fifty years. By contra t
digital r corders, which represent a revolution in teclu101-
ogy owi ng their gen i to binary computers which r late
all signals to zeroes and ones, burst upon the market dur-
ing the last decade. They are theoretica lly perfect for record-
ing oLmd. Unfortunately, practice ha not followed th ory,
and although they all have many de irabJe feature , they
do not necessarily Lmd a good as their analog counter-
parts. However, during the last two years, great improve-
ments ha e been made in how some of these sy tem ac-
tuall ound. A direct comparison to live ound, called an
"A/B" test, is very re aling. Some of the best sowlding
digital recorder happen to be tile DAT ystems. DAT re-
corders were originally designed for th consumer market
and were tried out in Japan. From a technical standpoint,
they can best be de crib d as a tiny video-type r corder
using rotating heads. They quickly d emons trated their abiJ-
itytomaketwod1armel tereorecording havingext:r m Iy
high quality, in fact even better than compact discs. Further-
more, the inherent de ign of the drive m chartism guaran-
tees ab olutely con tant peed, without any variati n or
"wow and flutter," two variables that have plagued ana-
log rec rding since their inception. Thi aspect of the D T
record r makes it particularly suitable for ynchronoLlS re-
cording. Like the crystal-eontrolled camera motor, it can be
relied upon totally to mai.ntain constant p ed and does not
545
need any add itional external reference, as do other systems
outlined i.n prev i u paragraphs.
A number of professionals obtained machine from
Japan and were greatly impressed by their initial perfor-
mance and obviou potential. Their wide dynamic range
(exceedi ng 90 dB) and virtually flat frequency re ponse
acro the full audio pectrum, with very low distortion,
mad th m id al candidates to replace con entional two-
track analo r order with and without synchronization
s terns. an additional ad\ antage, these machin no
lono- r need n i reduction equipment, which adds ig-
nificantl t the c t, \i eight and alignment comple ity of
analog quipm nt. two-hour OAT cassette fits into th
palm of th hand and weighs onl two ounces, includino-
its box. Conversely, two hours of professional analog tape
\ ei hs m eight p und and i now tec!micaJ1 inferior.
Th r are all' ady machines on the market from a a-
riety of manufacture that are cia ified in the professional
categ ry, i. . tl1 contain balanced inputs and outputs, a
well a digital interface connections that conform to the
ES/EB tandard. They have already filled a mall place
in the field, di placing their bulkier analog machines for
recordin dialo u and effects for film and televi ion and
even mu ic. Ollfing the cllfrency of this edition of the
man ual, it i highl probable that OAT recorders will be-
com tl1e recording device of choice for both film and tele-
vi ion ound.
o t of th e profe sional machines do not con tain
playback head , which in digital parlance are called "read
after write" I' °c nfidence" heads, so it i impo ib le to
monit r th ignal coming off the tape while recording.
Althou h there i a cl10 Iof th ught that would regard th.i
hortcoming a cau e to dismiss the product, it must be
pointed out that tl1i digital format has proved itself already
to be extremely reliab le. One must recall that in the old days
before tape, the ame ituation existed for fifty yea rs and
very good re ord ing were made.
Thi group f prof ional OATs has cons iderable eco-
n mic adva ntag over the existing conventional analog
record I' bya lmo t a fact I' of five. lllerefor , if individu-
al are worried about the lack of a confidence head (read
after w rite or imultaneous playback), tlley can alway
employ a ond machine. The AES/EBU Standards per-
mit interlockin machine and a number of feature f r
loggin and identification. lllese are not available on ana-
log machines, but are standard fare with professiona l
OATs. Their small size also nabl them t be used as self-
contained individual record rs in place of radio micro-
phone ystems tllat cau e 0 much b' uble to the produc-
tion recordist.
There are a number of ec nd-g n ration profe - ional
battery-powered maclune w hich cam onto the market
during 1992 that do contain c nfidence h ad that also con-
tain an additional SMPTE/ BU tim -code track. The e
machine will be in the same pric rang a the current full-
feature analog machine and ma b regarded a direct
replacements, assunUng that th ir und quality is satisfac-
t ry. ~ ~an not b~ taken for granted. The ad antage of
recording time code 1 that the undtrack will be continu-
usl a sociated witll its corr ponding frame of picture
and rna ~ edited at random,' ithout I' rting t the cur-
rent practlce of synchr nizing each track with its picture
from a tart mark. A electr nic editing become more
popular with film, this additional feature ma become in-
di pensable.
Synchronizing
with Non-Time Code DATs
From the pre ious secti n, it will bcapparent that even
the implest OAT recorder can b relied upon to run at
constant speed without an add itionaI ynchronizing device
I' pecial track. Th refore, a tandard clapp r can be u ed
for syncl1fonization. All OAT machin have an additional
advantage in that they con tain two high-qual ity audio
tracks that are actually technically uperior to the best cur-
rent analog recorders. This feature wi ll allevia te the u e of
a second machine w hen it is required to record effects or a
econd dialogue track concurr ntl y.
All film manufacturers have ag reed to mark thei r
negative films with a machine-r adable bar code. During
th~ currency of tlUs edition, the u e of intelligent reader
Wi ll undoub tedly grow and it may be d irable to use time
code for the soundtrack. Should th r cordist require time
code, there are tlle following thr epa ibiJitie:
1. Use a machine that contain th additional track.
2. Record time code on o n of the audio tracks.
(Crosstalk between tracks exceed 80 dB and therefore will
not cause a problem to the audio.)
547
 · Make an interface box that will place tim code on
ne track for a few seconds while imultaneou ly driving
a time-code slate 0 tha t the same number are recorded on
the film a the tape for po t- ynchronization. Incidentally,
if this option is chosen, it \ ould be sensible to place a voice
late on the other track that one has both human and
machine-readable data at the same point on the track. This
box hould be placed at the input of the DAT recorder. The
m device can be u d on an analog recorder, too.
Sound-Recording Hints
Before embarking upon any recording, it i mandatory
to check out thoroughly all of the equipment that will be
used. People often have difficulties in th~ field wl~d1 co~d
have b n avoided if every piece of eqwpment, mclud mg
th cable, had been completely d1ecked before leaving for
work. If one is LUKertain about the use or performance of
the equipment, ask for a technician to be availab le to ex-
plain everything and to v rify that all of the individ ual
c mp nent are operating c rrectly.
It i important to under tand the problem that are
commonplace in recorded ound and to under tand how
to avoid them. Recorded sOlmd in the motion picture/ tele-
ision context inevitabl is quite different to natural sound,
ince constraints are placed upon the recording proc by
the functioning of the overall equipment and the environ-
ment. Th principle c nsideration in recording ound for
motion pictures is that th dialogue shall be dear and clean,
i.. free from defects and intelligible at all time . For ex-
ample, a quiet whisper that i clearly audible in a field in
the c untr i not likely to be heard above the ound of
cnmchi ng popcorn or a theater' air-conditioning y tern.
It i therefore nece sary to bring up the lowest ounds so
that they are easily UJlder tandabl . Conversely, very 1 0 ~ld
unds wi ll overload the rec rding system and ca use dIS-
tortion, whidl is lmplea ant t hea r and may damage the
quipment. If the m vie patrons cannot under tand the
olUld, they wiU not enjoy the picture. Although the dub-
bing or rerecording proc will rectify many defects, the
end product, like a good meal, can only be a good a the
ba ic ingredients. Ther f re, it i well worthwhile to take
a I t of trouble to obtain good original sound.
The wut of reference for sound i the decibel or "dB"
and i a logarithmic relationship between two oltages or
548
power. [n simple term, a dlange of 6 dB w ill double or
ha lve the ound level for practical purpo e . The thre hold
of hearing is given a 20 dB, while the threshold of pain is
!ti ven as 120 dB. Therefore, it can be said tha t the d namic
range of hearing for a normal human being i around 100
dB. The frequenc range of normal human hearing is from
20 Hertz (Hz) to 20 kilohertz (kHz). This represent ap-
proximatel 10 acta v ml icall . Speech is general! in the
rang f 200 Hz-3 kHz. It i common for people to 'peri-
ence a 10 in their ability to hear high frequenci a the
get old r.
One of the most irritating und often heard i exces-
i ibilance, that is, the exagg rated sound of the I tter
"5." It occurs in nature, and ome people are more prone
to have sibilant peedl than others. A good test of actor and
equipment is to get the actor to say "Sister Susie gathers sea
shell by the sea shor ." If yo u can record tha t ntence
clearly and without ibilance, you do not have a problem.
Microphone selection, placement and movement usually
olve the problem.
Th I tter "P" can al 0 pre ent problem , which are
manife ted by a popping ound. Here again, the problem
i. usua lly resolved b microphone placement and mo e-
ment. Some microphone are particularly sen itive to this
ph nomenon, since the "P" wld often is accompanied by
a teep wavefront which di torts the sensitive e1em nt in-
ide the microphone. To circum ent this problem, me
microphones are supplied with "Pop Shields." If ou ha e
one, use it.
Di torted or LUUlatural sound is usually but n t alway
cau d by defective equipment. Li ten to the natural und
bef re assuming that your equipment is defective. If every-
thing ap pears to be in order and the distortion per ists,
check your batteries. Low battery voltage will cau the
qu ipm nt to malfunction. Therefore, it is important to
make certain that YOLU' batteries ar e fres h and pI' ducing
th ir fu ll output at all time .
Before starting to work, make certain that the r corded
und quality is sati factor . The best judge of thi aU-im-
portantcharacteristic i the human ear. If sometlling d n't
ound right, the chance are that ome piece of equipment
i not functioning correctly. ormally, one will work back-
ward from the tape output toward the microphone( ).
Li t n carefully to what ou are recording near the ound
ource, then listen through our headphone .If the ound
549
r
i not the ame at this juncture, d lange the microphone. If
th trouble per its, dlange the microphone power upply,
preamplifier, mixer and headphones in that rder. Obvi-
ously, the oWld mu t be dean before i t ente the recorder.
If there is a crackling ound, hake the cable to disco\ er if
they are ca u -ing problems. Inspect the connector to make
certain that the ar clean and dr . TIle pins should be shiny
and certainly not eli colored or 0 idized. If a cabl appears
to be stiff or brittle, it may well have poor insulation and is
lik Iy to add noise to the signa l, 0 dlange it. Ln tly, set a
c mfortab.le Li t ning level on yo ur headphones. The level
hould be high enough so that yo u hea r the softest OWlds
learly, but not 0 loud that the la ude t sound ar LU1Com-
forta ble. Once thi level ha been fOLmd , do not dlange it,
a thi become the reference by which you will be mak-
ing ubjective judgments all the time. Allm ourself suI-
fici nt time to e 'periment befor the shoot comm nces, so
that ou are entir I comfortable with our equipment op-
rationaJJ . During the shoot, ou hould concentra te on
th oWld ubj ctively and not have to worr abou t tech-
n.icali ties.
All equipm ent must be fully tested a nd properly
aligned before ommencing operations. Depending upon
the type of eq uipmen t dlosen, it may be necessary to per-
form periodi alignmentproced LU' s in the field. Should this
b the ca e, mak certai n that th required test quipment
and/or persorm I are availabl . On the whol , the newer
digital equipm nt requires Ie maintenance in the field.
Remember tha t if a bad recording is turned back to Ule stu-
dio, Ule front office, producer, or director will blame the
wld person, not the equipment. if you ha e any reser-
vations, take par equipm nt \ ith you, a w II a plenty
of tape and extra batteries of a ll izes.
Microphone Placement
For U1C be t sound pickup d w'in g dialogue recording,
the microphon hould be abou t ne or two feet in front of
and abo e the a tor. TI1i distanc will vary according to
the camera angl . The tighter the hot, the doser the miero-
phone should b . Hm ever, e en for a distant hot, do not
g too far back. Rough! peakin~ the e£ficienc of pickup
of most microphones deere with the square of the dis-
tance. A little practice \ ill soon teadl you the be t position
to place the micr phone. In general terms, on i best off
to use a conden er microphon wi th a cardioid (heart-
shaped) pattern pickup. [t is also advi able to use a f am
windscreen over it to en ure that movement of the boom
or fishpole does not pick up wind noise. It is preferable to
use a hock mount between the microphon and the boom
so a to isolate mechanical sound when the boom i
moved.
When operating outside, it may well be necessary to
add a windscreen and ock. The e components should be
in the kit. When working in noisy environments, it will be
neces ary to use hype r-cardioid or even shotgun micro-
phone . Remember, Ul tighter the pattern of pickup, the
m ore precise the boom person has to be before the subject
sound "off mic."" ff mic" is a term that is used when a
sound i no longer natural. It is ea il r cognized and can
usually be corrected by a minor movement of the micro-
phone towards the sound source. The boom person should
wear headphones connected to the microphone so that any
problem will be apparent immecliatel .
Th actual angle of pickup will vary with different
n1icrophones. As a tarting point, place the sensitiv face
at45 d grees in front of and above the actor. If there is sibi-
lance or the actor start to overload the ystem by shout-
ing (i..e., the sound becomes brittle or distorted), roll the
sensitive face away from the actor, tha t the voice l1its the
sensitive face at90 degrees on its cro s-axis, keeping Ule face
at 45 degrees. If the overload persists and the SOLmd i nor-
mal but loud to Ule ear, the overload may be removed by
inserting an attenuator or "pad" betw en the capsule and
its pre-amplifier. (nUs accessory will reduce the input olt-
age to the microphone' pre-amplifier. Some sensiti e cap-
ule have the ability to put out very high levels when
pIa d close to the ound source. Certain microphone c n-
tain built-in attenuator Ulat are op rated by a switch on
the n1icrophone.) Do not u e a larger pad than is nece sa ry
to cl ear lip your overload problem, since any additi nal
gain or level that is needed to restore the ound to the re-
quired listening paint w ill add IUs or noise to the sy tem.
Again, the olution and correct mov ment will be learn d
by trial and error. Do notdlange microphone types within
a cen ,or the sound quality will chang and the resulting
recording may be unacceptable. If there is a rumbling
sound, use the low-frequency roll-off or high-pass filter that
is availab le on most prafes ional microphones and n1ixers.
Do not point the n1.icr phone towards Ul floor, lest you
r
pick up additional noise and excessive low frequenc ies.
This ound i known as "bo miness." It is preferab le to
record flat, i.e. without quaLzation, since alteratio~1 of th
ound pectrum, if nece sary,. i better done durmg th
p tproducti n mi ing oper~tlO~. H~w~~er, hould ~ou
find it ncar t u equalization, hmltmg or comp1e:>-
ion, do n t chang it within a scene. Remember o~ce ~gam
thatifth S lmdi n tclearinyourheadphones,ltwilln t
be cI ar lat r. Time pent learning h.o.w to g.et a good
pickup, particularl under adve.rse conditions, will prod.uce
dividend durin p tprodllctlOn and to your reputati~)O.
Wh n ne i rec rding more than one act~r peaking
in th ame quen e, it ma be necessary to find a. com-
promise p ition f r t!"'e mic~ophone in ~rder to ~vOld one
actor ounding ff-nuc. It \ 111 be apprecJated qwckl that
the kill of th boom or fishpole operator can make r break
a recording. nd r certain cir~umstan~es the actor may
move into a part f the t that I acou bcall bad. Tell the
direct r ab ut it b fore you hoot and get a bad tra~. Th
director ma d ide to allow ou to correct the defiaen~y
orre h t th ound later in a dialogue replacement facil-
ity. Rememb r that poor ound quality often r uJts from
the microphon being too far a,:""ay Ii·.om the peake~, badly
an I d or being in a bad acollsticenvlronment. AVOId plac-
ing it dir ctl vcr r behind the head ?f the actor. . desirous of finding a reference lev I that will result employ
In t ri r h oting, on i more likely to have plOb-
lem of picking up extraneou sounds from car, plane,
people and the I 01 nts. Under the e cirCll~1 tance , try a
more tightl patt rned microphone, or dIfferent angle.
belm or to the ide of the amera field of view. Do not fOI-
get that the pref rable microphone po ition i . slig.htly
above and in front of the speaker. Body and radIO mICro-
phones a r ft n used in out ide and wide angle shots. It
i h lpful in avoiding the ound of clothes rus~mg, to put
a 100 knot in the microphone cable about an mch below
it h ad and t place it lmder a collar or ~n the fron~ o.f a
bra . lway try to avoid the chest cavi ty Sll1ce this will m-
evitably ound b my. Avoid u~ing more than ?n. mlCro-
phon in the sa m pickup area 111 order to aVOid .1l1~erfer­
ence betwe n th 01, whid1 results in a strange sWlslung or
"pha ing" ound that CaJU10t be remove? I~ter. When, ~nd
not until, the oW1d i dean and as ara bcally or ublec-
tivel requir d in the mixer's headphone , turn to the re-
cord r.
Use of Tape Recorders
Analog recorders arc fitt d with mechanical VU or
peak meters, whereas OATs usually u e electr nic peak
reading fluore cent bar meter . The ba ic difference be-
tween the VU and peak meter i that the VU meter read
the average level in a given tim p riod, wh r as the peak
reading meter register th high t part of the ignal at all
time. Discussion of the variou m ri fall out ide this
manual.ln general terms one hould expect a VU meter to
read rather slowly. The Ie el h uld b adjusted on dia-
logue so as to peak at around -1 and not above 0 VU,
wherea a peak meter, which will r p nd rapid! ,sh uld
ne er peak abo e zero. hen u ing a OAT recorder, ex-
amine it carefully to find out if th sampling frequency i
witchable. Always choose the high t sampling frequenc
available, at least 48 kHz, making certain that an record
pre-emphasis circuitry is witched off.
Before tarting to record und, r c rd a tone on the
tape. Most mixers contain an oscillator for thi purpose, a
do most professional recorder . eu tomarily, -6 dB i used
with VU meters and - dB on peak analog r corders. For
OAT , -18 dB is the customary setting I vel for reference
and aim to peak at -2. ever hit zero. In all cases, one is
the full dynamic range of the recorder without overload-
ing its electronics or the tape. Wher as 010 t analog record-
ing y tems tend to go into overload rather g ntly, digital
mad1ines reach their maximllm p rmi ible I vel and then
break up completely. Therefor, it i v ry important to ex-
periment with your recorder until you are fully familiar
with its limitations and then work witllin them to obtain
the best possible, cleaJ1, intell igib le und recordi.ng. Ad-
just the input level so that yOll[ average r cording is rea-
onably h igh on the scale, maki ng certain that the peaks
never q ui te hi t the overl oad poin t. nce again, tria l and
error is the best teacher. B ware of ov rloadin g either the
el ctronics or tlle tape. This is the mo t frequent cause of
bad recordings made in the fi ld. Exp rience alon will give
you the righ t point between a noi y r c rding that is re-
c rded at too Iowa level and adi torted recording tha t is
recorded at too high a level. Under exb· 01 circwn tances,
tlle dynamic range of the incoming ignals may b too great
to control manually. Should thi be the case, it may be nec-
sary to employ a limiter, whid1 det rmin th maximwn
level that may be passed tl1rough the sy tem, or a compr _
553
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sor, which raises the low-level signal ,and lower th 11.i,gh-
lev I ignal, It is vital to make certam that thes d VICes Filming Television Screens
d not give an unnatural und, and they sh?uld be re-
gard d, like the equalizer, as tools of last resort m the field. by 8m H gan
void making large and rapid changes of level , a . the~ Sprockct Digital
will ound unnatural and be difficult to rectify In
po tproduction. .. When filminu televisi n reens or computer di pIa
ake certain that all tap are properl ide~tifjed and th rc are two principle obstad to ad1.ieving consi tent and
that th are packed with log heets that contam full de- dear imag on the filmed r ult. These h 0 pr blem are
tails of the recording. It is pr ferable to leave anal g record- th difference in frame rat behveen the television image
ing on the takeup reel, or "tails ou.t,". for two reasons. The and ti,e film camera and the incorrect color temperatur of
fi tit make certain that the tape 15 tIghtly w~und, 0 that the t levision display. The ~ Howing explanation and de-
it doe not become phy icaUy deformed during torage. scription of tandard ~ r t I vision sets and computer di _
Under extreme conditions, the ba of the tape ca~ become play i meant to provide an und r tandll'g and method-
o deformed that it will not lie on the reproducmg head 01 gy to allow the filming of these displays with the high-
prop rly.Should tl1.is ccur, th sound will v~ry in I .v:J a.nd t quality possible.
quality and may be unu abl . The second IS to mJ11Jm1~ e
"print-through," a phenomenon to wl1.ich analog tap~ 1S Frame Rates
pron . Thi means tl,at sound recorded, usually at a high
lev I, is heard one and ev n two turns of the ~a'p befo~e orth America and many other coun tI'ies of ti,e world
and after the actual ound in the form of repetitio.ns. This u e a tclevision deli cr ystem that has 30 telcvi ion
effect i a function of the tape formulation a.nd, v~nes ~om framc ' per second, each compri ed of 525 Line. Motion
type to type. Print-through tend.s to b~ dimini h d m a pictur film for ti,eab'ical or t levision display i usuall
tightly wound tape. You wiJl qwckJy discove~ that most photographed at 24 frame p r econd.
machines do not rewind tape at a peed to be high er:ough ll1.is difference in frame rates i tl,e predominant dif-
to be sati factory for torage. B leaving the tape tails out ficulty in photographing t Ie ision °ts as part of a en .
tl1.i problem is eliminated. . . The artifact that i most vi ible i the appearal1Ce of h ri-
Conversely, gi en the nature of the DAT y tem, It 15 zontal bars on the photograph d TV inlage. ll1is is caused
advisable to rewind DAT fully . In both cases, mspect the b d uble expo ure of me parts of the tele\Cisi n reen .
ta to make certain that the wind is even 0 that ~e ta~e To understand what cau e thi double e po ure and th
d Pe not become phy icall ill torted. Place DAT In their horizontal bars it i necc sar to unde tand several tiler
safe, non-recordable mode by liding the safety tab towards facts about the television ignal.
th cen ter of the cassette. .. With 30 frame televi ion there are 525 line canned
Finally, remember ti,at when all of your eq~ lp~ent IS each 30th of a second . But to avoid flicker in the di play C1
fw,ctioning correctly, your, .ars should be ti,e fma l Judge method is u ed that is somew hat analogous to thc two
of the quality and acceptability of your work. blad d hutter in the fUm projector. TI1.is 30ti, of a ec nd
t levision frame is furth r divided into two televisi n field .
Each of ti,cse television field la ts for a 60ti1 of a condo
TI,e di pia ed television imag i "refreshed" or scanned
n w at 60 times per second and the re ult is no flick r.ll1i
i accompli hed by tarting the aru1.i.ng beam (a ingle
point f Light or energy) in th upper left comer of ti,e tele-
vi ion reen and rno ing it I ft to right a ingle Line at a
timc. When this beam f Light reaches the right side of the
r en, it jump back to the left ide of the creen during a

555
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peri d when it has been "blanked" or turned off. This i
ca lled the hori z ntal bla nking period. This occu r every
televisi n lin or 525 times per televi ion frame.
11, order to provide the refresh rate of 60 times per ec-
ond, thi b am kip every other line of the 525 lines that
compri a televi ion frame of a 30th of a second. In other
word , the aru1ing beam ans Line 1, skips over the po-
ition that would be occupied b Line 2 and scans Line 3. This
continues to th bottom of the TV image lmtil aU of the odd-
numbered TV lin ha\'e been anned.
t thi pint a 60th of a second ha pa sed. The scan-
ning b am i now at the lower right comer of the screen.
Th beam i "blanked" and i moved to the upper left cor-
ner again - read t tart scaru1ing again. This time period
of th b am moving from the lower right comer to the
upper left comer is called the vertical blanking period or
vertical interval. This happens 60 times per second - tW'ice
per t levi i n frame. Thi canning beam now tarts its
anning proc over one Line at a time, but during thi
60th of a cond the beam i positioned to can lines 2, 4, et
cet ra - all th v n-numbered Lines are now scanned.
w let l look at how th film camera views thi tele-
i ion image. Th camera that is cho en for this e ample
has a 180-degr e hutter. If we run this camera at 30 fram
per se ond with a hutter opening of 180 degree, the cam-
era is e po ing the film every 60th of a second. From the
televi ion anning explanation above it can be obser ed
that th film cam ra i "blind" to one of the tele ision field
and i only ph t graphing half of the 525 lines that occur
ina tel vi i nfram . There ultingTVscreen imageonth
film wi ll b g d (wi th no" hutter bar ") because the film
camera and th t levi ion scanning are occurring at the
am fram rate. When the film camera and the television
system ar op rating at different frame rates the result i
doubl expo ur to portions of the television creen imag .
Best r su it are obtain d when the shutter opening
coincid with the begim1ing of the scaru1ing of one of th
two tel isi n fie ld. In other wo rds, the shutter is open for
onl one complete television field - not part of one field
and part of th n t fi ld. In order for this preci e phasing
(h utter p n v . clo ed) to occm, external specializ d
equipm nt i used in conjunction with the film camera and
the vid 0 eq uipment.
Ther ar four combinations of film rates and tele [-
ion rate that are p ible. These are outlined below:
1. 30 Frame Video and 30 Frame Film: This combina-
tion features standard NISC 30 frame video (US Standard)
and the film camera also operating at 30 frames. This ap-
proach is appropriate if the film is going to be used for a
30 frame per second telecine transfer, but if used for 24
frame projection there will be a 20% "overcrank," and if
there is sound the pitch will be altered. Any US television
monitor can be used. Shutter phasing and synchronization
are required and the camera shutter angle is optimum at
180 degrees.
2. 25 Frame Video and 25 Frame Film: This requires
the video signal to be the European PAL-625 Line system
and also the VIR and monitor to be capable of operation
on this standard. If the film shot is projected at 24 frames
there is only a 4% "overcrank," and the sound pitch change
is usually considered undetectable except to musicians.
Shutter phasing and synchronization are required and 180
degrees is the preferred shutter angle. This is the system
that is chosen for most TV monitor filming in Europe and
much of the rest of the world that operates on 50 Hertz
power.
3. 30 Frame Video and 24 Frame Film: This features
standard 30 frame NTSC video and a camera specially de-
signed to have a fixed 144 degree shutter or a camera whose
shutter can be precisely set to 144 degrees. This specific
shutter angle allows the film camera to only photograph
one set of scan Lines per film frame but is extremely diffi-
cult to adjust. Anything mechanical that causes the cam-
era to vary in speed or cause drag on the shutter will re-
sult in inconsistent results. Also camera paru1ing and zoom-
ing will cause portions of the TV image to be double-ex-
posed or not exposed ataI!, resulting in small black or white
bars to be present in the TV image. Again, shutter phasing
and synchronization are required and a very precise 144
degree shutter angle must be maintained .
4.24 Frame Video and 24 Fram Film: This video! film
combination requires a specialized video format, but the
film camera is run at a standard speed and the resulting film
is standard in all ways. The choice of shutter angle hould
be 180 degrees and there i a one-to-one relationship be-
tween TV frames and the preferred fi1J1, rate of 24 frames.
Shutter phasing to the TV ignal should be used. Mo t TV
sets and monitors can be adjusted to operate at this 24 frame
rate, but caution should be used with an unknown model.
Live video cameras and computer have been modified to
r
run at thi 24 frames, offering a wide choice of source ma-
terial.
24 Frame video was first used for feature production
ill about 1960. Since that time steady progress has been
made in sophistication and d10ice of the tools for this one-
to-one relationship with 24 frame film. Because 24 frame
video is a modification of tandard NTSC television equip-
ment, the TV image has the same scanning frequencies as
~251ine televi ion. This results in the 24 frame image hav-
mg a total of 655 television scan lines per 24th of a second.
Thu , the preci vertical scan rate or frame rate of the tele-
vi ion signal i actually 24.01 frames per second.
The synchroniza tion between the film camera and the
video sy tern can be achie ed in two ways. 'This is the shut-
ter pha ing that wa referred to above. The first method is
to obtain a hutter ignal from the film camera and have
the video sy tem follow the film camera. 'This allows the
film camera to operate on its internal crystal and to "pull
down" the ideo ystem to exactly 24 frames. With this
method no connection is made to the sound recorder. The
disadvantage of this method is that the video source is lim-
ited to ideoca tte playback. In recent years this method
i~ almo t never used. One major drawback is that only one
film camera can be rolling simultaneously.
The second mode of operation is the preferred metl10d
and offer the greate t flexibility of operation. In this mode
the film camera is driven by a signal from video/ film cam-
era synchr n.i.zation equipment. A signal is still received
back from the film camera, used to phase the camera shut-
ter opening to the TV signal scanning. A major advantage
of thi meth d i that any number of film cameras can be
?pera.tin.g in ync and the choice of 24 frame signal sources
IS lUll mu ted. A the film and television equipment are op-
erating at a slightly higher frequency (24.01 frames per sec-
ond), a 60.02 hertz frequency should be sent to the sOlUld
recorder to keep th ound in sync on long takes. Without
this signal the oW1d will fail belund tl1e picture about one
frame every 45 econds.
Both the abov modes of operation can accommodate
proces or r ar creen projection with the appropriate con-
nections.
No attempt will be made here to describe the equip-
ment available to synchronize the film and video equip-
ment. 11li equipment is constantly changing and is avail-
558
able from many camera manufacturers and specialists in
the field of video playback for film shooting.
Color Temperature
Color temperature of the filmed television image is the
other most important aspect that needs to be understood
and corrected for.
The correctly adjusted professional broadcast monitor
will be adjusted to a color temperature of 6500 degrees
Kelvin. But the normal range of TV sets and monitors can
vary widely in their color temperature. To be used success-
fully, these TV screens must be set up for the correct color
temperature of 6500 degrees. Test equipment is available
to facilitate this adjustment. If filming is done with this
adjusted monitor with a tungsten-balanced film designed
for 3200 degrees Kelvin, the resulting TV screen image will
appear to be very blue or high in color temperature. Moni-
tors not adjusted to the correct color temperature will re-
sult in very unpredictable results.
There are five ways to compensate for this color tem-
perature difference.
The first method is to readjust the TV screen to a lower
color temperature - as dose to 3200 degrees as possible.
Most TV monitors are limited in adjustment range. This
method is usually unsuccessful and today is almost never
attempted.
The second method makes use of the fact that this
higher color temperature of the television image is near the
color temperature that is expected when shooting with
daylight-balanced color negative that is now widely avail-
able. With this method the television image is left unaltered
and the director of photography lights the rest of the scene
with daylight-balanced lighting. The television image and
the scene now match closely ill color temperature and al-
low the use of daylight balanced film.
The third method is very similar to the second, but
after lighting with daylight-balanced lighting the cinema-
tographer uses a tungsten-balanced negative with a
Wratten #85 filter on the camera. 111is method is sometimes
used on commercials, but suffers from the loss of exposure
caused by the filter.
The fourtl1 method also uses tungsten-balanced film
and lighting, but a change in the color temperature of fue
TV screen is made by placing Wratten #85 filter material
559
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on the TV picture tube. This is usually unsatisfactory be-
c.ause of loss .of TV brightness and the visibility of reflec-
tions on the filter material.
The fifth method is the preferred choice. It involves
prec0r.npensating. the color temperahLre of the playback
matenal. WIth this procedure the color TV screen is ad-
juste? to the preferred color temperahLre of 6500 degrees
KelvUl. If there IS more than one TV screen in the scene, they
are all carefully adjusted to this same color temperahLre.
The next step is the preparation of the video playback ma-
teriaL Precompensation of the color temperahLre of the
p layback material is accomplished by using a viewing fil-
ter that has been arrived at empirically with much trial and
error. This viewing filter raises the apparent color tempera-
hLre of the color monitor, which causes the telecine color-
ist or video camera operator to add a specificate amOlU1t
of "color compensation " to the video that will be displayed
on the TV screen.
When this coJor-compensated video is seen on a prop-
~rly adjusted 65~?-degree TV screen it w ill appear very
reddish-orange. I But to the hUlgsten-balanced negative
the pichLre will be the correct color.
When the TV screen is to appear as a black & white
set, another problem OCClLrS. A black & white screen will
appear to be of even higher color temperature - from 9000
to 11,000 degrees. There is no practical method to compen-
sate for this very high color temperahLre. The most com-
mon method and the preferred solution is to place a color
screen in what would appear to be a black & w hite cabi-
~~t. TI:e p layback material is made to appear black & white
I~ It ongmates as a color image and then color compensa-
tion IS added to the black & white image. This color-com-
pensated footage will now appear to the color negative as
a perfect black & white image.
General Notes
Playback material can come from any source. The best
quality is generally obtained from film original that is trans-
ferred specifically for the scene invalved and is color-com-
pensated for video p layback. Live camera original footage
at 30 fps can be standards-converted and color-compen-
sa t~d WIth equal success. A jerky motion artifact will be
noticed on 24 frame film material that was transferred to
30 frame video and then was standards-converted back to
560
24 frame video for video playback. This is an undesirable
source of material.
Always test n ew or unfamiliar equipment. This in-
cludes new or untested TV screens and computers. This is
a rapidly changing area and success is guaranteed only
with the proper choice of equipment and with companies
familiar with the latest advances.
Television Film Cinematography
by Edward P. Ancona, Jr.
Since the publication of the aTticle on this topic in pre-
vious editions of the American Cinematographer Manual,
there have been sigrLificant advances in receiver quality and
in the sophistication of the telecine equipment whid1trans-
fers the film image to television. However, it is important
to remember that the typical home viewer is seeing and
hearing films less than the optimum conditions under
whid1 the creative production team saw them.
Production staffs see their films in professional mo-
tion-picture review rooms and the resulting television
transfers on professional monitors with carefully adj usted,
stable color and brightness settings. Most home viewers,
however, watch the show on receivers which may be only
casually adjusted and in a room with the lights on. Such
viewing conditions act primarily to limit the picture con-
trast r ange which can be effecti vely reproduced in the
home. Therefore, the director and cinema tographer sh ould
be aware that the available range of photographic effects
is limited, and film ph otography for television must be
adapted to exploit those styles and tecluuques wluch are
mos t effective for the home viewer.
This is not meant to imply that the television system
is incapable of high-quality transnUssion and reproduction.
With a high-quality telecine ti"ansfer, good signal reception,
and optimmn receiver adjustment and viewing conditions,
the reproduced image can be a close duplicate of the film
in ILLrninance range and color. Indeed the sophisticated
conti'ast and color controls on the modern telecine can of-
ten acl1ieve color and density "tirning" changes in dimen-
sions lmavailable in the film laboratory. It is not LUlCOllliTIOn
561
r
on major television film productions for the director and
cinematographer to attend the telecine transfer operation
to guide the video operator, similar to the color timing
operation in the film laboratory.
Contrast
Telecine reproduction of a film will often result in a
television image wherein contrast appears higher than in
the image een in direct projection. This is due partly to
inherent limi tations of the electronic devices which convert
the projected image to a television signal, partly to the op-
tics of the telecine y tem and partly to the subjective ef-
fect of the maller, brighter television image. The chief ef-
fect of this increase in contrast is a loss of shadow detail.
Darker areas in the picture may appear plugged up, subtle-
ties of mood lighting are lost, and tory points or critical
facial detail in dark cenes may be obscured. Again it is
important to note that not all of the loss is in the telecine
reproduction of the film - only a small proportion ofhome
receivers will b car fully adjusted and viewed in a dark-
ened room to accuratel di play the full range of the trans-
mitted signal.
This increase in contrast requires that the cinematog-
rapher use more fill light than would be used for theatri-
cal presentation only, and particularly that the approach to
the more extreme moods or effects be limited. The use of
underexpo ure, forced processing flashing and low fill-
light level to pr duce a realistic or "available light" look
may be quite effective ill direct theatrical projection but
plugged up and ineffective in the typical home viewing
situation. This i not meant to imply tllat television photog-
raphy should b "flat." A wide range of moods and effects
can be uccessfully reproduced on the typical home re-
ceiver, but the dark r elements or areas of the scenes must
be more ful ly lit and expo ed if they are to be displayed
effectively.
I-Iigher lighting ratio can be emp loyed for effect, and
night scene ar best approached by adjustment of tlle light-
ing ratio rather than by shoo ting "day-for-night" or
lmderlighting cenes and printing down. The ideal night
effect photogra phy for telev ision would result in prints
which have the ame density range as fully lit scenes. The
use of little or no fill light on the key position, sketchy back-
ground illumination, lighted windows, etc., all create the
562
effect of a night scene without the necessity of printing
down.
Special Print Films for Television
In previous years when black & white films were the
dominant medium for television, it was standard practice
to make "television gamma" relea e prints which were
developed to a lower contrast than for normal theatrical
release. Although these prints, on direct projection, looked
somewhat flat with transparent shadow elements, their
television reproduction appeared more like that of the the-
atrical prints in a theater. The reduced density range of the
television gamma prints enabled th telecine to "see" into
the shadows more easily, thus red ucing the requirement for
lower lighting ratios on the stage. Until recently, color prints
could not be processed for a lower gamma without seri-
ously upsetting their color tracking, and the only way to
reduce the density range of the print wa to reduce the lu-
minance range of the original scene by lower lighting ra-
tios and careful control of set and wardrobe reflectances.
Modem telecines are equipped to reproduce negative
films by inversion of polarity and a change of reproduction
contrast. The negative film is obviou ly of considerably
lower contrast than a color print and the resulting repro-
duction therefore is much more open, with shadow detail
well reproduced, and often with brilliant color quality.
The term "film look" really refers to the appearance
of a print as seen in direct projection. There is much to be
said for the subjective appearance of this image with its
smoothly graduated highlight and shadow contrast. It is
not intended to be an accurate duplicate of the original
subject contrast and color values, but in the hands of a skill-
ful cinematographer it is an extremely effective storytelling
vehicle. As stated in the opening paragraphs, the aim of
telecine operation is to produce a television image which
is a close d uplicate of the film print as seen in direct pro-
jection. The appearance of negative or interpositive films
on a telecine, while seductively appealing with their open
lowlights and high color saturation, can be distinctly dif-
ferent from the "print look." It is possible to modify the
telecine characteristic so that negative transfers will come
close to duplicating the look of a print, and it is emphasized
that the cinematographer should be aware of these differ-
ences and see samples of negative transfers if his or her
picture is to involve that process.
563
r
There is now available a color positive film which has
been manufactured to a lower contrast and which does not
require special proce sing for "television gamma." The
lower maximum densities of this film benefit telecine re-
production of the image as compared to the reproduction
from normal projection contrast print film. The contrast is
not so different, however, that it cannot be satisfactorily
analyzed for color "timing" in the film laboratory. Care
must be taken during review-room laboratory timing of
these low-contra t prints not to "print down" in an effort
to achieve the had ow densities of normal-eontrast print
stock. When correctly timed for optimum telecine repro-
duction, the low-contrast stock on direct projection will
have rather transparent shadow regions and will not have
the olid blacks of the normal-contrast print stock. The
telecine reproduction, however, will restore the shadows
to their correct appearance but with considerably improved
shadow detail over that obtainable from the normal-eon-
trast stock.
Automatic Telecine Operation
The telecine operation at major broadcaster's installa-
tions or in mo t video po tproduction houses serving the
broadcast and cable television industries is characterized
by an effort to reproduce the film as faithfully as possible
within tlle phy ica! Limitations of the telecine device. De-
spite the misgivings of some cinematographers, the video
operator does not make arbitrary changes in the character
of the image; witll a well-photographed and timed print,
tile operator will make an essentially "hands-off" transfer.
However, some broadcasters may, for reasons of crew and
time economy, resort to an automatic telecine operation
wherein the brightest element of every scene is automati-
cally set to 100% Ivideo level, and the darkest to 0%. This
unquestionably can distort the continuity of the original
print timing.
Altllough it is dismaying to have to prescribe for such
a situation, if the cinema tographer knows that a film is
Likely to have its major release to such syndication, he or
she can incorporate a "reference whi te" and "reference
black" in every scene, which will force the automatic
telecine into a preferred state of adjustment. A reference
white would be a near-white object in wardrobe or tile stage
illuminated by tile key light. Almost any scene will have
564
sh adowed or unilluminated black areas and these will be-
come the reference black for the scene. Witll such white and
black objects in the scene, the automatic video telecine will
arrive at an adjustment which will place face tones and
other luminance values correctly.
Perhaps the concerns of this s ction are less pertinent
now, since, practically without exception, all major televi-
sion productions will be transferred on high-quality
telecines with skillful operators, and most syndicated ma-
terial will be similarly transferred and delivered on video-
tape.
Television Film Apertures
In almost any receiver, the accumulated effects of mask
shape and off-eenter scanning or excessive height or width
of scanning would result in tile display of excessive picture
information that was transmitted. While this area loss is
different in each receiver, the average 10 , or to put it an-
other way, the area displayed by th average receiver, has
been noted with the establishment by SMPTE of a "safe
action area" and a "safe title area" ( ee "Cinematographic
Systems"). Masks of the shape and relative size of these
SMPTE-recommended safe areas should be used in the
camera viewfinder as a guide to tile composition and fram-
ing of scenes being filmed for television.
Since these areas represent only selected average con-
ditions, it must be noted that some receivers will display
everything to one edge or anotller of the transmitted area.
Therefore, foreign objects s uch as microphones, stage lights
or camera sunshades, or negative defects such as scratches
or fog should not appear inside tlle transmitted area, and
release prints should be free of physical defects such as
scratches, wet gate printer marks or soundtrack applicator
splashes in this area.
Daily prints of shows whidl are being shot for televi-
sion and which are being reviewed by the cinematographer
or others specifically for action framing may be inspected
with a projector aperture of tile dimensions of the safe ac-
tion area. (This would apply also to rev iew of theatrical
wide-frame features being scanned for television, when tile
review is for evaluation of the editorial and positioning
aspects of the scanning.) Ordinarily, however, television
daily prints should be reviewed with a projector aperture
of the dimensions of the transmitted area, since the film
565
 camera action framing is usually carefully monitored dur-
ing shooting with the camera viewfinder safe action area
mask. The production sWf should also be aware of p0s-
sible negative defects or extraneous objects outside the safe
action area but still within the transmitted area. New titles
photographed for television should lie preferably within
the safe action area, although this should be most applicable
to commercia l copy w here fu ll visibility on all receivers is
desired. On theatricaJ features released to telev ision, title
copy within the safe action area would ordinarily be accept-
able.
There is an artistic compromise to be fared in the re-
, ered below.
production ofCinemaScope or other wide-frame images on
standard television. The choice is between "scanning" the
wide-frame image to produce a standard 3 x 4 aspect ratio
image or using the "Ietterbox" format whe re the wide-
fra me linage is show n in its correct aspect ratio in the cen-
ter of the receiver, but with wide black areas above and
below the frame. While the letterbox format does reproduce
the original framing and composition, it is far from the
grandiose large-screen presentation which is part of the
original conception; therefore, the tradition has been to
"scan" the wide-frame images for television presentation.
For the mo t part, this is done skillfully, with care taken for
good framing of the recomposed images, and also with
ca reful regard fo r the ed itorial considera ti ons introduced
with the need occasionally to cut or pan from one side of
the wide frame to the other.
Shooting Videotape
for Transfer to Film
by Gavin Sc hutz, image Tra nsform, Inc.
The process of transferring videotape to film involves
a number of complex steps, not the least of which is the
method of converting 3O-frame video into a signal that
can be recorded into 24-frame film. Some of the fields of
the video signal must be discarded. Digital signal process-
ing techniques are employed to treat the video signals to
ma ke tl1em look be tter on film .
566
The cinematographer will need to know several
things about the nature of video signals an~ how ~ey
correspond with film attributes. The followmg section
will deal with some of these parameters, and also address
how the finished videotape wiU look when it is trans-
ferred to film. The general rule for shooting videotape that
w ill be transferred to film is no d iffe rent fro m general
p rac tice: make the video as good as poss ible. Th is w ill
involve giving attention to some factors that are not nor-
mally a problem when shooting film. These are all cov-
The most common question that is asked about tape
to film is "How much resolution is lost in the process"?
This is a difficult question to answer because it depends
upon what you call resolution, and what your frame of
reference is. In contrast to fi lm origination, in video there
a re two types of resolution, sta ti c an d dy na mic.
Resolution
Static Resolution is the amount of detail present in a
scene that contains no motion. In the television world, the
static resolution is measured in terms of bandwidth of the
video signal, or the amount of TV lines that are used to
build U,e signal. For example, NTSC is a 525-line 4.5 MHz
sys tem, w h ile PAL is a 625-line 5.5 MH z Signa l. This
mea ns tha t PA L has more s tatic reso lution than NTSC.
Film resolution is measured in line pairs per mm, and
is an attempt to quantify the maximum number of black
to white transitions in a millimeter of film frame. This
paramete,r contains many variables, su'!' .as the optical
transfer function of the film and other dlfficult-to-quan-
tify assumptions about the film. Fortunately, the line pairs
per millimeter can be converted into megahertz of band-
wid th to allow for comparisons to video. For example, it
is general ly recognized tlla t th e equi va lent "band w idth"
of 35mm mo tion-picture film is in the gene raJ area of
35MHz. This is about six times the resolution of most
broadcast video systems.
This means that a camera original negative captures
about six times the detail of a professional video camera.
Figures 1 and 2 show the differences in resolution be-
tween film and video. Figure 3 is a comparison between
the formats.
567
r
r olution the video systems. i why moving image appear
Video Resolution
I smother in video rather than the t pped film images. (Fig.
I I
tatic
3)
Dynamic

Units MHz Field Rate Video Film Resolulion

T Line Frame Rate
Film ideo
alue Hz
~.S TSC30 frS
P lS.5 1Hz PAl2S FPS Static 3SMHz T C 4.S Mfu
PAlS.S MHz
Figure 1
Dynamic 24 Fr

Film Resolution
I Figure 3.
I I
talie o namic

Line pairs Frame Rate

permm
boul3S MHz UFP
Figure 2
In th ~ag Tra.n form Sy tern, there is no significant
10 of tattc re lutton. This means that all static detail
present in th ori inal video ma ter i transferred to the
film . The u . of pat nt d ~ideband digital decoding and
~ompol~ent .' gnal pI' es mg ensure that all detail present
111 th . v~d. I pr rv d in the Transform process. How-
ever, It I IInp rtc nt to realize that the end result will not
have the ame tatic.re olLlti~n as original film, simply be-
cause the amowlt of mf rmabon recorded on the videotape
is les than would hav been recorded on the 35mm film.
F?rtun~tely, th r ar am thing that can be done to the
Video Ignal that will help its appearance when taken to
film. These a rc addre ed below.
Dynami r olution i defined as the amount of tem-
poral in.formati ~ contained in a cene having movement.
DynamIC r olution d pend upon the update rate of the
LInage .. B th film a~~ video images are sampled in time,
and tlu lead to a firute los of dynamic re olution (com-
pared t r al life) in bOtil ca . Dynamic resolution is dl-
r~ctly prop rtional to th frame sample rate. In the case of
film, th. ample rate is 24 frame per second. In NTSC, it i
30 and 111 P L, 25 frame per econd. Film has dynamic
568
Interlace Artifacts
This difference in d namic re olution is com-
pounded by the interlace structur of the ideo ignal.
The frame rate of 24 for film ver u the 30 frame update
rate of TSC is bad enough, however in mo t ca e pic-
hues originating on video are updated at the field rate.
Thi results in having effectively 60 pictures per second
(at half the static resolution) instead of the normal 30. The
challenge here is to take the 60 picture per econd and
reduce them to 24 piCh.rres per second without rendering
the motion artifacts unacceptable.
The information contained in a video frame is made
up of two discrete interlac d field. Care mu t be taken
to preserve the integrity of each of th e fields, as they are
both used to produce the final film frame. By a process
known as adaptive interpolation, video fields are aver-
aged with other fields from other frames to produce the
new frame. This averaging proces i po sible (and nec-
essary) because of the fact that there are more video
frames than there are required to be film frames. In the
Transform process some of the fields are discal'ded, and
the interpolation process is us d to m oth the motion
around the discarded fields. Obviously, the more infor-
mation there is to work with, the better the dynamic reso-
lution (smoother motion) . Because of this, care must be
taken not to pan the camera exce sively fast, because this
will result in a different pich.rre for every field. When this
frame is transferred to film, there will be two images on
the film frame. Clearer, sharper images will be obtained
569
r from slower pan rates. This applies to both vertical an d
horizontal pans.
Digital Effects
Advanced .digital effects generators and paint sys-
te~s. currently m u~ tend to operate on the video signal
as if It were ~ot an mterlaced system. These devices pro-
duc.e a new .lm~ge every field instead of every frame.
~e resulting m much smoother motion of video tape,
this method can result in a film image that is fragmented
and sometim blurred.
Because of the throwaway field sequence (see Fig. S),
an apparentl mooth video effect generated in field
mode rendering can appear disjointed and unnatural
when transferred to film. The amount of degradation
depend upon the type of video effect. Very slow hori-
zontal or vertical movement is usually acceptable. As the
rate of mo ement i increased, the artifacts become more
objectionable.
The b t way to avoid these temporal related artifacts
is to refrain .from using the more ambitious digital effects
that:u-e avail.able. Any effect that is characterized by rapid
vertical, honzontal or temporal motion will cause these
discontinuities. They will be very noticeable in the film
and should b avoided, if at all possible. Some of the more
recent digital effects devices offer two modes of render-
ing ffi?tion - f~e ld and frame mode. When generating
matenal that Will be transferred to film, use the frame
rendering mode.
!'J0te that vertically crawling title sequences (such as
credits) represent about the absolute worst case, and il-
lustra te all of the prob!ems noted above. When editing in
the credIts, fade them m and out rather than having them
crawl vertically.
Graphics Rendering
Graphic and CGr (Computer Generated Images) ef-
fects hould be r ndered in frame mode (Le. make sure
that both field of a video frame are the same) rather than
field mode beau e this allows better interpolation.
In the case of CGr where the effects are rendered a
~eld at .a time, there is a way to ensure against any me-
bo.n arbfact:>. Becau e these images are usually rendered
a field at a time and are recorded by videotape machines
570
in animation m ode, it is sometime po ible to artificially
"build in" a 3:2 sequence. In thi m thod an image that
has been rendered by computer is recorded for three
fields of video. The next image rendered is then recorded
for two video fields. the resulting animated image is the
functional equivalent of a 24 frame film tran fer, and (as
discussed below) can be taken to film without motion
artifacts of any kind.
Because the rendering of complicated graphics ( uch
a animated sequences) or integrating video with se-
quence that contain original film material is a complex
process, it often pays to consult with the facility that will
be doing the tape-to-film tran fer before integrating or
generating the CGr sequence . In some cases, techniques
can be employed on some of the lat t graphics platforms
( uch as the Quantel Harry) that will produce a "perfect"
film transfer (i.e. a perfect correlation between the video
and film images).
The use of variable- peed video or time-compre ed
video material should be avoided a it introduces easily
noticed motion discontinuiti in video which are made
worse in the tape-to-film proce
Film to Tape to Film
Another aspect that needs to b con idered is the
problem associated with editing material that originated
on film with material that ha be n originated on video-
tape (Le. film to tape to film) . In many cases material that
has been shot on videotape will b int rcut
It can be seen that an extra field i in erted into the
video to make up for the diH renee in frame rates between
24-frame film and 3D-frame vid o. I.n figure 4 this is the
fie ld labeled "3".
The tape-to-film system mu t detect which field was
inserted in the telecine proces and use it as the throw-
away field . If this is succe sful, the re ulting film trans-
fer will be perfect - th ere i no way to teU the difference
between it and origina l film . In most cases, the equence
is repetitive and will not change for the duration of the
transfer. Moreover, there are only two ways the sequence
can be mapped out 2/3/2/3. or 3/2/3/2. This is iLlus-
trated in figureS. The problem ari e when material from
different sources is edited together on videotape. It is tl1en
po ible that, once the pieces are a embled together, the
field sequence is disrupted, giving a quence such as 3/
571
 Frame Rate Conversio n In order to produce the best possible transfer, it is
desirable that the tape-to-film house used for the trans-
- - - - - -- 24 Frames per Second - - -- - -- fer i able to dynamically determine the sequence and
Film Frame} Film Frame 2
adapt the throwaway field sequence accordi11gly. This is
done at Image Transform by computer-controlled ignal
3 4 processing. It is offered as part of the scene-ta-scene color
Field} Field 2
correction proces .

I Video Frame I Video Frame 2 Video Frame 3 Video Signal Processing

Scene-to-scene color correction, dynarrtic enhance-
30 Frames per Second - - - - - - -
ment, smear correction and phase correction are some
Film 10 Tape Field Sequence methods used in the tape-to-film process to overcome
llmitations of the video environment. These techniques
Figure 4
are employed to help make the videotape look as much
like film as possible. For example, the gamma and clip-
Frame Rate Conversion
ping levels are changed to emulate the transfer function
of film . Where possible, the use of electronic processing
30 Frames per Second to the transfer process should be kept to a minim urn. This
2 I will help avoid an overprocessed look in the product.
Video Frame 1 I Video Frame Video Frame 3
Always bear in mi11d that a motion-picture screen is

I Fie~d 2 I IFie~d 21
3 5 much larger than a television monitor and care must be
I Fie:d 1 Field} I Fie:d 2 I Field}
taken in the video production to allow for the best pos-
sible end result. Small defects in the video can be quite
Field 3 is dropped
objectionable when projected on a large screen.

Film Frame} Film Frame 2 Lighting and Cameras

- - - - - - - 24 Frames per Second ---I
Tape 10 Film Field equence
Figure 5.
2/2/3,2/3/3/2, etc. The result is that a disrupted Frame
3 s guence w ill produce very noticeable discontil1luties
in all scenes that contain any motion because the wrong
field will be discarded duri11g the tape-to-film transf r.
Unfortunately, there is no way of mowing that the se-
9uence has been disturbed until the video is actually be-
mg tran ferred, simply becau e it is not possible to pre-
dict wh re the videotape ed its will occur and what the
equence is at that point. Other examples of thi occur
\ hen foreground / background matting is done and one
of the elements is out of equence with the other.
572
In most cases, it is sufficient to shoot using e tab-
lished practices for video production. It is valid to ay that
the quality of a film print will be i11directly proportional
to the quality of the video source material. When shoot-
ing the video, use the full dynarrtic range available and
avoid crushi11g the blacks or cljpping white area of the
scene. Ensure that the camera clip levels for each color are
set the same.
Scene-to-scene color correction is usually performed
as part of the tape-to-film process to ensure that the re-
sulting film is colorime tri cally correct. This includes
scene-to-scene manipulation of RGB gain, gamma and
pede tal, as well as hue and saturation control. In the
process of transformi11g tape-to-film, color matrixing and
transfer characteristics of the video are chang d to help
make video look more Hke film.
In order to achieve best results, the video should be
shot with adequate and even lighting, using the best avail-
573
able cameras. The choice of camera will depend upon the
na ture of the subject material. The choice of CCO or con-
ventional (tube-based) video cameras will depend on the
available light as well as the amount of control that the
director of photography has over the scene. Inadequately
lit scenes may suffer from decreased resolution and ex-
cessive noise. In general, CCO cameras are better suited
to low light levels. Proper care should be directed to mini-
mize noise and other artifacts introduced as a result of
using the cameras outside of their normal range. The
video medium does not have the same dynamic range as
film.
Recent developments in the field of CCO technology
have made these cameras very popular. They do not suf-
fer from regish-ation, overload, lag or comet-tailing like
their tube counterparts. In the case of tube cameras, make
sure the registration is set correctly as this is one of the
few problems that cannot be corrected during the trans-
form-to-film process.
Most modern video cameras come with a knob called
"enhancement:[ "aperture" or "coring." These adjust-
ments are to increase the apparent resolution of the pic-
ture, and make the images sharper. They also make them
noisier, and when overused, they will put a dark black
edge around subjects in the pictures. These artifacts will
look very w1natural when transferred to film. When ad-
justing these controls, make sure that they are not subject
to overuse. Most good video cameras will require a mini-
mum amount of this type of correction. In-camera en-
hancement and coring should be kept to a minimum. A
good guide when setting up camera enhancement is fo-
cusing to an optical multiburst chart, and setting the en-
hancement to provide a flat frequency response at 400 TV
lines on the waveform monitor. Avoid using an image in
the viewfinder or monitor to set enhancement levels be-
cause overcompensation can occur as a result of poor
monitor resolution.
Videotape Formats
There are many different video formats available for
recording video. These include the W' consumer and ¥4"
industrial formats, up to the I" composite and 0-1 com-
ponent professional formats. The former (V2," ¥4") are gen-
erally not suitable for transfer to film because they lack
the necessa ry bandwidth and do not have the required
574
signal-to-noise ratios needed for a good transfer to film.
Some industrial films, however, are shot on W' videotape
and transferred successfully to 16mm film for in-house
distribution. The results can be acceptable when projected
on small screens. Materials supplied on one of these for-
mats usually need some form of noise reduction and en-
hancement prior to being transferred.
Scene-to-scene color correction requires I" C format,
0-1,0-2 or 0-3 videotape. Material supplied on other
formats will need to be dubbed to one of these formats if
scene-to-scene color correction is required. The use of
high-energy, low-noise, low-dropout professional grade
videotape is recommended, and the number of genera-
tions should be kept to a minimum.
There is no doubt that the best available formats for
tape-to-film transfers are I" C forma t, or one of the digi-
tal formats that have been shot with studio-quality cam-
eras. If 35mm theatrical release is desired, the use of one
of these formats is mandatory.
The use of component systems, such as the Sony
Betacam SP and the Panasonic M II format, as well as
other systems where the video signal is recorded as a se-
ries of luminance and chrominance (i .e. not composite
video), can be successful to full 1" production. When con-
sidering the use of industrial and consumer formats, con-
sult with the transfer facility prior to beginning produc-
tion.
Images produced by the Betacam SP system often
approach that of I" quality without some of the I" limi-
tations (such as cost and ease of use in the field). Higher
chrominance resolution and the lack of cross-color effects
are big advantages. These advantages, however are only
maintained if the signals stay in component form all the
way through origination, postproduction and editing.
They are lost if the signal is encoded at any stage.
One method of producing extremely good pictures
is to shoot video using a component system, then master
to the digital 0-1 tape format. Great success has been
achieved by shooting using a Betacam SP camera/re-
corder, then editing component using SP playback ma-
chines and the 0-1 as a master record machine. There are
several postproduction facilities that specialize in compo-
nent editing systems. Make sure that the signal is always
kept component - never encoded to NTSC. Many docu-
575
r men taries and full-length feature presen ta ti ons have been
sho t in this way.
The use of downstream noise reduction during ed-
iting should be avoided as this is an integral part of the
film transform process. Doubling up on noise reduction
will produce images that appear blurred and unnatural,
as well as decreasing the available resolution and leav-
ing objectionable artifacts.
AU of the active picture area is presen,ed in the tape-
to-film transfer process. There is a slight loss of picture
area in the printing process; however, the negative will
contain all the information originaUy in the video picture.
576
References
Books and Pam phJets
Abbott, L.B., ASC: "Special Effects with Wire, Tape and
Rubber Bands," ASC Press, 1984.
ACVL Handbook, Association of Cinema and Video Labo-
ratories.
ANSI Standards, American aliona! Standards Institute.
Cox, Arthur, "Optics...The Technique of Definition," Focal
Press, London, 1961.
Dllnn, Linwood C., ASC, and TUTner, George E., "ASC
Treas ury of Visua l Effects," ASC Press,1983.
Eas tman Kodak Publication B-3: Filters.
Eastm an Kodak Pub lica ti on H-23: The Book of Fi lm Ca re.
Eastman Kodak Pu blication: Ultrav iolet an d Fl uo rescence
Pho tography.
Eastman Kodak Publication N-17: infrared Films.
Evarts, R.M, WT. Hanson)r.,and W.L. Brewer, "Principles
of Color Photography," John Wiley & Sons Inc., ew
York,1953.
Fielding, Raymond,"The Technique ofSpecial Effects Cin-
ematography," Focal Press, London, 1972.
Happe, Bernard, "Your Film and the Lab," Focal Press,
London, 1974.
Harrison, H.K., "The Mystery of Fil ters-II," Harrison &
Harrison, 1981.
Hy pia, )orma, " Th e Co mplete Tiffen Filte r Man ual,"
Am Photo, New York.
Ki ngslake, Rudolf, "Lenses in Photography," Gard en Ci ty
Books, 1951.
Kisner, W.l. (editor), "Control Techniques in Film Process-
ing," SMPTE, New York, 1960.
Mees, C.E.K., "lne Theory of the Photographic Process,"
Macmillan, New York, 19-12, 1945, 195-1,1966,1977.
Mertens, Lawrence, " In Water Photography: Theory and
Practice," Wiley lnterscience, John Wiley & Sons, ew
York,1970.
r Ryan, R.T., "A History of Motion Picture Color Technol- Index
ogy," Focal Pre , London, 1977.
A lighting 10 elimina te
Ryan, R.T.(Editor), "Principles of Color Sensitometry,"
Aerial cinematography 489
SMPTE, ew York, 1974. Aerial image cinematog-
raphy 481
Ryan, R.T., "Underwa ter Photographic Applications -
Aerial mounls 255
lntroducti n," SMPTE Journal, December 1973, Vol- Anamorphic
ume 2, umber 12. lenses 13
Aperture 261
Spotti wood, Ra mond, "Theory of Stereoscopic Transmis- Aperture, Academy 13
ion," C Pre ,1953. Aperture, fuIJ 13
Auticcinematography ~
Thomas Jr., Woodlief, "SPSE Handbook of Photographic equipment and filming
ience and Engineering," John Wiley & Sons, ew technique 50S
film 509
York,1973.
preparation of equipment 505
Tiffen anufacturing Corporation Publication T179: Tiffen storage 510
Photar Filter Glass. ASA: Exposure Indexes 120
Aspect Ratios 15
Wil on, nton, "Cinema Workshop," ASC Pre ,19 3, 1.85 Aspect Ratio 15
1991. 235 Aspect Ratio 1
Super 35 Formals 20
B dollies 250
Journals
B.lckground plates 394
American Cinematographer, ASC Holding Corp. Bamdoors 390
Batteries and cables 261
BKSTS Journal, "Image Technology," British Kinema-
Black & white film 120
tograph, Solmd and Television Society. Bla k & whi te negative and
reversal films 283
SMPTE Journal, Society Of Motion Picture and Televi ion
Blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527
Engineers. composing 16mm for blowup
t035mm 528
composing Super 16mm for
blowup to 35mm 530
laboratory procedures 533
Super 16mm 529
titles 531
zero-cut edjting 533
Bl ue screen process
black & white self-matting
process 445
blue floor shooting 436
blue screen materials 437
electronk and iligital
compositing 444
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
Ijght level for the Stewart T-
ma tte 437
lighting a front-illuminated
backing 438
had w 439
lighting to hold Shadow 438
lighting to match back-
ground 439
other lighting consider-
ations 440
reverse blue screen 453
reverse front projection 457
screen types and lighting -l34
transm ' i n blue screen 453
using the UltiMatte Video
Previewer 440
c
Camera a i tant 269
Camera body 260
Camera labilizing y tems 253
inema Product teadicam
(Universal Model HI) 253
Panavi ion Panaglide 254
Camera upporls 2-16
Camera supports
cranes 246
amera ,16mm 86
Aaton XTRpiu 86
Arrifle 16BL 95
Arriflex 165/ B; l65 / B-GS;
16M/B 97
Arritlex 165R-2
ArriO x 165R-3 93
Arritlex Super 16 91
Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo
70 101
Bolex 16mm (All Models) 99
Cinema Products CP-16 & CP-
16A 102
Cinema Products CP-16R & CP-
16R/A 104
Cinema Products G MO
16mm 105
Ecla ir ACL 160101 107
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108
Eclair PR 16mm 109
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS
& HSC 1ll
Mitchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16
Singl Sy tem, DSR-16 113
Panavision Panaflex 16mm
Camera System 114
Cameras,35mm 45
r
Aaton 35-11 4
Aaton 35mm I-Iand-
holdable 45
Arriflex 35-2 57
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed
MOS 52
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arriflex 35BL-4s 5*
ArrifJe 535 47
Arriflex 535B 50
Cinema Products FX35 59
Cinema Products R35
Lightweight tudio
Camera 61
Eclair -316/ 35mm
Feathercam C - 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
Mitchell 35mm tandard &
High peed Cameras 67
Mitchell 'e. CR, B C, B CR
(35mm 64
Mitchell S35R (Mark II)
35mm 66
Moviecam Super 35mm 69
Panafle_ Pana tar High-
peed 75
Panavision Gn Golden
Panafle 74
Panavisi n Panafle -X 75
Panavision Platinum Panaflex
35mm 70
Panavision Super R-200·
35mm 76
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4B/ 4C 79
Photo-Sonies 35mm-4ER 79
Ultracam 35mm 80
Cameras,65mm 31
Arriflex 765 31
Cinema Product CP-65 33
Fries Model 6565mm /
perf 34
Mitd'ell 65mm Refl x T DD-
AO 36
Mitchell FC, BF (65mm) 64
MSM Model 8 7065mm /
perf 37
Panavisi n 65nlln A
(Auxiliary amera) P
(Speed C 39
Panavi ion Panaflex ystem-65
Hand-holdabl 43
Panavi ion ystem-65
65mm 39
Cameras, VistaVi i n 1
M M Model 123-mm/ perf
VistaVi ion 1
580
Wilcam W-ll VistaVision
Sound Speed 85
Wileam W-7 VistaVision High
Speed 82
Wileam W-9 VistaVision
Lightweight 83
Catadioptric or Reflective
S stems 152
Chapman-Electra I Stage
Crane 250
Chapman- ike/ Electra Il Stage
Crane 250
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly 250
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile
Crane 249
Chapman-Titan Il Mobile
Crane 248
Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane 249
CID Lamps 350
Cinema Products Steadicam
(Universal odellD) 253
Cinematographic Systems 1
16mm S stems 9
35mm Systems 3
special purpose systems 10
Cinematography, pecial
techniques
aerial 487
arctic 504
blOWUp: 16mm to 35mm 527
infrared 521
day-for-night 518
stereoscopic technology 534
television film 561
3-D cinematography 538
tropical 511
ultraviolet photography 523
underwater 495
Color difference traveling matte
system 431
Color film 119
Color Rendering Index 320
Color reversal films 282
Color temperature 316
Commercial/Industrial light
sou rce 354
AC arc lamp flicker prob-
lem 376
AC disd'arge lighting 355
domestic incandescent
lighting 354
existing fluorescent lighting on
location 355
filter selection 365
Common topline 22
Composite photogra-
phy 'lIS, 430, 445
color difference traveling matte
system 431
!!lectronic scanned film for
composites 451
filmstock 446
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
rear-screen projection 415
reverse blu!! screen 453
transrni ion blue screen 453
Ultin1atte "screen correc-
tion" -l5O
video and electronic scan-
ning-l5O
Computl!r graphics 467
2-D and 3-D images -l69
basic tools and terms 467
digital frame stores 469
graphics tablet 469
image processing 474
mod!!ling 469
paintbox systems 469
recording 473
rendering 471
scanning 472
Continental carn!!ra a!!rial mount
255
Correlated color tempera-
ture 318
Cranes 246
Chapman-Electra I Stage
cran!! 250
Chapman- ike/Electra IT Stage
cran!! 250
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobil!!
crane 249
Chapman-Titan II Mobile
crane 248
Chapman-Z!!us Stage
cran!! 249
Louma Crane by Samcine 246
MC 88 Crane 247
!!ttrnan Cam-Remote by
Matth!!ws 247
Th!! Crane by Matthews 246
Crystal-Controlled Cordles
Camera Drive System 242
tin,e code 243
CSllamps 348
o
Daily pr!!paration for shoot-
ing 266
Day-for-ni ht cinematog-
raphy 51
black & white film 520
negative color film 521
reversal col r film 520
DC Carbon Arc Sources 340
c lor temperature 340
operating characteristics 340
filters 340
DCI- DC metal halide arc
discharge lamps 347
Dedolight 383
Depth of field 161
Depth of field for dose-up
photography 167
Depth of focus 162
Di ffusers 392
Digital Audio Tape (OAT)
recorder 545
Digital effects cinematog-
raphy 460
Digital frame tores 469
Diopter lenses 166
Dollies 250
Chapman-Sidewinder
dolly 250
Elemack Cricket dolly 251
Fisher Crab dolly 251
FGV Panther 252
Dynalens 173
E
EBU (Europea n Broadcasting
Union) 243
Edge numbers 121
Electr nic intermediate
ystem 462
Elemack Cricket d lIy 251
Em ulsion testing 294
ca libration 294
Enclosed AC arcs 341
Exposure 270
Exposure meters 233
Cinemeter n 238
incident light m ters 233
Minolla Luminance 239
reflected light meters 236
pectra Cinespot 10 spot
meter 240
peelra ProfessionallY 240
E posur meters
t ting 238
r Expo~ ure reportin g 28 1 G Lens formulas 160 HMl lamps 342
Extension of prime lens 166 d epth o f field 16 1 illumination data 324
Ex treme dose-up 165 Gel fra mes 391
Cobos 392 de pth of focus 162 incandescent light sources 33 1
depth of field for dose-up hyperfocal distance 160 luminaires 380
photography 167 G raphics tablet .wJ
Grip accessories 392 lens angle and field of mercury vapor and color
~ formulas 168
GyrosphfTe aerial mount 255 view 163 imprt)\'ed mercury
F 'ens aperture 165 lamps 357
H lens displacement 165 mctal halide additive
feY Panther 252 Lens housing 263 lamps 360
Film 119 High-pressure DC short arc
l.enses 142,. 262 MlRED system 319
ASA: ('xposure inde:>..es J20 xenon light soUm'S 352
anamorphic lenses 142 photographic light
black &. white 120 High-resoluti(Hl electronic
auxiliary lenses 142 s<><u«s 328
color 119 intermediate system 462
care and maintenance 143 physical characteristks of light
color l'K'gilli\'l' 119, 120 HMl lamps J.l2
condensation 145 sou rces 314
color rl"\'ers..ll rnmera HyperfOGII distanc(> 160
diop ter lenses 166 sodium lam ps 361
films 119 modulaHon transfer function spectral energy d istribution
colur rc\'ers.l1 fitm 121 (MTF) 143 (SED) 324
t.'<lgc nu mbers 12 1 Ill um ination data 324 normallense5 142 stroboscop ic lig hting 353
Fi lm hillld ling ilnd storage 125 Image processing 474 removing lens retainer Louma Crane by S., mcine 246
proc(.'Sscd film storage 126 hn>lge Transform system 568 rings 144 Luminaires 380
"Film lonk" 563 l nc<lnd~sce nt lig h t sources 33 1 scl ~ct i u n of 142 cyclorama lum ina ires 388
Film ['crfora tions 123 boosted -vo ltage operati on 337 specia l purpose [enSl..'S 170 dedolight 383
16mlll film s 123 fillers for incandescent split-field diopter lenses 168 fresnel lens spotlights 381
35mm Fi lms 124 la mps 338 telepho to lenses 148 light-eontrol accessories 390
65mm Films 1 2~ incand escent lamp o pera· testing 143 open reflecto r variable beam
lOmm Films 12-\ tion J3.I zoom lenses 142, 153 spolligh ts 385
pitch 123 standard incandescent 332 Light control accessories 390 scaled-beam types (PAR
Film tests 266 tungsten-halogen lamps 333 bam doors 390 lamps) 390
Fillers 263 Incident light melers 233 dif(users 392 soft lights 388
combination fIllers 331 special effects 235 gel frames 391 tungsten-halogen flood·
colwersion-type fillers 330 specific situations 235 gobos 392 lights 387
fill('f'S for control of natural grip accessories for light
daylight 330 K control 392 M
filters for incandescent Ken\\Torthy Snorkel camera reIIect"", 392 Magazine 264
lamps 338 system In .scrim 391 Matle Box 264
neutl1ll-density fillers 330 Lighting MC 88 Crane 247
Ricker problems »6 l characteristics of light Meters 5l't' Exposure meters
Auorcscent ligh ting for motion Laboratory 280 sources 313 Microphone p lacement 5SO
pictures 359 black & wh ite negative and C ID lam ps 350 Miniature photography 420
Forced de"elopment of color re versal films 283 color balancing for photogra- model size 421
films 283 color reversal film s 282 phy 363 shooting speeds 422
Frcsnellcns spotlights 381 exposu re reporting 28 1 color rendering index 320 M IRED Ssystem 3 19
Fron t projection process 399 nashing 284 color tempera ture 316 Modeling 469
brigh tness nnd color mnlch- forced developmen t of color cCllnmc rcial/ i.lldustri>l 1lig ht Mod ulation T ransfe r Function
ing 412 fi lms 283 sources 354 (MTF) 143
ha lo e (fccl 409 correlatccl color tem pera-
printer points 280 Chart 145
m inimum foreground-object ture 318
release-printing p roce- Motion-control cine ma tog-
d istances 41 1 du res 282 CSlla mps 348 raphy 424
re\,('rse front projection457 OC Ca rbon Arc sources 3-10
special p rocessing 282
Srotchlite screen 402 Lamps 262 DCI - OC M etal Halide arc N
tesselating the screen 4{).l Lens angle and field of vicw 163 discharge lamps 347
Z-Axis displaccmmt for alural Daylight 328
Lens aperture 165 enclosed AC arcs 3-11
cioseups -U2 nuorcscent lightingformotion Filters for control of 3JO
Lens extenders (multipliers) 151 'ettman Cam-Remote by
Lens focus calibration 264 pictUlt'S 359
Matthews 247
high-press~ DC short arc
xenon light sources 352
r
o Re ference black See Tclecine
OpticOl I printer 475
p opera tion
Paintbox systems 469
Panavision Pan.lglide 25-1
Photographic light sour«'S 328
nalural daylight 328
Photographic leshng and
evaluation 288
equipml'f\t 28S
1.,bcJr<110ry/ pl"ClCeSSl printer
scale/ ('mulsion b.ltch :!91
,'isual effects: Jighltng. filters.
image modifkat 292
Pilch 123
Plate photography
b.:lckground plates 394
Prepar.l!ion of Equipmcnt 25M
aperture 261
batteries .tnd cabk~ 261
camera ilssislanl Z~
camera body 260
daily prt.'p.l~tion for
shooting 266
equipment checkout 259
film Il'Sb 266
filll~rs 263
im'entory E8
in\'Oice cm."Ck 259
lamp:. 262
lens focus ca hbralion
lens housing 263
lenses 262
m..g.1Zinc 26-1
matte box 26-1
optional item:. 26S
scratch 1 {.~1 265
spreader 259
sleild iness lest 266
tools 267
tri pod head 260
tri pod s 259
va ri" blL' shullo.'l' 262
vid eo ,1s:.i:.l : vick o ClImer,l,
monitor
;md record 26-1
\,jcwfind er 262
Loom [ells 263
zoom molor 263
Printer pomts 280
R optical printer 475
ReM-SCI\."'('n pro;ection -115
Recordmg 473
operation
Reference white St'e TcJecinc
Reflected Light Meters 236
spot meters 237
Reflectors 392
u Relatin~' humidity". Sn-Tropical
cinema tography
Release-Printing Procedul"l'S 282
Rendering -In
Resolution 567
dynamic resolution 568
Image T ransfonn system 568
5 recorder 54S
"Safe action area" 565• .se.:01<:0
Cinematographic systems
"'5.1fe title a«'a~ 5t't: Cinemato-
graphic systems
Scolchlite SO'l't'n -102
Scra tch test 265
Scrim 391
Soft lights 388
Sound recording 548
microphone placement 550
use of tape recorders 553
Sound systems, synchronizing
.se.: Synchronizing methods
Sp.u:('Glm aerial mount 256
Special cinematogr.Jphic systems
videotape-to-film 566
26-1
Special processing 282
Speeia I purpose lenses 170
Continl'Otal Camera svs-
terns 171 • filters 1-19
D)'llalens 173
Kenworthy Sno rkel Camera
systems 172
P,mavision -ISmm 1'2.8 Slant-
Focus lens 17 1
Swi ng Shift lens 170
Special visual e ffects 39-1
background pla tes 394
computer g raph ics 467
d igital effects cinemntog-
r,l phy -I6O
electronic intermed ia te
system -162
fro nt-projection p rocess 399
miniature photography 420
motion-eontrol 0124
rear-screen projection 415
troweling matte composite
photography 430
Spectra l Ene rgy Distri bu tio n
(SED) 324
Time Code 243
current synchronizil tion
Split-field djopters 168 systems and time
Spot meters 237 code 54-t
Spreader 259 Tools 267
Steadiness test 266 Traveling matte composite
Stereoscopic motion picture photography 430
technology 534 Tripod head 260
J.D p rojection 537 Tripods 259
optical "flat'" projection 537 Tropical cinematography 511
stcrroscopic/J.D camera black & white film 515
systems 534 col~ film 516
Stroboscopic lighting 353 maintenance of equip--
Synchronizing methods 5-W ment 515
Digital AudioTape (DAT) preparation and protection of
equipmcot 513
Synchronizing with non-time storage of photographic
rode DATs 547 materials 512
current systems and time Tyler camera arial mount 256
rode 5-I-l
early sync-pulse systems 5-13 u
syndlronous motors and Ult raviolet photogrnphy 523
selsyns 5U detennining exposure 526
films 526
T Special considerations 526
T-Stops 270 Underwater cinematography 497
Tape recorders 553
Telccinc SerTelevision film v
cinematogra phy Variable shuller 262
and contrast 561
Video assist: video camera,
automatic telerine opera-
monitor
tion 5&l
and record 264
Telephoto lenses 1-18
Videotape-to-film 566
catadioptric o r reflectiw
digital effects 570
systems 152
film to tape to fil m 571
graphics renderi ng 570
k'fls extendecs (multipli-
interlace artifacts 569
ers) 151
lighting nnd cameras 573
Telephoto lenses
resolution 567
techniques 149
vid eo signal processing 573
Telev ision film cinematogra- vid eotape fo rma ts 574
phy 561
View finder 262
contrast 562
"fi lm look" 563 w
telev is ion film apertures 565
"television gamma" 563 Wesca rn aeria l mou nt 257
The C rane by Matthews 246
Z
3-D cinematog raphy 538
3- D motion pictu re Zoom lenses 153, 263
technology. Set: stereoscopic cine zoom lenses on video
motion p icture technology cameras 159
35mm blowups to 70uun do's and don't's 156
prints 26 maintenance of 159
mechanics of 154
zoom motor 263