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 Preface v

Preface

As the title of the book ‘How to learn calculus of one variable’ Suggests we have tried to present the entire
book in a manner that can help the students to learn the methods of calculus all by themselves we have felt that
there are books written on this subject which deal with the theoretical aspects quite exhaustively but do not
take up sufficient examples necessary for the proper understanding of the subject matter thoroughly. The
books in which sufficient examples are solved often lack in rigorous mathematical reasonings and skip accurate
arguments some times to make the presentation look apparently easier.
We have, therefore, felt the need for writing a book which is free from these deficiencies and can be used as
a supplement to any standard book such as ‘Analytic geometry and calculus’ by G.B. Thomas and Finny which
quite thoroughly deals with the proofs of the results used by us.
A student will easily understand the underlying principles of calculus while going through the worked-out
examples which are fairly large in number and sufficiently rigorous in their treatment. We have not hesitated to
work-out a number of examples of the similar type though these may seem to be an unnecessary repetition. This
has been done simply to make the students, trying to learn the subject on their own, feel at home with the
concepts they encounter for the first time. We have, therefore, started with very simple examples and gradually
have taken up harder types. We have in no case deviated from the completeness of proper reasonings.
For the convenience of the beginners we have stressed upon working rules in order to make the learning all
the more interesting and easy. A student thus acquainted with the basics of the subject through a wide range
of solved examples can easily go for further studies in advanced calculus and real analysis.
We would like to advise the student not to make any compromise with the accurate reasonings. They should
try to solve most of examples on their own and take help of the solutions provided in the book only when it is
necessary.
This book mainly caters to the needs of the intermediate students whereas it can also used with advantages
by students who want to appear in various competitive examinations. It has been our endeavour to incorporate
all the finer points without which such students continually feel themselves on unsafe ground.
We thank all our colleagues and friends who have always inspired and encouraged us to write this book
everlastingly fruitful to the students. We are specially thankful to Dr Simran Singh, Head of the Department of
Lal Bahadur Shastri Memorial College, Karandih, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, who has given valuable suggestions
while preparing the manuscript of this book.
Suggestions for improvement of this book will be gratefully accepted.

DR JOY DEV GHOSH

MD ANWARUL HAQUE
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 Contents vii

Contents

Preface v

1. Function 1
2. Limit and Limit Points 118
3. Continuity of a Function 151
4. Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 159
5. Practical Methods of Continuity Test 271
6. Derivative of a Function 305
7. Differentiability at a Point 321
8. Rules of Differentiation 354
9. Chain Rule for the Derivative 382
10. Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 424
11. Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 478
12. Implicit Differentiation 499
13. Logarithmic Differentiation 543
14. Successive Differentiation 567
15. L’Hospital’s Rule 597
16. Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 615
17. Derivative as Rate Measurer 636
18. Approximations 666
viii Contents

19. Tangent and Normal to a Curve 692

20. Rolle’s Theorem and Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 781
21. Monotonocity of a Function 840
22. Maxima and Minima 870

Bibliography 949
Index 950

1
Function
To define a function, some fundamental concepts are
required.
Fundamental Concepts
Question: What is a quantity?
Answer: In fact, anything which can be measured or
which can be divided into parts is called a quantity.
But in the language of mathematics, its definition is
put in the following manner.
Definition: Anything to which operations of
mathematics (mathematical process) such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division or measurement
etc. are applicable is called a quantity.
Numbers of arithmetic, algebraic or analytic
expressions, distance, area, volume, angle, time,
weight, space, velocity and force etc. are all examples
of quantities.
Any quantity may be either a variable or a constant.
Note: Mathematics deals with quantities which have
values expressed in numbers. Number may be real or
imaginary. But in real analysis, only real numbers as
values such as –1, 0, 15, 2 , p etc. are considered.
Question: What is a variable?
Answer:
Definitions 1: (General): If in a mathematical discus-
sion, a quantity can assume more than one value,
then the quantity is called a variable quantity or sim-
ply a variable and is denoted by a symbol.
Example: 1. The weight of men are different for dif-
ferent individuals and therefore height is a variable.
Function 1
2. The position of a point moving in a circle is a
variable.
Definition: 2. (Set theoritic): In the language of set
theory, a variable is symbol used to represent an
unspecified (not fixed, i.e. arbitrary) member (element
or point) of a set, i.e., by a variable, we mean an element
which can be any one element of a set or which can
be in turn different elements of a set or which can be
a particular unknown element of a set or successively
different unknown elements of a set. We may think of
a variable as being a “place-holder” or a “blank” for
the name of an element of a set.
Further, any element of the set is called a value of
the variable and the set itself is called variable’s
domain or range.
If x be a symbol representing an unspecified
element of a set D, then x is said to vary over the set
D (i.e., x can stand for any element of the set D, i.e., x
can take any value of the set D) and is called a variable
on (over) the set D whereas the set D over which the
variable x varies is called domain or range of x.
Example: Let D be the set of positive integers and x
Î D = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}, then x may be 1, 2, 3, 4, … etc.
Note: A variable may be either (1) an independent
variable (2) dependent variable. These two terms have
been explained while defining a function.
Question: What is a constant?
Answer:
Definition 1. (General): If in a mathematical
discussion, a quantity cannot assume more than one
2 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
vale, then the quantity is called a constant or a
constant quantity and is denoted by a symbol.
Examples: 1. The weights of men are different for
different individuals and therefore weight is a variable.
But the numbers of hands is the same for men of
different weights and is therefore a constant.
2. The position of a point moving in a circle is a
variable but the distance of the point from the centre
of the circle is a constant.
3. The expression x + a denotes the sum of two
quantities. The first of which is variable while the
second is a constant because it has the same value
whatever values are given to the first one.
Definition: 2. (Set theoritic): In the language of set
theory, a constant is a symbol used to represent a
member of the set which consists of only one member,
i.e. if there is a variable ‘c’ which varies over a set
consisting of only one element, then the variable ‘c’
is called a constant, i.e., if ‘c’ is a symbol used to
represent precisely one element of a set namely D,
then ‘c’ is called a constant.
Example: Let the set D has only the number 3; then
c = 3 is a constant.
Note: Also, by a constant, we mean a fixed element
of a set whose proper name is given. We often refer to
the proper name of an element in a set as a constant.
Moreover by a relative constant, we mean a fixed
element of a set whose proper name is not given. We
often refer to the “alias” of an element in a set as a
relative constant.
Remark: The reader is warned to be very careful
about the use of the terms namely variable and
constant. These two terms apply to symbols only not
to numbers or quantities in the set theory. Thus it is
meaningless to speak of a variable number (or a
variable quantity) in the language of set theory for
the simple reason that no number is known to human
beings which is a variable in any sense of the term.
Hence the ‘usual’ text book definition of a variable as
a quantity which varies or changes is completely
misleading in set theory.
Kinds of Constants
There are mainly two kinds of constants namely:
1. Absolute constants (or, numerical constants).
2. Arbitrary constants (or, symbolic constants).
Each one is defined in the following way:
1. Absolute constants: Absolute constants have the
same value forever, e.g.:
(i) All arithmetical numbers are absolute constants.
Since 1 = 1 always but 1 ¹ 2 which means that the
value of 1 is fixed. Similarly –1 = –1 but –1 ¹ 1 (Any
quantity is equal to itself. this is the basic axiom of
mathematics upon which foundation of equations
takes rest. This is why 1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 3, … x = x and
a = a and so on).
(ii) p and logarithm of positive numbers (as log2, log
3, log 4, … etc) are also included in absolute constants.
2. Arbitrary constants: Any arbitrary constant is
one which may be given any fixed value in a problem
and retains that assigned value (fixed value)
throughout the discussion of the same problem but
may differ in different problems.
An arbitrary constant is also termed as a parameter.
Note: Also, the term “parameter” is used in speaking
of any letter, variable or constant, other than the
coordinate variables in an equation of a curve defined
by y = f (x) in its domain.
Examples: (i) In the equation of the circle x2 + y2 =
a2, x and y, the coordinates of a point moving along a
circle, are variables while ‘a’ the radius of a circle may
have any constant value and is therefore an arbitrary
constant or parameter.
(ii) The general form of the equation of a straight line
put in the form y = mx + c contains two parameters
namely m and c representing the gradient and y-inter-
cept of any specific line.
Symbolic Representation of Quantities,
Variables and Constants
In general, the quantities are denoted by the letters a,
b, c, x, y, z, … of the English alphabet. The letters from
“a to s” of the English alphabet are taken to represent
constants while the letters from “t to z” of the English
alphabet are taken to represent variables.
Question: What is increment?
Answer: An increment is any change (increase or
growth) in (or, of) a variable (dependent or
 Function 3

independent). It is the difference which is found by Hence, increment in y = f (x + ∆x) – f (x) where
subtracting the first value (or, critical value) of the 1
variable from the second value (changed value, f (x) =
x
increased value or final value) of the variable.
That is, increment 1
⇒ ∆ y = x + ∆x –
1
=
x − x + ∆x a f =
= final value – initial value = F.V – I. V. x x + ∆x a f
x
Notes: (i) Increased value/changed value/final value/
second value means a value obtained by making –∆ x
addition, positive or negative, to a given value (initial a
x x + ∆x f
value) of a variable. 4. Let y = log x = given value.
(ii) The increments may be positive or negative, in Then, y + ∆ y = log (x + ∆ x)
both cases, the word “increment” is used so that a
negative increment is an algebraic decrease.
and ∆ y = log (x + ∆ x) – log x = log
FG x + ∆ x IJ =
H x K
Examples on Increment in a Variable
1. Let x1 increase to x2 by the amount ∆ x. Then we log 1 +
FG ∆x IJ
can set out the algebraic equation x1 + ∆ x = x2 which
H x K
⇒ ∆ x = x2 – x1. 5. Let y = sin θ, given value
2. Let y1 decrease to y2 by the amount ∆ y. Then we Then, y + ∆ y = sin (θ + ∆ θ)
can set out the algebraic equation y1 + ∆ y = y2 which FG 2 θ + ∆ θ IJ ·
⇒ ∆ y = y2 – y1. and ∆ y = sin (θ + ∆ θ) – sin θ = 2cos H 2 K
Examples on Increment in a Function
sin
FG ∆ θ IJ .
1. Let y = f (x) = 5x + 3 = given value … (i) H2K
Now, if we give an increment ∆ x to x, then we also
Question: What is the symbol used to represent (or,
require to give an increment ∆ y to y simultaneously.
denote) an increment?
Hence, y + ∆ y = f (x + ∆ x) = 5 (x + ∆ x) + 3 = 5x +
Answer: The symbols we use to represent small
5∆ x + 3 … (ii)
increment or, simply increment are Greak Letters ∆
∴ (ii) – (i) ⇒ y + ∆ y – y = (5x + 5∆ x + 3) – (5x + 3)
and δ (both read as delta) which signify “an increment/
= 5x + 5∆ x + 3 – 5x – 3 = 5∆ x
change/growth” in the quantity written just after it as
i.e., ∆ y = 5∆ x
it increases or, decreases from the initial value to
2. Let y = f (x) = x2 + 2 = given value,
another value, i.e., the notation ∆ x is used to denote
then y + ∆ y = f (x + ∆ x) = (x + ∆ x)2 + 2 = x2 +
a fixed non zero, number that is added to a given
∆ x2 + 2x ∆ x + 2
number x0 to produce another number x = x0 + ∆ x. if
⇒ ∆ y = x2 + ∆ x2 + 2x ∆ x + 2 – x2 – 2 = 2x ∆ x +
y = f (x) then ∆ y = f (x0 + ∆ x) – f (x0).
∆ x2
Hence, increment in y = f (x + ∆ x) – f (x) where Notes: If x, y, u. v are variables, then increments in
f (x) = (x2 + 2) is ∆ y = x2 + ∆ x2 + 2x ∆ x + 2 – x2 – 2 them are denoted by ∆ x, ∆ y, ∆ u, ∆ v respectively
= 2x ∆ x + ∆ x2 signifying how much x, y, u, v increase or decrease,
i.e., an increment in a variable (dependent or
1
3. Let y = = given value. independent) tells how much that variable increases
x or decreases.
1 Let us consider y = x2
Then, y + ∆ y = x + ∆ x When x = 2, y = 4
x = 3, y = 9
4 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
∴ ∆ x = 3 – 2 = 1 and ∆ y = 9 – 4 = 5
⇒ as x increases from 2 to 3, y increases from 4
to 9.
⇒ as x increases by 1, y increases by 5.
Question: What do you mean by the term “function”?
Answer: In the language of set theory, a function is
defined in the following style.
A function from a set D to a set R is a rule or, law
(or, rules, or, laws) according to which each element
of D is associated (or, related, or, paired) with a unique
(i.e., a single, or, one and only one, or, not more than
one) element of R. The set D is called the domain of
the function while the set R is called the range of the
function. Moreover, elements of the domain (or, the
set D) are called the independent variables and the
elements of the range (or, range set or, simply the set
R) are called the dependent variables. If x is the
element of D, then a unique element in R which the
rule (or, rules) symbolised as f assigns to x is termed
“the value of f at x” or “the image of x under the rule
f” which is generally read as “the f-function of x” or, “f
of x”. Further one should note that the range R is the
set of all values of the function f whereas the domain
D is the set of all elements (or, points) whose each
element is associated with a unique elements of the
range set R.
Functions are represented pictorially as in the
accompanying diagram.
D R
x y = f (x )
One must think of x as an arbitrary element of the
domain D or, an independent variable because a value
f of x can be selected arbitrarily from the domain D as
well as y as the corresponding value of f at x, a
dependent variable because the value of y depends
upon the value of x selected. It is customary to write
y = f (x) which is read as “y is a function of x” or, “y is
f of x” although to be very correct one should say
that y is the value assigned by the function f
corresponding to the value of x.
Highlight on the Term “The Rule or the
Law”.
1. The term “rule” means the procedure (or
procedures) or, method (or, methods) or, operation
(or, operations) that should be performed over the
independent variable (denoted by x) to obtain the
value the dependent variable (denoted by y).
Examples:
1. Let us consider quantities like
(i) y = log x (iv) y = sin x
(ii) y – x3 (v) y = sin–1x
(iii) y = x (vi) y = ex, … etc.
In these log, cube, square root, sin, sin–1, e, … etc
are functions since the rule or, the law, or, the function
f = log, ( )3, , sin, sin–1 or, e, … etc has been
performed separately over (or, on) the independent
variable x which produces the value for the dependent
variable represented by y with the assistance of the
rule or the functions log, ( )3, , sin, sin–1 or, e, …
etc. (Note: An arbitrary element (or point) x in a set
signifies any specified member (or, element or point)
of that set).
2. The precise relationship between two sets of
corresponding values of dependent and independent
variables is usually called a law or rule. Often the rule
is a formula or an equation involving the variables
but it can be other things such as a table, a list of
ordered pairs or a set of instructions in the form of a
statement in words. The rule of a function gives the
value of the function at each point (or, element) of the
domain.
Examples:
1
af
(i) The formula f x = 2 tells that one should
1+ x
square the independent variable x, add unity and then
divide unity by the obtained result to get the value of
the function f at the point x, i.e., to square the
independent variable x, to add unity and lastly to
divide unity by the whole obtained result (i.e., square
of the independent variable x plus unity).

(ii) f (x) = x2 + 2, where the rule f signifies to square
the number x and to add 2 to it.
(iii) f (x) = 3x – 2, where the rule f signifies to multiply
x by 3 and to subtract 2 from 3x.
(iv) C = 2 π r an equation involving the variables C
(the circumference of the circle) and r (the radius of
the circle) which means that C = 2 π r = a function
of r.
(v) y = 64 s an equation involving y and s which
means that y = 64 s a functions of s.
3. A function or a rule may be regarded as a kind of
machine (or, a mathematical symbol like , log, sin,
cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1,
cot–1,
–1 –1
sec , cosec , … etc indicating what mathematical
operation is to be performed over (or, on) the elements
of the domain) which takes the elements of the domain
D, processes them and produces the elements of the
range R.
Example of a function of functions:
Integration of a continuous function defined on some
closed interval [a. b] is an example of a function of
functions, namely the rule (or, the correspondence)
that associates with each object f (x) in the given set
z af
b
of objects, the real number f x dx .
a
Notes: (i) We shall study functions which are given
by simple formulas. One should think of a formula as
a rule for calculating f (x) when x is known (or, given),
i.e., of the rule of a function f is a formula giving y in
terms of x say y = f (x), to find the value of f at a
number a, we substitute that number a for x wherever
x occurs in the given formula and then simplify it.
af
(ii) For x ∈ D , f x ∈ R should be unique means
that f can not have two or more values at a given
point (or, number) x.
(iii) f (x) always signifies the effect or the result of
applying the rule f to x.
Function 5
(iv) Image, functional value and value of the function
are synonymes.
Notations:
f
We write 1. " f : D → R" or " D → R" for “f is a
function with domain D and range R” or equivalently,
“f is a function from D to R”.
f
2. f : x → y or, x → y or, x → f x af for “a
function f from x to y” or “f maps (or, transforms) x
into y or f (x)”.
3. f : D → R defined by y = f (x) or, f : D → R by
y = f (x) for “(a) the domain = D, (b) the range = R, (c)
the rule : y = f (x).
4. D (f) = The domain of the function f where D
signifies “domain of”.
5. R (f) = The range of the function f where R signifies
“range of”.
Remarks:
(i) When we do not specify the image of elements of
the domain, we use the notation (1).
(ii) When we want to indicate only the images of
elements of the domain, we use the notation (2).
(iii) When we want to indicate the range and the rule
of a function together with a functional value f (x), we
use the notation (3).
(iv) In the language of set theory, the domain of a
function is defined in the following style:
k p
D (f): x: x ∈ D1 where, D 1 = the set of
independent variables (or, arguments) = the set of all
those members upon which the rule ‘f ’ is performed
to find the images (or, values or, functional values).
(v) In the language of set theory, the range of a
function is defined in the following way:
a f laf af q
R f = f x : x ∈ D , f x ∈ R = the set of all
images.
(vi) The function f n is defined by f n (x) = f (x) · f (x) …
n. times
= [f (x)]n, where n being a positive integer.
(vii) For a real valued function of a real variable both
x and y are real numbers consisting of.
(a) Zero
6 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(b) Positive or negative integers, e.g.: 4, 11, 9, 17, 2. If R = C, i.e., if the range set equals the co-domain,
–3, –17, … etc. then the function is said to be an “onto function”.
9 −17 3. If one is given the domain D and the rule (or
(c) Rational numbers, e.g.: , , … etc. formula,) then it is possible (theoretically at least) to
5 2
state explicitly a function as any ordered pair and one
(d) Irrational numbers e.g.: 7 , − 14 , … etc. should note that under such conditions, the range
(viii) Generally the rule/process/method/law is not need not be given. Further, it is notable that for each
given in the form of verbal statements (like, find the specified element ' a' ∈ D , the functional value f (a)
square root, find the log, exponential, … etc.) but in is obtained under the function ‘f’.
the form of a mathematical statement put in the form 4. If a ∈ D , then the image in C is represented by f
of expression containing x (i.e. in the form of a formula)
(a) which is called the functional value (corresponding
which may be translated into words (or, verbal
to a)and it is included in the range set R.
statements).
(ix) If it is known that the range R is a subset of some Question: Distinguish between the terms “a function
set C, then the following notation is used: and a function of x”.
f : D → C signifying that Answer: A function of x is a term used for “an image
of x under the rule f” or “the value of the function f at
(a) f is a function (or, for) x” or “the functional value of x” symbolised
(b) The domain of f is D as y = f (x) which signifies that an operation (or,
(c) The range of f is contained in C. operations) denoted by f has (or, have) been performed
Nomenclature: The notation " f : D → C" is read f on x to produce an other element f (x) whereas the
is a function on the set D into the set C.” term “function” is used for “the rule (or, rules)” or
“operation (or, operations)” or “law (or, laws)” to be
C
performed upon x, x being an arbitrary element of a
D f
set known as the domain of the function.
x5 x1 y1 y5 R Remarks: 1. By an abuse of language, it has been
x6 x2 y2 y6
x3 y3 customary to call f (x) as function instead of f when a
x4 y4 particular (or, specifies) value of x is not given only
for convenience. Hence, wherever we say a “function
f (x) what we actually mean to say is the function f
N.B: To define some types of functions like “into whose value at x is f (x). thus we say, functions x4, 3x2
function and on to function”, it is a must to define a + 1, etc.
function " f : D → C" where C = codomain and n
2. The function ‘f’ also represents operator like ,
hence we are required to grasp the notion of co-
domain. Therefore, we can define a co-domain of a ( )n, | |, log, e, sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–
1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1 or cosec–1 etc.
function in the following way:
3. Function, operator, mapping and transformation
Definition of co-domain: A co-domain of a function are synonymes.
is a set which contains the range or range set (i.e., set 4. If domain and range of a function are not known, it
of all values of f) which means R ⊆ C , where R = the is customary to denote the function f by writing y = f
set of all images of f and C = a set containing images (x) which is read as y is a function of x.
of f.
Question: Explain the terms “dependent and
Remember: independent variables”.
1. If R ⊂ C (where R = the range set, C = co-domain) Answer:
i.e., if the range set is a proper subset of the co-domain, 1. Independent variable: In general, an independent
then the function is said to be an “into function”. variable is that variable whose value does not depend

upon any other variable or variables, i.e., a variable in
a mathematical expression whose value determines
the value of the whole given expression is called an
independent variable: in y = f (x), x is the independent
variable.
In set theoretic language, an independent variable
is the symbol which is used to denote an unspecified
member of the domain of a function.
2. Dependent variable: In general a dependent
variable is that variable whose value depends upon
any other variable or variables, i.e., a variable (or, a
mathematical equation or statement) whose value is
determined by the value taken by the independent
variable is called a dependent variable: in y = f (x), y is
the dependent variable.
In set theoretic language, a dependent variable is
the symbol which is used to denote an unspecified
member of the range of a function.
bg
e.g.: In A = f r = π r 2, r is an independent variable
and A is a dependent variable.
Question: Explain the term “function or function of
x” in terms of dependency and independency.
Answer: When the values of a variable y are
determined by the values given to another variable x,
y is called a function of (depending on) x or we say
that y depends on (or, upon) x. Thus, any expression
in x depends for its value on the value of x. This is
why an expression in x is called a function of x put in
the form: y = f (x).
Question: What are the symbols for representing the
terms “a function and a function of a variable”?
Answer: Symbols such as f, F, φ etc are used to
denote a function whereas a function of a variable is
a f af af
denoted by the symbols f (x), φ x , f t , F t ,
af af
φ t and can be put in the forms: y = f (x); y = φ x ;
af
y = f (t); y = F (t); y = φ t , that y is a function of
(depending on) the variable within the circular bracket
( ), i.e., y depends upon the variable within circular
bracket.
i.e., y = f (x) signifies that y depends upon x, i.e., y
is a function of x.
S = f (t) signifies that s depends upon t, i.e., s is a
function of t.
af
C = φ r signifies that c depends upon r, i.e., c is
a function of r.
Function 7
Notes:
1. Any other letter besides f , φ , F etc may be used
just for indicating the dependence of one physical
quantity on an other quantity.
2. The value of f /functional value of f corresponding
to x = a / the value of the dependent variable y for a
particular value of the independent variable is
symbolised as (f (x))x = a = f (a) or [f (x)]x = a = f (a) while
evaluating the value of the function f (x) at the point
x = a.
3. One should always note the difference between
“a function and a function of”.
4. Classification of values of a function at a point x
= a.
There are two kinds of the value of a function at a
point x = a namely
(i) The actual value of a function y = f (x) at x = a.
(ii) The approaching or limiting value of a function y
= f (x) at x = a, which are defined as:
(i) The actual value of a function y = f (x) at x = a:
when the value of a function y = f (x) at x = a is
obtained directly by putting in the given value of the
independent variable x = a wherever x occurs in a
given mathematical equation representing a function,
we say that the function f or f (x) has the actual value
f (a) at x = a.
(ii) The approaching value of a function y = f (x) at x
= a: The limit of a function f (x) as x approaches some
definite quantity is termed as the approaching (or,
limiting) value of the function y = f (x) at x = a. This
value may be calculated when the actual value of the
function f (x) becomes indeterminate at a particular
value ‘a’ of x.
5. When the actual value of a function y = f (x) is
0
anyone of the following forms:
0
, 00 , 0 × ∞ ,
∞ any real number
, ∞ − ∞ , ∞ 0 , 1∞ , imaginary,
∞ 0
for a particular value ‘a’ of x, it is said that the function
f (x) is not defined or is indeterminate or is meaningless
at x = a.
6. To find the value of a function y = f (x) at x = a
means to find the actual value of the function y = f (x)
at x = a.
8 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Pictorial Representation of a Function, its D = domain

C = codomain
Domain and Range.
x1 y1
1. Domain: A domain is generally represented by x2
y3
x3
any closed curve regular (i.e., circle, ellipse, rectangle, x4 y2 y4 y6
y5
square etc) or irregular (i.e. not regular) whose
members are represented by numbers or alphabets or
Fig. 1.3 Does not represent a function
dots.
2. Range: A range is generally represented by
C = codomain
another closed curve regular or irregular or the some D = domain
closed curve regular or irregular as the domain. R = range
3. Rule: A rule is generally represented by an arrow x1 y1 y4
x2 y2 y5
or arc (i.e., arc of the circle) drawn from each member x3
x4 y3 y6
of the domain such that it reaches a single member or
more than one member of the codomain, the codomain
being a superset of the range (or, range set).
Fig. 1.4 Represents a function
Remarks:
2. In the pictorial representation of a function the
1. We should never draw two or more than two arrows
word “rule” means.
from a single member of the domain such that it reaches
(i) Every point/member/element in the domain D is
more than one member of the codomain to show that
the venn-diagram represents a function. Logic behind a f af
joined by an arrow → or arc ∩ to some point in
it is given as follows. range R which means each element x ∈ D
If the domain are chairs, then one student can not
sit on more than one chair at the same time (i.e., one corresponds to some element y ∈ R ⊆ C .
student can not sit on two or more than two chairs at (ii) Two or more points in the domain D may be joined
the same time) to the same point in R ⊆ C (See Fig. 1.4 where the
points x2 and x3 in D are joined to the same point y2 in
D = domain R = range
R ⊆ C.
f = rule =
a function (iii) A point in the domain D can not be joined to two
x y or more than two points in C, C being a co-domain.
(See Fig. 1.3)
(iv) There may be some points in C which are not
Fig. 1.1 Represents a function joined to any element in D (See Fig. 1.4 where the
points y4, y5 and y6 in C are not joined to any point in
D.
f = rule = a function
C = codomain Precaution: It is not possible to represent any
D = domain
function as an equation involving variables always.
x1 y1 At such circumstances, we define a function as a set
x2 y2 R = range
x3 y3 of ordered pairs with no two first elements alike e.g., f
y4 = {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10), (6, 12), (7, 14)}
y5 whose D = domain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, R = range = {2,
4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} and the rule is: each second element
Fig. 1.2 Represents a function is twice its corresponding first element.
But f = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4)} does not define a
function since its first element is repeated.

Note: When the elements of the domain and the range
are represented by points or English alphabet with
subscripts as x 1 , x 2 , … etc and y 1 , y 2 , … etc
respectively, we generally represent a function as a
set of ordered pairs with no two first elements alike,
i.e., f: {x, f (x): no two first elements are same} or, {x, f
(x): no two first elements are same} or, {(x, y): x ∈ D
af
and y = f x ∈ R } provided it is not possible to
represent the function as an equation y = f (x).
Question: What is meant whenever one says a
function y = f (x) exist at x = a or y = f (x) is defined at
(or, f or) x = a?
Answer: A function y = f (x) is said to exist at x = a or,
y = f (x) is said to be defined at (or, f or) x = a provided
the value of the function f (x) at x = a (i.e. f (a)) is finite
which means that the value of the function f (x) at x =
a should not be anyone of the following forms
0 0 ∞ 2. The quotient of two polynomials termed as a
, 0 , 0 × ∞, , ∞ – ∞ , ∞ 0 , 1∞ , imaginary
0 ∞
a real number
value, . n
0 b0 + b1 x + ... + bm x
Remarks:
(i) A symbol in mathematics is said to have been
defined when a meaning has been given to it.
(ii) A symbol in mathematics is said to be undefined
or non-existance when no meaning is attributed to
the symbol.
e.g.: The symbols 3/2, –8/15, sin–1(1/2), log (1/2)
are defined or they are said to exist whereas the
−1
symbols −9 , cos 5 , 5 ÷ 0 , log (–3), 5 2 are
undefined or they are said not to exist.
(iii) Whenever we say that something exists, we mean
that it has a definite finite value.
e.g.:
(i) f (a) exists means f (a) has a finite value.
af
(ii) lim f x exists means lim f x has a finite
x→a x→a
af
value.
(iii) f ' (a) exists means f ' (a) has a finite value.
z af z af
b b
(iv) f x dx exists means that f x dx has a
a a
finite value.
Function 9
Classification of Functions
We divide the function into two classes namely:
(i) Algebraic
(ii) Transcendental which are defined as:
(i) Algebraic function: A function which satisfies
the equation put in the form:
Ao [f (x)] m + A1 [f (x)] m – 1 + A2 [f (x)] m – 2 + … + Am
= 0, where A0, A1, … Am are polynomials is called an
algebraic function.
Notes:
1. A function f: R → R defined by f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn
–1+ … + a
m – 1 x + am where a0, a1, a2, … am are
constants and n is a positive integer, is called a
polynomial in x or a polynomial function or simply a
polynomial. One should note that a polynomial is a
particular case of algebraic function as we see on
taking m = 1 and A0 = a constant in algebraic function.
rational function of x put in the form:
n n –1
a0 x + a1 x + ... + am −1 x + am
is also an algebraic function. It is defined in every
interval only in which denominator does not vanish.
If f1 (x) and f2 (x) are two polynomials, then general
af f1 x af
rational functions may be denoted by R x =
af
f2 x
where R signifies “a rational function of”. In case f2
(x) reduces itself to unity or any other constant (i.e., a
term not containing x or its power), R (x) reduces
itself to a polynomial.
3. Generally, there will be a certain number of values
of x for which the rational function is not defined and
these are values of x for which the polynomial in
denominator vanishes.
af
e.g.: R x = 2
2
2 x − 5x + 1
is not defined when x
x − 5x + 6
= 2 or x = 3.
4. Rational integral functions: If a polynomial in x is
in a rational form only and the indices of the powers
of x are positive integers, then it is termed as a rational
integral function.
10 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

5. A combination of polynomials under one or more (B) One should remember that exponential functions
radicals termed as an irrational functions is also an obeys the laws of indices, i.e.,
algebraic function. Hence, y = af
x = f x ; y=
(i) xe · ey = ex + y
(ii) xe / ey = ex – y

x
53
af
= f x ; y=
x
2
serve as examples for
(iii) (ex)m = emx
−x 1
x +4 (iv) e = x
e
irrational algebraic functions.
6. A polynomial or any algebraic function raised to (C)
any power termed as a power function is also an (i) log 0 = − ∞
n
algebraic function. Hence, y = x , n ∈ R = f x ; a f af (ii) log 1 = 0
(iii) log ∞ = ∞
y= x +1 e 2
j
3
af
= f x serve as examples for power
Further Classification of Functions
functions which are algebraic.
The algebraic and the transcendental function are
Remarks: further divided into two types namely (i) explicit
1. All algebraic, transcendental, explicit or implicit function (ii) implicit function, which are defined as:
function or their combination raised to a fractional (i) Explicit function: An explicit function is a
power reduces to an irrational function. Hence, function put in the form y = f (x) which signifies that a

af a f
53 1 relation between the dependent variable y and the
y= x = f x ; y = sin x + x 2 = f x
as examples for irrational functions.
2. All algebraic, transcendental, explicit or implicit
function or their combination raised to any power is
always regarded as a power function. Hence, y = sin2
x = f (x); y = log2 | x | = f (x) serve as examples for power
functions.
Transcendental function: A function which is not
algebraic is called a transcendental function. Hence,
all trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential
and logarithmic (symoblised as “TILE”) functions are
transcendental functions. hence, sin x, cos x, tan x,
cot x, sec x, cosec x, sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x,
sec–1 x, cosec–1 x, log |f (x) |, log | x |, log x2, log (a + x2),
ax (for any a > 0), ex, [f (x)]g (x) etc serve as examples
for transcendental functions.
Notes: (In the extended real number system)
(A)
(i) e = ∞ when x = ∞
x
(ii) ex = 1 when x = 0
(iii) ex = 0 when x = − ∞ .
af
serve independent variable x put in the form of an equation
can be solved for y and we say that y is an explicit
function of x or simply we say that y is a function of x.
hence, y = sin x + x = f (x); y = x2 – 7x + 12 = f (x) serve
as examples for explicit function of x’s.
Remark: If in y = f (x), f signifies the operators (i.e.,
functions) sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1,
tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log or e, then y = f (x) is
called an explicit transcendental function otherwise it
is called an explicit algebraic function.
(ii) Implicit function: An implicit function is a
function put in the form: f (x, y) = c, c being a constant,
which signifies that a relation between the variables y
and x exists such that y and x are in seperable in an
equation and we say that y is an implicit function of x.
Hence, x3 + y2 = 4xy serves as an example for the
implicit function of x.
Remark: If in f (x, y) = c, f signifies the operators (i.e.,
functions) sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1,
tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e and the ordered
pain (x, y) signifies the combination of the variables x
and y, then f (x, y) = c is called an implicit algebraic
function of x, i.e., y is said to be an implicit algebraic
function of x, if a relation of the form:
 Function 11

ym + R1 ym – 1 + … + Rm = 0 exists, where R1, R2, …
Rm are rational function of x and m is a positive integer.
Note: Discussion on “the explicit and the implicit
functions” has been given in detail in the chapter
“differentiation of implicit function”.
On Some Important Functions
Some types of functions have been discussed in
previous sections such as algebraic, transcendental,
explicit and implicit functions. In this section definition
of some function used most frequently are given.
1. The constant function: A function f: R → R
defined by f (x) = c is called the “constant function”.
Let y = f (x) = c
∴ y = c which is the equation of a straight line
parallel to the x-axis, i.e., a constant function
represents straight lines parallel to the x-axis.
Also, domain of the constant function = D (f) =
{real numbers} = R and range of the constant function
= R (f) = {c} = a singleton set for examples, y = 2; y = 3
are constant functions.
Remarks:
(i) A polynomial a0 xn + a1 xn – 1 + … a m – 1 x + am
(whose domain and range are sets of real numbers)
reduces to a constant function when degree of
polynomial is zero.
(ii) In particular, if c = 0, then f (x) is called the “ zero
function” and its graph is the x-axis itself.
2. The identity function: A function f: R → R
defined by f (x) = x is called the “identity function”
whose domain and range coincide with each other,
i.e., D (f) = R (f) in case of identity function.
Let y = f (x) = x
∴ y = x which is the equation of a straight line
passing through the origin and making an angle of
45° with the x-axis, i.e., an identity function represents
straight lines passing through origin and making an
angle of 45° with the x-axis.
3. The reciprocal of identity function: A function
f: R – {0} → R defined by f x = af 1
is called the
af
1
Let y = f x =
x
∴ xy = 1 which is the equation of a rectangular
hyperbola, i.e., the reciprocal of an identity function
represents a rectangular hyperbola.
Also, D (f) = {real number except zero} = R – {0}
and R (f) = {real numbers}
4. The linear function: A function put in the form: f
(x) = mx + c is called a “linear function” due to the fact
that its graph is a straight line.
Also, D (f) = {real numbers except m = 0} and R (f)
= {real number except m = 0}
Question: What do you mean by the “absolute value
function”?
Answer: A function f: R → R defined by f (x) = | x |
RS x , x ≥ 0 is called absolute value (or, modulus or,
=
T−x , x < 0
norm) function.
Notes: (A) A function put in the form | f (x) | is called
the “modulus of a function” or simply “modulus of a
function” which signifies that:
af
(i) | f (x) | = f (x), provided f x ≥ 0 , i.e., if f (x) is
positive or zero, then | f (x) | = f (x).
(ii) | f (x) | = –f (x), provided f (x) < 0, i.e., if f (x) is
negative, then | f (x) | = –f (x) which means that if f (x)
is negative, f (x) should be multiplied by –1 to make f
(x) positive.
(B) | f (x) | = sgn f (x) × f (x) where sgn
af a f , f axf ≠ 0
f x
f a xf
f x =
= 0, f (x) = 0
i.e., sgn f (x) = 1 when f (x) > 0
= –1 when f (x) < 0
= 0 when f (x) = 0
where ‘sgn’ signifies “sign of ” written briefly for the
word “signum” from the Latin. Also, domain of abso-
lute value function = D (f) = {real numbers} and range
of absolute value function = R (f) = {non negative real
numbers} = R+ ∪ {0}.

a f
x
reciprocal function of the identity function f (x) = x or (C) 1. (i) | x – a | = (x – a) when x − a ≥ 0
simply reciprocal function.
a
| x – a | = –(x – a) when x − a < 0 f
12 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(ii) | 3| = 3 since 3 is positive.

| –3 | = –(–3) since –3 is negative. For this reason,
af
12. | f x | ≥ 0 always means that the absolute value
of a functions is always non-negative (i.e., zero or
we have to multiply –3 by –1.
positive real numbers)
2. If the sign of a function f (x) is unknown (i.e., we
13. | f (x) = | –f (x) |
do not know whether f (x) is positive or negative),
then we generally use the following definition of the af
14. | f x | ≥ f x af
absolute value of a function. 15. | f 1 (x) · f 2 (x) |

af af a xf
= | f 1 (x) | · | f 2 (x) |
2

a f = f a xf , f a xf ≠ 0
2
f x = f x = f
f1 x
a f f a xf
1
3. Absolute means to have a magnitude but no sign. 16. 2
f2 x 2
4. Absolute value, norm and modulus of a function
are synonymes. 17. f a x f + f a xf ≤ f a xf + f a x f
1 2 1 2
5. Notation: The absolute value of a function is
denoted by writing two vertical bars (i.e. straight lines) 18. f a x f − f a xf ≥ f a xf − f a xf
1 2 1 2
within which the function is placed. Thus the notation
19. | 0 | = 0, i.e. absolute value of zero is zero.
to signify “the absolute value of” is “| |”.
20. Modulus of modulus of a function (i.e. mod of | f
6. | f 2 (x) | = f 2 (x) = | f (x) |2 = (–f (x))2
(x) | ) = | f (x) |
7. In a compact form, the absolute value of a function
Remarks: When
may be defined as f x af = f
2
a xf (a) | x | = x, when x ≥ 0 ⇔ x = x , ∀ x ∈ 0 , ∞ a f
af
= f (x), when f x ≥ 0 and | x | = –x, when x < 0 ⇔ x = − x,
= –f (x), when f (x) < 0
a
∀ x ∈ −∞ , 0 . f
8. af
f1 x af af
= f 2 x ⇔ f1 x = ± f 2 x af (b) | x | = | –x | = x, for all real values of x
e.g.: x − 2 = x + 3 ⇔ a x − 2 f = ± a x + 3f
which is solved as under this line. a x − 2 f =
2
(c) x = x
a x + 3f ⇒ − 2 = 3 which is false which means this (d) x ≤ a ⇔ − a ≤ x ≤ a and x ≥ a ⇔ x ≥ a
equation has no solution and a x − 2 f = − a x + 3f ⇒ and x ≤ − a .
x − 2 = − x − 3 ⇒ x + x = 2 − 3 ⇒ 2x = − 1 ⇒
1 Geometric Interpretation of Absolute Value
x=− .
2 of a Real Number x, Denoted by | x |

9. af
f x af
≤ k ⇔ − k ≤ f x ≤ k which signifies The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by | x

f a xf ≥ − k af
| is undirected distance between the origin O and the
the intersection of and f x ≤ k , point corresponding to a (i.e. x = a) i.e, | x | signifies
∀k > 0. the distance between the origin and the given point x

a f ≥ k ⇔ f axf ≥ k or f a xf ≤ − k which
= a on the real line.
10. f x Explanation: Let OP = x
signifies the union of f a x f ≥ k and f a x f ≤ − k , If x > o, P lies on the right side of origin ‘O’, then
the distance OP = | OP | = | x | = x
∀k > 0.
11. | f (x) |n = (f (x)n, where n is a real number. –a a

x′ P (x) 0 P (x) x
 Function 13

If x = O, P coincides with origin, the distance OP = 3. To indicate both positive square root and negative
|x|=|o|=o square root of a quantity under the radical sign, we
If x > O, P lies on the left side of origin ‘o’, then the write the symbol ± (read as “plus or minus”) before
distance OP = | OP | = | –OP | = | –x | = x the radical sign.
Hence, | x | = e.g.: ± 1 = ± 1
x, provided x > o means that the absolute value
of a positive number is the positive number ± 4 = ±2
itself.
o, provided x = o means the absolute value of ± 16 = ± 4
zero is taken to be equal to zero. Remember:
–x, provided x < o means that the absolute value 1. In problems involving square root, the positive
of a negative number is the positive value of square root is the one used generally, unless there is
that number.
a remark to the contrary. Hence, 100 = 10 ;
Notes:
1. x is negative in | x | = –x signifies –x is positive in | 2
x | = –x e.g.: | –7| = –(–7) = 7. 169 = 13 ; x = x .
2. The graphs of two numbers namely a and –a on 2 2 2 2 2
the number line are equidistant from the origin. We 2. x + y = 1 ⇔ x = 1 − y ⇔ x =
call the distance of either from zero, the absolute value
2 2 2
of a and denote it by | a |. 1− y ⇔ x = 1− y ⇔ x = ± 1− y
3. x = a ⇔ x = ±a
e.g.: cos2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ ⇔ cos θ =
2 2 2 2
4. x = a ⇔ x = a ⇔ x = a ⇔ x= 2 2
1 − sin θ ⇔ cos θ = ± 1 − sin θ
2 2
±a ⇔ x = ± a ⇔ x = a . one should note that the sign of cosθ is
determined by the value of the angle ' θ' and the
2
5. x = x signifies that if x is any given number, value of the angle ' θ' is determined by the quadrant
then the symbol 2 in which it lies. Similarly for other trigonometrical
x represents the positive square
2
root of x and be denoted by | x | whose graph is functions of θ , such as, tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1 ⇔ tan
symmetrical about the y-axis having the shape of 2 2
English alphabet 'V '. which opens (i) upwards if y =
θ= ± sec θ − 1 ⇔ tan θ = sec θ − 1
| x | (ii) downwards if y = – | x | (iii) on the right side if 2 2
cot θ = cosec θ − 1 ⇔ cot θ =
x = | y | (iv) on the left side if x = – | y |.
2 2
An Important Remark ± cosec θ − 1 ⇔ cot θ = cosec θ − 1
2 2
1. The radical sign " n " indicates the positive root sec θ = 1 + tan θ ⇔ sec θ =

of the quantity (a number or a function) written under 2 2

it (radical sign) e.g.:25 = + 5 .
2. If we wish to indicate the negative square root of a
quantity under the radical sign, we write the negative
sign (–) before the radical sign. e.g.: − 4 = − 2 .
± 1 + tan θ ⇔ sec θ = 1 + tan θ , w h e r e
the sign of angle ' θ ' is determined by the quadrant in
which it lies.
3. The word “modulus” is also written as “mod” and
“modulus function” is written as “mod function” in
brief.
14 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

On Greatest Integer Function This is why in particular y = [x] means that for a
particular value of x, y has a greatest integer which is
Firstly, we recall the definition of greatest integer
not greater than the value given to x.
function.
4. The function y = [x], where [x] denotes integral
Definition: A greatest integer function is the function part of the real number x, which satisfies the equality
defined on the domain of all real numbers such that x = [x] + q, where 0 ≤ q < 1 is discontinuous at every
with any x in the domain, the function associates integer x = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ... and at all other points, this
algebraically the greatest (largest or highest) integer function is continuous.
which is less than or equal to x (i.e., not greater than 5. If x and y are two arbitrary real numbers satisfying
x) designated by writing square brackets around x as the inequality n ≤ x < n + 1 and n ≤ y < n + 1 ,
[x].
where n is an integer, then [x] = [y] = n.
The greatest integer function has the property of
6. y = [x] is meaningless for a non-real value of x
being less than or equal to x, while the next integer is
because its domain is the set of all real numbers and
greater than x which means x ≤ x < x + 1 . the range is the set of all integers, i.e. D [x] = R and R
[x] = {n: n is an integer} = The set of all integers, …
Examples:
LM OP
–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …, i.e., negative, zero or positive
3 3 integer.
(i) x =
2
⇒ x =
2 NQ
= 1 is the greatest integer in
af af
7. f x = 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ f x < 1 . Further the solution
3 af
of 0 ≤ f x < 1 provides us one of the adjacent
. intervals where x lies. The next of the a adjacent intervals
2
(ii) x = 5 ⇒ [x] = [5] = 5 is the greatest integer in 5. is determined by adding 1 to the left and right end

(iii) x = 50 ⇒ x = 50 = 7 is the greatest

integer in 50 .
(iv) x = 2.5 ⇒ [x] = [–2.5] = –3 is the greatest integer
in –2.5.
(v) x = 4.7 ⇒ [x] = [–4.7] = –5 is the greatest integer
in –4.7.
(vi) x = –3 ⇒ [x] = [–3] = –3 is the greatest integer
in –3.
To Remember:
1. The greatest integer function is also termed as
“the bracket, integral part or integer floor function”.
2. The other notation for greatest integer function is
NQ or [[ ]] in some books inspite of [ ].
3. The symbol [ ] denotes the process of finding the
af
point of the solution of 0 ≤ f x < 1 . This process
of adding 1 to the left and right end point is continued
till we get a finite set of horizontal line segments
representing the graph of the function y = [f (x)]
More on Properties of Greatest Integer
Function.
(i) x + n = n + x , n ∈ I and x ∈ R
(ii) − x = − x , x ∈ I
(iii) − x = − x − 1, x ∉ I
(iv) x ≥ n ⇒ x ≥ n , n ∈ I
(v) x ≤ n ⇒ x < n + 1, n ∈ I

greatest integer contained in a real number but not (vi) x > n ⇒ x ≥ n

greater than the real number put in [ ].
Thus, in general y = [f (x)] means that there is a
greatest integer in the value f (x) but not greater than
the value f (x) which it assumes for any x ∈ R .
(vii) x < n ⇒ x < n , n ∈ I and x ∈ R
(viii) x + y ≥ x + y , x , y ∈ R
LM x OP = L x O , n ∈ N and x ∈ R
(ix)
N n Q MN n PQ
 Function 15

(x) x = [x] + {x} where { } denotes the fractional part

of x , ∀ x ∈ R
af 2
f x = x + 2,
1
3
≤x≤
2
3
f a xf = 4 x
(xi) x − 1 < x ≤ x , ∀ x ∈ R 2 2
− 1, ≤ x ≤ 1
(xii) x ≤ x < x + 1 for all real values of x. 3
2. A function y = f (x) may not be necessarily defined
Question: Define “logarithmic” function. by a single equation for all values of x but the function
b g
Answer: A function f : 0 , ∞ → R defined by f (x) = y = f (x) may be defined in different forms in different
log a x is called logarithmic function, where
b g
parts of its domain.
a ≠ 1 , a > 0 . Its domain and range are 0 , ∞ and R 3. Piecewise function is termed also “Piecewise defined
respectively. function” because function is defined in each piece.
Question: Define “Exponential function”. If every function defined in adjacent intervals is linear,
Answer: A function f: R → R defined by f(x) = ax, it is termed as “Piecewise linerar function” and if every
where a ≠ 1 , a > 0. Its domain and range are R and function defined in adjacent intervals is continuous,
b g
0 , ∞ respectively. it is called “piecewise continuous function.”
Question: What do you mean by the “real variables”?
Question: Define the “piece wise function”.
Answer: If the values assumed by the independent
Answer: A function y = f (x) is called the “piece wise
variable ‘x’ are real numbers, then the independent
function” if the interval (open or closed) in which the
variable ‘x’ is called the “real variable”.
given function is defined can be divided into a finite
number of adjacent intervals (open or closed) over Question: What do you mean by the “real function
each of which the given function is defined in different (or, real values of function) of a real variable”?
forms. e.g.: Answer: A function y = f (x) whose domain and range
af
1. f x = 2 x + 3 , 0 ≤ x < 1 are sets of a real numbers is said to be a real function
(or more clearly, a real function of a real variable) which
f (x) = 7, x = 1 signifies that values assumed by the dependent
af 2
f x = x ,1 < x ≤ 2 variable are real numbers for each real value assumed
by the independent variable x.
2. f (x) = x2 – 1, 0 < x < 2
af
f x = x + 2, x ≥ 2
Note: The domain of a real function may not be

f a xf = 1 + x , − 1 ≤ x < 0
necessarily a subset of R which means that the domain
3. of a real function can be any set.
2
f (x) = x – 1, 0 < x < 2 Examples:
f a xf = 2 x , x ≥ 2 l k p k p k pq
1. Let A = θ , a , b , a , b and B = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}
Notes:
1. Non-overlapping intervals: The intervals which ma f bk p g bk p g bk p gr
∴ f = θ , 1 , a , b , 2 , a , 4 , b , 3 is
have no points in common except one of the end a real function since B is a subset of the set of real
numbers.
points of adjacent intervals are called non overlapping
intervals whose union constitutes the domain of the af
2. If f : R → R such that f x = 2 x − 1, ∀ x ∈ R ,
LM 1 OP , LM 1 , 2 OP and LM 2 , 1OP then f is a real function.

N 3Q N3 3 Q N 3 Q
piece wise function. e.g.: 0 , Remarks:
1. In example (i) The domain of f is a class of sets and
serve as an example of non-overlapping intervals
whose union [0, 1] is the domain of the piece wise in example (ii) The domain of f is R. But in both
function if it is defined as: examples, the ranges are necessarily subsets of R.

af
2. If the domain of a function f is any set other than
1
f x = 2x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ (i.e. different from) a subset of real numbers and the
3 range is necessarily a subset of the set of real
16 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

numbers, the function must be called a real function Question: What do you mean by the “inverse
(or real valued function) but not a real function of a function”?
real variable because a function of a real variable Answer: A function, usually written as f –1 whose
signifies that it is a function y = f (x) whose domain domain and range are respectively the range and
and range are subsets of the set of real numbers. domain of a given function f and under which the
Question: What do you mean by a “single valued image f –1 (y) of an element y is the element of which y
function”? was the image under the given function f, that is,
Answer: When only one value of function y = f (x) is
achieved for a single value of the independent variable
f
−1
a yf = x ⇔ f a xf = y .
x = a, we say that the given function y = f (x) is a D
single valued function, i.e., when one value of the f
independent variable x gives only one value of the R
x
function y = f (x), then the function y = f (x) is said to y = f (x )
be single valued, e.g.:
1. y = 3x + 2
2. y = x2 D
–1

π π f
3. y = sin –1 x, − ≤ y ≤ R
2 2 y –1
serves as examples for single valued functions be- y=f ( x)

cause for each value of x, we get a single value for y.

Question: What do you mean by a “multiple valued Remarks:
function”? 1. A function has its inverse ⇔ it is one-one (or,
Answer: when two or more than two values of the one to one) when the function is defined from its
function y = f (x) are obtained for a single value of the domain to its range only.
independent variable x = a, we say that the given 2. Unless a function y = f (x) is one-one, its inverse
function y = f (x) is a multiple (or, many) valued can not exist from its domain to its range.
function, i.e. if a function y = f (x) has more than one 3. If a function y = f (x) is such that for each value of
value for each value of the independent variable x, x, there is a unique values of y and conversely for
then the function y = f (x) is said to be a multiple (or, each value of y, there is a unique value of x, we say
many) valued function, e.g.: that the given function y = f (x) is one-one or we say
2 2 2 that there exists a one to one (or, one-one) relation
1. x + y = 9 ⇒ x = ± 9 − x ⇒ y has two
between x and y.
real values, ∀ x < 3 .
2
4. In the notation f –1, (–1) is a superscript written at
2. y = x ⇒ y = x is also a multiple valued right hand side just above f. This is why we should
2 2 not consider it as an exponent of the base f which
function since x = 9 ⇒ y = 9 ⇒ y = y =
−1 1
9 ⇒ y = ± 3 (∴ | y | = y
2
= y for y > 0 and | y | means it can not be written as f = .
f
2
= y = –y for y > 0). 5. A function has its inverse ⇔ it is both one-one
Question: What do you mean by standard functions? and onto when the function is defined from its domain
Answer: A form in which a function is usually written to its co-domain.
is termed as a standard function.
e.g.: y = xn, sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x,
sin x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x, sec–1 x, cosec–1 x, log
–1

ax, log ex, ax, ex, etc. are standard functions.


Pictorial Representation of Inverse
Function
To have an arrow diagram, one must follow the
following steps.
1. Let f : D → R be a function such that it is one-
one (i.e. distinct point in D have distinct images in R
under f).
2. Inter change the sets such that original range of f
is the domain of f–1 and original domain of f is the
range of f–1.
3. Change f to f–1.
Therefore, f : D → R defined by y = f (x) s.t it is
−1
one-one ⇔ f : R → D defined by f–1 (y) = x is an
inverse function.
On Intervals
1. Values and range of an independent variable x: If
x is a variable in (on/over) a set C, then members
(elements or points) of the set C are called the values
of the independent variable x and the set C is called
the range of the independent variable x, whereas x
itself signifies any unspecified (i.e., an arbitrary)
member of the set C.
2. Interval: The subsets of a real line are called
intervals. There are two types (or, kinds) of an interval
namely (i) Finite and (ii) Infinite.
(i) Finite interval: The set containing all real numbers
(or, points) between two real numbers (or, points)
including or excluding one or both of these two real
numbers known as the left and right and points is
said to be a finite interval. A finite interval is classified
into two kinds namely (a) closed interval and (b) open
interval mainly.
(a) Closed interval: The set of all real numbers x
subject to the condition a ≤ x ≤ b is called closed
interval and is denoted by [a, b] where a and b are
real numbers such that a < b.
a b
In set theoretic language, [a, b] = {x: a ≤ x ≤ b , x
is real}, denotes a closed interval.
Function 17
Notes:
1. The notation [a, b] signifies the set of all real
numbers between a and b including the end points a
and b, i.e., the set of all real from a to b.
2. The pharase “at the point x = a” signifies that x
assumes (or, takes) the value a.
3. A neighbourhood of the point x = a is a closed
interval put in the form [a – h, a + h] where h is a
positive number, i.e.,
[ a – h, a + h] = { x : a − h ≤ x ≤ a + h , h is a
small positive number}
4. All real numbers can be represented by points on
a directed straight line (i.e., on the x-axis of cartesian
coordinates) which is called the number axis. Hence,
every number (i.e. real number) represents a definite
point on the segment of the x-axis and conversely
every point on the segment (i.e., a part) of the x-axis
represents only one real number. Therefore, the
numbers and points are synonymes if they represent
the members of the interval concerned.(Notes 1. It is
a postulate that all the real numbers can be represents
by the points of a straight line. 2. Neigbourhood
roughly means all points near about any specified
point.)
(b) Open interval: The set of all real numbers x subject
to the condition a < x < b is called an open interval
and is denoted by (a, b), where a and b are two real
numbers such that a < b.
a b
In the set theoretic language, (a, b) = {x: a < x < b,
x is real}
Notes:
1. The notation (a, b) signifies the set of all real
numbers between a and b excluding the end points a
and b.
2. The number ‘a’ is called the left end point of the
interval (open or closed) if it is within the circular or
square brackets on the left hand side and the number
b is called the right end point of the interval if it is
within the circular or square brackets on the right h
and side.
18 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. Open and closed intervals are represented by the ∞

a
circular and square brackets (i.e., ( ) and [ ] )
respectively within which end points are written In set theoretic language,
separated by a comma. aa , ∞f = {x: x > a, x is real}
or, aa , ∞ f = {x: a < x < ∞ , x is real}
(c) Half-open, half closed interval (or, semi-open, semi
closed interval): The set of all real numbers x such
that a < x ≤ b is called half open, half closed interval (c) The interval a , ∞ f : The set of all real numbers
(or, semi-open, semi closed interval), where a and b
are two real numbers such that a < b. x such that x ≥ a is an infinite interval and is denoted
by a , ∞ .f
a b
a ∞
(a, b) = {x: a < x ≤ b , x is real}
Note: The notation (a, b] signifies the set of all real In set theoretic language,
numbers between a and b excluding the left end point f
a , ∞ = {x: x ≥ a , x is real}
f
a and including the right end point b.
or, a , ∞ = {x: a ≥ x > ∞ , x is real}
(d) Half closed, half open (or, semi closed, semi open
interval): The set of all real numbers x such that a f
(d) The interval −∞ , a : The set of all real numbers
a ≤ x < b is called half-closed, half open interval x such that x < a is an infinite interval and is denoted
(or, semi closed, semi open interval), where a and b be
two real numbers such that a < b.
a
by −∞ , a . f
–∞ a
a b

In set theoretic language, [a, b) = {x: a ≤ x < b , x
is real}
Note: The notation [a, b) signifies the set of all real
numbers between a and b including the left end point
a and excluding the right end point b.
2. Infinite interval
a f
(a) The interval −∞ , ∞ : The set of all real numbers
a−∞ , af = {x: x < a, x is real}
or, a −∞ , a f = {x: −∞ < x < a , x is real}
(e) The interval a −∞ , a : The set of all real numbers
x such that x ≤ a is an infinite interval and is denoted
a
by −∞ , a .

a f
x is an infinite interval and is denoted by −∞ , ∞ or
–∞ a

R. In set theoretic language,

a−∞ , a = {x: x ≤ a , x is real}
–∞ ∞
a−∞ , a
0
= {x: −∞ < x ≤ a , x is real}
In set theoretic language,
a f
Remember:
R = −∞ , ∞ = {x: −∞ < x < ∞ , x is real} 1. In any finite interval, if a and/b is (or, more) replaced
a f
(b) The interval a , ∞ : The set of all real numbers x by ∞ and / − ∞ , we get what is called an infinite
interval.
such that x > a is an infinite interval and is denoted
a f
by a , ∞ .
 Function 19

2. a ≤ x ≤ b signifies the intersection of the two (iii) | x | > a ⇔ x ∉ [–a, a] ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , − a ∪ b g

sets of values given by x ≥ a and x ≤ b .
aa , ∞f ⇔ either x <–a or x> a, a being any positive
3. x ≥ a or x ≤ b signifies the union of the two
real number and x ∈ R .
sets of values given by x ≥ a and x ≤ b .
4. The sign of equality with the sign of inequality –a 0 a x
(i.e., ≥ or ≤ ) signifies the inclusion of the specified
number in the indicated interval finite or infinite. The (iv) x ≥ a ⇔ either x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ⇔ x ∈
square bracket (i.e., [,)also (put before and/after any
specified number) signifies the inclusion of that
a−∞ , − a ∪ a,∞ . f
specified number in the indicated interval finite or
infinite. –a 0 a
5. The sign of inequality without the sign of equality
(i.e. > or <) signifies the exclusion of the specified
number in the indicated interval finite or infinite. The Evaluation of a Function at a Given Point
circular bracket (i.e. ( , ) also (put before and/after any Evaluation: To determine the value of a function y =
specified number) signifies the exclusion of that f (x) at a given point x = a, is known as evaluation (or,
specified number indicated interval finite or infinite. more clearly evaluation of the function y = f (x) at the
6. (i) : x ∈ a , b ⇔ a ≤ x ≤ b and x ∉ a,b given point x = a)

a f a f
⇔ x ∈ a , b ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , a ∪ b , ∞ where [a,
c Notation: [f (x)]x = a = (f (x))x = a = f (a) is a notation to
signify the value of the function f at x = a.
b] c = R – [a, b] complement of [a, b] =
a−∞ , a f ∪ ab , ∞f .
Type 1: To evaluate a function f (x) at a point x = a
when the function f (x) is defined by a single expression,
(ii) : x ∈ aa , b f ⇔ a < x < b a f
and x ∉ a , b ⇔ equation or formula.

x ∈ a −∞ , a ∪ b , ∞f .
Working rule: The method of finding the value of a
function f (x) at the given point x = a when the given
7. Intervals expressed in terms of modulus: Many function f (x) is defined by a single expression,
intervals can be easily expressed in terms of absolute equation or formula containing x consists of following
values and conversely. steps.
(i) | x | < a ⇔ –a < x < a ⇔ x ∈ (–a, a), where ‘a’ is Step 1: To substitute the given value of the
any positive real number and x ∈ R . independent variable (or, argument) x wherever x
occurs in the given expression, equation, or formula
containg x for f (x)
Step 2: To simplify the given expression, equation or
–a 0 x a formula containg x for f (x) after substitution of the
(ii) x ≤ a ⇔ − a ≤ x ≤ a ⇔ x ∈ −a , a where given value of the independent variable (or, argument)
‘a’ is any positive real number and x ∈ R . x.
Solved Examples
F 1I .
–a 0 x a
1. If f (x) = x2 – x + 1, find f (0), f (1) and f H 2K
Solution: ∴ f (x) = x2 – x + 1
∴ f (0) = 02 – 0 + 1 = 1
20 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

f (1) = 12 – 1 + 1 = 1 Working rule: It consists of following steps:

F 1I = F 1I − F 1I + 1
2 Step 1: To consider the function f (x) = f1 (x) to find
and f H 2K H 2K H 2K the value f (a1), provided x = a1 > a and to and to put
x = a1 in f (x) = f1 (x) which will provide one the value
1 1 3 f (a1) after simplification.
= − +1= Step 2: To consider the function f (x) = f2 (x) to find
4 2 4
a f af
the value f (a), provided x = a is the restriction against
af
2. If f x =
1
x
, find
f 1+ h − f 1
h
.
f2 (x) and put x = a in f2 (x). If f (x) = f2 (x) when the
restrictions imposed against it are x ≥ a , x ≤ a ,

Solution: ∴ f x = af 1
x
...(1)
a ≤ x < b , a < x ≤ b , a ≤ x ≤ b or any other
interval with the sign or equality indicating the

a f 1 inclusion of the value ‘a’ of x, we may consider f2 (x)

∴ f 1+ h = ...(2) to find the value f (a). But if f (x) = f2 (x) = constant,
1+ h
when x = a is given in the question, then f2 (x) = given

af
f 1 =
1
1
= 1 ... (3)
constant will be the required value of f (x) i.e. f (x) =
given constant when x = a signifies not to find the
value other than f (a) which is equal to the given
a f a f 1 +1 h − 1 = 1 −+hh
∴ f 1+ h − f 1 = ...(3)
constant.
Step 3: To consider the function f (x) = f3 (x) to find

a4f = f a1 + hf − f a1f
the value f (a2) provided x = a2 < a and x = a2 in f (x) =
f3 (x) which will provide one the value f (a2) after
∴
h h simplification.

=
a
−h / 1 + h
=
1 f
h 1+ h
Type 2: (To evaluate a piecewise function f (x) at a
point belonging to different intervals in which different
expression for f (x) is defined). In general, a piece wise
function is put in the form
f (x) = f1 (x), when x > a
= f2 (x), when x = a
f3 (x), when x < a, ∀ x ∈ R
and one is required to find the values (i) f (a1) (ii) f
(a) and (iii) f (a0), where a, a0 and a1 are specified (or,
given) values of x and belong to the interval x > a
which denote the domains of different function f1 (x),
f2 (x) and f3 (x) etc for f (x).
Note: The domains over which different expression
f1 (x), f2 (x) and f3 (x) etc for f (x) are defined are intervals
finite or infinite as x > a, x < a, x ≥ a , x ≤ a , a < x <
b, a ≤ x < b , a < x ≤ b and a ≤ x ≤ b etc and
represent the different parts of the domain of f (x).
Remember:
1. f (x) = f1 (x), when (or, for, or, if) a ≤ x < a 2 signifies
that one has to consider the function f (x) = f1 (x) to
find the functional value f1 (x) for all values of x (given
or specified in the question) which lie in between a1
and a2 including x = a1.
2. f (x) = f2 (x), when (or, for, or, if) a 2 < x ≤ a 3 ,
signifies that one has to consider the function f (x) =
f2 (x),to find the functional value f2 (x) for all values of
x (given or specified in the question) which lie in
between a2 and a3 including x = a3.
3. f (x) = f3 (x), when (or, for, or, if) a4 < x < a5 signifies
that one has to consider the function f (x) = f3 (x) to
find the functional value f3 (x) for all values of x (given
or specified in the question) which lie in between a4
and a5 excluding a4 and a5.
Solved Examples
1. If f : R → R is defined by
f (x) = x2 – 3x, when x > 2
= 5, when x = 2
= 2x + 1, when x < 2, ∀ x ∈ R
 Function 21

find the values of (i) f (4) (ii) f (2) (iii) f (0) (iv) f (–3)
(v) f (100) (vi) f (–500).
Solution: 1. 3 4 > 2 , ∴ by definition, f (4) = (x2
– 3x) for x = 4 = 42 – 3 (4) = 16 – 12 = 4
(ii) 3 2 = 2, ∴ by definition, f (2) = 5
(iii) 0 < 2, ∴ by definition, f (0) = 2 (0) + 1 = 1
(iv) –3 < 2, ∴ by definition, f (–3) = 2 (–3) + 1 = –5
(v) 100 > 2, ∴ by definition, f (100) = (100)2 – 3
(100) = 10000 – 300 = 9700
(vi) –500 < 2, ∴ by definition f (–500) = 2 (–500) +
1 = –1000 + 1 = –999
2. If f (x) = 1 + x, when −1 ≤ x < 0
= x2 – 1, when 0 < x < 2
2x, when x ≥ 2
belong to the given domain of the function f (x), then
f (a0) is undefined, i.e., we cannot find f (a0), i.e., f (a0)
does not exist.
f (x) = x2 – 1, when 0 < x < 2
= x + 2, when x ≥ 2
find f (–1)
Solutions: −1 ∉ domain of f (x) represented by the
union of the restrictions 0 < x < 2 and x ≥ 2 (i.e., 0 <
x < 2 or x ≥ 2 ). For this reason f (–1) is undefined
(i.e., f (x) is undefined at x = –1).
3. Sometimes we are required to find the value of a
piecewise function f (x) for a0 ± h where h > 0, in
such cases, we may put h = 0.0001 for easiness to
guess in which domain (or, interval) the point

a f FH 12 IK , f FH − 21 IK
represented by x = a ± h lies.
find f 3 , f e.g.: If a function is defined as under
f (x) = 1 + x, when −1 ≤ x < 0
Solution: 3 f (x) = 2x for x ≥ 2
= x2 – 1, when 0 < x < 2
∴ f (3) = 2 ×3 = 6 (3 x = 3 ≥ 2 ) 2x, when x ≥ 2
af
3 f x = 1 + x , for − 1 ≤ x < 0 find f (2 – h) and f (–1 + h)
F 1I = 1 + F − 1I = 1 (Footnotes: 1. f (a) exists or f (a) is defined ⇔ ‘a’
H 2K H 2 K 2
∴ f − lies in the domain of f. 2. f (a) does not exist or f (a) is
undefined ⇔ ‘a’ does not lie in the domain of f.)
F3 x = − 1 ∈ [−1 , 0)I Solution: 1. Putting h = 0.001, we get 2– h = 2 – 0.001
H 2 K = 1.999 and 1.999 ∈ (0, 2) = 0 < x < 2
∴ f (2 – h) = (2 – h)2 – 1 = 22 + h2 – 4h – 1 = 4 + h2
3 f (x) = x2 – 1, for 0 < x < 2 – 4h – 1
F 1I = F 1I 2
1 3 = 3 + h2 – 4h = h2 – 4h + 3
∴ f
H 2K H 2K − 1 = −1 +
4
=−
4
2. Putting h = 0.001, we get –1 + h = –1 + 0.001 =
0.999 and 0.999 ∈ [–1, 0) = −1 ≤ x < 0
F3 x = 1 ∈ a0 , 2fI ∴ f (–1 + h) = (1 + x)x =–1 + h = 1 + h – 1 = h
H 2 K
Domain of a Function
Refresh your memory:
1. If a function f (x) is defined by various expressions Sometimes a function of an independent variable x is
f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) etc, then f (a0) denotes the value of described by a formula or an equation or an expression
the function f (x) for x = a0 which belongs to the in x and the domain of a function is not explicitly
domain of the function f (x) represented by various stated. In such circumstances, the domain of a function
restrictions x > a, x < a, x ≥ a , x ≤ a , a < x < b, is understood to be the largest possible set of real
numbers such that for each real number (of the largest
a ≤ x ≤ b , a ≤ x < b , and a < x ≤ b etc. possible set), the rule (or, the function) gives a real
2. Supposing that we are required to find the value number or for each of which the formula is meaningful
of the function f (x) for a point x = a0 which does not or defined.
22 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Definition: If f : D → R defined by y = f (x) be a the statement “f (x) is defined in the closed interval
[a, b]” means that f (x) exists and is real for all real
real valued function of a real variable, then the domain
values of x from a to b, a and b being real numbers
of the function f represented by D (f) or dom (f) is
such that a < b. Similarly, the statement “f (x) is defined
defined as the set consisting of all real numbers
in the open interval (a, b)” means that f (x) exists and
representing the totality of the values of the
is real for all real values of x between a and b (excluding
independent variable x such that for each real value
a and b)
of x, the function or the equation or the expression in
x has a finite value but no imaginary or indeterminate
af af LM f a xf = 0 , or
value.
Or, in set theoretic language, it is defined as:
3. (i) f x ⋅ g x = 0 ⇔
N ga xf = 0
If f : D → R be real valued function of the real LMRS f a xf ≥ 0
ga x f ≥ 0
(ii) f a x f ⋅ g a x f ≥ 0 ⇔ MT
variable x, then its domain is D or D (f) or dom (f)
af
= { x ∈ R : f x has finite values } MMRS f a xf ≤ 0 , or
= { x ∈ R : f a x f has no imaginary or indeterminate NT g a x f ≤ 0
value.}
To remember: LMRS f a xf ≥ 0
ga x f ≤ 0
(iii) f a x f ⋅ g a x f ≤ 0 ⇔ MT
1. Domain of sum or difference of two functions f (x)
af af
and g (x) = dom f x ± g x = dom (f (x)) ∩ dom MMRS f a xf ≤ 0 , or
(g (x)). NT g a x f ≥ 0
2. Domain of product of two functions f (x) and g (x)
af af
g (x) = dom f x ⋅ g x = dom (f (x)) ∩ dom (g (x)). LMRS f a xf ≥ 0
f a xf ga xf < 0
≥ 0 ⇔ MT
3. Domain of quotient of two functions f (x) and g (x) (iv)
ga x f MMRS f a xf ≤ 0 , or
LM f a xf OP = dom f a xf ∩ dom b ga xfg ∩ NT g a x f > 0
N ga x f Q
= dom

lx: gaxf ≠ 0q LMRS f a xf ≥ 0

f a xf ga xf < 0
= dom b f a x fg ∩ dom b ga x fg − lx: ga x f ≠ 0q i.e., ≤ 0 ⇔ MT
(v)
ga x f MMRS f a xf ≤ 0 , or
the domain of a rational function or the quotient
function is the set of all real numbers with the exception
NT g a x f > 0
4. (i) e x − a j < 0 ⇔ − a < x < a
of those real numbers for which the function in 2 2
denominator becomes zero.
Notes: 1. The domain of a function defined by a
formula y = f (x) consists of all the values of x but no (ii) ex 2
−a
2
j ≤ 0 ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a
value of y (i.e., f (x)).
2. (i) The statement “f (x) is defined for all x” signifies (iii) ex 2
−a
2
j > 0 ⇔ x < −a or x> a
a
that f (x) is defined in the interval −∞ , ∞ . f
(ii) The statements “f (x) is defined in an interval
finite or infinite” signifies that f (x) exists and is real
e
(iv) x − a
2 2
j ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ −a or x≥a

for all real values of x belonging to the interval. Hence,

 Function 23

5. (i) a x − a f a x − b f < 0 ⇔ a < x < b aa < b f ⇔

1 1 1 1 1 1
Finding the Domain of

x ∈ aa , b f
Algebraic Functions
1 1
Type 1: Problems based on finding the domains of
(ii) a x − a f a x − b f ≤ 0 ⇔ a ≤ x ≤ b aa < b f ⇔
2 2 2 2 2 2 polynomial functions.
x ∈ a 2 , b2 Working rule: One must remember that a polynomial
in x has the domain R (i.e., the set of the real numbers)
They mean the intersection of
because any function f of x which does not become
(a) x > a1 and x < b1
undefined or imaginary for any real value of x has the
(b) x ≥ a 2 and x ≤ b2 domain R. Hence, the linear y = ax + b; the quadratic
(iii)a x − a f a x − bf > 0 ⇔ x < a or x > b aa < bf y = ax2 + bx + c; and the square functions y = x2 have

⇔ x ∈ a−∞ , a f ∪ ab , ∞ f
the domain R.
Solved Examples
(iv) a x − a f a x − b f ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ a or x ≥ b aa < bf Find the domain of each of the following functions:

⇔ x ∈ a −∞ , a ∪ b , ∞ f
1. y = 11x – 7
Solution: y = 11x – 7 is a linear function and we know
They mean the union of that a linear function has the domain R.
(a) x < a and x > b a
Hence, domain of y (= 11x – 7) = R = −∞ , + ∞ f
(b) x ≤ a and x ≥ b 2. y = x2 – 3x + 7
Question: How to represent the union and Solution: y = x2 – 3x + 7 is a quadratic function and
intersection on a number line? we know that a quadratic function has the domain R.
Hence, domain of y = (= x2 – 3x + 7) =
Answer: Firstly, we recall the definitions of union and
intersection of two sets. a
R = −∞ , + ∞ f
Union: The union of two sets E and F is the set of 3. y = x2
elements belonging to either E or F. Solution: y = x2 is a square function and we know
Intersection: The set of all elements belonging to that a square function has the domain R.
both sets E and F is called intersection of E and F. a
Hence, domain of y = (= x2) = R = −∞ , + ∞ f
Type 2: Problems based on finding the domain of a
Method of Representation of
function put in the form:
Union and Intersection on Real Lines
af af
f x
If the set of the points on the line segment AB be the (i) y =
af
g x
,g x ≠0

af af
set E and the set of the point on segment CD be the 1
set F, then the union of E and F is the segment AD = or, (ii) y = ,g x ≠0
g x
AB + BD = sum or union and the intersection of E and
F is the segment CB = common segment. Working rule: It consists of following steps:
1. To put the function (or, expression in x) in the
common denominator = 0, i.e., g (x) = 0
segment
2. To find the values of x from the equation g (x) = 0
–∞ A C B D ∞
3. To delete the valued of x from R to get the required
Now some rules to find the domain of real valued af
f x 1
functions are given. They are useful to find the
domain of any given real valued function.
domain, i.e., domain of
af
g x
or
g x af
= R – {roots of

the equation g (x) = 0}, where f (x) and g (x) are

polynomials in x.
24 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Note: When the roots of the equation g (x) = 0 are ∴ domain = R – {5}
imaginary then the domain of the quotient function
2x − 4
f x 1af 4. y =
2x + 4
put in the form:
g x
or
af
g x
=R
af 2x − 4
Solved Examples Solution: y =
2x + 4
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
Now, putting, 2x + 4 = 0
2
x − 3x + 2 −4
1. y = 2 ⇒ 2x − 4 ⇒ x = = −2
x + x−6 2
∴ domain R – {2}
2
Solution: y =
x − 3x + 2
2
x +x−6
a f ax − 1f1ax − 2f
5. f x =

Solution: f a x f =
Now, putting x2 + x – 6 = 0 1
⇒ x2 + 3x – 2x – 6= 0
⇒ x (x + 3) –2 (x + 3) = 0
ax − 1f ax − 2f
Now, putting (x – 1) (x – 2) = 0
⇒ (x + 3) (x – 2) = 0
⇒ x = 1, 2
⇒ x = 2, –3
∴ domain = R – {1, 2}
∴ domain = R – {2, 3}
1
2 6. y =
x − 2x + 4 x −1
2
2. y = 2
x + 2x + 4
1
2
Solution: y = 2
x − 2x + 4 x −1
Solution: y = 2
x + 2x + 4 Now, putting, x2 – 1 = 0
2
Now, putting, x2 + 2x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 ⇒ x = ±1
⇒ x2 + 2x + 4 = 0 ∴ domain = R – {–1, 1}
⇒ (x + 1)2 + 3 = 0
1
⇒ (x + 1)2 = –3 7. y =
a f
x
⇒ x +1 = ± −3
1
Solution: y =
⇒ x = − 1 ± −3 imaginary or complex numbers. x
∴ domain = R Now, putting x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 i.e. y is undefined at x
=0
x
3. y = ∴ domain = R – {0}
5− x
2
x − 3x + 2
x 8. y =
Solution: y = 2
x + x−6
5− x
Now, putting, 5 – x = 0 2
x − 3x + 2
⇒ x=5 Solution: y = 2
x + x−6
 Function 25

Now, putting, x2 + x – 6 = 0 ⇒ x2 + 3x – 2x – 6 = 0 1. Problems based on finding the domain of a function

⇒ x (x + 3) –2(x + 3) = 0 ⇒ (x – 2) (x + 3) = 0 ⇒ x =
2, –3
put in the form: af
f x .
It consists of two types when:
∴ domain = R – {2, –3}
(i) f (x) = ax + b = a linear in x.
1 (ii) f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a quadratic in x.
9. y =
2x − 6 (i) Problems based on finding the domain of a

Solution: y =
1 function put in the form: af
f x , when f (x) = ax + b.
2x − 6 Working rule: It consists of following steps:
Now, putting 2x – 6 = 0 Step 1: To put a x + b ≥ 0

⇒x=
6
=3 Step 2: To find the values of x for which a x + b ≥ 0
2 to get the required domain.
kp a
∴ domain = R − 3 = −∞ , 3 ∪ 3 , + ∞f a f Step 3: To write the domain = [root of the inequation
a x + b ≥ 0, + ∞ )
1
10. y = 2 Notes: 1. The domain of a function put in the form
x − 5x + 6
f x a f consists of the values of x for which
f a xf ≥ 0 .
1
Solution: y = 2
x − 5x + 6
⇒ x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 2. x ≥ c ⇔ x ∈ c , + ∞f .
⇒ x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 = 0 Solved Examples
⇒ x (x – 3) –2 (x –3) = 0 Find the domain of each of the following fucntions:
⇒ (x – 3) (x – 2) = 0
1. y = x
⇒ x = 2, 3
k p a f a f
∴ domain = R − 2 , 3 = −∞ , 2 ∪ 2 , 3 ∪
Solution: y = x

a3, ∞f Now, putting x ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 0

Type 3: Problems based on finding the domain of the ∴ domain = 0 , + ∞ f

square root of a function put in the forms: 2. y = 2x − 4
(i) af
f x
Solution: y = 2x − 4
f a xf 4
ga x f
(ii) Now, putting 2 x − 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ =2
2

1 ∴ domain = 2 , + ∞ f
(iii) g xaf 3. y = x + x−1

f a xf Solution: y = x + x−1
(iv)
ga x f Putting y1 = x and y2 = x , we have
Now we tackle each type of problem one by one. y = y1 + y2
26 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
∴ domain of y = dom y1 ∩ dom y2 a f β⇒ domain of
2
ax + bx + c = α ≤ x ≤ β
Now, domain of y e= x j = D asay f = 0 , + ∞ f
1 1 aα < βf .
[from example 1.] again, we require to find the domain (ii) a = coefficient of x2 = + ve (and, ax2 + bx + c =
of y2 = e x −1 . j a
a x−α f a x − βf ≥ 0) ⇒ x does not lie between α
x −1≥ 0⇒ x ≥1⇒ and β ⇒ domain of ax + bx + c = R − aα , β f =
2
Putting domain y 2

e= j a f
x − 1 = D2 say = 1 , + ∞ Hence, domain of f a−∞ , αf ∪ aβ , + ∞f .
y = D (say) = dom (y1) ∩ dom y2 a f (iii) a x + α f a x + β f should be written as

= D1 ∩ D2 bx − a−αfg , bx − a−βfg while finding the domain of

f
= 0 , + ∞ ∩ 1, + ∞ f the square root of ax + bx + c = a a x + α f a x + βf .
2

= 1, ∞ f Solved Examples
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
2
shaded portion = D1 ∩ D2
1. y = x − 3x + 4
0 1 ∞
2
Solution: y = x − 3x + 4
2
(ii) Problems based on finding the domain of a Now x − 3x + 4 ≥ 0

e j
function put in the form: 2
⇒ x − 4x + x − 4 ≥ 0
y= af
f x , when f (x) = ax2 + bx + c and α , β

are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 α < β a f ⇒ x a x − 4f + a x − 4f ≥ 0

working rule: It consists of following steps: ⇒ a x + 1f a x − 4f ≥ 0

⇒ a x − 4f b x − a−1fg ≥ 0 ⇒ x does not lie be-

2
Step 1: To put a x + b x + c ≥ 0
tween –1 and 4 ⇒ x ≤ − 1 or x ≥ 4 .
2
Step 2: To solve the in equation a x + b x + c ≥ 0
for x by factorization or by completing the square. ∴ domain = R – (–1, 4)
Step 3: To write the domain of 2
ax + bx + c = 2. y = a x − 2f a x − 5f
α ≤ x ≤ β only when the coefficient of x2 = a = – ve Solution: y = a x − 2f a x − 5f
and ax2 + bx + c = a x − α a f a x − βf and to write the Now, (x – 2) (x – 5) ≥ 0 ⇒ x does not lie between

+ bx + c = R − aα , βf only when
domain of
2 2 and 3.
ax
⇒ x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 5
the coefficient of x2 = a +ve and ax2 + bx + c =
a
a x−α f a x − βf . ∴ domain = R – (2, 5)
2
Notes: (i) a = coefficient of x2 = –ve (and, ax2 + bx + 3. y = x − 5x + 6
a
c= a x − α f a x − βf ≥ 0) ⇒ x lies between α and Solution: y =
2
x − 5x + 6
 Function 27

2 2
Now, x − 5x + 6 ≥ 0 Now, −5 − 6 x − x ≥ 0
a
⇒ x−2 f a x − 3f ≥ 0 2
⇒ x + 6x + 5 ≤ 0
⇒ x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3 2
⇒ x + 5x + x + 5 ≤ 0
∴ domain = R – (2, 3)
2 a f a f
⇒x x+5 + x+5 ≤0
4. y = − x + 5x − 6
⇒ a x + 5f a x + 1f ≤ 0
⇒ b x − a−1fg b x − a−5fg ≤ 0 ⇒ x lies between –5
2
Solution: y = − x + 5x − 6

and −1 ⇒ − 5 ≤ x ≤ − 1 .
2
Now, − x + 5x − 6 ≥ 0
2 ∴ domain = [–5, –1]
⇒ x − 5x + 6 ≤ 0
7. y = a1 − xf a x + 3f
a
⇒ x−2 f a x − 3f ≤ 0
⇒ x lies between 2 and 3 Solution: y = a1 − x f a x + 3f
⇒2≤x≤3 Now, a1 − x f a x + 3f ≥ 0
⇒ − a x − 1f a x + 3f ≥ 0
∴ domain = [2, 3]

⇒ a x − 1f a x + 3f ≤ 0
2
5. y = −16 x − 24 x

2 ⇒ a x − 1f b x − a−3fg ≤ 0
Solution: y = −16 x − 24 x
⇒ −3≤ x ≤1
Now, −16 x 2 − 24 x ≥ 0
∴ domain = [–3, 1]
2
⇒ − 2 x − 3x ≥ 0 2
8. y = 1 − x
2
⇒ 2 x + 3x ≤ 0 2
Solution: y = 1 − x
a f
⇒ x 2x + 3 ≤ 0
⇒ x b2 x − a−3fg ≤ 0
Now, 1 − x 2 ≥ 0

3
⇒ x lies between − and 0
e
⇒ − 1− x
2
j≤0
2
2
⇒ x −1≤ 0
3
⇒− ≤x≤0
2 a fa f
⇒ x − 1 x + 1 ≤ 0 ⇒ x − 1 x − −1 ≤ a f b a fg
2 LM OP 0 ⇒ x lies between –1 and +1
∴ domain = − 3 , 0
N Q ⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 ∴ domain = [–1, 1]
6. y = −5 − 6 x − x
2
9. y = − 4 − x
2
Solution: y = −5 − 6 x − x
2
Solution: y = − 4 − x
28 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2
Now, putting 4 − x 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x − 3x − x + 3 ≥ 0
2
⇒ x −4≤0 a f a f
⇒ x−3 − x−3 ≥0

a f a x + 2f ≤ 0
⇒ x−2 ⇒ a x − 1f a x − 3f ≥ 0

⇒ a x − 2f b x − a−2fg ≤ 0
⇒ x does not lie between 1 and 3
⇒ x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 3
⇒ x lies between –2 and 2 ⇒ − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
∴ domain = [–2, 2]
+∞ 0 1 3 +∞
1 2
10. y = 4−x
a f
2
∴ domain = R – [1, 3] = −∞ , 1 ∪ 3 , + ∞
1
a x − 2f a x − 3f
2
Solution: y = 4−x
2 13. y =

Now, putting 4 − x 2 ≥ 0 Solution: y = a x − 2f a x − 3f

2
⇒ x −4≤0 Now, a x − 2 f a x − 3f ≥ 0

a f a x + 2f ≤ 0
⇒ x−2
⇒ x ≥ 2 or x ≥ 3
⇒ x does not lie between 2 and 3
⇒ a x − 2f b x − a−2fg ≤ 0 a
∴ domain = R – [2, 3] = −∞ , 2 ∪ 3 , + ∞ f
⇒ x lies between –2 and 2 ⇒ − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 2
14. y = x + 2x + 3
∴ domain = [–2, 2]
1 2
11. y = − 4− x
2
Solution: 3 y = x + 2x + 3
2
2
Now, x + 2 x + 3 ≥ 0
1
a f
2
Solution: y = − 4− x
⇒ x+1
2
+ 2 ≥ 0, ∀ x
2
⇒ a x + 1f ≥ − 2 , which is true for all x ∈ R
2
Now, putting 4 − x 2 ≥ 0
2
∴ domain = R = −∞ , ∞ a f
⇒ x −4≤0
Type (ii): Problems based on finding the domain of
a f a x + 2f ≤ 0
⇒ x−2
af
⇒ a x − 2f b x − a−2fg ≤ 0
f x
a function put in the form : y =
af
g x
⇒ −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 While finding the domain of the square root
∴ domain = [–2, 2]
af
f x
12. y =
2
x − 4x + 3
of a quotient function (i.e; y =
af
g x
) one must

2 remember the following facts:

Solution: y = x − 4x + 3

Now, x 2 − 4 x + 3 ≥ 0
 Function 29

af LM 2 I a f
N K
f x Hence, domain = R − −3 , = −∞ , − 3 ∪
1. The domain of y ( =
af
g x
) consists of those 3

af LM 2 , + ∞I
N3 K
f x
values of x for which
af
g x
≥0

af
or, alternatively:
2.
f x
g x af af af
≥ 0 ⇔ f x ≥ 0 , g x > 0 , or f x ≥ 0 , af x−
2
3x − 2 3 ≥ 0 ⇔ x < − 3 or
≥0⇔
g (x) < 0. 2x + 6 x+3
FG x − α IJ ≤ 0 ⇔ α ≤ x < β
3.
H x − βK or β < x ≤ α ac-
x≥
2
3
f LMN IK
a
⇔ x ∈ −∞ , − 3 ∪
2
3
,+∞

Hence, domain = a−∞ , − 3f ∪ L , + ∞I

cording as α < β or β < α .
MN 3 K
2
FG x − α IJ ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ α or x < β if β < α and ⇔
4.
H x −βK x −1
x ≤ α or x > β if α < β . 2. y =
x +1
5. The function in the denominator ≠ 0 always. Solution: y is defined for all those x for which
Solved Examples x −1 x −1
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
x +1
≥ 0⇔
x − −1 a f
≥ 0 ⇔ x < − 1 or x ≥ 1 ⇔

1. y =
3x − 2
2x + 6
a f
x ∈ −∞ , − 1 ∪ 1 , + ∞ f
Solution: y is defined for those x for which
a
Hence, domain = −∞ , − 1 ∪ 1 , + ∞ f f
3x − 2 x−2
≥0 3. y =
2x + 6 x+2

a
⇔ (1) 3x − 2 ≥ 0 f UV 2
Solution: y is defined for all those x for which

a
2x + 6 > 0 f W
, i.e; x ≥
3
x−2
x+2
≥0⇔
x−2
x − −2 a f
≥ 0 ⇔ x < − 2 or, x ≥ 2

or, (2) a3x − 2f ≤ 0U

a2 x + 6f < 0VW , i.e; x < − 3 a f
⇔ x ∈ −∞ , − 2 ∪ 2 , + ∞ f
α β
a
Hence, domain = −∞ , − 2 ∪ 2 , + ∞ f f
−∞ –3 0 2 ∞ Type (iii): Problems on finding the domain of a
3
1
function put in the form: y =
2
(1) and (2) ⇒ x ≥ , or x < − 3 ⇔ x ∈ af
g x
3

a−∞ , − 3f ∪ LMN 23 , + ∞IK

Working rule: It consists of following steps:
1. To put g (x) > 0
2. To find the values of x for which g (x) > 0
30 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. To form the Domain with the help of the roots of Type (iv): Problems on finding the domain of a
the in equation g (x) > 0.
function put in the form: y =
f x af.
g axf
Note: The domain of a function put in the form
1
y=
a f consists of all those values of x for which Working rule: The rule to find the domain of a
a f is the same as for
g x
f x
function of the form y =
g axf
g (x) > 0.
Solved Examples
1. Find the domain of each of the following functions:
1
the domain of a function of the form y =
y=
1 af
g x
a2 − xf ax + 3f which means.
Solution: y is defined for all those values of x for 1. To put g (x) > 0 and to find the values of x from the
which (2 – x) (x + 3) > 0 ⇔ (x – 2) (x + 3) < 0 ⇔ x lies in equality g (x) > 0.
a
between –3 and 2 ⇔ –3 < x < 2 ⇔ x ∈ −3 , 2 hence, f 2. To form the domain with the help of obtained values
of x.
domain = (–3, 2)
Solved Examples
1 Find the domain of each of the following functions:
2. y =
a1 − xf ax + 2f x
1. y = 2
Solution: y is defined for all those values of x for x − 3x + 2
which (1 – x) (x + 2) > 0 ⇔ (x – 1) (x – (–2)) < 0 ⇔ x
lies between –2 and 1 ⇔ –2 < x < 1 ⇔ x ∈ −2 , 1 a f Solution: y is defined when x2 – 3x + 2 > 0 ⇔ x2 – 2x
– x + 2 > 0 ⇔ x (x – 2) – (x – 2) > 0 ⇔ (x – 1) (x – 2)
hence, domain = (–2, 1). > 0 ⇔ x < 1 or x > 2.

3. y =
2
1
a f a
Hence, domain = R – [1, 2] = −∞ , 1 ∪ 2 , + ∞ f
x − 5x + 6 x
2. y =
Solution: y is defined for all those values of x for
which x2 – 5x + 6 > 0 ⇔ x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 > 0 ⇔ (x –
a1 − xf ax − 2f
Solution: y is defined when (1 –x) (x – 2) > 0 ⇔ (x –
3) x – 2 (x – 3) > 0 ⇔ (x – 3) (x – 2) > 0 ⇔ x < 2 or x >
a
3 ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , 2 ∪ 3 , + ∞ f a f 1) (x – 2) < 0 ⇔ x lies between 1 and 2 ⇔ 1 < x < 2
a f
⇔ x ∈ 1, 2 .
Hence, domain a
= R − 2 , 3 = −∞ , 2 ∪f Hence, domain = (1, 2)
a3, + ∞f Finding the Domain
1 of Logarithmic Functions
4. y =
−x
There are following types of logarithmic functions
Solution: y is defined for all those values of x for whose domains are required to be determined.
which –x > 0 ⇔ x < 0 ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , 0 a f (i) y = log f (x)
Hence, domain = −∞ , 0 . a f (ii) y = log f x af
(iii) y = log | f (x) |
 Function 31

FG f a xf IJ Solution: Method (1)

y is defined when (3x 2 – 4x + 5) > 0 ⇔
(iv) y = log
H ga x f K
F 4 5I
f a xf H K
2
3 x – x+ >0
3 3
log g a x f
(v) y=
LMF x – 4 x + F 4 I − F 4 I + 5I OP > 0
2 2

MNGH 3 H 6 K H 6 K 3JK PQ
2
(vi) y = log log log f (x) ⇔3
Now we tackle each type of problem one by one.
Type 1: Problems based on finding the domain of a
LF 2 I + F 5 − 4 I OP > 0
⇔ 3M x –
2

MNH 3 K H 3 9 K PQ
function put in the form: y = log f (x).
Working rule: It consists of following steps:

F 2 I + a3f F 11I > 0

Step 1: To put f (x) > 0 and to solve the in equality f 2

H 3K H 9K
(x) > 0 for x. ⇔3 x –
Step 2: To form the domain with the help of obtained

F 2 I > − 11 which is true ∀ x ∈ R

values of x.
2
Notes: 1. The domain of the logarithmic function y =
log f (x) consists of all those values of x for which f (x) H 3K 9
⇔3 x−

> 0. ∴ D a y f = R = a −∞ , + ∞ f
2. Log f (x) is defined only for positive f (x).
Notes: 1. Imaginary or a complex numbers as the
Solved Examples
2
Find the Domain D of each of the following functions: roots of an equation a x + b x + c = 0 ⇔ domain
af a f
1. y = log (4 – x)
Solution: y is defined when 4 – x > 0 ⇔ –x > –4 ⇔ of log f x = R = −∞ , + ∞ as in the above
x < 4. example roots are complex.
af a
∴ D y = −∞ , 4 f 2. The method adopted in the above example is called
“if method”.
2. y = log (8 – 2x) 3. A perfect square is always positive which is greater
Solution: y is defined when (8 – 2x) > 0 ⇔ –2x > –8 than any negative number.
⇔ x < 4. Method 2. This method consists of showing that
af a
∴ D y = −∞ , 4 f 2
a x + b x + c > 0 , ∀ x if a > 0 and discriminant = b2
3. y = log (2x + 6)
Solution: y is defined when (2x + 6) > 0 ⇔ 2x > –6 – 4ac < 0 here 3 > 0, and discriminant = 16 – 60 = – 34

a
⇔ x > –3 ⇔ x ∈ −3 , + ∞ f <0
∴ y is defined ∀ x ∈ R
Hence, D a y f = a−3 , + ∞ f
4. y = log {(x + 6) (6 – x)}
af
Therefore, D y = R = −∞ , + ∞ a f
6. y = log (x3 – x)
Solution: y is defined when (x + 6) (6 – x) > 0 ⇔ (x +
Solution: y is defined when (x3 – x) > 0 ⇔ x (x2 – 1)
6) (x – 6) < 0 ⇔ x lies between –6 and 6 ⇔ –6 < x <
> 0 ⇔ x (x + 1) (x – 1) > 0 ⇔ (x – 0) (x + 1) (x – 1) >
a
6 ⇔ x ∈ −6 , 6 f 0 ⇔ (x – (1)) (x – 0) (x – 1) > 0
Hence, D (y) = (–6, 6) Now let f (x) = (x – (–1)) (x – 0) (x – 1)
5. y = log (3x2 – 4x + 5) If x < –1, then f (x) < 0 as all the three factors are
< 0.
32 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

If –1 < x < 0, then f (x) > 0 2. To form the domain of y which is the set of all real
If 0 < x < 1, then f (x) < 0 and if x > 1, then f (x) > 0 values of x excluding those values of x at which y is
a f a f
Hence, f(x) > 0 ⇔ x ∈ −1 , 0 ∪ 1 , ∞ undefined , i.e.,

∴ D a y f = a −1 , 0f ∪ a1 , ∞ f
D (y) = R – {values of x at which f (x) =0}
Note: While finding the domain of a function of the
Type 2: Problems based on finding the domain of a form: y = log | f (x) |, one must find all those values of

function put in the form y = log af

f x
x at which the function f (x) (i.e., the function under
the symbol of absolute value) becomes zero and then
Working rule: One must remember that the function those values of x should be deleted from R (i.e., the

af af
set of all real numbers).
y = log f x is defined when y = f x > 0, Solved Examples
i.e., f (x) > 0 which means the domain of the function Find the domain of each of the following functions:
y = log af
f x consists of all those values of x for
1. y = log | x |
Solution: log | x | is undefined only when | x | = 0, i.e.,
which f (x) > 0. x=0
Solved Examples af
∴ D y = R− 0 kp
Find the domain of each of the following functions: 2. y = log | 4 – x2 |
1. y = log x−4 Solution: log | 4 – x2 | is undefined only when | 4 – x2
| = 0; i.e., 4 – x2 = 0 ⇔ x2 – 4 = 0 ⇔ (x – 2) (x + 2) = 0
Solution: y = log x−4 is defined when
⇔ (x – 2) (x – (–2)) = 0 ⇔ x = 2 or x = –2
a x − 4f > 0 ⇔ x > 4 af
∴ D y = R − 2, −2 k p
∴ D a y f = a4 , ∞ f Type 4: Problems based on finding the domain of a
2. y = log 6 − x FG f a xfIJ .
Solution: y = log 6 − x is defined when (6 – x) >
function put in the form: y = log
H g a xf K
0 ⇔ 6>x ⇔ x<6 Working rule: It consists of following steps:
af a f
∴ D y = −∞ , 6 af
f x

3. y = log e x − 4 + 6 − x j
1. To put
af
g x
> 0 and to solve the in equalities f

(x) > 0 and g (x) > 0 or f (x) < 0 and g (x) , 0 seperately.
Solution: y = log e x − 4 + 6 − x j is defined 2. To form the domain of y with the help of obtained
af
f x
when e x − 4 + 6 − x j > 0 ⇔ a x − 4 f and af
values of x for which > 0.
g x
b6 − xg ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 4 and x ≤ 6 ⇔ 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 Notes: 1. The domain of a logarithmic function of
∴ D a yf = 4 , 6 FG f a xfIJ consists of all those
the form y = log
H g a xf K
f a xf
Type 3: Problems based on finding the domain of a
function put in the form: y = log | f (x) |
g a xf
values of x for which > 0.
Working rule: It consists of following steps:
1. To put f (x) = 0 and to find all the values of x from 2. One must test whether g (x) is positive or negative
the equation f (x) = 0. by the following scheme:
 Function 33

(i) If a > 0 and the discriminant (i.e.; D = b2 – 4ac) of

Fx 2 I >0 ⇔
g (x) = ax2 + bx + c is < 0 (i.e., D = –ve), then g (x) = ax2
+ bx + c is positive ∀ x and in such case, one must
Solution: y is defined when GH x 2
− 5x + 6
J
+ 4x + 6K
consider only the function in numerator = f (x) > 0 to x2 – 5x + 6 > 0 ⇔ x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 > 0 ⇔ x (x – 3) –2
af
f x (x – 3) > 0 ⇔ (x – 2) (x – 3) > 0 ⇔ x does not lie
find the solution set of y =
af
g x
> 0.
between 2 and 3 ⇔ x < 2 or x > 3 ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , 2 ∪ a f
Solved Examples a3, + ∞f .
∴ D a y f = a −∞ , 2f ∪ a3 , + ∞ f
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
F 5x − x I 2
1. y = log GH 4 JK N.B.: In the above example (3), the discriminant D =
16 – 4 × 1 × 6 = 16 – 24 = –ve for the function x2 + 4x +
6 in denominator which ⇒ x2 + 4x + 6 > 0. For this
F 5x − x I > 0 ⇔ 5x –
2

GH 4 JK
reason, we considered only the function x2 – 5x + 6 in
Solution: y is defined when numerator > 0.
F I
x2 > 0 ⇔ x (5 – x) > 0 ⇔ (x – 0) (x – 5) < 0 ⇔ 0 < x
4. y = log GH x x−5
J
− 10 x + 24 K
a f
< 5 x ∈ 0, 5
2

∴ D a y f = a0 , 5f Solution: Method (1)

F xI F I=
2. y = log H K
10
y is defined when GH x 2
x−5
J
− 10 x + 24 K

F x I > 0⇔x>0 ⇔ a x − 5f > 0

Solution: y is defined when
H 10 K a x − 4f a x − 6f ⇔ (x – 4) (x – 5) (x – 6) > 0

a
x ∈ 0, + ∞ f (multiplying both sides by (x – 4)2 (x – 6)2)
af a
∴ D y = 0, + ∞ f But (x – 4) (x – 5) (x – 6) > 0 when (a) all the above
factors > 0 (b) one of the three factors > 0 and each of
N.B.: In the above two examples the functions in the other two factors < 0.
denominator are positive. This is why considerable Hence, we have the following four cases:
function to be greater than zero is only the function Case (i): When (x – 4) > 0 and (x – 5) > 0 and (x – 6)
in numerator. >0
Fx 2 I ⇒ x > 4 and x > 5 and x > 5 ⇒ x ∈ 6 , ∞ a f
3. y = log GH x 2
− 5x + 6
J
+ 4 x + 6K
Case (ii): When (x – 4) > 0 and (x – 5) < 0 and (x – 6)
<0
⇒ x > 4 and x < 5 and x < 6 ⇒ 4 < x < 5 ⇒
x ∈ 4,5a f
Case (iii): When (x – 4) < 0 and (x – 5) > 0 and (x – 6)
<0
⇒ x < 4 and x > 5 and x < 6 ⇒ 5 < x < 6 ⇒ x ∈ φ
34 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Case (iv): When (x – 4) < 0 and (x – 5) < 0 and (x – 6) this reason both the functions (x – 5) and (x2 – 10x +
>0 24) simultaneously are considerable.
⇒ x < 4 and x > 5 and x > 6 ⇒ x ∈ φ Type 5: Problems based on finding the domain of a
∴ D y = 4, 5 ∪ 6, ∞af a f a f function put in the form:
f x af
af
Method (2) y=
x−5 a x − 5f > 0 log g x
2
x − 10 x + 24
>0⇔
a x − 4f a x − 6f working rule: one must remember that a function
f x af
af
If x < 4, then (x – 4) < 0, (x – 5) < 0, (x – 6) < 0
having the form y = log g x is defined when g (x)
If 4 < x < 5, then (x – 4) > 0, (x – 5) < 0, (x – 6) < 0
If 5 < x < 6, then (x – 4) > 0, (x – 5) > 0, (x – 6) < 0
and if x > 6, then (x – 4) > 0, (x – 5) > 0, (x – 6) > 0
af
> 0 and g x ≠ 1 which means that domain of y
consists of all those values of x for which g (x) > 0
Hence,
a fa f
x−5
x−4 x−6
> 0 ⇔ 4 < x < 5 or x > 6 af
and g x ≠ 1 i.e., D (y) = D + (g (x)) – {roots of

∴ D a y f = a4 , 5f ∪ a6 , ∞f
af
g x = 1 }, where D + (g (x)) signifies the solution
set of g (x) > 0.
af af
Method (3)
For y to be defined Note: log f x ≠ log 1 ⇔ f x ≠ 1
2
(i) x − 10 x + 24 ≠ 0 ⇒ x − 4 a f a x − 6f ≠ 0 ⇒ Solved Examples
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
x ≠ 4, x ≠ 6 (A1)
x

(ii) 2
x−5
>0⇒
(i) y =
a
log 1 + x f
x − 10x + 24 Solution: y is defined when (1 + x) > 0 and log (1 +
(a) x – 5 > 0 and x2 – 10x + 24 > 0 or a f
x) ≠ 0 . 1 + x > 0 ⇔ x > − 1 ⇔ x ∈ −1, + ∞ . a f
(b) x – 5 and x2 – 10x + 24 < 0
from (a), x – 5 > 0 and (x – 4) (x – 6) > 0 a f a f
log 1 + x = 0 ⇔ log 1 + x ≠ log 1 ( ∴ log 1= 0)
⇒ x > 5 and (x < 4 or x > 6) ⇔1+ x ≠1
⇒ (x > 5 and x < 4) or (x > 5 and x > 6) ⇔x≠0
But x > 5 and x < 4 is not possible
∴ x > 5 and x > 6 ⇒ x > 6 (A2) af a
∴ D y = −1 , + ∞ − 0 f kp
from (b), x < 5 and (x – 4) (x – 6) < 0 Type 6: Problems based on finding the domain of a
⇒ x < 5 and (x > 4 and x < 6) function put in the form: y = log log log f (x)
⇒ x < 5 and (4 < x < 6) To remember: One must remember the following facts:
⇒ 4 < x < 5 (A3) 1. Inequalities of the form log a x > c, log a x < c, where
Now, combining (A2) and (A3), we get a > 0 and a ≠ 1 are called simplest logarithmic
a f a f
x > 6 or 4 < x < 5 which ⇒ x ∈ 4 , 5 ∪ 6 , ∞ inequalities.
af a f a f
∴ D y = 4, 5 ∪ 6, ∞
LM RSa > 1 ⇒
x>c⇔M T
c
N.B.: On must note that in the above example x>a
discriminant of the function x2 – 10x + 24 in the 2. log a
MMRS0 < a < 1 ⇒
denominator is 102 – 4 × 1 × 24 = 100.96 = 4 = + ve. For
NT 0 < x < a c
 Function 35

LM RS a > 1 ⇒ LMRS a > 1

x<c⇔ MT x < c ⇔ MT
c c
0< x<a 0< x<a
3. log a
MMRS0 < a < 1 ⇒ (b) log a
MM RS0 < a < 1
NT x > a c
NT x>a c

Solved Examples
LM RS g a xf > 0 Find the domain of each of the following functions:
MML Tga afx>f >1 0⇒
1
1. y = log2 log3 (x – 4)

ax f ⇔ MM RSTg fa xxf > g axf

2

af
Solution: y = log2 log3 (x – 4) exists only for log 3 (x –
4. log f a x f g1 x > log f a x f g 2
MMMM 0 < f axf < 1 ⇒ 4) > 0

MNMNRST g a xf < g axf

1 2
⇔ (x – 4) > 3º
⇔ x–4>1
⇔ x>5
1 2

Working rule: There are following working rules to

af a
∴ D y = 5, + ∞ f
2. y = log2 log3 log4 (x)
find the domain of a function put in the forms:
a f
Solution: y = log2 log3 log4 (x) is defined when log3
(i) y = log a log b f (x) a > 0 , a ≠ 1 , b > 1 log4 (x) > 0
(ii) y = log a log b log c f (x) ⇔ log3 log4 (x) > log3 1
aa > 0 , a ≠ 1 , b > 1 , c > 0 , c ≠ 1f ⇔ log4 x > 1
⇔ x > 41 ⇔ x > 4
Rule 1: log a log b f (x) exists
⇔ log b f (x) > 0
af a
∴ D y = 4, +∞ f
⇔ log b f (x) > log 1 3. y = log10 [1 – log10 (x2 – 5x + 16)]
Solution: y = log10 [1 – log10 (x2 – 5x + 16)] is defined
⇔ f (x) > 1 and solve for x
when [1 – log10 (x2 – 5x + 16)] > 0
Rule 2: log a log b log c f (x) exists
⇔ – log10 (x2 – 5x + 16) > – 1
⇔ log b log c f (x) > 0
⇔ log10 (x2 – 5x + 16) < 1
⇔ log b log c f (x) > log 1
⇔ x2 – 5x + 16 < 101 (3 loga x < c ⇔ x < ac when
⇔ log c f (x) > 1
a > 1)
⇔ f (x) > c1 if c > 1; f (x) < c if c < 1 and solve for x.
⇔ x2 – 5x + 16 – 10 < 0
Aid to memory: To find the domain of a given function ⇔ x2 – 5x + 6 < 0
put in the above mentioned form. ⇔ (x – 2) (x – 3) < 0
1. One must remove first log operator from left hand
side of the functions of the forms: y = log a log b log c ⇔ 2<x<3 ⇔ x ∈ 2, 3 a f
f (x) or log a log b f (x) and the rest log of a function ∴ D (y) = (2, 3)
(i.e., log b log c f (x) or log b f (x)) should be put > 0.
2. Use the rules: Domain of Trigonometric Functions

LM RS a > 1 Question: Find the domain and range of the following

x>c⇔M T
c functions:
x>a
(a) log a
MMRS < a < 1
0
1. y = sin x 2. y = cos x 3. y = tan x
4. y = cot x 5. y = cosec x 6. y = sec x
NT0 < x < a c
Answer: 1. y = sin x
36 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
Since we know that the value of the function y =
sin x is undefined and imaginary for no real value of x.
Hence, the domain of y = sin x is the set of all real
numbers. Again we know that | sin x | ≤ 1 ⇔ − 1
sin x ≤ 1 for any real value of x which means that the
range of y = sin x is the closed interval [–1, 1].
Aid to memory:
a f
D (sin x) = −∞ , + ∞ = R = the set of all real numbers.
R ( sin x) = [–1, 1]
2. y = cos x
since we know that the value of the function y =
cos x is undefined and imaginary for no real value of
x. Hence, the domain of y = cos x is the set of all real
numbers, again we know that | cos x | ≤ 1 ⇔ − 1
cos x ≤ 1 for any real value of x which means that the
range of y = cos x is the closed interval [–1, 1].
Aid to memory:
a f
D (cos x) = −∞ , + ∞ = R = the set of all real numbers.
R (cos x) = [–1, 1]
3. y = tan x
since we know that the value of the function y =
sin x
tan x = is undefined for those values of x for
cos x
which the function cos x in denominator is zero (i.e.,
for those values of x for which the function cos x in
denominator is zero (i.e.; for cos x = 0 ⇔ x =
a2n + 1f π2 = odd multiple of π2 , n being an integer).
Hence, the domain of y = tan x is the set of all real
a f π2 , n being an integer.
numbers excluding 2n + 1
Again, we know that tan x can assume any value
however large or small for real value of x which means
that −∞ < tan x < ∞ is the range of y = tan x.
Aid to memory:
D (tan x) = R = { x: x = a 2n + 1f , n being an integer}
π sec x =
2
a f
R (tan x) = R = −∞ , ∞ = the set of all real numbers.
4. y = cot x
since, we know that the value of the function y =
cos x
cot x = is undefined for all those values of x
sin x
for which the function sin x in denominator is zero
(i.e.; for sin x = 0 ⇔ x = n π = any integral multiple
of π , n being an integer). Hence, the domain of the
function y = cot x is the set of all real numbers
excluding n π , n being an integer. Again, we know
that cot x can assume any value however large or
small for real value of x which means that
−∞ < tan < ∞ is the range of the function y = cot x.
Aid to memory:
D (cot x) = R – {x: x = n π , n being an integer}
a f
R ( cot x) = R = −∞ , ∞ = the set of all real
numbers.
5. y = cosec x
Since we know that the value of the function y =
1
cosec x = is undefined for those values of x for
sin x
which the function sin x in denominator is zero (i.e.,
for sin x = 0 ⇔ x = n π = any integral multiple of π ,
n being an integer). Hence, the domain of y = cosec x
is the set of all real numbers excluding n π , n being an
integer. Again we know that | cosec x | ≥ 1 ⇔ cosec
x ≥ 1 or cosec x ≤ − 1 , ∀ x ≠ n π . Thus, ∀ x ≠ n π ,
we have cosec x ≥ 1 or cosec x ≤ − 1 . Hence, the
range of y = cosec x is the set of all real numbers not
in the open interval (–1, 1).
Aid to memory:
D (cosec x) = R –{x: x = n π , n being an integer}
R (cosec x) = R – (–1, 1)
6. y = sec x
Since we know that the value of the function y =
1
is undefined for those values of x for
cos x
which the function cos x in the denominator is zero
 Function 37

a f π2 , n being an
Solved Examples
(i.e., for cos x = 0 ⇔ x = 2n + 1
Find the domain of the following:
integer). Hence, the domain of y = sec x is the set of all 1. y = sin2 x + cos4 x

real numbers excluding 2n + 1 a f π2 , n being an Solution: Since, domain of sin2 x = R = {x: x ∈ R }

and domain of cos4 x = R = {x: x ∈ R }
integer. Again we know that | sec x | ≥ 1 ⇔ sec x ≥ 1
af
∴ D y =R∩R=R
aπ
f
or sec x ≤ − 1, , ∀ x ≠ 2n + 1 , n being a integer.
2
Type 2: Problems based on finding the domain of a
function put in the form: y = a sin x ± b cos x or, y =
a
Thus ∀ x ≠ 2n + 1 f π2 , we have sec x ≥ 1 or sec x a cos x ± b sin x, where a, b, x ∈ R .
Working rule: One must remember that the domain
≤ –1. Therefore, the range of y = sec x is the set of all of the function of the form: y = a sin x ± b cos x or y
real numbers not in the open interval (–1, 1).
= a cos x ± b sin x is the set of all real numbers since
Aid to memory:
a sin x or b cos x is defined for all a, b, x ∈ R as well
a
D (sec x) = R – {x: x = 2n + 1 f π2 , n ∈ I } I = the set as a cos x or b cos x is defined for all a, b x ∈ R
which means that this sum and/difference is (or, are)
of integers = { 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 3 , ...}
defined for all a, b, x ∈ R .
af a f
R (sec x ) = R – (–1, 1)
∴ D y = R = −∞ , + ∞ = − ∞ , + ∞
Refresh your memory:

1 Solved Examples
1. sin x ≤ 1 ⇔ ≥ 1 ⇔ cosec x ≥ 1
sin x
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
1 1. y = sin x – cos x
2. cos x ≤ 1 ⇔ ≥ 1 ⇔ sec x ≥ 1 Solution: y = sin x – cos x is defined for x ∈ R since
cos x
Now we consider different types or problems sin x and cos x are defined for x ∈ R
whose domains are required to be determined. af a
∴ D y = R = −∞ , + ∞ f
Type 1: Problems based on finding the domain of a
2. y = 3 cos x + 4 sin x
function put in the form: y = sinn x ± coxm x (n and m
Solution: y = 3 cos x + 4 sin x is defined for all x ∈ R
being integers) = sum or difference of power of sin x
and cos x; since 3 cos x and 4 sin x are defined for all, x ∈ R
Working rule: One must remember that domain of af
∴ D y = R = −∞ , ∞a f
the function y = sinn x ± cosm x is R = −∞ , ∞ = a f Type 3: Problems based on finding the domain of
−∞, +∞ since sin x and cos x are real valued trigonometric rational functions:
functions of the real variables x ⇔ sinn x and cosm x Working rule: It consists of following steps:
are real valued functions of the real variable x ⇔ the Step 1: To put the functional value (or, simply
sum of sinn x and cosm x are real valued functions of function) in denominator = 0 and to find the valued of
the real variable x. the independent variable.
38 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Step 2: To delete the values of the independent 1

variable from R to get the required domain, i.e., domain 1. y =
of trigonometric rational functions = R – { real values
1 + cos x
of the argument for which functional value in Solution: Putting 1 + cos x = 0
denominator = 0}. ⇒ cos x = − 1 ⇒ x = 2 n + 1 π a f
Notes: 1. If no real solution is available after putting
the functional value in denominator = 0, then domain af
∴D y =R− la2n + 1f π: n ∈ I q
a
of trigonometric rational functions is R = −∞ , + ∞ . f 2. y =
1
We face this circumstances generally when we obtain 2 − cos 3 x
cos m x or sin mx = k; | k | > 1, (after putting the Solution: Putting 2 – cos 3 x = 0
functional value in denominator = 0) from which it is ⇒ cos 3x = 2 which is not true for any real x
not possible to find out the values of x since maximum
and/minimum value of sin m x and/cos m x = +1 and – af
∴ D y = R = −∞ , + ∞ a f
1 respectively. 1
3. y =
2. sinθ = 0 ⇔ θ = n π , n ∈ I 2 − sin 3 x

cosθ = 0 ⇔ θ = 2n + 1 a f π2 , n ∈ I Solution: Putting 2 – sin 3x

⇒ sin 3x = 2 which is not true for any real x

sin θ = sin α ⇔ θ = n π + a −1f α , n ∈ I

n af
∴ D y = R = −∞ , ∞ a f
cos θ = cos α ⇔ θ = 2 n π ± α , n ∈ I Domain of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
2
sin θ = sin α U| 2 Before studying the method of finding the domain of
inverse trigonometric (or, arc) functions, we discuss
cos θ = cos α V ⇒ θ = n π ± α
2 2

tan θ = tan α |
3. (n being an the domain on which each trigonometric functions is
2
|W2 reversible.
−1 π π LM OP
integer) 1. y = sin x ⇔ sin
2 2
y = x , x∈ −
, , y ∈ −1,1
N Q
a f
4. cosn π = −1 n , n being an integer. which signifies that the function y = sin x defined on
sinn π = 0 , n being an integer. LM π π OP
5. The domain of the function put in the form:
the interval −
N ,
2 2 Q
has an inverse function defined

af af
f x 1 af
f x
on the interval [–1, 1].
y= f x ,
af
g x
,
g a xf
,
g a xf
where f Notes:

(x) and g (x) denote trigonometric functions, is

obtained by the same working rule as the case when
e
(i) D sin
−1
j
y = −1 , 1 , R sin e −1
j LMN
y = −
π π
,
2 2
OP
Q
f (x) and g (x) are algebraic functions.
e
(ii) sin sin
−1
j
y = y , ∀ y ∈ −1 ,1 and sin (sin x)
−1

Solved Examples LM
π π OP
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
= x , ∀ x∈ −
N ,
2 2
.
Q
(iii) The notation of the inverse of the sine function
is sin–1 (or, arc sin).
 Function 39

LM π π OP (iii) The notation of the inverse of the tangent

(iv) y = sin x, x ∈ −
N ,
Q
, is one-one and onto function is tan–1 (or, arc tan).
F I
2 2
π π
functions. this is why it is possible to define its inverse
on the interval [–1, 1].
(iv) y = tan x , x ∈ −
H ,
2 2 K
is a one-one and on-to

function. This is why it is possible to define its inverse

2. y = cos x ⇔ cos–1 y = x, x ∈ 0 , π , y ∈ −1 , 1
which signifies that the functions y = cos x is defined
on the interval 0 , π has an inverse function x =
cos–1 y defined on the interval [–1, 1].
Notes:
on the set of al real numbers (i.e.; R).
−1
4. y = cot x ⇔ cot y = x , x ∈ 0 , π , y ∈R which a f
signifies that the function y = cot x defined on the
a f
interval 0 , π has an inverse function x = cot–1 y

e j e j
−1 −1 defined on the set of all real numbers.
(i) D cos y = −1 , 1 , R cos y = 0, π .
Notes:

e −1
j
(ii) cos cos y = y , ∀ y ∈ −1 , 1 and cos (cos x)
−1
(i) D cot e −1
j a
y = R = −∞ , + ∞ , R cot f e −1
ja f
y = 0,π

= x , ∀ x∈ 0, π . e yj = y , ∀ y ∈R and cot
(ii) cot cot
−1 −1
acot xf =
(iii) The notation of the inverse of the cosine function
is cos–1 (or, arc cos). x , ∀ x ∈a0 , π f
(iv) y = cos x , x ∈ 0 , π , y ∈ −1 , 1 is a one-one (iii) The notation of the inverse of the contangent
and on-to function. this is why it is possible to define function is cot–1 (or, arc cot).
its inverse on the interval [–1, 1]. a f
(iv) y = cot x , x ∈ 0 , π , y ∈R is a one-one and on-

−1 F π π I to function. this is why it is possible to define its

a f
3. y = tan x ⇔ tan y = x , x∈ −
H ,
2 2 K
, y ∈R inverse on the interval −∞ , ∞ .
which signifies that the function y = tan x defined on −1 RS π UV , y ∈R −
F− π , πI 5. y = sec x ⇔ sec y = x , x ∈ 0 , π −
T2 W
the interval
H 2 2K has an inverse function x =
a −1 , 1f which signifies that the function y = sec x is
tan–1 y defined on the set of all real numbers (i.e.; R)
Rπ U
reversible on the interval 0 , π − S V , that is, it has
Notes:
T2 W
e −1
j a
(i) D tan y = R = −∞ , + ∞ , R tan y = f e −1
j an inverse function x = sec–1 y defined on the interval
R = (–1, 1).
F− π , πI .
H 2 2K
Notes:

e −1
j a f e
(i) D sec y = R − −1 , 1 , R sec y = 0 , π −
−1
j
(ii) tan etan y j = y , ∀ y ∈R
−1
and tan
−1
a tan x f =
RS π UV .
F π πI . T2 W
H 2 2K
x , ∀ x∈ − ,
(ii) The notation of the inverse of the secant function
is sec–1 (or, arc sec).
40 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

e −1
j a f
(iii) sec sec y = y , ∀ y ∈R − −1 ,1 ;sec
−1 Working rule: It consists of following steps:
1. To put f (x) in between –1 and 1, i.e., to form the
af
inequality −1 ≤ f x ≤ 1 and to solve two
asec xf = x , ∀ x ∈ 0 , π − RST π2 UVW . af
inequalities f x ≥ − 1 and f x ≤ 1 . af
RπU
2. To find the intersection of the solution set of the
(iv) y = sec x , x ∈ 0 , π − S V , y ∈R − a −1 , 1f is f a x f ≥ − 1 and f a x f ≤ 1 to form the
T2 W
inequalities
domain of the function of the form: y = sin–1 (f (x)) or,
a one-one and on-to function, this is why it is possible y = cos–1 (f (x)).
to define its inverse in the interval R – (–1, 1).
Notes:
−1 LM π π OP a f
(i) sin x ≥ 0 ⇔ 2 nπ ≤ x ≤ 2n + 1 π , n being an
6. y = cosec x ⇔ x = cosec
N
y, x∈ − ,
2 2
−
Q integer.
k0p , y ∈R − a−1 , 1f which signifies that the function (ii) sin x > 0 ⇔ 2nπ < x < 2nπ + π , n being an
integer ⇔ x lies in the first or second quadrant.
L π πO
y = cosec x is reversible on the interval M − , P −
N 2 2Q Solved Examples
k0p that is, it has an inverse function x = cosec y –1
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
defined on the interval R – (–1, 1). −1 FG 2 IJ
Notes: 1. y = cos
H 2 + sin x K
e −1
j a f e
(i) D cosec y = R − −1 , 1 , R cosec y =
−1
j 2
Solution: y is defined when −1 ≤ ≤1
2 + sin x
LM− π , π OP − k0p
N 2 2Q ⇔ − 2 − sin x ≤ 2 ≤ 2 + sin x
⇔ − 2 − sin x ≤ 2 ...(i)
(ii) cosec ecosec y j = y , ∀ y ∈R − a −1 , 1f
−1
and
and 2 ≤ 2 + sin x ...(ii)

L π πO
cosec a cosec x f = x , ∀ x ∈ M − , P − k0p .
−1 (i) ⇒ − 2 − sin x ≤ 2 ⇔ − sin x ≤ 4 ⇔ sin x ≥ − 4
N 2 2Q which is true ∀ x ∈R ⇔ D1 = − ∞ < x < ∞ = R .
(iii) The notation of the inverse of the cosecant (ii) ⇒ 2 ≤ 2 + sin x ⇔ 0 ≤ sin x ⇔ sin x ≥ 0 ⇔
function is cosec–1 (or, arc cosec).
L π πO a f
2nπ ≤ x ≤ 2n + 1 π ⇔ D2 = 2nπ , 2n + 1 π a f
y = cosec x , x ∈ M− , P − k0p , y ∈R − a−1,1f is af
(iv)
N 2 2Q ∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2
a one-one and on-to function. This is why it is possible a f
= 2nπ , 2n + 1 π , n being an integer.
to define its inverse on the interval R – (–1, 1).
Now we discuss the method of finding the domain 2. y = cos–1 (2x + 3)
of different types of problems. Solution: y is defined when −1 ≤ 2 x + 3 ≤ 1
Type1: Problems based on finding the domain of a ⇔ − 1 ≤ 2x + 3 ...(i)
function put in the form: y = sin–1 (f (x)) or, y = cos–1
and 2 x + 3 ≤ 1 ...(ii)
(f (x)).
 Function 41

Now,(i) ⇒ 2 x + 3 ≥ − 1 ⇔ 2 x ≥ − 1 − 3 ⇔ x ≥ af
∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2
−4
⇔ x ≥ − 2 ⇔ D1 = −2 , ∞ f L1 O
= M , 2P
2 N2 Q
(ii) ⇒ 1 ≥ 2x + 3 ⇔ 1 − 3 ≥ 2x ⇔ − 2 ≥ 2x ⇔
Remember:
−2
2
≥ x ⇔ − 1 ≥ x ⇔ x ≤ − 1 ⇔ D2 = −∞ , − 1 a 1. log a x > c ⇔ x < a , if 0 < a < 1 .
c

af
∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2 2. log a x > c ⇔ x < a c , if a > 1 .

= −2 , − 1 Type 2: Problems based on finding the domain of a

function put in the form:
–∞ –2 –1 0 1 2 +∞ y = sin
−1
f x af
or y = cos
−1
f x af
D2
Working rule: It consists of following steps:
3. y = cos–1 (1 – 2x) af
1. To put f x ≥ 0 and to solve for x.
Solution: y is defined when −1 ≤ 1 − 2 x ≤ 1 2
2. To consider sin y ≤ 1 ⇔ sin y ≤ 1 ⇔
⇔ − 1 ≤ 1 − 2x ...(i)
and 1 − 2 x ≤ 1 ...(ii) {sin sin −1
a f}
f x
2
≤1⇔ o f a xf t 2
≤1⇔ f x af
Now, (i) ⇒ − 1 ≤ 1 − 2 x ⇔ − 1 − 1 ≤ − 2 x ⇔ −
≤ 1 and to solve for x.
2 ≤ − 2 x ⇔ x ≤ 1 ⇒ D1 = −∞ , 1 a af
3. (1) and (2) ⇔ 0 ≤ f x ≤ 1 , domain of y is the
(ii) ⇒ − 1x ≤ 1 ⇔ − 2 x ≤ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 0 ⇒ D2 = intersection of the solution set of (1) and (2).
0, ∞ f af
f x is defined for f x ≥ 0 af
af
Note:
∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2
= [0, 1] ∴ y = sin
−1
af
f x or cos
−1
af
f x is defined
4. y = sin–1 (log2 x) for 0 ≤ af af
f x ≤ 1 and f x ≥ 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ f x ≤ 1 , af
Solution: y is defined when −1 ≤ log 2 x ≤ 1 i.e.; domain of the function put in the form
⇔ − 1 ≤ log 2 x ...(ii) y = sin
−1
af
f x or cos
−1
af
f x consists of all
and log 2 x ≤ 1 ...(i) those values of x for which af
f x ≥ 0 and

Now, (i) ⇒ − 1 ≤ log 2 x ⇔ 2

−1
≤x⇔
1
2
≤x⇔ 0≤ af
f x ≤ 1.

1 1 LM I
K
Solved Examples
x≥
2
⇔ D1 =
2
,∞ .
N Find the domain of the following:
1
(ii) ⇒ log 2 x ≤ 1 ⇔ 2 ≥ x ⇔ x ≤ 2 ⇔ D2 = −1
1. y = sin x
−∞ , 2 f
42 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: Method (1) ⇔ − ∞ < 2x < ∞

x is defined for x ≥ 0 −∞ ∞
⇔ <x<
∴ y is defined for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and x ≥ 0 . 2 2
af
⇒ D y = 0,1
⇔ −∞ < x < ∞

∴ D (y) = [0, 1] af a
∴ D y = −∞ , + ∞ = R f
Method (2)
f
Type 4: Problems based on finding the domain of a
(1) Putting x ≥ 0 ⇔ D1 = 0 , ∞ function put in the form:
2
y = sec–1 (f (x)) or y = cosec–1 (f (x))
2 −1
2. sin y ≤ 1 ⇔ sin y ≤ 1 ⇔ sin sin x ≤ Working rule:

a
1 ⇔ x ≤ 1 ⇔ D2 = −∞ , 1
af
1. To form the inequalities − ∞ < f x ≤ − 1 and

af
∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2
af
1 ≤ f x < +∞.

= 0,1
af
2. To solve the inequalities − ∞ < f x ≤ − 1 and
af
1 ≤ f x < + ∞ for x to form the domain of the
–∞ 0 1 +∞ function of the form y = sec–1 (f (x)) or y = cosec–1
(f (x)).

D2 Domain of a Function Put in the Form

Type 3: Problems based on finding the domain of a
function put in the form: y = tan–1 (f (x)) or y = cot–1 (f
af
y = f1 x ± f 2 x af
(x)). Working rule: It tells to find the domains of two
functions, say f1 (x) and f2 (x) separately whose
Working rule: It consists of following steps:
intersection is the domain of this sum or difference.
1. To put f (x) in between − ∞ and + ∞ i.e., to form
af
the inequality − ∞ < f x < + ∞ .
Notes: By considering the two domains (i.e., intervals)
on the scale, we find their intersection (i.e., the interval
2. To find the solution set of the inequality of common points).
af
− ∞ < f x < + ∞ to form the domain of the
Solved Examples
function of the form y = tan–1 (f (x)) or y = cot–1 (f (x)).
Note: y = tan–1 (f (x)) or y = cot–1 (f (x)) defined for all Find the domain of each of the following functions:
those real values of x for which − ∞ < f x < + ∞ af 1. y = 1 − x +
2 x−3
i.e.; the domain of the function of the form y = tan–1 (f 2x + 1
(x)) or y = cot–1 (f (x)) consists of all those real values
af
of x for which − ∞ < f x < + ∞ . af
Solution: Let f 1 x = 1 − x
2

2
3 f1 (x) is defined when 1 − x ≥ 0
Solved Examples
2
Find the domain of the following: ⇔ x ≤ 1 ⇔ x ≤ 1 ⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
1. y = tan–1 (2x + 1)
Solution: 3 y is defined when − ∞ < 2 x + 1 < + ∞
b a fg =
∴ D f1 x −1 , 1 = D1 (say)
 Function 43

af
Again, let f 2 x =
x−3
af FG x − 2 IJ ≥ 0
2x + 1 3 f 1 x is defined when
H x + 2K
3 f2 (x) is defined when 2 x + 1 ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ − 2 and b x − 2gb x + 2g ≥ 0 ⇔

x ≠ − 2 and a x − 2f b x − a−2fg ≥
1
⇔x≠−
2
0 ⇔ x ≥ 2 or x < − 2
R 1U
∴ D b f a x fg = R − S− V = D (say) b a fg = a−∞ , − 2f ∪ 2 , + ∞f = D asayf
2
T 2W 2 ∴ D f1 x 1

F 1 I ∪ F − 1 , ∞I
H 2K H 2 K
= −∞ , − –∞ –2 0 2 +∞

Thus, D a y f = L−1 , − I ∪ F − , 1O = D FG 1 − x IJ ≥ 0
MN 2 K H 2 PQ
1 1
1 ∩ D2
f2 (x) is defined when
H1 + xK
–∞ –1 –
1 0 1 +∞
⇔ x ≠ − 1 and a1 − x fa1 + x f ≥ 0
⇔ x ≠ − 1 and a x − 1f a x + 1f ≤ 0
2

2. y = 4−x + x−5 ⇔ a x − 1f b x − a−1fg ≤ 0 ⇔ − 1 < x ≤ 1 a3 x ≠ − 1f

af
Solution: Let f 1 x = 4−x ∴ D b f a x fg = a−1 , 1 = D asayf
2 2

af
and f 2 x = x−5 Thus, D a y f = D ∩ D = ∅
1 2

f1 (x) is defined when 4 − x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ 4

b a fg a
∴ D f 1 x = −∞ , 4 = D1
–∞ –1 0 1 +∞

f2 (x) is defined when x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 5

b a fg f a f −1 FG x − 2 IJ
∴ D f 2 x = 5 , ∞ = D2 say 4. y = 3 − x + cos
H 3 K
Thus, D a y f = D ∩ D = ∅1 2
af
Solution: Let f 1 x = 3− x
–∞ +∞
af −1 FG x − 2 IJ
H 3 K
0 4 5
and f 2 x = cos
D2
3 f1 (x) is defined when 3 − x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ 3
3. y =
x−2
x+2
+
1− x
1+ x
b a fg = a−∞ , 3 = D asayf
∴ D f1 x 1

x−2
f2 (x) is defined when −1 ≤ ≤1
af
Solution: Let f 1 x =
x−2
x+2
⇔ −3≤ x − 2 ≤ 3
3

⇔ −3 + 2 ≤ x − 2 + 2 ≤ 3 + 2
⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 5
af
and f 2 x =
1− x
1+ x
44 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

∴ D f2 xb a fg = −1 , 5 = D2 say a f (+ always at right end and then alternatively +

and –)
3. | x | = x for x > 0; | x | = –x for x < 0 (where x = − ve ⇔
–∞ –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 +∞ − x = + ve , i.e; x < 0 ⇔ –x > 0).
4. | f (x) | = f (x) for f (x) > 0; | f (x) | = – f (x) for f (x) < 0
(where f (x) = –ve ⇔ –f (x) = + ve, i.e; f (x) < 0 ⇔ 0 –
af
Thus, D y = D1 ∩ D2 f (x) > 0).

a
= −∞ , 3 ∩ −1 , 5
5. x < a ⇔ − a < x < a ⇔ x ∈ −a , a a f
= [–1, 3] 6. x > a ⇔ x < − a or x > a ⇔ x ∈ R − − a , a
7. af
f x af
> a ⇔ −a < f x < a
f a xf af af
Domain of a Function Put in the Forms
8. > a ⇔ f x > a or f x < − a
(i) y = | f (x) |
af
(ii) y = f x ± g x af 9. x < a or x > b ⇔ x ∈R − a , b ⇔ x ∈ −∞ , a a f
a
∪ b, + ∞ f
f axf
(iii) y =
a x f ± f a xf
1
or ,
af
1
x ± f3 x af e.g.: x − 4 > 5 ⇔
LMx − 4 < − 5 ⇔ LMx < − 1 ⇔
N x−4>5 Nx>9
f2 3 f2

⇔ x ∈ a −∞ , − 1f ∪ a 9 , ∞ f
Working rule: To find the domain of a function
x ∈R = −1 , 9
involving absolute value function, one must remember
that:
af af
Solved Examples
(i) y = f x ± g x is the sum or difference of
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
two functions. Hence, its domain is the intersection 1. y = | sin x |
of domains of the functions f (x) and | g (x) |. Solution: 3 y = | sin x | is defined for every real value
f1 x af 1 of x (i.e.; for any value of x ∈R )
(ii) y =
af
f2 x ± f3 x af or ,
af
f2 x ± f3 x af is
af k
∴ D y = R x : x ∈R = −∞ , + ∞ p a f
a rational function. Hence, its domain is dom f1 (x) ∩ 2. y = 1 – | x |
dom f2 (x) ∩ dom | f3 (x) | – {x: f2 (x) ± | f3 (x) | = 0}. Solution: y = 1 – | x | is defined for every real value of
Notes: x (i.e.; for any value of x ∈R ).
1. When the sum of two non-negative numbers (or,
functions) is zero, then both the numbers (or,
af k
∴ D y = R x : x ∈R = −∞ , + ∞ p a f
functions) are separately zero. 2
x +3
2
e.g: x + x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 and x = 0; | x | +
2
3. y = 2
3
x + | x|
x = 0 ⇒ | x | = 0 and | x3 | = 0.
x2 + 3
2. (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) (x – 4) is > 0 for x > 4, or 2 < x Solution: y = a rational function.
< 3 or x+< 1; and –< 0 for 3 <+ x < 4 or–1 < x < 2.+ x 2 + | x|
Putting x2 + | x | = 0
1 2 3 4
⇒ x2 = 0 and | x | = 0 and from each equation, we
get
x = 0 ( 3 x = 0 ⇔ x = 0 and x = 0 ⇔ x = 0)
2
 Function 45

af
∴ D y =R− 0 kp ⇒ x ≤1
2

1 ⇒ x ≤ 1 ⇒ x ∈ −1 , 1 ...(ii)
4. y = on finding the intersection of (i) and (ii), it is
x− x

1
f a
obtained D (y) = −1 , 0 ∪ 0 , 1 .
Solution: y = a rational function
x− x Problems on the Range of a Function
Putting x – | x | = 0
As discussed earlier, the range of a function defined
⇔ |x|=x by y = f (x) in its domain is the set of values of f (x)
⇔ x ≥ 0 ( ∵ x = x provided x > 0) which it attains at points belonging to the domain.
For a real function, the codomain is always a subset
af
∴ D y = R − x: x ≥ 0 k p of R, so the range of a real function f is the set of all

Domain of a Function
Containing Greatest Integer Function
Rule: Domains of functions involving greatest integer
function are obtained by using different properties of
greatest integer function.
Solved Examples
1. Find the domain of y = sin–1 [x]
Solution: y = sin–1 [x] is defined when –1 < [x] < 1
Now –1< [x] < 1
⇔ −1 ≤ x < 2
⇔ x ∈ −1 , 2 f Firstly, domains and range sets of standard
⇔ D (y) = [–1, 2]
2. Find the domain of y = sin–1 [2 – 3x2].
Solution: y = sin –1 [2 – 3x 2 ] is defined when
af
points y such that y = f (x), where x ∈D f = domain
of f.
In general, a function is described either by a single
expression in x in its domain or by various expressions
defined in adjacent intervals denoting different parts
of the domain of the function and neither its domain
nor range is mentioned. In such cases, it is required
to be found out the domain and the range of the given
function.
Already, how to find out the domains of different
types of functions has been discussed. Now the
methods of finding the range of a given function will
be explained.
functions will be put in a tabular form.
Funtion defined Domain Range
by an expression

−1 ≤ 2 − 3 x
2
≤1 1. y = kx, k ≠ 0 (–∞, ∞) (–∞, ∞)
2. y = kx + l (–∞, ∞) (–∞, ∞)
2 k
Now −1 ≤ 2 − 3 x ≤1 3. y = ,k≠0 R – {0} R – {0}
x
4. y = x2n (–∞, ∞) (0, ∞)
2
⇔ − 1 ≤ 2 − 3x < 2 5. y = x2n + 1 (–∞, ∞) (–∞, ∞)
Again, 2 – 3 x2 < 2 6. y = x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
⇒ –3x2 < 0 LM− D , + ∞IJ ,
⇒ –x2 < 0 7. y = ax2 + bx + c, (–∞, ∞)
N 4a K
2 a>0 D = b2 – 4ac
⇒ x > 0 ⇒ x ∈R ...(i)
8. y = ax2 + bx + c, (–∞, ∞)
FG −∞ , − D IJ ,
Next, 2 − 3x 2 ≥ − 1 H 4a K
2
⇒ − 3x ≥ − 3 a<0 D = b2 – 4ac
46 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Now the methods to find the range of a given x ∈R i.e. given function y = f (x) does not become
function are provided, when its domain is an infinite
interval. imaginary or undefined for any value of x ∈R ⇒
domain of the given function is the set of all real
How to Find the Range of Function numbers denoted by R.
Lastly, one should find the range of the given
Step 1: Put y = f (x) functions using the axioms of inequality in
Step 2: Solve the equation y = f (x) for x to obtain x =
−∞ < x < ∞ .
g (y).
Step 3: Find the values of y for which the values of x Example worked out:
obtained from x = g (y) are in the domain of f, i.e. find 1. Find the domain and range of each of the following
the domain of g (y) in the same way as the domain of functions:
f (x) is obtained considering g (y) as inverse of f (x). (i) y = x (ii) y = x + 2
Step 4: The set of all values of y obtained in step (3) Solution: (i) y = x does not become imaginary or
is the required range, i.e. the domain of g (y) is the undefined for any x ∈R ⇒ y = x is defined for all
required range of the given function y = f (x).
x ∈R .
Remarks:
1. The method mentioned above is fruitful only when af
⇒ D y = R ⇒ −∞ < x < ∞ ⇒ −∞ < y < ∞
the domain of a given function is infinite, i.e. the (3 y = x is given)
domain of a given functions is not a closed interval af
⇒ R y = R = the set of reals.
[a, b], a , b ∈R = the set of reals. (ii) y = x + 2 does not become imaginary or undefined
2. When a function defined by a single formula y = f for and x ∈R ⇒ y = x + 2 is defined for all x ∈R ⇒
(x) does not become imaginary or undefined for any
value of independent variable x, the domain of the D (y) = R Now, af
D y = R ⇒ −∞ < x <
function y = f (x) is the set of all real numbers denoted ∞ ⇒ − ∞ < x + 2 < ∞ (on using the axiom of
by R. To obtain its range, one should consider the
inequality) ⇒ − ∞ < y < ∞ ⇒ R ( y) = R = the set of
domain −∞ < x < ∞ using the axioms of inequality
reals.
in −∞ < x < ∞ .
Note:
3. When it is possible to put a function in the form of
In case one is required to find out the range of linear
Px2 + Qx + R, where P, Q and R are linear expressions
function y = ax + b whose domain is a given subset of
in y, one should use the rule of discriminat, i.e.,
2
the set of reals namely R, the range of y = ax + b is
D = b − 4 ac ≥ 0 for real x. obtained with the help of given domain and the use
4. In case the domain of a function y = f (x) is a finite of various axioms of inequality.
set D = {a1, a2, a3, …, an}, then its range is obtained Examples: (i) Find the range of f (x) = 4x – 5 for
by forming the set whose members are the values of [f −6 ≤ x ≤ 3 .
(x)] x = a1, a2, a3, …, an.
Solution: −6 ≤ x ≤ 3
Type 1: Functions put in the forms: (i) y = ax + b (ii) y
= ax2 + bx + c whose domains are not given. ⇒ − 24 ≤ 4 x ≤ 12
Rule: When the domain of a function is not given ⇒ − 24 − 5 ≤ 4 x − 5 ≤ 12 − 5
and the question says to determine the range of a ⇒ −29 ≤ 4 x − 5 ≤ 7
af
functions, one is required to find out its domain at
first in the following way: ⇒ f x ∈ −29 , 7
⇒ R a f f = k y : − 29 ≤ y ≤ 7p where y = f (x)
It should be checked whether the given function
becomes imaginary or undefined for any value of
 Function 47

Similarly, the range of each of the following Solved Examples

functions:
1. Find the range of the following functions:
(ii) f 1 (x) = 2x + 3 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 7 is
(i) y = x (ii) y = x − 3 (iii) y = 3 − 2x
k y : 1 ≤ y ≤ 17p , where y = f (x).
1 1 1 1
1
(iii) g (x) = 5 – 6x for −3 ≤ x ≤ 4 is (iv) y =
x+2
k y : − 19 ≤ y
2 2 p
≤ 23 , where y2 = g (x).
Solution: (i) y = x
(iv) h (x) = 5x – 6 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 5 is
k y : − 16 ≤ y ≤ 19p , where y = h (x).
3 3 3
⇒x≥0
Again y = x
2. Find the domain and range of each of the following
functions: 2
⇔ y = x, 3 y ≥ 0 a f
(i) y = x2 (ii) y = x2 – 4.
but x ≥ 0
Solution: (i) y = x2 does not become imaginary or
2
2
undefined for any x ∈R ⇒ y = x is defined for all ⇔ y ≥0
⇔ y ≥0
x ∈R ⇒ D (y) = R Now, y = x 2 ⇒ x 2 − y = 0 ⇒
⇔ y ≥ 0 if y is non-negative which is given
a f e
D = 0 − 4 × 1 × − y = 4 y ≥ 0 3 D = b − 4 ac
2
j (since y = x ).
⇒ y ≥ 0 ⇒ y ∈ 0 , ∞f ⇒ R a yf = 0, ∞ . f a f
⇔ y∈ 0, ∞
⇒ R a yf = 0 , ∞f
(ii) y = x2 – 4 does not become imaginary or undefined
for any x ∈R ⇒ y is defined for all
af
x ∈R ⇒ D y = R .
(ii) y = x−3

Now, y = x2 – 4 ⇒ x − 3≥ 0
⇒ x2 – 4 – y = 0 ⇒x≥3
⇒ x2 – (y + 4) = 0
Again y = x−3
⇒ D = 0 − 4 ×1× − y + 4 la fq = 4 a4 + yf ≥ 0
⇒y+4≥0
2
⇔ y = x − 3, 3 y ≥ 0 a f
2
⇒ y ≥ −4 ⇔ y +3= x
⇒ y ∈ −4 , ∞ f but x ≥ 3

af
⇒ R y = −4 , ∞ f 2
⇔ y +3≥3 3x = y +3 e 2
j
Type 2: Functions put in the forms:
2
⇔ y ≥0
(i) y = f x af (ii) y =
1
af
f x ⇔ y ≥0

Rule: Find the domain of y and then express x in ⇔ y ≥ 0 if y is non-negative which is given.
terms of y. Lastly put g (y) in the domain of y and
solve it to find the range of y.
f
⇒ y∈ 0, ∞ ⇒ R y = 0, ∞ af f
48 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(iii) y = 3 − 2x 1
⇔ x= 2
−2
⇒ 3 − 2x ≥ 0 y
⇒ − 2x ≥ − 3 But x > –2

⇒ 2x ≤ 3 1
⇔ 2
−2 > −2
y
3
⇒x≤
2 1
⇔ 2
>0
Again y = 3 − 2x y

⇔ y2 = 3 – 2x, 3 y ≥ 0 a f 2
⇔ y > 0 ⇒ | y| > 0
⇔ y2 – 3 = –2x ⇔ y > 0 if y is non-negative which is given
⇔ 3 – y2 = 2x a f
⇒ y∈ 0, ∞ ⇒ R y = 0, ∞ af a f
F3 − y I = x
⇔G
2

H 2 JK
Type 3: Functions put in the forms:
C ax + b
(i) y = (ii) y =
Ax + B Ax + B
3
but x ≤
2 Rule: Express x in terms of y by cross multiplication
F3 − y I ≤ 3 2
RS
and simplification. Lastly use the rule:
a f UV
⇒G
H 2 JK 2 af
R y = R − roots of deminator of 1
f y
af W =0
T f2 y
2
⇒3− y ≤3 Solved Examples
2 1. Find the range of the following functions:
⇒−y ≥0
1 1 x
⇒ y ≥0 (i) y = (ii) y = (iii) y =
x x −1 x+2
⇒ y ≥ 0 if y is non-negative which is given.
⇒ y∈ 0, ∞ ⇒ R y = 0, ∞ f af f (iv) y =
x
5− x
(v) y =
x −1
x+3
1
(iv) y = Solutions:
x+2 1
(i) y =
⇒ x + 2 > 0 ⇒ x > −2 x
1
1 ⇔ x= ,y≠0
Again y = y
x+2
⇒ R (y) = R – {0}
⇔ y =
2 1
x+2
, 3y≥0 a f (ii) y =
1
x−1
1
⇔ x+2= 2 ⇔ x −1=
1
,y≠0
y y
 Function 49

⇒ R (y) = R – {0} 2
ax + bx + c
x y= provided its numerator and
(iii) y = , x ≠ −2 2
Ax + Bx + C
x+2
denominator do not have one common factor.
⇔ yx + 2y = x
⇔ 2y = x – xy = x (1 – y) Solved Examples
2y
⇔x= ,y ≠1 (1) Find the range of the following functions:
1− y
1
⇒ R (y) = R – {1} (i) y = 2
x −4
x
(iv) y = ,x≠5
5− x x
(ii) y = 2
⇔ 5y – xy = x 1+ x
⇔ 5y = x + xy = x (1 + y) 2
x − 2x + 4
5y (iii) y =
⇔x= , y ≠ −1 2
x + 2x + 4
1+ y
1
⇒ R (y) = R – {–1} (iv) y = 2
x − 3x + 2
x −1
(v) y = , x ≠ −3
x+3 Solutions:
⇔ xy + 3y = x – 1 1
(i) y = , x ≠ ±2
⇔ 3y + 1 = x – xy = x (1– y) x −4
2

3y + 1 ⇔ x2 y – 4y = 1
⇔x= ,y ≠1
1− y
⇒ R (y) = R – {1} ⇔x=
0± a
y 1 + 4y f,y≠0
y
Type 4: Functions put in the forms:
Now, D > 0
D ⇒ y (1 + 4y) > 0
(i) y = 2
Ax + Bx + C 1
⇒y≤− or y ≥ 0
ax + b 4
(ii) y = 2
Ax + Bx + C 1
⇒y≤− or y > 0 since y ≠ 0
4

a f FH OP a f
2
ax + bx + c 1
(iii) y = 2
Ax + Bx + C
⇒ R y = −∞ , −
4 Q
∪ 0, ∞

Rule: Cross multiply and obtain Px2 + Qx + R = 0 x

(ii) y = 2
where P, Q and R are functions of Y (i.e. an expression 1+ x
in y). Lastly use the rule D > 0, where D = b2 – 4ac.
Remark: The above rule is valid in ⇔ y + yx2 = x
50 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇔ yx2 – x + y = 0 1
⇒ ≤ y≤3

⇔x=
1± b−1g 2
−4× y× y
,y≠0
3
Also y = 1 ⇔ x = 0

a f LMN 13 , 3OPQ
2y
∴R y =
2
1 ± 1 − 4y
= ,y≠0
2y 1
(iv) y = 2
, x ≠ 1, 2
Now, D > 0 x − 3x + 2
2
⇒ 1 − 4y ≥ 0 ⇔ yx2 – 3yx + 2y – 1 = 0
a fa f
⇒ 1 + 2y 1 − 2y ≥ 0
⇔ yx2 – 3yx + (2y – 1) = 0

⇒ a2 y + 1f a2 y − 1f ≤ 0
⇔x=
a f a−3yf
− −3 y ±
2
a f,y≠0
− 4 y 2 y −1
1 1 2y
⇒− ≤ y≤ ,y≠0
2 2 Now, D > 0

L 1 1O
Also, y = 0 ⇔ x = 0. Hence, R (y) = M− , P
2
⇒ 9 y − 8y + 4y ≥ 0
2

N 2 2Q 2
⇒ y + 4y ≥ 0
2
x − 2x + 4 ⇒ y+2 ≥2
(iii) y = 2
x + 2x + 4 ⇒ either y = 2 ≤ − 2 or y + 2 ≥ 2
⇔ y (x2 + 2x + 4) = x2 – 2x + 4 ⇒ either y ≤ − 4 or y ≥ 0 but y ≠ 0
⇔ x2 y – x2 + 2xy + 2x + 4y – 4 = 0
⇔ (y – 1) x2 + 2 (y + 1) x + (4y – 4) = 0
af a
⇒ R y = −∞ , − 4 ∪ 0 , ∞ a f
Type 5: Functions put in the forms:
a f a f a fa
−2 y + 1 ± 4 y + 1 − 4 y − 1 4 y − 4
2
f, ax + b
2 a y − 1f
⇔x = (i) y = 2
Ax + Bx + C
y ≠1
2
Now, D > 0 Ax + Bx + C
(ii) y =
a f − 4 a y − 1fa4 y − 4f ≥ 0
⇒4 y+1
2 ax + b

⇒ 4 a y + 1f − 16 a y − 1f ≥ 0
2
2 2
ax + bx + c
(iii) y =
⇒ a y + 1f − 4 a y − 1f ≥ 0
2
2 2 Ax + Bx + C

⇒ l y + 1 + 2 a y − 1fq l y + 1 − 2 a y − 1fq ≥ 0 x −a
n n
(iv) y = whose numerator and denomina-
⇒ a y + 1 + 2 y − 2 f a y + 1 − 2 y + 2f ≥ 0 x−a

⇒ a3 y − 1f a3 − y f ≥ 0
tor contain a common factor.

⇒ a3 y − 1f a y − 3f ≥ 0
Rule: Cancell the common factor present in numerator
and denominator. After cancellation of common factor,
 Function 51

(i) If y = mx + c (linear in x), then R (y) = R – { value of ⇒ x2 + 2x – (y – 4) = 0

la fq =
y = mx + c at the zero of common factor}, where R =
the set of reals. −2 ± 4−4×1 − y −4
(ii) If y = a1 x2 + b1 x + c1 (quadratic in x), then R (y) ⇒x=
2
= range of y = a1 x2 + b1 x + c – {value of y = a1 x2 + b1
x + c1 at the zero of the common factor} −2 ± 4+4 y−4 a f
a1 x + b1 2
(iii) If y = (linear rational in x), then R (y)
a2 x + b2 Now, D > 0

f1 y af l a
⇒ 4 1+ y − 4 fq ≥ 0
= R – { zero of the denominator of x =
f2 y
and
af ⇒ y −3≥0
⇒y≥3
a x + b1
the value of y = 1
a2 x + b2
at the zero of common af f
⇒ R y = 3, ∞ since (x2 + 2x + 4) for x = 2 = 4 +
4 + 4 = 12 and
af
factor}.
y = 12 gives a point x = − 4 ∈ D f
Solved Examples Since 12 – 4 = x2 + 2x ⇒ x2 + 2x – 8 = 0 ⇒ x =
1. Find the range of the following functions: −2 ± 4 − 4 × 1 −8 a f = −2 ± 6 ⇒ x = 2 , − 4
2
x −1 2 2
(i) y =
x−1 2 2
x − 3x + 2 x − 2x − x + 2
(iii) y = 2
= 2
x −8
3
x + x−6 x + 3x − 2 x − 6
(ii) y =
x−2
a
x x−2 − x−2 f ax −1 x −2 f a fa f
2
x − 3x + 2
=
a f a
x x + 3 −2 x + 3
=
x−2 x+3 f a fa f
(iii) y = 2
x + x−6 ⇒ yx + 3y = x – 1, x ≠ 2
⇒ 3y + 1 = x – xy = x (1 – y)
x −1
2
x −1 x+1 a fa f 3y + 1
Solutions: (i) y =
x − 1
=
x −1
,x≠1
a f ⇒x=
1− y
,y ≠1

⇒ y = x + 1, x ≠ 1
FG x − 1 IJ 1 1
⇒ x=y–1 Again,
H x + 3K = and x = 2 for y = 1, or y =
kp x=2
5 5
⇒ x is defined for all y ∈ R − 2
⇒ R (y) = R – {2}
af RS 1 UV
since x + 1 = 2 for x = 1 and y = 2 ⇒ x = 1
Hence, R y = R − 1 ,
T 5W
x − 8 a x − 2f e x + 2 x + 4j
2 (iv) Find the domain and range of the function defined
3
as
(ii) y=
x−2
=
a x − 2f ,x≠2

⇒ y = x2
+ 2x + 4 y=
e x + 3 x − 4j e x − 9 j
2 2

⇒ x2 + 2x – y + 4 = 0 e x + x − 12j a x + 3f
2
52 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a x + 4f a x − 1f a x − 3f a x + 3f 11 2 F I 2

a x + 4f a x − 3f a x + 3f H K
y
Solution: y = ⇒e − =3 x− ≥0
3 3
= (x – 1) for x ≠ − 4 , − 3 , 3 y 11
⇒e ≥
One should note that denominator is zero for x = – 3
4, –3 or +3. This means that y is undefined for these
F 11I
three values of x. for values of x ≠ − 4 , –3 or 3, one
may divide numerator and denominator by common
⇒ y ≥ log
H 3K
factors and obtain y = (x – 1) if x ≠ − 4 , –3 or 3. LM 11 , ∞I
Therefore, the domain of y is the set of all real numbers N 3 K
⇒ y ∈ log

except –4, –3 and +3, i.e. D (y) = R – {–4, –3, +3} and
L 11 , ∞I
⇒ R a y f = Mlog
N 3 K
the range of y is the set of all real numbers except
those values of y = (x – 1) obtained by replacing x by
–4, –3 or 3, i.e. all real numbers except –5, –4 and 2, i.e. 2. Find the range of the function

e j
R (y) = R – {–5, –4, 2}.
y = log 2 x−4 + 6− x
Type 6: Functions put in the form: y = log f (x).
af
Rule: y = log a f x ⇔ a = f x > 0
y
af Solution: y = log 2 e x−4 + 6− x j
e j
i.e. change the given logarithmic form into the y
exponential form and then solve it using the in ⇒2 = x−4 + 6− x
y
a
equation: a > b a > 0 , a ≠ 1 ⇔ f ⇒2
2y
=x−4+6−x+2 a x − 4 f a6 − x f
(i) y > loga b for a > 1, b > 0
...(i) (on squaring)
(ii) y < loga b for 0 < a < 1, b > 0
(iii) y ∉R for a > 0, b < 0. ⇒ 2 e 2y
−2 =2 j a x − 4f a 6 − x f ≥ 0 ...(ii)
y af
g x
af 2y
Remark: For, a > 1 a > a ⇔ y > g x ...(A)(say) ⇒2 −2≥0
i.e. when it is possible to change ay + f (x) > 0 into 2y 1 1
the form ay > ag (x), one should use (A). ⇒2 ≥ 2 ⇒ 2y ≥ 1 ⇒ y ≥
2
Solved Examples
Again from (ii) 2 2 y − 1 − 1 = 2
− x + 10 x − 24
1. Find the range of the function y = log (3x2 – 4x + 5).
e j = e− x j
2 y −1 2
Solution: y = log (3x2 – 4x + 5) where 3x2 – 4x + 5 > 0 ⇒ 2 −1
2
+ 10 x − 24
4 5 F I
H K
y 2 2
⇒ e = 3x − 4 x + 5 = 3 x − x + =
e j
2 2 y −1 2
3 3 ⇒ x − 10 x + 24 + 2 −1 = 0 , which is

|RS 4 4F I − F 4I
2
|UV 2
5 a quadratic in x and whose D = b2 – 4ac is
H K H 6K
2

|T
3 x − x+
|W +
RS
a10f j UVW ≥ 0 which
3 6 3
e 2 y −1 2
− 4 24 + 2 −1
2

R|F 2 I + 11U|V = 3F x − 2 I T
= 3S x −
2 2
11
|TH 3K 9 |W H 3 K
y
⇒e +
e j
2 y −1 2
3 ⇒ 2 −1 ≤1
 Function 53

2y Note: Range of a cos x + b sin x

⇒ 2 −1 ≤ 1
LM 2 2 2 2 OP
⇒ −1 ≤ 2
2 y −1
−1≤1 N
= − a +b , a +b
Q
2 y −1 2 2
⇒0≤2 − 1 ≤ 1 (from (ii)) a = − 1, b = 1 ⇒ a +b = 2

⇒1≤ 2
2 y −1
≤2 af
∴ R y = − 2 , 2 in the above question.
0 2 y −1 1
⇒2 ≤2 ≤2 2. Find the range of y = cos θ + 3 sin θ
⇒ 0 ≤ 2y − 1 ≤ 2 Solution: y = cos θ + 3 sin θ
⇒ 1 ≤ 2y ≤ 2
=2
LM 1 cos θ + 3 sin θOP
1
⇒ ≤ y≤1
2
N2 2 Q
L F π I cos θ + cos F π I sin θOP
⇒R y = a f LMN 12 , 1OPQ = 2 Msin
N H 6K H 6K Q
Again it is known that
Type 7: Functions put in the form: y = a cos x + b sin
F π I
x.
Rule: The range of y = a cos x + b sin x is
−1 ≤ sin θ −
H 6
≤1
K
LM− OP F π I
N
2 2
a +b , a +b
2 2

Q
i.e. −2 ≤ 2 sin θ −
H 6
≤2
K
Hence, R (y) = [–2, 2]
Solved Examples Note: In this question, a = 1, b = 3 ⇒ 1+ 3 = 4
1. Find the range of y = sin x – cos x
Solution: y = sin x – cos x hence, range of cos θ + 3 sin θ = −2 , 2 on using,

= 2
LM 1 sin x − 1 cos xOP range of a a cos θ + b sin θ =
N2 2 Q LM− 2 2 2 2 OP .
a +b , a +b
L F π I sin x − sin F π I cos xOP
2 Mcos
N Q
=
N H 4K H 4K Q Type 8: Functions put in the forms:
F πI (i) y = a ± b sin x (ii) y = a ± b cos x
=
H 4K
2 sin x −
C C
(iii) y = (iv) y = , where a,
Again, it is know that a ± b sin x a ± b cos x
F π I
−1 ≤ sin x −
H 4
≤1
K b and c are constants.

Rule: Start from sin x ≤ 1 or cos x ≤ 1 and form:

i.e. − 2 ≤ 2 sin F x − I ≤ 2
π
H 4K (i) k ≤ a ± b sin x ≤ L

Hence, range of y = R a y f = − 2 ,
(ii) k ≤ a ± b cos x ≤ L
2
54 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Rule: Range of those functions containing greatest

(iii) k ≤ C
≤ L integer function is obtained by using different
a ± b sin x properties of greatest integer function.
C
(iv) k ≤ ≤ L where k and L are con- Solved Examples
a ± b cos x
1. Find the range of y = [cos x]
stants, by using the axioms of inequality.
Solution: −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
Solved Examples
R|−1, for − 1 ≤ cos x < 0
1. Find the range of y = 2 + sin x. ⇒ y = cos x = S 0 , for 0 ≤ cos x < 1
Solution: −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 |T 1 , for cos x = 1
⇒ 2 − 1 ≤ 2 + sin x ≤ 1 + 2
af
⇒ R y = −1 , 0 , 1
⇒ 1 ≤ 2 sin x ≤ 3 2. Find the range of y = 1 + x – [x – 2]
Solution: On using the property:
⇒1≤ y ≤ 3
t ≤ t < t + 1, it is seen that
⇒ y ∈ 1, 3 x−2 ≤ x−2< x −2 +1
af
⇒ R y = 1, 3 ⇒ x−2 − x−2 ≤ x−2− x−2 <
1 x −2 − x − 2 +1
2. Find the range of y =
2 − sin 3x
⇒0≤ x − 2 − x − 2 <1
Solution: −1 ≤ sin 3x ≤ 1
⇒ 3 ≤ x − 2 + 3 − x − 2 < 1 + 3 (adding 3 to
⇒ − 1 ≤ − sin 3x ≤ 1 each side)
⇒ 2 − 1 ≤ 2 − sin 3x ≤ 1 + 2 ⇒3≤ x +1− x − 2 < 4
⇒ 1 ≤ 2 − sin 3x ≤ 3 ⇒3≤ f x <4 af
1 1 ⇒ R (y) = [3, 4)
⇒1≥ ≥
2 − sin 3x 3 Type 10: Finding the domain and range of a piecewise
defined functions.
1 1
⇒ ≤ ≤1 1. y = f1 (x), when x < a
3 2 − sin 3x = f2 (x), when x > a
1 i.e. two or more functions of an independent
⇒ ≤ y ≤1 variable namely x defined in adjacent intervals.
3 2. y = c1, when x < a
LM1 , 1OP = c2, when a < x < b
⇒ y∈
N3 Q = c3, when b < x
i.e. two or more different functions defined in
L1 O
⇒ R a y f = M , 1P
adjacent intervals.
N3 Q 3. y = f1 (x), when x ≠ a
= f2 (x), when x = a
Type 9: Finding the range of a function containing
greatest integer function.
 Function 55

Now, it will be discussed in detail how to find the 2. Find the domain and range of the function defined
domain and range of each type of piecewise function. by
Rule: The domain of each type of a piecewise
y=
RS x − 1 , if x < 3
function is the union of each given interval whereas
the range of each type of a piecewise function is the
T2 x + 1 , if 3 ≤ x
union of different range of each given function Solution: x < 3 ⇒ x ∈ a −∞ , 3f
x ≥ 3 ⇒ x ∈ 3 , ∞f
determined by considering each different given
intervals and applying the axioms of inequality to
obtain the different given functions in the form of ∴ D a y f = a ∞ , 3f ∪ 3 , ∞ f = a −∞ , ∞ f
inequalities.
Again, x < 3 ⇒ x − 1 < 3 − 1 ⇒ x − 1 < 2 ...(i)
Note: The range of a piecewise function put in the
form: Also, x ≥ 3 ⇒ 2 x ≥ 6 ⇒ 2 x + 1 ≥ 7 ...(ii)
y = c1, when x < a
= c2, when a < x < b
a f
Hence, (i) and (ii) ⇒ R (y) = −∞ , 2 ∪ 7 , ∞ = f
= c3, when b < x R – [2, 7) i.e. all real numbers not in [2, 7).
i.e. the range of a piecewise function defined by 3. Find the domain and range of the function defined
different constants in adjacent intervals is the set as
whose members are given constants (constant
y=
RSx + 3 , when x ≠ 3
functions) defined in given adjacent intervals, i.e. R
(y) = {c1, c2, c3}, where c1, c2 and c3 are different T 2, when x = 3
constants defined in adjacent intervals. Solution: x ≠ 3

Solved Examples ⇒ x > 3 or x < 3 ⇒

1. Find the domain and range of the function defined

a f a f
x ∈ −∞ , 3 ∪ 3 , ∞ = R − 3 kp
by Next, y = 2, when x = 3

RS3x − 2 , if x < 1 af
∴D y = R − 3 ∪ 3 = R kp kp
y=
T x , if 1 ≤ x
2 Now, x ≠ 3

Solution: x < 1 ⇒ x ∈ a −∞ , 1f
⇒ x +3≠6

x ≥ 1 ⇒ x ∈ 1, ∞f
b g
⇒ R y| x ≠ 3 = R − 6 lq
∴ D a y f = a −∞ , 1f ∪ 1 , ∞f = a −∞ , ∞ f
Also, y = 2, when x = 3

Again, x < 1
b g lq
⇒ R y| x = 3 = 2
⇒ 3x < 3 ∴ R a y f = R − k6p ∪ k2p = R − k6p
⇒ 3x – 2 < 3 – 2 i.e. the range of the given function consists of all
⇒ 3x – 2 < 1 ...(i) real numbers except y = 6.
Also, x > 1 4. Let there be a function defined as
⇒ x2 > 1 ...(ii)
R|x , if x ≠ 2
S| 7 , if x = 2
2
Hence, from (i) and (ii), it is concluded that y=
a f f a
R (y) = −∞ , 1 ∪ 1 , ∞ = −∞ , ∞ f T
find its domain and range.
Solution: x ≠ 2
56 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒ x < 2 or x > 2 Solution: f (A) = {f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4), f (5)}

a f a f
⇒ x ∈ −∞ , 2 ∪ 2 , ∞ = R − 2 kp = (b, d, a, c}
2. If A = {0, 1, –1, 2} and f : A → R is defined by f
Next, y = 7, for x = 2
af
∴D y = R − 2 ∪ 2 = R kp kp (x) = x2 + 1, find the range of f.
Solution: f (x) = x2 + 1
Now, x ≠ 2 ⇒ f (0) = 1
2 f (1) = 2
⇒x ≠4 f (–1) = 2
b
⇒ R y| x ≠ 2 g f (2) = 5
∴ f (A) = {f (0), f (1), f (–1), f (2)}
− k4p ∪ k0p ,3 x
+ 2 = (1, 2, 5}
=R ≥0
Also, y = 7, for x = 2 3. If A = {0, 1, 2, –3} and f (x) = 3x – 5 is a function

b g lq
⇒ R y| x = 2 = 7
from A on to B, find B.
Solution: f (x) = 3x – 5
∴ R a y f = R − k4p ∪ k7p ∪ k0p
+ ⇒ f (0) = –5
f (1) = –2
= R − k4p ∪ k0p
+ f (2) = 1
f (–3) = –14
i.e. the range consists of all non-negative real
∴ f (A) = B = {1, –2, –5, –14}
numbers except y = 4.
4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f (x) = x2 + x – 1 is a function
Note: One should note that y = c, for x = a, where c from A on to B, find B.
and a are constants, represents a point P (a, c), i.e. a Solution: f (x) = x2 + x – 1
point whose abscissa is ‘a’ and whose ordinate is ‘c’.
⇒ f (1) = 1
5. If the domain of a function is A = {x: x ∈R , -1 < x f (2) = 5
< 1} and the function is defined as f (3) = 11

R| 1, when x > 0 f (4) = 19

∴ f (A) = B = {1, 5, 11, 19}
f a x f = S 0 , when x = 0
|T−1, when x < 0 Type 12: A function y = f (x) defined in an open
interval (a, b).
Find the range of f (x). Rule 1: a < x < b ⇒ f (a) < f (x) < f (b) if f (x) is
Solution: The range of a piecewise function whose increasing in (a, b).
each function is constant defined in its domain is the
Rule 2: a < x < b ⇒ f (a) < f (x) < f (b) if f (x) is
union of different constants.
increasing in [a, b].
Therefore, R (y) = [–1, 0, 1}
Rule 3: a < x < b ⇒ f (b) < f (x) < f (a) if f (x) is
Type 11: A function y = f (x) whose domain s a finite
set. decreasing in (a, b).
Rule: If the domain D of y = f (x) is a finite set, i.e. D = Rule 4: a < x < b ⇒ f (b) < f (x) < f (a) if f (x) is
{ a1, a2, a3,…, an}, then its range R (f) = {f (a1), f (a2), decreasing in [a, b].
f (a3), …, f (an)}. Notes:
1. When y = f (x) is an increasing function in the
Solved Examples open interval (a, b) or in the closed interval [a, b],
1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e} and f = {(1, b), then f (a) = L (say) is least and f (b) = G (say) is
(2, d), (3, a), (4, b), (5, c)} be a mapping from A to B, greatest value of the given function y = f (x) in (a, b)
find f (A). or [a, b].
 Function 57

2. When y = f (x) is a decreasing function in the open Solution: f (x) = cos x – x (1 + x), is decreasing in
interval (a, b) or in the closed interval [a, b], then f (a)
LM0 , π OP and so in LM π , π OP
= G (say) is greatest and f (b) = L (say) is least value of
the function y = f (x) in (a, b) or [a, b]. N 2Q N6 3Q
3. Range of y = f (x) = R (f) = (least f (x), greatest f (x))
if the domain of f (x) is an open interval (a, b) where f
F π I ≤ f a xf ≤ f F π I
(x) is continuous and increasing or decreasing for
af a f
x ∈D f = a,b
∴f
H 3K H 6K
In the same fashion, R (f) = [least f (x), greatest f F π I = cos F π I − π F1 + π I = 1 − π
(x)] if the domain of f (x) is a closed interval [a, b]
where f (x) is continuous, and increasing or decreasing
Now, f
H 3K H 3K 3 H 3K 2 3
af
for x ∈ D f = a , b . π
2

4. In case a function y = f (x) is defined in its domain 9

is neither increasing nor decreasing but it is
continuous in its domain then its range is also F π I = cos F π I − π F1+ π I = 3 − π − π 2

determined by the rule of finding greatest and least H 6 K H 6 K 6 H 6 K 2 6 36

f
value of the given function f (x) which will be explained
in the chapter namely maxima and minima of a function. L 1 π π , 3 − π − π OP
∴ f b Ag = M − −
2 2

Solved Examples MN 2 3 9 2 6 36 PQ
1. Find the range of the function f (x) = x3 whose Note: If y = f (x) is a continuous function whose
k
domain is D = x : x ∈R , − 2 < x < 2 . p domain D = [a, b] = [a, c) ∪ [c, b] where a < c < b and
f (x) increasing in (a, c) and decreasing in [c, b), then
Solution: f (x) = x3 is increasing in (–2, 2) to find its range R (f), one is required to find out f (a),
∴ f (–2) = (–2)3 = –8 f (b), f (c) and
and f (2) = (2)3 = 8 R (y) = (greatest f (x), least f (x))
Therefore, R (y) = (f (–2), f (2) = (–8, 8) In the same way, R (y) = [ greatest f (x), least f (x)] if
F π π I y = f (x) is defined in the domain D = [a, b] = [a, c)
2. If y = tan x defined in − H ,
2 2 K
, find its range. ∪ [c, b] such that f (x) is decreasing in [a, c) and
increasing in [c, b].
F π πI π
Solution: y = tan x is increasing in H − , K ∴− < Solved Examples
2 2 2
1. Find the range of the function f (x) = x2 + 1 in the
π
x< ⇒ − ∞ < tan x < ∞ since L tan x = ∞ domain (–5, 2).
2 π
x→ Solution: f (x) = x2 + 1 with its domain (–5, 2) and f (x)
2
is decreasing in (–5, 0) and increasing in [0, 2).
and L tan x = − ∞ . f (–5) = 26
x→ F−πI
H 2K f (0) = 1
f (2) = 5
RS π π UV and f (x) = cos x – x (1 + Therefore, it is clear that f (x) lies between 1 and 26.
3. If A = x :
T 6
≤x≤
3 W ∴ R (f) = (1, 26)
x), find f (A). 2. Find the range of the function f (x) = x2 in (–2, 2).
58 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: f (x) = x2 with its domain (–2, 2) f (x) is Working rule: The rule to compute gof (x) for two
decreasing in (–2, 0) and increasing in [0, 2). analytic expressions in x for f (x) and g (x) says.
f (–2) = 4 1. Firstly to replace f (x) by its given analytic
f (0) = 0 expression in x.
f (2) = 4 2. Secondly, in the given analytic expression in x for
Therefore, it is seen that f (x) between 0 and 4. g (x), to replace each x by the function f (x) and then
∴ R (f) = (0, 4) to put f (x) = analytic expression in x for f (x).
Thus, gof (x)
Composite Function = value of g at f (x)
= [analytic expression for g (y)]y = f (x) ,which
Definition: If given functions are f : D1 → C1 and signifies that the independent variable x in the analytic
a f
g : D2 → C2 such that f D1 ⊂ D2 , then the expression for g (x) should be replaced by the analytic
expression in x for f (x) whereas the constant in the
composite function gof is the function from D1 to D2
analytic expression in x for g (x) remains unchanged.
defined by (gof) (x) = gof (x) = g (f (x)), ∀ x ∈D1 and
Note: Very often the law establishing the relationship
af
f x ∈D2 . between the independent variable and dependent
a f
N.B.: (i) f D1 ⊂ D2 means that range of f ⊂
variable is specified by means of a formula. This
method of representation of function is called
domain of g. analytical. Further, the expression in x is called analytic
n
(ii) Dgof = x : x ∈D f and f x ∈Dg af s where gof expression.

represents the composite of f and g defined by (gof) Solved Examples

(x) = g (f (x)) having the domain Dgof = D (gof).
1. If f (x) = x2 and g (x) = x + 1, find (gof) (x).
(iii) A function does not exist whenever its domain
Solution: On applying the definition,
is an empty set.
(gof) (x) = gof (x)

e j
f (D1) < D2 2
C2
D2 = g x

= g a yf ]
D1 C2
f g 2
f (x) y= x

= a y + 1f
x gof (x) = g (f (x)) 2
y=x
2 = x +1

af
gof
2. If f (x) = x + 3 and g x = x find (gof) (7).
Solution: (gof) (7) = gof (7)
Remember: One must remember that g (f (x)) = gof (x)
= g (3 + 7)
means that g is a function of f (x) which is itself a
= g (10)
function of x. This is why gof (x) = g (f (x)) is called a
function of a function of the independent variable x. = e xj10
Further, one should note that gof (x) signifies the
value of the function g at f (x) = given analytic = 10
expression in x (or, simply given expression in x). 3. If f (x) = x3 and g x = af 3
x find g (f (x).
Type 1: Formation of composite of two functions of Solution: g (f (x)
x whose analytic expressions in x are given. = g (x3)
= e xj
3
x
3
 Function 59

3
N.B.: Whenever f (x) = an analytic expression in x
3
= x and we are required to find f [f {f (x) }], we adopt the
=x following procedure:
1. We replace x by f (x) in the given expression in x
4. If f (x) = x + 1 and g (x) = x find g (f (x)).
which provides us f {f (x)}.
Solution: g (f (x)) = gof (x) 2. Again we replace x by f {f (x)} in the given
= g ((x+1)) expression in x which provides us f [f {f (x)}].
= e x ja f
x +1
7. If f x = af 3x + 1
x−3
and ∅ x =
x−3
af
3x + 1
find
= x +1
5. If f (x) = sin x and g (x) = x2, find (gof) (x). b a fg and φ b f axfg .
f φ x
Solution: (gof) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (f (x)) = g (sin x) Solution: Given
= (sin x)2

6. If f x =afx
find f (f (f (x))).
af
f x =
3x + 1
x−3
af
, x = 3 ,φ x =
x−3
3x + 1
,x≠−
1
3
1− x

af af
3φ x + 1
Solution: Given f x = af
x
1− x
,x ≠1 ...(i)
∴ f φ x =
af
φ x −3
FG x − 3 IJ + 1
H 3x + 1K = 6 x − 8 = 4 − 3x , for
On replacing x by f (x) in (i) , we have 3
FG x IJ =
FG x − 3 IJ − 3 −8 x − 6 3 + 4 x
f b f a x fg =
f a xf H1 − xK = H 3x + 1K
1 − f a xf F x IJ
=
1−G 1 −3
H1 − xK x≠− ,
3 4
,3

Now to find φ {f (x)}, we consider the given

FG x IJ
H 1 − x K = x , x ≠ RS1 , 1 UV function φ x = af x −1
whose independent
FG 1 − 2 x IJ 1 − 2 x T 2 W 3x + 1

H 1− x K variable x is replaced by f (x).

af 3x + 1 FG 3x + 1IJ + 1
Again, replacing x by f (f (x)) in (i), we get ∴φ f x =
x−3
−3 3
H x − 3K
b b a fgg = 1 −f bf fbafxafxg fg
f f f x a f
3x + 1 − 3 x − 3 10 1
=
a f a f
3 3x + 1 + x − 3
= = , x ≠ − 1, 3, 0
FG x IJ
10 x x

H 1 − 2x K N.B.: To find f { φ (x)}, we replace x by φ (x) in the

=
1− G
F x IJ given function for f (x) and to find φ {f (x)}, we replace
H 1 − 2x K x by f (x) in the given expression for φ (x). Further we
x R 1 1U
, x ≠ S1 , , V
should note that f { φ (x)} means the value of f at φ
=
1 − 3x T 2 3W (x) and φ {f (x)} means the value of φ at f (x).
60 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Refresh your memory: If given functions are = 8x2 – 4 – 3

f : D1 → C1 and g : C1 → C2 , then the composite = 8x2 – 7
function gof is the function from D1 to C2 defined by ∴ (gof) (2) = (8x2 – 7)2
(gof) (x) = gof (x) for every x in D1 and f x ∈C1 af = 8 (2)2 – 7
=8×4–7
domain of g. = 32 – 7 = 25
Notes: (i) If we are required to find (fog) (x) and (fog)
f g
f (x) (–1) for the just above defined functions, then (fog)
x g f (x) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (4x – 3) ( 3 g (x) = 4x – 3)
gof
= 2 (4x – 3)2 – 1( 3 f (x) = 2x2 – 1 ⇒ f (g (x)) = 2 (f
(x))2 – 1)
= 2 (16x2 – 24x + 9) –1
Note: The working rule to fund (gof) is the same
= 32x2 – 48x + 17
provided the given functions are:
∴ (fog) –1 = 32 (–1)2 – 48 (–1) + 17
(i) f : D1 → C1 and g : D2 → C2 such that = 32 + 48 + 17 = 97
a f
f D1 ⊂ D2 . (ii) In general gof a f a xf ≠ a fog f a x f
(ii) f : D1 → C1 and g : C1 → C2 5. If the mapping f : R → R be given by f (x) = x2 +
2 and the mapping g : R → R be given by
Solved Examples

1. If the mapping f : D1 → C1 is defined by f (x) = af

g x =1−
1
1− x
compute (gof) (x) and (fog) (x) and

log (1 + x) and the mapping g : C1 → C2 is defined

by g (x) = ex find (gof) (x).
show that gof a f a xf ≠ a fogf a xf .
Solution: (gof) (x) = g (log (1 + x)); x > – 1 ( 3 f (x) = Solution: (gof) (x) = g (f (x))
log (1 + x)) = g (x2 + 2)
= elog (1 + x) ( 3 g (x) = ex) 1 1 1
= (1 + x); x > – 1 ( 3 elog f (x) = f (x)) = 1− = 1− = 1+ ...(i)
2. If f : D1 → C1 is defined by f (x) = x + 1, x ∈R e
1− x + 2
2
j 2
−x −1
2
x +1

and g : C1 → C2 is defined by g (x) = x2, find (gof) (x). (fog) (x) = f (g (x))
Solution: (gof) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (1 + x) (3 f (x) = 1 +x) FG 1 IJ FG
1− x − 1 −x IJ FG IJ
a f e3 g a xf = x
= 1+ x
2 2
b a fg = f a xf j
⇒ g f x
2
= f 1−
H 1− x
=f
1− xK H =f
1− x K H K
3. If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x2 – 1 and FG − x IJ 2
x
2

g : R → R is defined by g (x) = 4x – 3, x ∈R ,
=
H 1− x K +2=
a1− xf 2
+2 ...(ii)

compute (gof) (x) and (gof) (3). In the light of (i) and (ii), it is clear that
Solution: (gof) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x2 – 1) ( 3 f (x) = 2x2 (gof) (x) ≠ (fog) (x)
– 1) Note: The operation that forms a single function from
af
= 4 (f (x)) –3 (3 g x = 4 x − 3 ⇒ g f x b a fg = two given functions by substituting the second

af
4 f x − 3)
function for the argument of the first fucntion (for the
independent variable of the first function) is also
= 4 (2x2 – 1) – 3 termed as composition. It is only defined when the
 Function 61

range of the first is contained in the domain of the

second. Repeated composition is denoted by a x
superscript numeral as f (n); so far example f o f o f o f = 1 + 2x
2
f (4). =
2 2
1 + 2x + x
af
6. Find f o f o f if f x =
x
2 1 + 2x
2
1+ x

Solution: 3 f x = af x
2
=
x
2
1+ x 1 + 3x

Type 2: Problems based on finding the composite of

x
two functions whenever the domains are mentioned
∴fof x = af f x af =
1+ x
2
in the form of intervals:

1+ f
2
a xf 1+
x
2 Question: Define the composite of two functions
namely f and g whose domains are D 1 and D2
2
1+ x respectively.
Answer: 1. If f and g are two functions whose domains
x are D1 and D2 respectively, then gof is the composite
2
of two functions namely f and g defined by (gof) (x) =
1+ x g (f (x)).
=
2 2 Further, we should note that the domain of gof is
1+ x + x
2 the set of all those x ∈D1 (domain of f) for which
1+ x
af
f x ∈D2 (domain of g). But if the range of f is a
subset of the domain of g, then the domain of gof is
x
2 the same as the domain of f , i.e Dgof =
1+ x x
=
1 + 2x
2
=
1 + 2x
2
= G (x) (say)
nx : x ∈ D f af s
and f x ∈g and D gof = Df when
2 R f ⊂ Dg .
1+ x
2. If f and g are two functions whose domains are D1,
F I and D2 respectively, then fog is the composite of two

and f o f o f (x) = f o GG x
JJ functions namely f and g defined by (fog) (x) = f (g
H 1 + 2x
2
K (x)).
Further, we should note that the domain of fog is
G x af the set of all those x ∈D2 (domain of g) for which
= f o G (x) =
1+G
2
a xf af
g x ∈D1 (domain of f). But if the range of g is a
x subset of the domain of f, then the domain of fog is
the same as the domain of i.e; D fog =
nx : x ∈ D af s
2
1 + 2x
= g and g x ∈D f and D fog = D g when
2
x
1+ 2
Rg ⊂ D f .
1 + 2x
62 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Notes: 1. If f (x) = f1(x), x > a and g (x) = f2 (x), x > b (ii) Solving the inequality which represents the
then f is defined for x > a and gof (x) is defined for f (x) domain of g.
> b which is solved for x to find the domain of (gof) (x) Steps 3: Finding the intersection of inequalities (i)
i.e; domain of (gof) (x) is the intersection of the solution and (ii) to get the domain of (fog) (x).
sets of the inequalities x > a and f (x) > b. Similarly, g
is defined for x > b and fog (x) is defined for g (x) > a Solved Examples
which is solved for x to find the domain of (fog) (x),
i.e; domain of (fog) (x) is the intersections of the 1. If f (x) = x + 4 , x ≥ − 4 and g (x) x −4,
solution sets of the inequalities x > b and g (x) > a.
x ≥ 4 find (gof) (x).
2. If f (x) = f1 (x), a < x < b and g (x) = f2 (x) , c < x < b
then f is defined for a < x < b and gof (x) is defined for Solutions:
c < f (x) < d which is solved for x to find the domain of (i) (gof) (x) = gof (x)
gof (x), i.e; domain of (gof) (x) is the intersection of
the solution sets of the inequalities a < x < b and c <
= af af
f x − 4 , f x ≥ 4 and x ≥ − 4

f (x) < d. Similarly, g is defined for c < x < d and fog (x) = x +4 −4, x+4 ≥ 4
is defined for a < g (x) < b which is solved for x to find
the domain of (fog) (x), i.e; domain of (fog) (x) is the (ii) We solve the inequality x + 4 ≥ 4 for x:
intersection of the solution sets of the inequalities c
< x < d and a < g (x) < b. ∴ x + 4 ≥ 16
3. In general fog ≠ gof which ⇒ fog x ≠ a fa f ⇔ x ≥ 16 − 4
a fa f
gof x . ⇔ x ≥ 12
4. It should be noted that the notations fog and fg
represent two different functions namely a function f
f f
(iii) D (gof) = −4 , ∞ ∩ 12 , ∞ = 12 , ∞ f
of a function g and the product of two functions f and
x+4 − 4 ,
RSx ≥ − 4 and , i.e. x >
g respectively.
Now we explain the rules of finding the composition
(iv) (gof) (x) =
T x ≥ 12
x + 4 − 4 , ∀ x ∈ 12 , ∞ f
of two functions of x’s whenever their domains are
12 or, (gof) (x) =
mentioned as intervals.
2. If f (x) = 1 + x, 0 < x < 1 and g (x) = 2 – x, 1 < x < 2 find
Working rule to find (gof) (x): It consists of following
(gof) (x).
steps:
Solutions:
Step 1: Finding gof (x) (i.e; value of g at f (x) as usual.
(i) (gof) (x) = gof (x)
Step 2: (i) Considering the inequality obtained on
= 2 – f (x), 1 < f (x) < 2 and 0 < x < 1
replacing x by f (x) in the domain of g which is given
= 2 – (1 + x), 1 < 1 + x < 2 and 0 < x < 1
in the form of an interval finite or infinite.
( 3 f (x) = 1 + x)
(ii) Considering the inequality which represents the
= 1 – x, 1 < 1 + x < 2 and 0 < x < 1
domain of f.
(ii) We solve the inequality 1 < 1 + x < 2 for x:
Step 3: Finding the intersection of the inequalities (i)
and (ii) to get the domain of (gof) (x). 1≤1+ x ≤ 2
Working rule to find (fog) (x): It consists of following ⇔1−1≤1+ x −1≤ 2 −1
steps: ⇔ 0≤ x ≤1
Step 1: Finding (fog) (x) (i.e; value of f at g (x) as
(iii) D (gof) = [0, 1] ∩ [0, 1] = [0, 1]
usual.
(iv) (gof) (x) = 1 – x, 0 < x <
Step 2: (i) Solving the inequality obtained on
replacing x by g (x) in the domain of f which is given 3. If f (x) = x2, 0 < x < 1 and g (x) = 1 – x, 0 < x < 1 find
in the form of an interval. (gof) (x).
 Function 63

Solutions:
1− x
(i) (gof) (x) = gof (x) Again considering the inequality ≥ 0,
= 1 – f (x), 0 < f (x) < 1 and 0 < x < 1 1+ x
= 1 – x2, 0 < x2 < 1 and 0 < x < 1 ( 3 f (x) = x2)
(ii) We solve the inequality 0 < x2 < 1 for x
1− x
1+ x
b g b
≥ 0 ⇔ 1− x ≥ 0 30 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⇔ g
2
∴0 ≤ x ≤ 1
−x ≥ − 1 ⇔ x ≤ 1 ...(b)
⇔ −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 Hence, (a) and (b)
(iii) D (gof) = [–1, 1] ∩ [0, 1] ⇒ x ∈ 0 , 1 , i.e. 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
(iv) (gof) (x) = 1 – x 2 , x ∈ −1 , 1 ∩ 0 , 1 , i.e; (iii) D (gof) = [0, 1] ∩ [0, 1] = [0,1]
x∈ 0,1 FG 1 − x IJ FG 2 x IJ , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(iv) (gof) (x) = 4
H1 + xK H1 + xK
af
1− x
4. If f : 0 , 1 → 0 , 1 be defined by f x = 1 + x ,
Type 3: Problems based on finding the composite of
two piecewise functions.
0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and g: 0 , 1 → 0 , 1 be defined by g (x)
Rule: For finding gof (x) defined as under:
= 4x (1 – x), 0 < x < 1, find (gof) (x).
Solutions:
(i) (gof) (x) = gof (x) a f RST ff aaxxff,, ab << xx << bc
f x = 1

F 1 − x IJ , 0 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 1 and 0 < x < 1

2

= go G
and
H1 + xK 1 + x
a f RSTgg aaxxff,, αβ << xx << βδ
g x = 1

=4G
F 1 − x IJ LM1 − FG 1 − x IJ OP , 0 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 1 and 0 2

H1 + xK N H1 + xKQ 1 + x one must put y = f (x) and hence to find g (y) when

<x<1 α < y < β and β < y < δ for which it is required to

FG 1 − x IJ FG 2 x IJ , 0 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 1 and 0 < x < be determined the intersection of each two intervals

=4
H 1 + xK H1 + xK 1 + x
given below:
(i) a < x < b and α < y < β where y = f1 (x) defined in
1 the given interval namely a < x < b.
1− x (ii) b < x < c and α < y < β where y = f2 (x) defined
(ii) We solve the inequality 0 ≤ ≤1
1+ x in the given interval namely b < x < c.

1− x 1− x 1− x (iii) a < x < b and β < y < δ where y = f1 (x) defined

0≤ ≤1⇔ 0 ≤ and ≤1 in the given interval namely a < x < b.
1+ x 1+ x 1+ x
(iv) b < x < c and β < y < δ where y = f2 (x) defined in
1− x
Now considering the inequality ≤ 1, the given interval namely b < x < c.
1+ x If the intersection of any two intervals mentioned
from (i) to (iv) is finite, then g (y) = gof (x) is defined
1− x
≤ 1 ⇔ 1 − x ≤ 1 + x ⇔ 0 ≤ 2x ⇔ and if their intersection is φ , then g (y) = gof (x) is not
1+ x
defined.
0≤ x ...(a) The union of finite intersection of any two
intervals mentioned from (i) to (iv) is the required
64 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

domain of the composite of two given piecewise ⇒ − 1 ≤ x < 2 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

f
functions.
Similarly for finding fog (x), one must put y = g (x) ⇒ −1 , 2 ∩ −1 , 1 = −1 , 1 = − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
and so to find f (y) where a < y < b and b < y < c for
which it is required to be determined the intersection
b a fg a f
∴ For −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , f g x = f y = y + 1
of the intervals given below: af
=g x + 1
(i) α < y < β and a < y < b where y = g1 (x) defined
in the given interval α < y < β .
2
e af 2
= x + 1 3 g x = x in − 1 ≤ x < 2 j
Case (ii): Considering the intervals in (a) and (d),
(ii) β < y < δ and a < y < b where y = g2 (x) defined
2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and y ≤ 1
in the given interval β < y < δ .
(iii) α < y < β and b < y < c where y = g1 (x) defined
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and g x ≤ 1 af
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and x + 2 ≤ 1 (3 g (x) = x + 2 in
in the given interval α < y < β .
2 ≤ x ≤ 3)
(iv) β < y < δ and b < y < c where y = g2 (x) defined
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and x ≤ − 1
in the given interval β < y < δ .
If the intersection of any two intervals mentioned
a
⇒ 2 , 3 ∩ −∞ , − 1 = φ
from (i) to (iv) is finite, then f (y) = fog (x) is defined a f b a fg is not defined
⇒ f y = f g x
and if their intersection is Ø, then f (y) = fog (x) is not Case (iii): Considering the intervals in (b) and (c),
defined.
−1 ≤ x < 2 and 1 < y ≤ 2
Solved Examples 2
⇒ − 1 ≤ x < 2 and 1 < x ≤ 2 ( 3 g (x) = x2 in
1. Two functions are defined as under: −1 ≤ x < 2 )

a f RST2 x x++1 ,11, x< ≤x 1≤ 2 and

f x = ⇒ − 1 ≤ x < 2 and { 1 < x < 2 or

− 2 ≤ x < −1}
R| x , − 1 ≤ x < 2
g a xf = S
2

T|x + 2 , 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 find fog and gof. f e j e

⇒ −1 , 2 ∩ 1 , 2 = 1 , 2 = 1 < x < 2

Solution: f (g (x)) = f (y) where y = g (x) e

In 1 < x < 2 , f b g a x fg = f a y f = 2 y + 1 for
f (y) = y + 1, y < 1 ...(a)
= 2y + 1, 1 < y < 2 ...(b) 1< y ≤ 2
g (x) = x2, – 1 < x < 2
= x + 2, 2 < x < 3
...(c)
...(d)
af
= 2 g x + 1 = 2x + 1
2

Case (iv): Considering the intervals in (b) and (d),

Case (i): Considering the intervals in (a) and (c), 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 1 < y ≤ 2
−1 ≤ x < 2 and y < 1
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 1 < g x ≤ 2 af
af
⇒ − 1 ≤ x < 2 and g x ≤ 1
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 1 < x + 2 ≤ 2 ( 3 g (x) = x + 2
2
⇒ − 1 ≤ x < 2 and x ≤ 1 in 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 )
( 3 g (x) = x2 in –1 < x < 2) ⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and −1 < x ≤ 0
 Function 65

a
⇒ 2 , 3 ∩ −1 , 0 = ∅ ⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ 2 x + 1 ≤ 2 (3 f (x) = 2x +
⇒ f (g (x)) = f (y) is not defined. 1 in 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 )
Hence fog (x) = x2 + 1, for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , = 2x2 + 1 for ⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −2 ≤ 2 x ≤ 1
1< x ≤ 2 . 1
⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ x ≤
Next, g (f (x)) = g (y) where y = f (x) 2
f (x) = x + 1, x < 1 ...(a)
LM OP 1
= 2 x + 1, 1 < x ≤ 2 ...(b) ⇒ 1 , 2 ∩ −1 ,
N Q 2
=φ

af 2
g y = y , −1 ≤ y < 2 ...(c)
⇒ g b f a x fg = g a y f is not defined.
= y + 2,2 ≤ y ≤ 3 ...(d) Case (iv): Considering the intervals in (b) and (d),
Case (i): Considering the intervals in (a) and (c), x ≤ 1 1 < x ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ y ≤ 3
and −1 ≤ y < 2 ⇒ 1 < x ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ f x ≤ 3 af
⇒ x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ f x < 2bg ⇒ 1 < x ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ 2 x + 1 ≤ 3 (3 f (x) = 2x + 1

⇒ x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ x + 1 < 2 in 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 )

⇒ x ≤ 1 and −2 ≤ x < 1 1
≤ x ≤1
⇒ 1 < x ≤ 2 and
a
⇒ −∞ , 1 ∩ −2 , 1 = [–2, 1] = −2 ≤ x < 1
2

In b −2 ≤ x < 1g , g (f (x)) = g (y) for −1 ≤ y < 2 a LM 1 , 1OP = ∅

2
⇒ 1, 2 ∩
N2 Q
= y ⇒ g (f (x)) = g (y) is not defined.
3 y = f (x) = x + 1 in x ≤ 1 ).
= (x + 1)2 ( Hence gof (x) = (x + 1)2 for −2 ≤ x < 1 and = 4 for
Case (ii): Considering the intervals in (a) and (d), x = 1.
x ≤ 1 and 2 ≤ y ≤ 3 2. If f (x) = x3 + 1 , x < 0
af
⇒ x ≤ 1 and 2 ≤ f x ≤ 3
2
= x + 1, x ≥ 0
⇒ x ≤ 1 and 2 ≤ f a x f ≤ 3 ( 3 f (x) = x + 1 in
x ≤ 1)
af a f
and g x = x − 1 3 , x < 1
1

= a x − 1f , x ≥ 1
1
⇒ x ≤ 1 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 2

a
⇒ −∞ , 1 ∩ 1 , 2 = 1 kp compute gof (x).
∴ when x = 1, g (f (x) = g (y) Solution: g (f (x)) = g (y) where y = f (x)
= y + 2 for 2 ≤ y ≤ 3
= x = 1 + 2 ( ∴ y = x + 1 in x ≤ 1 )
a
g (y) = y − 1 3 , y < 1f 1
...(a)

= x + 3 = 4 for x = 1
Case (iii): Considering the intervals in (b) and (c),
a f
= y −1 2,y ≥1
1
...(b)

f a x f = x + 1, x < 0
3
1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ y ≤ 2 and ...(c)
⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ f x ≤ 2 af = x 2 + 1, x ≥ 1 ...(d)
66 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Case (i): Considering the intervals in (a) and (c), 2

x < 0 and y < 1 ⇒ x ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≥ 1 (3 f (x) = x2 + 1 in
⇒ x < 0 and f (x) < 1 x ≥ 0)
⇒ x < 0 and x3 + 1 < 1 (3 f (x) = x3 + 1 in x < 0) 2
⇒ x < 0 and x3 < 0 ⇒ x ≥ 0 and x ≥ 0

⇒ common region = −∞ , 0 = x < 0 a f ⇒ x ≥ 0 and x ≥ 0

∴ in (x < 0), g (f (x)) = g (y) ⇒ common region = 0 , ∞ ⇒ x ≥ 0 f
a f for y < 1
= y−1
1
3
∴ in (x > 0), (g (f (x)) = g (y)

a f for x ≥ 0
= y −1
1

= b f a x f − 1g
1 2
3

= b f a x f − 1g
1
2
1

e 3
j af
= x + 1 − 1 3 , ( 3 f x = x 3 + 1 in x < 0) 1

=x e
= x +1−1
2
j 2
( 3 f (x) = x2 + 1 in x ≥ 0 )
Case (ii): Considering the intervals in (b) and (c), = x, Hence gof (x) = x for all x.
x < 0 and y ≥ 1 3. If f (x) = x2 – 4x + 3, x < 3
⇒ x < 0 and f x ≥ 1 af = x – 4, x > 3
and g (x) = x – 3, x < 4
3
⇒ x < 0 and x + 1 ≥ 1 ( 3 f (x) = x3 + 1) in x < 0) = x2 + 2x + 2, x > 4
describe the function fog.
3
⇒ x < 0 and x ≥ 0 Solution: fog (x) = f (y), where y = g (x)
f (y) = y2 – 4y + 3, y < 3 ...(a)
⇒ x < 0 and x ≥ 0
= y – 4, y > 3 ...(b)
a f
⇒ −∞ , 0 ∩ 0 , ∞ = φ f g (x) = x – 3, x < 4 ...(c)
⇒ g (y) = g (f (x)) is not defined. = x2 + 2x + 2, x > 4 ...(d)
Case (iii): Considering the intervals in (a) and (d), Case (i): Considering the intervals in (a) and (c), x <
x ≥ 0 and y < 1 4 and y < 3
⇒ x < 4 and g (x) < 3
⇒ x ≥ 0 and f (x) < 1
⇒ x < 4 and x – 3 < 3 ( 3 g (x) = x – 3 in x < 4)
⇒ x ≥ 0 and x2 + 1 < 1 ( 3 f (x) = x2 + 1 in x ≥ 0 ) ⇒ x < 4 and x < 6
⇒ x ≥ 0 and x2 < 0 a f a f a
⇒ −∞ , 4 ∩ −∞ , 6 = −∞ , 4 ⇒ x < 4 f
⇒ x ≥ 0 and x < 0 ∴ in (x < 4), fog (x) = f (y)
f a
⇒ 0 , ∞ ∩ −∞ , 0 = φ f = y2 – 4y + 3 for y < 3
⇒ g (y) = g (f (x)) is not defined. = (x – 3)2 – 4 (x – 3) + 3
Case (iv): Considering the intervals in (b) and (d), (3 y = g (x) = x – 3 in x < 4)
x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 1 2
= x − 10 x + 24
⇒ x ≥ 0 and f x ≥ 1 af
 Function 67

Case (ii): Considering the intervals in (a) and (d), = y – 4 for y ≥ 3

x ≥ 4 and y < 3 = x2 + 2x + 2 – 4 (3 y = x2 + 2x + 2 in x ≥ 4 )
⇒ x ≥ 4 and g (x) < 3 = x2 + 2x + 2
⇒ x ≥ 4 and x2 + 2x + 2 < 3 ( 3 g (x) = x2 + 2x + 2 Case (iv): Considering the intervals in (b) and (c), x
in x ≥ 4 ) < 4 and y ≥ 3
⇒ x ≥ 4 and (x2 + 2x – 1) < 0 ⇒ x < 4 and g x ≥ 3 af
⇒ x ≥ 4 and (x + 1)2 – 2 < 0 ⇒ x < 4 and x − 3 ≥ 3 ( 3 g (x) = x – 3 in x < 4)
⇒ x ≥ 4 and (x + 1)2 < 2 ⇒ x < 4 and x ≥ 6
⇒ x ≥ 4 and x + 1 < 2 a f
⇒ −∞ , 4 ∩ 6 , ∞ = ∅ f
⇒ f (g (x)) = f (y) is not defined
⇒ x ≥ 4 and − 2 < x + 1 < 2
Hence fog (x) = x2 – 10x + 24 for x < 4 and x2 + 2x
⇒ x ≥ 4 and − 2 − 1 < x < 2 − 1 + 2 for x > 4.

f e
⇒ 4 , ∞ ∩ − 2 − 1, 2 − 1 = φ j a f RST13 +− xx ,, 02 ≤< xx ≤≤ 23 .
4. Find f (f (x)) if f x =
⇒ f (g (x)) = f (y) is not defined.
Case (iii): Considering the intervals in (b) and (d), Solution: Given:
x ≥ 4 and y ≥ 3
a f RST13 +− xx ,, 02 ≤< xx ≤≤ 23
f x =
... (a)
af
⇒ x ≥ 4 and g x ≥ 3 ... (b)

2
To find: f (f (x)).

⇒ x ≥ 4 and x + 2 x + 2 ≥ 3
e 2
⇒ x ≥ 4 and x + 2 x − 1 ≥ 0
⇒ x ≥ 4 and a x + 1f 2
−2≥0
⇒ x ≥ 4 and a x + 1f 2
≥2
⇒ x ≥ 4 and x + 1 ≥ 2
⇒ x ≥ 4 and { x + 1 ≥ 2 or x + 1 ≤ − 2 }
⇒ x ≥ 4 and { x ≥ 2 − 1 or x ≤ − 2 − 1 }
⇒ x ≥ 4 and x ≥ 2 − 1
or x ≥ 4 and x ≤ − 2 − 1
a f RST13 +− xx ,, 02 ≤< xx ≤≤ 23
Let y = f x =
j
R1 + y , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2
∴ f a yf = S
... (c)
T3 − y , 2 < y ≤ 3 ... (d)
Case (i): Considering the intervals in (a) and (c),
0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 2
⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 0 ≤ 1 + x ≤ 2
⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
⇒ 0 , 2 ∩ −1 , 1 = 0 , 1
∴ in [0, 1], f (y) = f (f (x)) = 1 + y
=1+1+x
=2+x

⇒ 4, ∞ ∩ f 2 − 1 , ∞j = 4 , ∞f Case (ii): Considering the intervals in (a) and (d),

0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 2 < y ≤ 3
or 4 , ∞ f ∩ e−∞ , − 2 − 1 = φ ⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 2 < 1 + x ≤ 3
⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 1 < x ≤ 2
∴ in a x ≥ 4f , f b g a x fg = f a y f a
⇒ 0 , 2 ∩ 1 , 2 = 1, 2 a
68 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

∴ f (y) = f (f (x) = 3 – y = 3 – 1 – x = 2 – x for

1< x ≤ 2
af a f b a fg a f
a ≤ f x ≤ b ⇒ g a ≤ g f x ≤ g b if g (x)
is increasing in [a, b] = D (gof)
Case (iii): Considering the intervals in (b) and (c),
D (f ) D (g ) R ( f) R (gof)
2 < x ≤ 3 and 0 ≤ 3 − x ≤ 2
⇒ 2 < x ≤ 3 and −3 ≤ − x ≤ − 1
f g
⇒ 2 < x ≤ 3 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 x f (x) gof (x)

a
⇒ 2 , 3 ∩ 1, 3 = 2 , 3 a gof
∴ in (2, 3], f (y) = f (f (x)) = 1 + y = 1 + 3 – x = 4 – x
Case (iv): Considering the intervals in (b) and (d), Note: One should note that the rule mentioned in
type (4) holds true to determine the domain and range
2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 2 ≤ y ≤ 3
of the composite function if the given composite
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 2 ≤ 3 − x ≤ 3 function is defined by a single formula y = gof (x).
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and −1 ≤ − x ≤ 0
Solved Examples
⇒ 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
Find the domain and range of each of the following
⇒ 2, 3 ∩ 0,1 = ∅ functions:
⇒ f (y) = f (f (x)) is not defined. (i) y = sin cos x (ii) y = tan cos x (iii) y = cos tan x
Hence, (iv) y = tan cos x (v) y = log sin x
R|2 + x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 Solutions: (i) y = sin cos x
f b f a x fg = S 2 − x , 1 < x ≤ 2 R (cos x) = [–1, 1]
|T4 − x , 2 < x ≤ 3 D (sin x) = R
∴ S = R ∩ [–1, 1] = [–1, 1]
Type 4: Determination of domain and range of and so cos x ∈S ⇔ − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
composite function
⇔ x ∈R
Rule: Determination of domain of composite function
namely gof consists of following steps: Again, x ∈R ⇒ − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
1. Determination of the interval namely
S = domain of outer function namely g (x)
a f af
⇒ sin −1 ≤ y ≤ sin 1 since sin x is continuous
and increasing in [–1, 1].
∩ range of inner function namely f (x).
(ii) y = tan cos x
2. Determination of all the elements present in the
R (cos x) = [–1, 1]
domain of f (x) whose images form the interval ‘S’ is
D (tan x) = R
the determination of all the elements forming the set
which is the required, domain of the composite ∴ S = R ∩ [–1, 1] = [–1, 1]
function namely ‘gof’ i.e. the solution set of the and so cos x ∈S ⇔ − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
interval ‘S’ where f (x) lies (i.e. the solution set of f (x) ⇔ x ∈R
Again, x ∈R ⇒ − 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
∈S ) is the required domain of the composite function
namely ‘gof’. a f
⇒ tan −1 ≤ tan cos x ≤ tan 1
Next to determine the range of the composite (iii) y = cos tan x
function ‘gof’ one should use the rule: a f
R (tan x) = −∞ , ∞
D (cos x) = a −∞ , ∞f
 Function 69

∴ tan x ∈S ⇒ − ∞ < tan x < ∞ ⇒ − ∞ < log sin x ≤ 0 as log x is continuous and
⇒ x ∈R b g
increasing in (0, 1] and lim log ∈ = − ∞
∈→ 0+
Again, x ∈R ⇒ − ∞ < tan x < ∞ ⇒ tan x ∈R
⇒ − 1 ≤ cos tan x ≤ 1 a f a f a
∴ R log sin x = −∞ , 0

a
∴ R cos tan x = −1 , 1 f Even and Odd Functions

(iv) y = tan cos x Firstly, the definitions of even and odd functions are
provided.
R e j
cos x = 0 , 1 af af a f
(i) Even function: ∀ x ∈D f : f x = f − x
D (tan x) = R af
⇒ f x is even, i.e. for x = a = any real number
∴ S = R ∩ 0,1 = 0,1 belonging to the domain of definition of f (x), f (x) is

∴ cos x ∈S ⇒ 0 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 af
defined at x = a ⇒ f x is also defined at x = –a and

⇒ 0 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 af
f (a) = f (–a) ⇒ f x is even or more simply, it is the
function of an independent variable, changing neither
π π
⇒ 2nπ − ≤ x ≤ 2nπ + the sign nor absolute value when the sign of the
2 2 independent variable is changed.
LM π π OP e.g: x4 + 2x2 + 1; cos x ;
sin t
etc.
⇒ x ∈ 2nπ −
N 2
, 2 nπ +
2 Q Notes:
t

π π 1. Any algebraic function (or, expression) which

Again, 2nπ − ≤ x ≤ 2nπ +
2 2 contains only even power of x is even.
2. n is even ⇒ xn is even.
⇒ 0 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
3. y = cosn x is even whether n is odd or even.
⇒ 0 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 4. y = sinn x is even only when n is even.
5. y = | x | is an even function.
⇒ tan 0 ≤ tan cos x ≤ tan 1 as tan x is continu-
a f af
(ii) Odd function ∀ x ∈ D f : f x = − f − x a f
af
ous and increasing in [0, 1].
⇒ f x is odd, i.e. for x = a = any real number
e
∴ R tan cos x = 0 , tan 1 j belonging to the domain of definition of f (x), f (x) is
(v) y = log sin x af
defined at x = a ⇒ f x is also defined at x = –a and
f (a) = –f (–a) ⇒ f a x f is odd, or more simply, it is the
R ( sin x) = [–1, 1]
a f a f
D log x = 0 , ∞
∴ S = a0 , ∞ f ∩ − 1 , 1 = a 0 , 1
function of an independent variable changing the sign
but not absolute value when the sign of the
∴ sin x ∈S ⇒ 0 < sin x ≤ 1 independent variable is changed.

⇒ 2 nπ < x ≤ 2n + 1 π a f Notes:
1. Any algebraic function (or, expression) which
b
⇒ x ∈ 2nπ , 2n + 1 π a f contains only odd power of x is an odd function.

a f
(Note: The constant function f (x) = c is even and
Again 2 nπ < x ≤ 2 n + 1 π when c = 0, i.e. y = 0 which is also termed as zero
⇒ 0 < sin x ≤ 1 function representing the x-axis is an even function).
70 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. x2n + 1 = an odd function. (iii) f is even but g is odd ⇒ fog is an even function.
3. y = sin(2n + 1) x is an odd function. (iv) f is odd but g is even ⇒ fog is an even function.
(iii) Properties of even functions: The sum difference,
product and quotient of two even functions is again Solved Examples
an even function, i.e. f (x) and g (x) are even
af
Examine the oddness and eveness of the following

af af
⇒ f x ± g x , f (x) · g (x) and
f x
g x af
are even.
functions.
1. f (x) = x4 + 2x2 + 7
Solution: f (x) = x4 + 2x2 + 7
(iv) Properties of odd functions: 1. The sum and ⇒ f (–x) = (–x)4 + (–x)2 + 7
difference of two odd functions is again an odd = x4 + 2x2 + 7
af af
function, i.e. f (x) and g (x) are odd ⇒ f x ± g x = f (x)
2. The product and quotient of two odd functions is Therefore, f (x) is an even function.
again an even function; i.e. f (x) and g (x) are odd
af af 5
2. g x = x − 16x + 11x −
3 92

af af f x x
⇒ f x ⋅ g x and
af
g x
are even.
af 5
Solution: g x = x − 16x + 11x −
3 92
How to test whether a given function y = f (x) is x

a f a f a f a f a−92xf
odd or even.
⇒ g −x = −x − 16 − x + 11 − x −
5 3
Working rule: The rule to examine (or, test) a given
function y = f (x) to be odd and even is (i) to replace x
by (–x) in the given function f (x) and (ii) to inspect F
= − Gx
92 I
J
H − 16 x 3 + 11x −
xK
5
whether f (x) changes its sign or not. It f (x) changes
its sign, one must declare it to be odd and if f (x) does
= –g (x)
not change its sign, one must declare it to be even.
Therefore, g (x) is an odd function.
Notes: 3. f (x) = x2 – | x |
af af af
1. f x ≠ ± f x ⇒ f x is neither even nor odd. Solution: f (x) = x2 – | x |
e.g: If the oddness and eveness of the function f ⇒ f (–x) = (–x)2 – | –x |
(x) = e2x sin x is examined, it is seen that f (–x) = e–2x + = x2 – | x |
af
sin (–x) ≠ ± f x which means that f (x) is neither = f (x)
Therefore, f (x) is an even function.
FG x + 1IJ
odd nor even.
2. Any function y = f (x) can be uniquely expressed
as the sum of an even and odd function as follows:
af
4. f x = log x +
H K
2

af
f x =
1
af a f
f x + f −x +
1
af a f
f x − f −x F
Solution: f a x f = log G x + x + 1J
I
H K
2
2 2
3. A piecewise function is even if each function
⇒ f a− x f = log F − x + a − x f + 1I
H K
defined in its domain is even and a piecewise function 2
is odd if each function defined in its domain is odd.

F −x + I
4. f and g are two functions such that
(i) f is even and g is also even ⇒ fog is an even
GG JJ
2
x +1 2
= log ⋅x+ x +1
H x+ K
function. 2
(ii) f is odd and g is also odd ⇒ fog is an odd x +1
function.
 Function 71

F − x + x + 1I Rx x , x ≤ − 1
= log G
GH x + x + 1 JJK a f |S 1 + x + 1 − x , − 1 < x < 1
2 2

7. f x =
2
|T− x x , x ≥ 1
F 1 I Solution: The given function can be rewritten as
= log G
GH x + x + 1 JJK
under:

R|− x , x ≤ − 1
2
2

F I f a x f = S2 + x + − x , − 1 < x < 1
= log 1 − log G x + x + 1J ||− x , x ≥ 1
H K
2

T
2

F
= − log G x + x + 1J
I
H K
2 since [1 + x] = 1 + [x] and [1 – x] = 1 + [–x]
Also, it is known that [x] + [–x] = 0 when x is an
= –f (x) integer and [x] + [–x] = –1 when x is not an integer.
So, f (x) is an odd function. Hence, again in the light of above facts, the given

af Fa I x
function can be rewritten as:
5. f x = x GH a
+ 1K
J x
−1
R|− x , x ≤ − 1
2

F a − 1I ||1 , − 1 < x < 0

Solution: f a x f = x G |
x

H a + 1JK x f a x f = S2 , x = 0
||1 , 0 < x < 1
F a − 1I
⇒ f a− x f = a− xf G
−x
||
H a + 1JK T− x , x ≥ 1
2
−x

F 1 I F I which is clearly an even function.

= −x G
G a − 1J
x

J = −x G
1− a
J
x

GH a + 1JK H 1 + a K
1 x
Periodic Functions
x
Definition: When f (x) = f (x + P) = f (x + 2P) = … = f (x
+ nP), then f (x) is said to be periodic function of x, for

= xG
F a − 1I = f a x f
x its values repeat, its period being P (where

H a + 1JK
x P ≠ 0 , x ∈ domain of definition of f) which is the
smallest positive number satisfying the above
So, f (x) is an even function. property f (x) = f (x + P) = f (x + 2P) = … = f (x + nP)
6. f (x) = sin x + cos x where n ∈Z , n ≠ 0 .
Solution: f (x) = sin x + cos x
Notes:
⇒ f (–x) = sin (–x) + cos (–x)
1. The numbers of the form nP, n ∈Z , n ≠ 0 are also
= –sin x + cos x which is clearly neither equal to f
called period of the function. But generally the smallest
(x) nor equal to –f (x).
Therefore, f (x) is neither even not odd. positive number P is called the period of the function
(or, fundamental period of the function) unless
72 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
nothing is mentioned about the period of the function.
2. The smallest positive period for sine and cosine is
equal to 2π and for the tangent and cotangent, it is
equal to π . Since, sin x = sin x + 2π = a f
a f
sin x + 4π = ..., is periodic , its period being 2π .
Similarly, cos x is periodic, its period being 2π . Hence,
the periodicity property of the trigonometric functions
can be expressed by the following identities.
a f
sin x = sin x + 2 n π , n ∈Z
cos x = cos a x + 2 n π f , n ∈Z
tan x = tan b x + n πg , n ∈Z
cot x = cot b x + n π g , n ∈Z
3. The following formulas of the trigonometric
functions to find out fundamental period of the
trigonometric functions are very useful.
If we have an equation of the form y = T (Kx), aT
(Kx), aT (Kx + b), where a = amplitude of trigonometric
function, K = any constant, b = any other constant, T
= any trigonometric function sin, cos, tan, cot, sec,
cosec, then the fundamental period P of the
trigonometric function having the form:
(i) y = sin (Kx), a sin (Kx) or a sin (Kx + b) is given by
2π
the formula P = , where K is any constant.
K l.c.m) of numbers of the set {P1, P2}
(ii) y = cos (Kx), a cos (Kx) or a cos (Kx + b) is given
2π
by the formula P = , where K is any constant.
K period of tan x = π
(iii) y = tan (Kx), a tan (Kx) or a tan (Kx + b) is given
π
by the formula P = , where K is any constant.
K also periodic provided the angle = ax + b; i.e.; f (T (ax
(iv) y = cot (Kx), a cot (Kx) or a cot (Kx + b) is given
π
by the formula P = , where K is any constant.
K
(v) y = sec (Kx), a sec (Kx) or a sec (Kx + b) is given
2π
by the formula P = , where K is any constant.
K
(vi) y = cosec (Kx), a cosec (Kx) or a cosec (Kx + b) is
2π
given by the formula P = , where K is any
K
constant.
Remember:
1. Period of any trigonometric function, its co-
function and its reciprocal is the same. Thus,
(i) The period of sin x and cosec x = 2 π .
(ii) The period of cos x and sec x = 2 π .
(iii) The period of tan x and cot x = π .
2. Only those trigonometric functions are periodic
whose angles are linear expressions in x (i.e. angle =
ax + b). For examples, sin3 x, cos4 x, tan (4x + 5), etc.
3. Those trigonometric functions are not periodic
whose angles are not linear expressions in x (i.e., angle
F 1 I , cos
≠ ax + b ). For examples, sin
H xK x , etc.
4. No periodic function other than a constant can be
algebraic which means that algebraic functions can
not be periodic excepting a constant function.
5. If the function f1 (x) has the period P1, and the
function f2 (x) has the period P2, then the function
af af
y = a f 1 x ± b f 2 x a and b being given numbers,
has the period equal to least common multiple (i.e.;
e.g.: y = 2 sin x – 3 tan x has the period 2 π since
period of sin x = 2 π
k p
∴ L.c.m of 2 π , π = 2 π
6. A function of trigonometric periodic function is
+ b)) is periodic where f signifies n, (...)n, |...|, log,
etc and T signifies sin, cos, tan, cot, sec and cosec.
a f
e.g.: tan x , cos x , sin 2 x + b , etc are functions
of sin x, cos x and tan x and are periodic.
7. The sum and difference of periodic and non
periodic function is non-periodic. Moreover, the
 Function 73

product of a periodic and non-periodic function is 2π

non-periodic. e.g., =
3
(i) f (x) = sin x + cos x is non-periodic since sin x is
F xI
periodic and cos x is non-periodic.
(ii) f (x) = x cos x is non-periodic since x being an
2. y = cos H 2K
algebraic function is non-periodic and cos x is Solution: Method (1)
periodic. On, denoting the period of the function
8. Whenever, we use the term period, we always mean F x I we get y = cos F x I
the fundamental period which is the smallest positive
value of P for which the relation:
y = cos
H 2K H 2K
f (x) = f (x + P) holds true for all values of x, P being F x + P IJ = cos F x I
⇒ cos G
a constant, i.e.; the values of f (x) at the points x and
(x + P) are same.(Note: If f (x) is a periodic function
H 2 K H 2K
with period T and g (x) is any function such that P
⇒ = 2π ⇒ P = 4 π
domain of f is a proper subset of domain g, then gof is 2
period with period T). Method (2)
e.g.: y = sin (x – [x]) is periodic with period 1, Using the formula of period of trigonometric
because (x– [x]) is periodic with period 1.
1
Working rule to fund the period: It consists of function, we get P = 2π / K , where K = =
2
following steps: (Trigonometric functions)
1. To denote the desired period by P and to replace x 1
multiple of x = 2π / = 4π .
by (P + x). 2
2. To put T [a (x + P) + b] = T (ax) 3. y = sin 2x + cos 3x
3. To put aP = a constant multiple of P = 2π or π Solution: Method (1)
according as the given function is sin, cos, tan, cot We are required to find out the period of each
sec or cosec. addend of the given sum function y = sin 2x + cos 3x
4. To solve a P = 2π or π to get the required (or, Now, sin 2 (x + P1) = sin 2x

desired) period of the trigonometric periodic function. a f

⇒ sin 2 x + 2 P1 = sin 2 x ⇒ 2 P1 = 2 π ⇒ P1 = π
similarly, cos 3 (x + P2) = cos 3x
Solved Examples
Find the period of each of the following functions:
a f
⇒ cos 3x + 3P2 = cos 3x ⇒ 3 P2 = 2π ⇒ P2 =
2π
3
1. y = sin 3x
RS 2πUV 2π
Solution: Method (1)
On denoting the period of the function y = sin 3x
∴ L.c.m of π ,
T 3 W
=
1
= 2π

by P, we get y = sin 3 (x + P) = sin 3x Hence, period of y = sin 2x + cos 3x = 2π

⇒ sin (3x + 3P) = sin 3x Method (2)
⇒ 3P = 2π On using the formula of period of trigonometric
2π 2π
⇒P= function sin (Kx), P1 = , where K = 2 = a constant
3 K
Method (2) multiple of x.
On using the formula of period of trigonometric
2π
function, we get P =
2π
where K = multiple of x.
= =π
2
K
74 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Again using the formula of period of trigonometric 2π 2

2π and P2 = , where K =
function cos (Kx), P2 = , where K = 3 = a constant K 3
K
2π 3
multiple of x. = = 2π × = 3π
2 2
2π
= 3

RS 2π UV = 2π RS 4π , 3πUV = 12π
3

T 3W
∴ L.c.m of π ,
Hence, the required period of the given sum
∴ L.c.m of
T3 W
function = 2π Remember:
L.c.m of two or more fractions
F 3x I + sin F 2 x I
4. y = sin H2K H 3K =
l.c. m of numerators
h.c. f of denominators
Solution: Method (1)
We find the period of each addend of the given Question: How to show the following function to be
sum function. not periodic:

LM 3 ax + P fOP = sin F 3x I Answer: To show that a given trigonometric function

N2 Q H2K
sin f (x) is not periodic, we adopt the rule consisting of
1
following steps.

F 3 3 I F 3x I ⇒ 3 P Step 1: Replacing x by (T + x) in the given function

H2 2 K H 2 K 2
⇒ sin x + P = sin = 2π ⇒
1
1 and equating it to f (x) which means one should write
f (T + x) = f (x).
4π Step 2: Considering the general solution of
P1 =
3 af
(i) sin [f (x + T)] = sin [f (x)], where f x ≠ ax + b and
LM 2 ax + P fOP = sin F 2 x I a f , , etc, is
n n

Q H 3K
f signifies the operators
Similarly, sin
N3 2

f a x + T f = nπ + a −1f f a x f (3 sin x = sinα ⇒

n

F 2 x + 2 P I = sin F 2 x I ⇒ P = 3π x = nπ + a−1f α an = ± 1 , ± 2 ,...f )

⇒ sin
H 3 3 K H 3K 2 2
n

(ii) cos [f (x + T)] = cos [ f (x)], where f a x f ≠ ax + b

R 4π U 12π = 12π
∴ L.c.m of S , 3π V =
T3 W 1 and f signifies the operators a f , n n
, etc, is
(Note: f (x) = x – [x] ⇒ f (x + 1) = x + 1 – [x + 1] = f a x + T f = 2nπ ± f a x f ( 3 cos x = cosα ⇒
x + 1 – ([x] + 1) = x – [x] = f (x) ⇒ f (x) is periodic with
period 1). x = 2 nπ ± α an = ± 1 , ± 2 ,...f )
Method (2) (iii) tan [f (x + T)] = tan [ f (x)], where f a x f ≠ ax + b
On using the formula of period of trigonometric
and f signifies the operators a f , n n
, etc, is
2π 3
f a x + T f = nπ + f a x f ( 3 tan x = tan α ⇒
function sin (Kx), P1 = , where K =
K 2
2π 2 4 x = nπ + α an = ± 1 , ± 2 ,...f )
= = 2π × = π
3 3 3
2
 Function 75

af
Step 3: If T = F x f (x) is not periodic which means argument belonging to their common domain, i.e.; two
functions f and g are equal ⇔ the following two
that if there is a least positive value of T not
independent of x, then f (x) will not be a periodic conditions are satisfied.
function with period of T. (i) f and g have the same domain D.
af af
Or, T = F x ⇒ f x ≠ periodic. (Note: A (ii) f and g assume the same (or, equal) value at each
point of their common domain, i.e.; f (x) = g (x),
monotonic function can never be periodic and a
periodic function can never be monotonic. That is, ∀ x ∈D .
monotoncity and periodicity are two properties of Notes:
functions which can not coexist). 1. The above two conditions are criteria to show that
given two functions namely f and g are equal.
Solved Examples
x
Show that each of the following functions is not 2. = 1, provided x ≠ 0
x
af
periodic.
af
1. f x = sin x 3.
f x
af
f x
= 1, provided f x ≠ 0 af
af
Solution: f x = sin x
Working rule to show two functions to be equal: It
∴ f a x + T f = f a x f ⇒ sin x + T = sin x ⇒ consists of following steps:

T + x = nπ + a−1f
1. To find the domain of each function f and g.
n
x which does not provide 2. To inspect whether dom (f) = dom (g) as well as f
us the value of T independent of x. Hence, f (x) is not (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈D , D being the common (or, same)
a periodic function. domain of each function f and g, i.e.; if dom (f) = dom
2. f (x) = cos x2 (g) and f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈D , then we say that f = g
Solution: f (x) = cos x2
and if any one of the two conditions namely dom (f) =
a f af
∴ f x + T = f x ⇒ cos x + T a f 2
= cos x
2
dom (g) and f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈D is not satisfied, we

a
⇒ x+T f 2
= 2 nπ ± x
2 say that f ≠ g .

2 Solved Examples
⇒x+T = 2nπ ± x
Examine whether the following functions are equal or
2
⇒T = 2 nπ ± x − x not:
which does not provide us the value of T af
1. f x =
2
af
x ,g x = x
independent of x. Hence, f (x) is not periodic.
Question: Explain what you mean when we say “two
functions are equal”.
Solution: f x =af 2
af
x ,g x = x

Answer: Two functions f : D → C and g: D → C

2
x is defined for all real values of x
are said to be equal (written as f = g) if f (x) = g (x) for ⇒ dom (f) = R = the set of all real numbers ...(i)
all x ∈D which signifies that two functions are equal Again, 3 g (x) = | x |
provided their domains are equal as well as their | x | is defined for all real values of x
functional values are equal for all values of the ⇒ dom (g) = R = the set of all real numbers ...(ii)
Also, we inspect that f (x) = g (x) = | x | for every
real values of x ...(iii)
76 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

RSdom a f f = dom a g f = R af
(i) f x = x , g x = af 2
(i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒
T f a x f = g a x f , ∀ x ∈R , R
x

af af
2
being the common domain x
(ii) f x = ,g x = x
⇒ f=g x
(iii) f (x) = log10 x2, g (x) = 2 log10 x
af af
2
x +1
2. f x = 2
,g x =1 Solution: (i) f (x) = x ⇒ dom (f) = R ...(a)
x +1

Solution: f x = af x +1
2
af
,g x =1
af
g x =
2
x = x for x ≥ 0 and = –x for x < 0
x +1
2
⇒ g (x) is defined for all real values of x
Now, we find the domain of f: ⇒ dom (g) = R ...(b)
2 2
Putting x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = − 1⇒ x = ± i = imaginary Hence, (a) and (b) ⇒ f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈ 0 , ∞ f
⇒ f (x) is defined for all real values of x
af
2
x
⇒ dom (f) = R = the set of all real numbers ...(i) (ii) f x = = x , provided x ≠ 0
Again, g (x) = 1 is defined for all real values of x x
⇒ dom (g) = R = the set of all real numbers ...(ii) ⇒ dom (f) = R – {0} ...(a)
Also, we inspect that f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈R ...(iii) g (x) = x
⇒ dom (g) = R ...(b)
R dom a f f = dom a gf = R
(i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ S
Hence, (a) and (b) ⇒ f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈R − 0 kp
T f a x f = g a x f , ∀ x ∈R , R (iii) f (x) = log10 x2, g (x) = 2 log10 x, provided x > 0
being the common domain and 2 log (–x) for x < 0
⇒ f=g ⇒ f (x) is defined for all real values of x
Note: To find the values of the argument x for which ⇒ dom (f) = R ...(a)
two given functions f and g may be equal (i.e.; g (x) = 2 log10 x, provided x > 0
whenever f (x) and g (x) may be equal by performing ⇒ g (x) is defined for all positive values of x
any operation or rule like cancellation, extracting the
af
⇒ dom g = R = 0 , ∞
+
a f ...(b)
a f
root, etc on any one of the given functional value)
means to find the common domain of each function f Hence, (a) and (b) ⇒ f (x) = g (x), ∀ x ∈ 0 , ∞
and g over which they are defined.
Problems on one-to-one Function
Working rule: We have the rule to find for what
values of the argument given functions are identical. Firstly, we recall the definition of one-to-one (or,
It says to find the common domain of each function f simply one-one) function.
and g to examine whether their functional values are
equal for all values of the argument belonging to the Definition 1: It the given function f : D → R
common domain of f and g, i.e.; whether f (x) = g (x), defined by y = f (x) is such that there is unique y in the
range R for each x in the domain D and conversely
∀ x ∈D , D being the common domain of each
there is a unique x in the domain D for each y in the
function f and g should be examined. range R, then it is said that given function y = f (x) is
one-to-one.
Solved Examples Definition 2: (Set theoretic): If different elements of
Find for what values of x following functions are domain of the function have different images (or,
identical. values) in the range (or, codomain), then it is said that
the function is one-to-one.
78 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Remark: It the domain of f (x) = sin2 x is extended to Problems on on-to Functions

0, π then its range is same, i.e. [0, 1], but f (x) = sin2 Before doing the problems on on-to functions, we
x is not one-one, because for two different points recall its definition. On-to function: If
π 5π f : D → R ⊆ C is a function such that every element
namely and , f (x) = sin2 x has the same value, in C occurs as the image of at least one element of D,
6 6
then f : D → R ⊆ C is called an on-to function from
as it is clear from the following:
D to C.
F π I = sin F π I = F 1 I = 1
2
In other words, f : D → R ⊆ C is called on-to
H 6K H 6K H 2K 4
2
f
function when the range (or, the range set) of f equals

F 5π I = sin F 5π I = sin F π − π I
the co-domain, i.e., range set = co-domain (i.e., R = C)

H 6K H 6K H 6K signifies that a function f : D → R ⊆ C is on-to

2 2
f
function. Hence, f : D → R ⊆ C is on-to function

F πI 1 a f
⇔ f D = C , where f (D) is called the image of D
= sin H K =
2
signifying the set of images of all elements in D and is
6 4 defined as:
(ii) 3 − 2 , 2 ∈ −3 , 3 a f l af q
f D = f x : x ∈D = range set = R (f) = R
(simply)
∴ f (–2) = (–2)2 = 4
Notes:
and f (2) = (2) = 4 1. If a function is not on-to, it is called “into
af
⇒ f 2 = f −2 a f function”, i.e., if the function f : D → R ⊆ C is
Hence, f (x) = x2 is not one-one because for two such that certain elements of the set C are left out,
different values of x in [–3, 3], f (x) = x2 has the same which are not the images of an element of the set D,
value 4. then f is called “into function”.
+ In other words f : D → R ⊆ C is said to be into,
(iii) For x1 , x2 ∈ R ,
a f
f x1 = f x 2 a f af
if f D ⊆ C , i.e; when the range set ≠ co-domain,
then the function is said to be into function.
⇒ x1 = x 2
D f R=C
⇒ x1 = x2
x1 y1
Hence f is one-one in R+. x2 y2 ⇒ on-to function

F −π , π I ; ,
(iv) For x1 , x2 ∈
H 2 2K
f ax f = f ax f
x1 y1
x2 y2 ⇒ into function
1 2 x3 y3

⇒ tan x1 = tan x 2
⇒ x1 = x2 2. A one-to-one function may be into or onto. i.e.,

F −π , π I .
there are two types of one-one function namely (i)

H 2 2K
one-one onto (ii) one-one into, which are defined as:
Hence f is one-one in
(i) one-one (symbolised as 1–1) function is called
onto provided there is no-element in the range set R
which does not appear as an image of a certain element
 Function 79

of the domain D or, simply, a function which is both Remark: When we say that a function is one-one
one-one and onto is called one-one onto. Shortly, we and onto, it is assumed that number of elements of
write one-one onto ≡ one-one + onto. Further it is domain and range are equal such that each member of
notable that one-one onto function satisfies the the domain has a different image in the range set
following properties. whether the domain is a finite set or an infinite set.
(a) No two element of the domain have the same Question: How would you show that a given function
image. defined by a single formula y = f (x) in its domain is
(b) Every element of the range (or, co-domain) is the onto.
image of some element of the domain which means Answer: There are mainly two methods to examine
alternatively there is no element on the range (or, co- whether a given function defined by a single formula
domain) which is not the image of any element of the y = f (x) in its domain is onto or not.
domain. Method 1: If the range of the function = codomain of
the function, then given function f is onto. If the range
D f R
⇒ one-one on-to
is proper subset of codomain of the function f, then f
x1 y1 function which is is into.
x2 y2 symbolized as
x3 y3
one-one
Note: Method (1) is fruitful to examine whether a
f: D
on-to
R given function is onto or not only when the domain
of the given function is finite and contains a very few
one-one on-to function which is symbolised as elements.
one − one
Method 2: To show that f is onto, it is required to be
f : D on
 − to
→ R.
shown that ∀ y ∈B , ∃ x ∈ A such that y = f (x), where
(ii) one-one into function: A one-one function is A = domain of f and B = codomain of f.
called into provided the range set is contained in the i.e. one should assume y ∈B and should show
co-domain (i.e., R ⊂ C ) such that co-domain
that ∃ x ∈ A such that y = f (x).
contains at least one element which is not an image of
any one element in the domain D, then the function is Step 1: Choose an arbitrary elements y in B
called one-one into, or simply a one-one function is (codomain).
called into provided it is not onto. Shortly we write Step 2: Put f (x) = y.
one-one into ≡ one-one + into. It is notable that one- Step 3: Solve the equation y = f (x) for x, say x = g (y).
one into function satisfies the following properties. Step 4: If x = g (y) is defined for each y ∈ codomain
(a) No two elements of domain have the same image. of f and x = g (y) ∈ domain of f for all y ∈ codomain of
(b) There is at least one element in co-domain which f, then f is declared to be on to.
is not the image of any element of the domain. If this requirement is not fulfilled by at least one
value of y in the codomain of f, then f is decalred to be
f C ( R ⊂ C)
D into (i.e. not onto).
R ⇒ one-one on-to i.e. to show that f is not onto (i.e. in to), one should
x1 y1 function which is
x2 y2 point out a single element in the codomain of f which
symbolized as
y3 one-one
f: D R is not the image of any element in the domain.
on-to
Notes:
One-one in-to function which is symbolised as: 1. Method (2) is fruitful to examine whether a given
one − one function is onto or not only when the domain of the
f : D in→ R ⊂ C .
− to
80 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

given function is infinite or finite but containing very 5 5 3

large number of elements. 2x = +3⇔ x = +
y 2y 2
2. When either domain or codomain or both is not
mentioned, it is always understood to be R while 5 3
examining a given function to be onto or into. Again, y ∈R and y ≠ 0 , ∴ + ∈R
2y 2
3. An into function can be made onto by redefining
the codomain as the range of the original function. 5 5 3 3
Also, ≠ 0, ∀ y ⇒ + ≠
4. Any polynomial function f : R → R is onto if its 2y 2y 2 2
degree is odd and any polynomial function 5 3 3 RS UV
f : R → R is into if its degree is even. ∴x = + ∈R −
2y 2 2 TW
Solved Examples
kp 5 3 3 RS UV such
1. A function f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x + 3
Thus, ∀ y ∈R − 0 , ∃ x = + ∈R −
2y 2 2 TW
that y = f (x).
examine whether f is onto.
Solution: In this question, kp
3. Show that the function f : R − 3 → R − 1 kp
af
domain of f = R x−2
codomain of f = R defined by f x = is onto.
x−3
Let y ∈R
kp
Solution: Let y ∈R − 1 , ∴ y ∈R and y ≠ 1
af
Now y = f x = 2 x + 3 ⇔ 2 x = y − 3 ⇔ x =
y−3
2 af
Now y = f x =
x−2
x−3
y−3
∴x = ∈R
2 ⇒ y x − 3 y = x − 2 ⇒ x − y x = 2 − 3y

Thus, ∀ y ∈R (codomain), ∃ x =
y−3
2
∈R a f
⇒ x 1− y = 2 − 3y ⇒ x =
2 − 3y
1− y
af
= g y (say)

(domain) such that y = f (x).

Now y ∈R and y ≠ 1
Hence, f is onto.
RS 3 UV → R − k0p is defined ∴x =
2 − 3y
is defined ∀ y ∈R − 1 kp
2. A function f : R −
T2 W 1− y

af
by f x =
5
2x − 3
. Show that f is onto. Also, x =
2 − 3y
1− y
kp
∈R − 3 , ∀ y ∈ R − 1 kp
Solution: In this question, Hence, f is onto.

RS 3 UV 4. A function f : Z → N is defined by f (x) = x2 + 3.

domain of f = R −
T2 W Test whether f is onto.
Solution: In this question,
codomain of f = R – {0} Domain of f = the set of integers = Z
lq
Let y ∈R − 0 , ∴ y ∈R and y ≠ 0 Codomain of f = the set of natural numbers = Z
Let y ∈ N
Now y = f a x f =
5 5
⇔ 2x − 3 = ⇔ Now, y = x2 + 3
2x − 3 y
 Function 81

2
⇒ x = y − 3⇒ x = ±
⇒ range of f = [0, 1] which is ⊂ B
y − 3 which is not
⇒ f is not onto.
defined for y < 3, i.e. x = ± af
y − 3 = g y is not
(ii) 3 y = x | x |
defined ∀ y ∈N ∴ y = x · x for x ≥ 0
Hence, x = ± y − 3 ∉Z if y < 3 ⇒ y = x2 for x ∈ 0 , 1 , according to question.
For example I ∈N is not the f-image of any x ∈Z ⇒ x = y
and hence f is not onto.
k p
5. Let A = x : − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 = B and a function
⇒x= y for x ≥ 0
⇒ x is defined for y ≥ 0
f : A → B is defined by f (x) = x2. Examine whether
f is onto. ⇒ x is defined for y ∈ 0 , 1 according to
Solution: In this question, question. ...(a)
Domain of f = codomain of f = − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 Again, 3 y = x | x |
Let x ∈ −1 , 2 = B ∴ y = x (–x) for x < 0
2 ⇒ x2 = –y for x < 0
Now y = x ⇒ x = ± y which is not defined
for y < 0. ⇒ x = −y
Clearly, x ∉ −1 , 2 = A for all y ∈ −1 , 2 = B ⇒ x = − − y for x < 0

For example −
1
∈ B is not the f-image of any ⇒ x = − − y for x ∈ −1 , 0 f
2 ⇒ x is defined for y < 0
x ∈ A and hence f is not onto.
⇒ x is defined for y ∈ −1 , 0 according to
6. If f : R → R be defined f (x) = cos (5x +2), show question. ...(b)
that f (x) = cos (5x + 2) is not onto. From (a) and (b), it is concluded that range of f =
Solution: Since it is known that [–1, 0] ∪ [0, 1] = [–1, 1] = B = codomain of f which
a f
−1 ≤ cos 5x + 2 ≤ 1 which ⇒ range of cos (5x ⇒ f is onto.
+ 2) = [–1, 1] 8. Check whether the function f : R → R defined
∴ range of f = −1 , 1 ≠ R = codomain of f
⇒ f : R → R defined by f (x) = cos (5x + 2) is not
af
by f x =
x
1+ x
is onto or into. Also find R (f).

onto. Solution: Let y ∈R = codomain of f

k p
7. Let A = x : − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 = B and a function
f : A → B is defined by (i) f (x) = | x | (ii) f (x) = x | x |. af
and y = f x =
x
1+ x
Examine whether it is onto or not.
Solution: (i) In this question, x
Now, y =
Domain of f = codomain of f = − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 1+ x
Let y ∈ −1 , 1 = B and y = f (x) = | x | x
⇒y= for x > 0
Now y = x ⇒ y is always non-negative 1+ x
82 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒ y + yx = x Solution: Onto test:

⇒ y = x – yx = x (1 – y)
a
Case 1: To show that for any y < 0, there is x ∈ −1 , 0 f
⇒x=
y
1− y
a
, 3 y ≠ −1 f such that f (x) = y.
x
Now, x > 0 Now, y =
1+ x
y ⇒ y + xy = x
⇒ ≥0
1− y ⇒ x (1– y) = y
a f
⇒ y 1− y ≥ 0
⇒x=
y
a
, 3y ≠1 f
⇒ y a y − 1f ≤ 0 1− y

⇒ 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 but y ≠ 1 −z
Now if y is negative (i.e. y = –z), then x =
⇒ y∈ 0,1 f ...(a)
1+ z

z
Again, y =
x (negative) and x =
1+ x 1+ z

x ∴ 0 < x < 1 ⇒ −1 < x < 0

⇒y=
1− x
for x < 0
a f
Hence, for y < 0 , ∃ x ∈ −1 , 0 such that f (x) = y.
⇒ y – yx = x Case 2: y = 0 for x = 0.
⇒ y = x + yx = x (1 + y) a f
Case 3: To show that for any y > 0, there is x ∈ 0 , 1

⇒x=
y
1+ y
a
, 3 y ≠ −1 f such that f (x) = y
x
Now, y =
Now, x < 0 1− x
y ⇒ y – yx = x
⇒ <0
1+ y ⇒ x (1 + y) = y
⇒ y ( y + 1) < 0
⇒ y (y – (–1)) < 0
⇒x=
y
1+ y
a
, 3 y ≠ −1 f
a
⇒ –1 < y < 0 ⇒ y ∈ −1 , 0 f ...(b) ∴ for y > 0, 0 < x < 1
From (a) and (b), it is concluded that range of f = a f
⇒ for any y > 0, ∃ x ∈ 0 , 1 such that f (x) = y
f a f
(–1, 0) ∪ 0 , 1 = −1 , 1 ≠ R = codomain of f Hence, for any y ∈ a−∞ , ∞ f , ∃ x ∈ a −1 , 1f such that f
Hence, f is not onto (x) = y.
a f
9. Prove that the function f : −1 , 1 → R defined Hence, the given function is onto.
by Notes:
f x =af x
1+ x
, −1 < x < 0 1. In fact this function is bijective whose one-
oneness can be shown in the following way.
= 0, x = 0
x
= , 0 < x < 1 is onto.
1− x
 Function 83

To test whether f is one-one, different possible

F πI .
cases are as follows: 5. If f (x) = sin x + cos x, find f H 4K
Case 1: When x1 , x2 ∈ −1 , 0 a f 6. If f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 1, find f (0), f (1), f (–1) and f (2).
f (x1) = f (x2) 7. If f (x) = x4 – x3 + 2x2 + 4, find f (0), f (–1) and f (2).
x1 x2 8. Given the function s (t) = t2 – 6t + 8, find s (0), s (2)
⇒ =
1 + x1 1 + x 2 and s (–1).
⇒ x1 + x1 x2 = x2 + x1 x2
⇒ x1 = x2
9. Given the function f x = af 3x − 5
x+7
, find f (–3) and

Case 2: When x1 , x2 ∈ 0 , 1 a f f (2).

f (x1) = f (x2) 10. If f (x) = 2x2 – 4x + 1, find f (1), f (0), f (2), f (–2), f (a)
and f (x + 8).
x1 x2
⇒ = 11. If f (x) = (x – 1) (x + 5), compute f (2), f (1), f (0) f (a
1 − x1 1 − x2
F 1 I and f (–5).
⇒ x1 – x1 x2 = x2 – x1 x2
⇒ x1 = x2
+ 1), f
H aK
Case 3: When x1 = 0 and x2 ≠ 0 then f x1 ≠ f x2 a f a f F π I , f a0f , f F π I , f F π I
a f
as f (x1) = 0, f x 2 ≠ 0
12. If f (x) = cos x, find f H 2K H 3K H 6K
a a f
f
Case 4: When x1 ∈ −1 , 0 and x2 ∈ 0 , 1 then in
af
and f π .

this case clearly x ≠ x ⇒ f a x f ≠ f a x f, as

1 2 1 2 13. If f a x f =
sin x − cos x F πI
, find f H K .
sin x + cos x 3
f ax f = < 0 and f a x f =
x x
1 > 0. 2
1− x
af
2 2
1+ x
1
x − x+1
14. If f x =
1 2
Hence, the given function is one-one. 2
, find f (1 + h).
x + x+1
2. A piece-wise function is one-one ⇔ each
function defined in its respective sub domains is one-
one.
15. If f x = af x +1
x −1
, find f (x2) and (f (x))2.
3. A piece-wise function is on-to ⇔ each function
defined in its respective sub domains is on-to. 16. When f x = af 9
2 determine f (0), f (3) and
1. Finding the Value of a Given Function 3+ x
Type 1: When the given function is not a piecewise
F 1I .
function. f
H xK
Exercise 1.1 17. A function f is defined on R as follows
f (x) = c, c being a constant, x ∈R

F 3I .
1. If f (x) = 3x – 2, find f (–1).
2. If f (x) = 3x2 – 5x + 7, find f (–2).
3. If f (x) = x4 – 3x2 + 7, find f (–1) and f (2).
find f (–1), f (1) and f
H 2K
F1 − x I2 Answers:
af 2
4. If f x = 1 − x , find f (sin x) and f GH 1 + x JK .
2
1. f (–1) = –5
2. f (–2) = 29
84 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. f (–1) = 5, f (2) = 11
Exercise 1.2
F 1 − x I = 2x
f asin x f = cos x , f G
2

H 1 + x JK 1 + x
4. 2 2 1. If f (x) = 1 + x, when −1 ≤ x < 0
= x2 – 1, when 0 < x < 2
F πI = 2 = 2x, when x > 0
5. f
H 4K F 1 I , f (2 – h), f (–1 + h),
6. f (0) = –1, f (1) = –1, f (–) = –5, f (2) = 1 find f (3), f (–2), f (0), f
H 2K
FG f F 1 I IJ , where h > 0 is sufficiently small.
7. f (0) = 4, f (–1) = 8, f (2) = 20

H H 2KK
8. s (0) = 8, s (2) = 0, s (–1) = 15
f
a f 1
9. f −3 = 3 , f 2 =
2
1
9
af 2. If f (x) = 2 + 3x, when –1 < x < 1
10. f (1) = –1, f (0) = 1, f (2) = 1, f (–2) = 17, f (a) = 3 – 2x, when 1 < x < 2
= 2a2 – 4a + 1, f (x + 8) = 2x2 + 28x + 97 find f (0), f (1), f (1 +h), f (2 – h), f (2), f (f (1.5)
11. f (2) = 7, f (1) = 0, f (0) = –5, f (a + 1) = a2 + 6a, 3. If f (x) = 3x, when –1 < x < 0
= 4, when 0 < x < 1
F 1 I = 1 + 4a − 5a , f a−5f = 0
2
= 3x –1, when 1 < x < 3
f
H aK a
2
FG f F − 1 IIJ
F π I = 0, f (0) = 1, f FGH π IJK = 1 , f FGH π IJK
find f (2), f (0), f (0.5), f (–5), f (3) and f
H H 2 KK
12. f
H 2K 3 2 6
4. If f x =af x
, when x ≠ 0
x
, f a πf = − 1
3
= = 1, when x = 0
2 find f (0), f (2), f (–2)
F πI = 2 − 3 5. If f (x) = x, when x < 0
13. f
H 3K = x2, when x < x < 2
= 2x, when 2 < x

a f
2
h +h+1 F 1I
14. f 1 + h = 2
h + 3h + 3
find f (3), f (–2) and f H 2K
F x + 1IJ 6. If f x =af sin x
, when x ≠ 0
and b f a x fg = G
2 2
15. f x e j= x
2 x +1
2
−1
2
H x − 1K
x
= 0, when x = 0
F π I , f (0) and f F − π I
af 3
af1 9x F I 2 find f
H 3K H 6K
16. f 0 = 3 , f 3 = , f
4 x
= 2
3x + 1 H K 7. If f : R → R where

f a −1f = c , f a1f = c , f
F 3I = 2 f (x) = 2x + 5, when x > 4
17. H 2K = x2 – 1, when x ∈ −9 , 9
Type 2: When the given function is a piecewise = x – 4, when x < –9
function. find f (–15) and f (f (5))
 Function 85

8. A function f is defined on R is follows:

F 1 I = 6, f (4) = 2
f (x) = 0 if x is rational
= 1 if x is irrational
10. f (–1) = 4, f
H 2K
F 1I , f e 2 j and f (0) Type 3: Problems on showing f (a) = f (b).
find f −
H 3K Exercise 1.3
9. If f (x) = x2 + 2, when 0 < x < 2
= 5, when x = 2
1. Given the function f (x) = x4 – x2 + 1, show that f (1)
= x – 1, when 2 < x < 5
= f (–1).
= x + 1, when x > 5
2. Given the function f (x) = x4 + x2 + 5, show that f (2)
find f (–1), f (0), f (2), f (3), f (5), f (7), f (2 + h), f (5 + h)
= f (–2).
and f (2 – h).
3. Given the function f (x) = x3 + x, show that f (1) = –
10. A function f is defined as follows:
f (–1).
f (x) = 2x + 6 for –3 < x < 0
4. Given the function f (x) = x5 + x3, show that f (2) =
= 6 for 0 < x < 2
–f (–2).
= 2x – 6 for 2 < x < 5
5. If f (x) = x4 – x2 + 1, show that f (–x) = f (x).
F 1 I and f (4)
H 2K
6. If f (x) = sin x + tan x, show that f (–x) = –f (x).
find f (–1), f
7. Given that f (t) = at, show that f (x) · f (y) = f (x + y).
Answers:
af 1+ x
2
F 1 I = f a xf .
1. f (3) = 6, f (–2) = not defined, f (0) = not defined 8. If f x = , show that f
H xK
F 1 I = − 3 , f FG f F 1 I IJ = 1 , f (–1 + h), f (2 – h) =
x
f
H 2K 4 H H 2KK 4 af
9. If f x =
x
2

a f 2
, show that f sin θ = tan θ .
2
h2 – 4h + 3. 1− x
2. f (0) = 2, f (1) = not defined, f (1 + h) = 1 – 2h,
f (2 – h) = 2h – 1, f (2) = –1, f (f (1.5)) = 2.
af 1− x
a f 2 θ FI
3. f (2) = 5, f (0) = 4, f (0.5) = 4, f (–5) = not defined, f (3) 10. If f x =
1+ x
, show that f cos θ = tan
2
.
HK
F F 1I I F
= 8, f G f − J = f G 3
−
1
I F 1 IF 1 I
JJ = f GH 3 JK GH as 0 < 3 <1JK af 1+ x
a f
H H 2 K K GH f x = f tan θ =
2 , show that
11. If
K 1− x

F π + θI .
H4 K
4. f (0) = 1, f (2) = 1, f (–2) = –1. tan
F 1I = 1 .
5. f (3) = 6, f (–2) = –2, f
H 2K 4 12. Given that f x = af x −1
show that
F π I = 2 , f a0f = 0 , f F − π I = 3 . x +1
6. f
H 2K π H 6K π FG x − 1IJ = − 1
7. f (–15) = –19, f (f (5)) = 53.
(i) f
H x + 1K x
F −1I = 0 , f e 2 j = 1 , f a0f = 0 . f aa f − f abf
8. f
H 3K (ii)
a−b
1 + f aa f ⋅ f abf a + b
=
9. f (–1) not defined, f (0) = 2, f (1) = 3, f (2) = 5, f (3) =
13. If f at f =
2, f (5) = not defined, f (7) = 8, f (2 + h) = (2 + h) –1, f (5 t 1
+ t , show that f (t) ≠ f (–t).
+ h) = (5 + h) –1, f (2 – h) = (2 – h)2 + 2. t
a −1 2
86 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

14. If f (x) = log x, show that f (x · y) = f (x) + f (y) and Exercise 1.4
f (xm) = mf (x).
−x
af a f
x
a −a
af
2
15. If f x = −x
, show that f x + y x + 2x + 3
x
a +a 1. Show that f x = 2
is non-existent
x + 4x − 5
af af
f x + f y for x = 1.
=
af af
1+ f x ⋅ f y
.

af
2
x + 5x + 9
16. If f a x f =
a2 x − 1f a x − 2f , show that f F 1I = 2. Show that f x =
x +1
is not defined
2
x − 2x + 1 H cK for x = –1.
f ac f . af
2
x + 3x + 1
3. Show that f x = 2
is undefined for
17. If f (x) = sec x + cos x, show that f (–x) = f (x). 4x − 4x + 1
1
18. If f (x) = x4 + x2 – 2 cos x, show that f (–x) = f (x). x= .
2
af 2x − 1
af
2
19. If y = f x = , show that f (y) = x. x − 3x + 5
x−2 4. Show that f x = 2
is indeterminate
2 x + 5x − 3

20. If y = f x = af x +1
2x + 3
, show that
at x = ∞ .

3x + 4
af
5. Show that f x = 2
1
is not defined for
af
f y = 8 x + 11 .
x = 2 and for x = 3.
x − 5x + 6

21. If y = f x = af ax + b
, show that f (y) = x. 6. Show that f x = a f a x − 2f a x − 3f is non-
cx − a existent for any value of x lying between 2 and 3.

22. If y = f x = af 4x − 3
3x − 4
, show that f (y) = x. 7. Prove that f x =a f a1 − xf ax 1− 2f ax − 3f is

af FG x − a IJ + a FG x − b IJ , show that not defined for 1 < x < 2.

23. If f x = b ⋅
H b − a K H a − bK 8. Prove that f x =a f a1 − xf a x − 2f a x − 3f is
f (a) + f (b) = f (a + b). not defined for any value of x lying between 1 and 2
24. If f (x) = log x, x > 0, show that but defined for any value of x lying between 2 and 3.

af
(i) f (x · y) = f (x) + f (y) sin x − cos x
F xI
f G J = f a x f − f a yf
9. Prove that f x =
1 − tan x
is not defined
(ii)
H yK π
(iii) f (e · x) = f (x) + 1 for x = .
(iv) f (xn) = nf (x) 4
25. If f (x) = cos x, g (x) = sin x, show that
(i) f (x + y) = f (x) · f (y) – g (x) · g (y) 10. Show that f x =af sin x
1 − cos x
is not defined for
(ii) g (x + y) = g (x) · f (y) + g (y) · f (x)
x = 0.
2. Examining the Existance of a Function.
 Function 87

11. Show that f x = af sin x − cos x

1 − cos x
does not exist (vii) y = 2
2
x +2
2 x − 3x + 2

π (viii) y = tan x
for x = . (ix) y = sec x
4
(x) y = cosec x
12. Show that f x = af sin x − cos x
1 − tan x
is non-existent Hint: To find the points at which rational functions
of x are not defined, one should put denominator of
rational function of x equal to zero and solve for x.
π
for x = . Answers:
4
π
13. Show that f x = af 1
cos x
− tan x is undefined at
15. f (x) exists at x =
4
and f (x) does not exist at

3π
π x= .
x= . 4
2 4 5
16. (i) x = (ii) x = 0 (iii) x = (iv) x = –1
14. Show that f x = af 1
x
is not defined at x = 0.
3 2
π
(v) x = 2 (vi) x = –3 (vii) x = 1, 2 (viii) x = or
2
15. Examine whether f x = af cos x − sin x
1+ 2 cos x
exists at
x=
3π
and in general x = any odd multiple of .
π
2 2

x=
π
4
and x =
3π
4
. a π
2
f
(ix) x = 2n + 1 , n ∈ Z (x) x = n π , n ∈ Z

16. Find x for which the following functions are not 3. Finding the Domain of a Given Function
defined. 3.1. Finding the domain of a given algebraic
x+5 function
(i) y =
3x − 4 Type 1: When the given function is a polynomial
in x.
2
(ii) y =
x Exercise 1.5
x−1
(iii) y = Find the domain of each of the following functions:
2x − 5
1. y = x2
2 2. y = x2 – 1
x +1
(iv) y = 3. y = x3 + 1
x +1
Answers:

(v) y =
2
x + 3x + 2 1. a−∞ , ∞f 2. a−∞ , ∞f 3. a−∞ , ∞f
x−2 Type 2: When the given function is a rational
function of x.
2
x + 4x + 3
(vi) y =
x+3
88 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Exercise 1.6 2
x +1
14. y =
x+1
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
2
1. y =
1 x + 3x + 2
4x − 2 15. y =
x−2
x+2
2. y =
2
x + 4x + 3
2x − 8 16. y =
x+3
2
x −4
3. y =
2
x +2
x+2 17. y = 2
x − 3x + 2
1
4. y = 2
Answers:
1− x
F −∞ , 1 I ∪ F 1 , + ∞I
5. y =
1
1.
H 2K H 2 K
2
x − x − 12 2. a−∞ , 4f ∪ a4 , + ∞f
6. y =
4x − 1 3. a−∞ , − 2f ∪ a−2 , + ∞f
2
3 x − 5x − 2 4. a−∞ , − 1f ∪ a−1, 1f ∪ a1 , + ∞f
x −1 5. a−∞ , − 3f ∪ a−3 , 4f ∪ a4 , + ∞f
7. y = 2
x − 9 x + 20 F −∞ , − 1I ∪ F − 1 , 2I ∪ a2 , + ∞f
x
6.
H 3K H 3 K
8. y = 2
x − 3x + 2
7. a−∞ , 4f ∪ a4 , 5f ∪ a5 , + ∞f
8. R − k1 , 2p
a−∞ , − 3f ∪ a−3 , 2f ∪ a2 , + ∞f
2
x − 3x + 2
9. y = 2
9.
x + x−6 10. R
2
x − 4x + 9 RS 4 UV
10. y = 2
x + 4x + 9
11. R −
T3W
12. R – {0}

11. y =
x+5 RS 5 UV
3x − 4
13. R −
T2 W
2 14. R – {–1)
12. y = 15. R – {2}
x
16. R – {–3}
x −1 17. R – {1, 2}.
13. y =
2x − 5
 Function 89

Type 3: When the given function is put in the form: 2

y= af
f x , where f (x) = ax + b.
8. y = x − 3x + 2

2
9. y = 2x − x
Exercise 1.7
Answers:
Find the domain of each of the following functions: LM− 3 , 3 OP
1. y = 1 − x
1.
N 2 2Q
2. y = 18 − 6x 2. x ≥1

3. y = 3x − 12
3. a−∞ , − 2 ∪ 4 , + ∞f
4. y = x−3
4. a−∞ , − 5 ∪ −3 , + ∞f
5. [–5, 2]
5. y = 3 − 2x 6. a−∞ , 1 ∪ 3 , + ∞f = R − 1 , 3
6. y = 2x − 3 7. a−∞ , ∞f
Answers: 8. a−∞ , 1 ∪ 2 , + ∞f .
1. a−∞ , 1 2. a−∞ , 3 3. 4, + ∞ f 4. 3, + ∞ f Type 5: When the function is put in the form:

F −∞ , 3 OP 6. LM 3 , + ∞I . 1
H 2Q N2 K y=
a f , where f (x) = ax + b or ax + bx +c.
2
5.
f x
Type 4: When the given function is put in the form:
y= af
f x , where f (x) ax2 + bx + c.
Exercise 1.9

Find the domain of each of the following functions:

Exercise 1.8
1
1. y =
Find the domain of each of the following functions: x+2

2 1
1. y = 9 − 4x 2. y =
2
16 − 9 x
2
2. y = x −1
1
2 3. y =
3. y = x − 2x − 8 2
x − 3x + 2
2
4. y = x + 8 x + 15 1
4. y = −
5. y = a2 − xf a5 + xf 2
−4 x + 8 x − 3

2 1
6. y = x − 4x + 3 5. y =
2
3 + 2x − x
2
7. y = 3x − 4 x + 5
90 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

6. y =
1 b
⇔ x +1 x−2 gb
g b x − 3g ≥ 0 , x ≠ 2
a1 − xf ax − 2f ⇔ D a y f = −1 , 2 f ∪ 3 , ∞ f
1
7. y =
6−x 0

–∞ –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 ∞
Answers:
1. a−2 , + ∞f
F− 4 , 4I 5. y =
x −1
2.
H 3 3K x−3

3. a−∞ , 1f ∪ a2 , + ∞f a x + 3f
F 1 , 3I
6. y =
a2 − x f a x − 5f
4.
H 2 2K Hint: a x + 3f a2 − xf a x − 5f ≥ 0
5. (–1, 3)
⇔ x ≥ − 3 , 2 , 5 but x ≠ 2 , 5
6. (1, 2)
7. a−∞ , 6f . af a
⇔ D y = −∞ , − 3 ∪ 2 , 5 f a f
Type 6: When the given function is put in the form: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

af
f x
–∞ ∞

y=
af
g x Answers:
a
1. −∞ , − 1 ∪ 1 , ∞f f
Exercise 1.10 2. [8, 12)
F 1 , 2OP
Find the domain of each of the following functions: 3. H2 Q
x −1 4. −1 , 2f ∪ 3 , + ∞ f
1. y =
5. a −∞ , 1 ∪ a3 , ∞f
x +1

x−8 6. b −∞ , − 3 ∪ b2 , 5g
2. y =
12 − x
Type 7: When the given function is put in the form:

3. y =
4x − 8
y=
af
f1 x
3 − 6x f a xf
2

a x + 1f a x − 3f
4. y =
a x − 2f Exercise 1.11

Hint:
a x + 1f a x − 3f ≥ 0 , x ≠ 2 Find the domain of the following:
x−2 x
1. y =
2
x − 3x + 2
 Function 91

Answer: Type 3: When the given function is put in the form: y

1. R – [1, 2] = loga logb logc f (x).
3.2. Problems based on finding the domain of a given
logarithmic function: Exercise 1.14

Type 1: When the given function is put in the form: y

1. y = log2 log3 log 4 x
= log f (x).
x
2. y = log log
Exercise 1.12 2
Answers:
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
1. y = log (6 – 4x)
a f 2. a2 , ∞ f
1. 4 , ∞
2. y = log (4x – 5) 3.3. Finding the domain of inverse circular functions
3. y = log (x + 8) + log (4 – x) Type 1: When the given function is put in the form: y
4. y = log (x – 2) = sin–1 f (x) or cos–1 f (x).
5. y = log (3 – x)
6. y = log (3x2 – 4x + 5) Exercise 1.15
7. y = log (x2 – x – 6)
8. y = log (5x – x2 – 6)
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
Answers: 1. y = sin–1 (1 – 2x)
F −∞ , 3I F 2x I
H 2K
−1
1. 2. y = sin
H 3K
F 5 , + ∞I 3. y = cos–1 4x
2.
H4 K −1 F xI
3. a−8 , 4f
4. y = cos
H 2K
4. a2 , ∞ f 5. y = cos–1 (3x – 1)

5. a−∞ , 3f 6. y = cos–1 2x
7. y = sin–1 (x – 2)
6. a−∞ , ∞f Answers:
7. a−∞ , − 2f ∪ a3 , ∞f 1. [0, 1]
8. (2, 3). LM− 3 , 3 OP
Type 2: When the given function is put in the form; y
2.
N 2 2Q
LM− 1 , 1 OP
= log | f (x) |.

Exercise 1.13
3.
N 4 4Q
4. [–2, 2]
Find the domain of each of the following functions:
LM0 , 2 OP 6. Find 7. [1, 3].
1. y = log | x |
2. y = log | x – 2 |
5.
N 3Q
3. y = log | 4 – x2 | 3.4. Finding the domain of a sum or difference of
Answers: two functions:
1. R – {0} 2. R – {2} 3. R – {–2, 2}
92 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Exercise 1.16 9. a−1 , 0f ∪ a1 , 2f ∪ a2 , ∞f 10. a2 , ∞ f .

3.5. Finding the domain of a function put in the
Find the domain of each of the following functions: forms:
1. y = x − 3 + 1− x 1. y = | f (x) |

2. y = 4−x + x−5
af
2. y = f x ± g x af
f a xf
3. y = x −1+ 6− x 3. y =
a xf ± f a xf
1
f2 3
2 1
4. y = x −1+
2
x − 3x + 2 Exercise 1.17

2 1 Find the domain of each of the following functions:

5. y = 2x − x +
1. y = | x – 2 |
2
8x − 4 x − 3
x
2
2. y =
Hint: Domain of 2x − x = [0, 2] = D1 (say) and x
3. y = cos–1 [x]
1 F 1 , 3 I = D (say)
domain of
8x − 4 x − 3
2
=
H 2 2K 2
Answers:
1. R 2. R – {0} 3. [–1, 2)

af F 1 , 3I 3.6. Finding the range of a function:

∴ D y = D1 ∩ D2 =
H 2 2K Exercise 1.17.1
2
6. y = x −1 + 2 1− x + x +1 Find the range of the following functions:
1 1. y = x | x |
7. y = x 2 − 3x + 2 + 2. y = 11 – 7 sin x
3 + 2x − x2 3. y = 3 sin x + 4 cos x

x−2 1− x R| F I U|
GG JJ V
2
8. y = + 4. y = sin log S| 4−x

K |W
x+2 1+ x
T H 1− x

9. y =
4−x
3
2
+ log10 x − x e 3
j 5. y =
x
x

10. y = x +
1
x−2
− log10 2 x − 3 a f 6. y =
1
3 − cos 2 x
1
Answers: 7. y =
a
1. φ 2. φ 3. [1, 6] 4. −∞ , − 1 ∪ 2 , ∞ a f 2 − cos 3x

F I
8. y = log3 (5 + 4x – x2)
5.
1 3
H,
2 2 K
6. {1} 7. −1 , 1 ∪ 2 , 3 b g 9. y = x – [x]
10. y = [x] – x
8. Defined no where
 Function 93

Answers: Answers:
1. a−∞ , ∞f 2. [4. 18] 3. [–5, 5] 4. [–1, 1] 5. {–1, 1. D (y) = R;

L 1 1 O L1 O
R (y) = {–2, 2}
1} 6. M , P 7. M , 1P 8. a−∞ , log 9 f 9. [0, 1)
N 4 2 Q N3 Q
2. D (y) = R
3
R (y) = {–4, –1, 3}
10. (–1, 0]. 3. D (y) = R
Hint for (2): −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 R (y) = R – {3}
⇒ − 7 ≤ − 7 sin x ≤ 7 4. D (y) = R
⇒ 11 − 7 ≤ 11 − 7 sin x ≤ 7 + 11
⇒ 4 ≤ 11 − sin x ≤ 18
af
R y = 0, ∞ f
5. D (y) = R
e
Hint for (8): y = log 3 5 + 4 x − x
2
j⇔3 y
=5+ af
R y = −4 , ∞ f
6. D (y) = R
af a f
2
4x − x R y = −∞ , 6
=9− x−2 a y
f 2
>0 4. Finding the composite of two function
∴0 < 3 ≤ 9
∴ − ∞ < y ≤ log 3 9 Exercise 1.18

F π π I af
H K
Exercise 1.17.2 2
1. If f (x) = tan x, x ∈ − , and g x = 1 − x ,
2 2
Find the domain and range of each of the following find (gof) (x).
functions:
af
2. If f x =
R−2 , if x ≤ 3
x and g (x) = | x |, find (gof) (x).
y=S af
1.
T 2 , if x > 3 3. If f (x) = e2x and g x = log x , x > 0 find (gof) (x).

R|−4 , if x < − 2 af
4. If f x =
x +1
x+2
, x ≠ − 2 x being real and g (x) =
y = S−1 , if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
2.
|T3 , if x > 2 x2, find (gof) (x).

R2 x − 1, if x ≠ 3 af
5. If f x =
x 1
af
and g x = find (gof) (x).
y=S
x x
3.
T 0 , if x = 3 6. If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = sin x, x ∈R and

R|
y = S 25 − x , if x ≤ 5
2
g : R → R is defined by g (x) = x2, compute (gof) (x)
4.
|T x − 5 , if x ≥ 5 and (fog) (x).
7. If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x2 –1 and

y=S
R|x − 4 , if x < 3
2 g : R → R by g (x) = 4x – 3, x ∈R compute (gof) (x)

T| 2 x − 1 , if x ≥ 3
5. and (fog) (x). Also find (gof) (2) and (fog) (–1).
8. If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = x2 – 3x + 2 and

y=S
R6 x + 7 , if x ≤ − 2 g : R → R by g (x) = 4x + 3, x ∈R compute (gof) (x)
6.
T 4 − x , if x > − 2 and (fog) (x). Hence find the values of (gof) (3) and
(fog) (3).
94 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

9. If f : A → B is defined by f (x) = x + 1, x ∈R and 11. (fog) (x) = x2 – 2x + 3; (gof) (x) = x2 + 1; (fog) (–2)
= 11 and (gof) (–2) = 5
g : B → C by g (x) = x2, find (gof) (x). 12. (gof) (x) = 12x2 + 36x + 25; (fog) (x) = 6x2 – 1; (gof)
10. If f (x) = cos x, g (x) = x3, x ∈R , find (gof) (x) and (2) = 145 and (fog) (2) = 23
(fog) (x). 13. (gof) (x) = (1 – x)2
16. | x |.
11. If f (x) = x2 + 2 and g (x) = x – 1, x ∈R , find (fog)
(x) and (gof) (x). Hence, find (fog) (–2) and (gof) (–2). Exercise 1.19
12. If f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = 3x2 – 2, x ∈R , find (gof)
(x) and (fog) (x). Hence, find the values of (gof) (2) Find the domain and range of each of the following
and (fog) (2). ones:
13. If the mapping f : A → B is define by f (x) = log 1. sin (1 + cos x)
(1 – x) and the mapping g : B → C is defined by g (x) 2. a f
sin cos x
= e2x, find (gof) (x).
3. cos sin x
14. If the mapping f : R → R be given by
2

af 1 4. tan sin x
f x =1+ and the mapping g : R → R be
x −1 2
5. log 1 − x
given by g (x) = x2 + 1, show that gof a faxf ≠ (fog) 2
(x). 6. log 1 − x

15. If f is defined as f x = af 1
, show that f [f {f FG 1 − x IJ
1− x 7. log
H1 + xK
(x)}] = x, x ≠ 0 , 1 .
sin log G
F 1 − x IJ
H1 + xK
16. If f (x) = | x |, find f [f (x)]. 8.
Answers:
2 9. tan (sin x + cos x)
1. 1 − tan x 10. tan (sin x + 2cos x)
2. x = x 11. cos | sin–1 x |
12. loge loge x
3. log e
2x
=x 13. loge loge loge x
14. loge loge loge loge x
FG x + 1 IJ 2
15. sec–1 sin x
4.
H x + 2K 16. sin sec–1 sin x
17. log (1 + sin sec–1 sin x)
x 18. cos sin–1 x
5. , x≠0
x
Answers:
6. (gof) (x) = sin2 x and (fog) (x) = sin x2
7. (gof) (x) = 8x2 – 7, (fog) (x) = 32x2 – 48x + 17, (gof)
a f
1. D = −∞ , ∞ ; R = 0 , 1
(2) = 25 and (fog) (–1) = 97 L π πO
D = M2nπ − , 2nπ + P n ∈ Z ; R =
8. (gof) (x) = 4x2 – 12x + 11, (fog) (x) = 16x2 + 12x + 2,
(gof) (3) = 11 and (fog) (3) = 182
2.
N 2 2Q
0 , sin 1

9. (1 + x)2 3. D = 2nπ , a2n + 1f π ; R = cos1 , 1

10. (gof) (x) = cos3 x (fog) (x) = cos x3
 Function 95

a f
4. D = −∞ , ∞ ; R = 0 , tan 1 (iii) Find h (h (x)) if

5. D = a −1 , 1f ; R = a−∞ , 0f a f RST5x−+x1, ,xx≤>11

h x = 2
6. D = {0}, R = {0}
a f
7. D = −1 , 1 ; R = −∞ , ∞ a f (iv) Find i (i (x)) if

8. D = (–1, 1); R = [–1, 1] R| − x , x < 0

a f i axf = Sx , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
9. D = −∞ , ∞ ; R = − tan 2 , tan 2
|T2 − x , x > 1
a
10. D = −∞ , ∞ ; R = −∞ , ∞ f a f Answers:
11. D = −1 , 1 ; R = 0 , 1
FG IJ
H K
2
x +1
a f a f
12. D = 1, ∞ ; R = −∞ , ∞
1. Hint: fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f

13. D = ae , ∞ f ; R = a −∞ , ∞ f FG IJ 2

H K
2 2 2
= x +1 −1 = x + 1 − 1 = x
D = ee , ∞ j ; R = a−∞ , ∞f
e
14.
∴ hofog (x) = h (x2) = 0

a f π2 ; R = k0 , πp b a fg |RS|xx ,,xx <≥00

4
15. D = 2n + 1 2. (i) f f x =
T
D = a2n + 1f ; R = k0p
π
16.
2 R4 + x , when x ≥ 0
g b g a x fg = S
17. D = a2n + 1f ; R = k0p
π
(ii)
T4 − x , when x < 0
2
18. D = −1 , 1 ; R = 0 , 1 R|x + 2 , x ≤ 0
|5 − ax + 1f , 0 , x ≤ 1
2

h bh a x fg = S
||5 − e5 − x j , 1 < x < 2
Exercise 1.20 (iii) 2 2

1. If the functions f, g and h are defined from the set

of real numbers R to R such that f (x) = x2 – 1,
T6 − x , x ≥ 2 2

a f x +1
g x =
2
R|2 + x , x < − 1
R0 , when x ≥ 0
h a xf = S
|− x , − 1 ≤ x < 0
i bi a x fg = S x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
T x , when x < 0 ||2 − x , 1 < x ≤ 2
(iv)

then find composite function hofog.

2. (i) Find f (f (x)) if
|T−a2 − xf , x > 2
af R|x , x ≥ 0
S| x , x < 0
2
5. Eveness and oddness of y = f (x).
f x =
T Exercise 1.21
(ii) Find g (g (x)) if

a f RST22 +− xx,, xx ≥< 00

g x =
(A) By considering f (–x), discover which of the
following are even functions, which are odd functions
and which are neither even nor odd.
96 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1. f (x) = x4 + 7x2 + 9 12. Odd 13. Neither even nor odd 14. Odd

af
2. f x = x + x +
3 1
3 (B) 1. e =
x 1 x
2
e +e
−x
+
1 x
2
e −e
−x

af
3. f x =
4
x + 16 a
2. 1 + x f 100
=
1
2
a
1+ x f
100
a
+ 1− x f
100
+

f a xf = a f a f
1 1
1+ x − 1− x
100 100
4. 2
4x + 9 2
5. f (x) = sin x F x I + tan x
6. f (x) = cos x
3. sin 2 x + cos
H 2K
7. f (x) = tan x
1 F x I + tan x + sin a−2 xf +
H 2K
8. f (x) = sin x + cosec x
= [sin 2 x + cos
9. f (x) = sin x + tan x 2

F x I + tan a− xf]
10. f (x) = cosec x + tan x
11. f (x) = tan2 x
12. f (x) = tan3 x H 2K
cos −

F x I + tan x − {sin a−2 xf +

13. f (x) = sin x + cos x
1
af
14. f x = x +
cos x
x
+ [sin 2 x + cos
2 H 2K
F x I + tan a− xf}]
(B) Express the following functions as the sum of an
even and odd functions. H 2K
+ cos −

1. f (x) = ex
2 1 2 2
2. f (x) = (1 + x)100 4. x + 3x + 2 = x + 3x + 2 + x − 3 x + 2 +

af F x I + tan x 2
3. f x = sin 2 x + cos
H 2K 1 2 2
x + 3x + 2 − x + 3 x − 2
2
4. f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2
5. f (x) = 1 – x3 – x4 – 2x5 3 4 5 1 3 4 5
5. 1 − x − x − 2 x = [1 − x − x − 2 x +
2
(C) Let f : −2 , 2 → R be a function. If for
x∈ 0, 2 , e1 + x 3 4
− x + 2x ] +
5
j 1
2
3 4
[1 − x − x − 2 x −

R|x sin x , 0 ≤ x ≤ π 3
(1 + x − x + 2 x )]
4 5

f a xf = S 2
|T π2 a xf , π2 < x ≤ 2
(C) For oddness,

R|− π axf , − 2 ≤ x ≤ − π
f a xf = S 2 2
define f for x ∈ −2 , 0 when
(i) f is an odd function.
|T − x sin x , − 2 ≤ x ≤ 0
π

(ii) f is an even function.

for eveness,
Answers:
(A) 1. Even 2. Odd 3. Even. 4. Even 5. Odd
6. Even 7. Odd 8. Odd 9. Odd 10. Odd 11. Even
 Function 97

R| π axf , − 2 ≤ x < − π F x I − 3 sin F x I

f axf = S 2 2
2. y = sin
H 4K H 3K
|T x sin x , − 2 ≤ x ≤ 0
π
F 2 x I − 4 cot F 3x I − 2
3. y = tan
H 3K H2K
F 3x I − 3cos F 5x I + cos 5x
5. Periodic Functions
Type 1: Finding the periods of trigonometric
functions.
4. y = sin
H4K H 8K
5. y = 2 sin x + 3 cos 2x
Exercise 1.22 6. y = a sin λ x + b cos λ x

F x I + 2 sin F x I
(A) Find the periods of the following functions:
1. f (x) = cos 3x
7. y = 3 cos
H 2K H 3K
af F xI 8. y = 3 sin x – 4 cos 2x
2. f x = cos
H 4K 9. y = 1 + tan x
10. y = tan 2x – cos 3x
3. f (x) = tan 2x
4. f (x) = tan 3x (C) The periods of f (x) = | sin x | + | cos x | will be

f a x f = cot
F xI (a) π (b)
π
H 5K
(c) 2π (d) none of these
5. 2
Answers:

f a x f = cot
F xI 2π π π
6.
H 2K (A) 1.
3
2. 8π 3.
2
4.
3
5. 5π 6. 2π

7. f (x) = sin 10x π 2π 2π 2π

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. π 12. π
8. f (x) = 10 sin 3x 5 3 3 3

af F I π 13. π 14. π 15. π 16. π 17. 2π 18.

2π
9. f x = 2sin 3x +
H K 10 3
π
F πI
f a x f = 4sin 3x +
19.
H 4K
10. 3
2π
(B) 1. 2π 2. 24π 3. 6π 4. 16π 5. 2π 6.
f a x f = tan x
11. λ
7. 12π 8. 2π 9. π 10. 2π
12. f (x) = | cos x |
π
13. f (x) = | sin x | (C) (b)
14. f (x) = tan–1 (tan x) 2
Type 2: Problems on showing that a given function
15. f (x) = cos2 x
is not periodic.
16. f (x) = sin2 x
17. f (x) = sin3 x
Exercise 1.23
18. f (x) = log (2 + cos 3x)
19. f (x) = ecot3x
1. Show that the following functions are not periodic:
af
(B) Find the periods of the following functions:
1. y = sin 5x cos 4x + 1 (i) f x = sin x
98 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af F 1 I , x ≠ 0 , f a0f = 0 6. If f : 0 , 2 π → −1 , 1 be defined by f (x) = sin x,

(ii) f x = sin
H xK show that f is on-to but not one-one.
(iii) f (x) = sin x2 7. Show that the following functions f : R → R are
af
(iv) f x = cos x both one-one and on-to:
(i) f (x) = x3 (ii) f (x) = 3x + 4
(v) f (x) = cos x2
8. Let D1 = R – {3}, D2 = R – {1} and f : D1 → D2 be
2. Show that the following functions are not periodic:

a f xx −− 23 is f bijective? Give reasons.

(i) f (x) = x cos x
given by f x =
af F 1I
(ii) f x = x sin
H xK 9. Let D1 = kx : − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1p = D for each of the
2
(iii) f (x) = cos x2 + sin x2 following functions from D1 to D2, find whether it is
af
(iv) f x = sin x + cos x
surjective, injective or bijective:

(v) f (x) = x + sin x a f 2x (ii) h (x) = x | x | (iii) k (x) = x

(i) f x = 2

(iv) φ a x f = sin π x (v) g (x) = | x |

(vi) f (x) = x + cos x
3. Examine which of the following functions are

10. Let f : R → R be defined by f a x f =

2
periodic: x
(i) f (x) = [x] (ii) f (x) = 5 (iii) f (x) = x [x] . 2
1+ x
Answers: Is f one-one-onto?
3. (i) Non-periodic (ii) Periodic but has no 11. Show that the mapping
fundamental period (iii) Not periodic.
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = x, ∀ x ∈R is one-
7. Examining a one-one and on-to function one-onto.
(ii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = x3, ∀ x ∈R is one-
Exercise 1.24
one-onto.
(iii) f : Q → Q defined by f (x) = 2x + 3, ∀ x ∈Q is

af
2
x − 8 x + 18 one-one-onto.
1. Is the function f x = a one-one
2
x + 4 x + 30 (iv) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 4x + 3, ∀ x ∈R is
function? one-one-onto.

2. Verify whether the functions f x = af 1 12. Is the map f:R→R defined by

af
2
2
x + x +1 x + 4 x + 30
f x = 2
one-one?
is one-one. x − 8 x + 18
3. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = ax + b, a, b LM
π π OP
being fixed real numbers and a ≠ 0 , show that f is
13. Let D1 = − ,
2 2N Q
, D2 = −1 , 1 , show that the
one-one and on-to. map f : D1 → D2 defined by f (x) = sin x is bijective.

af
2
x Answers:
4. If f x = 2 is the function one-to-one?
1+ x 1. No 2. No 4. No
a f a f
8. Yes, since f x1 = f x 2 ⇒ x1 = x 2 and
5. If f : 0 , 2 π → −1 , 1 be given by f (x) = sin x,
show that f is onto but not one-one. x=
3y − 2
y −1
af
= f y which is true, ∀ y ∈R − 1 kp
which means f is onto.
 Function 99

9. (i) Injective but not surjective (ii) bijective (iii) If the domain of a function f is a finite interval, the
Neither injective nor surjective (iv) surjective but not graph of f can be explicitly plotted in a plane, but if the
injective (v) Neither injective nor surjective domain of f is an infinite set, it is not possible to plot
10. Not 12. Not all these points. In such case, we plot enough point to
get an idea of the general shape of the graph of y = f (x).
On the Graph of a Function The following characteristics of a graph of a
First of all we would like to define domain and range function are worth noting.
of a function in terms of projection of the graph of y = 1. The graph of a function is a subset of the plane
f (x) on axes. and it is uniquely determined by the function.
1. Domain of a function: The projection of the graph 2. For each ‘a’ in the domain of f, there exists exactly
of y = f (x) on the x-axis is called the domain of the one point (a, f (a)) on the graph of the function f,
function y = f (x). since by our definition of the function, the value of f
2. Range of a function: The projection of the graph at ‘a’ is uniquely determined. Geometrically, it means
of y = f (x) on the y-axis is called the range of the af
that a ∈D f ⇔ the vertical line x = a meets the
function y = f (x). af
graph of f in one point only. again, a ∉D f ⇔ the
vertical line x = a does not meet the graph anywhere
Y
at all, i.e. the point (a, f (a)) is missing (absent) on the
B
graph of f, i.e. there is a hole in the graph of f at a, i.e.
f (x )
y= the graph of f is broken (not unbroken) at x = a since
A
there is a point on the graph of f whose abscissa is a
but there is no ordinate corresponding to the abscissa
C O D (f) = CD D
X x = a and such points with no ordinate at an abscissa
x = a can not be located on the graph of a function.
Y
D A On the Method of Graphing a Function

y = f (x ) Mainly there are two methods of graphing a function

R (f ) = CD
C B
O X
We speak of the graph of a point P (x, y) meaning the
point representing the ordered pair (x, y).We also
speak of graphing a point P (x, y), meaning to construct
and locate the point P on a coordinate plane (a plane
with axes).
Now we define what is the graph of a function.
Definition: The graph of a function f defined on its
domain in a coordinate plane is the graph of the set
G {(x, f (x): x is in the domain of f}
or, equivalently, the graph of a function f (x) defined
on its domain is the graph of the equation y = f (x).
That is, the point P (a, b) is on the graph of y = f (x)
⇔ b = f (a).
which are:
1. The method of plotting a graph “point by point”.
2. The method of plotting a graph “by derivative”.
Hence, we use “point by point” method to draw
the graph of a function defined by the formula y = f (x)
in its domain unless we learn how to find the
derivative of a function.
How to Draw the Graph Using
“Point by Point” Method
1. Find the domain of the given function y = f (x)
2. Find the zeros of the given function, i.e. solve the
equation f (x) = o whose solutions divide its domain
into intervals where the function has the constant sign.
3. Examine whether the given function passes
through the origin, i.e. check whether (o, o) satisfied
the equation y = f (x).
4. Find the intercepts on the axes, i.e. the points where
the given curve cuts the x-axis and/y-axis.
100 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
5. Find whether the given function is odd or even.
6. Find whether the given function is periodic.
7. Plot a few additional points to get an idea of the
general shape of the graph of y = f (x).
Notes:
1. If the function is periodic, it is sufficient to investigate
the behavior of the function on any closed interval
whose length is equal to the period of the function
and then constructing the graph on that interval,
extend it to the whole of the domain of the function.
2. The position of a straight line is determined if any
two points on it are known. Consequently in the case
of straight lines, it is advised to find two points only
instead of many to economise time, only with this
care that the points are not very close to each other.
3. One should give such values to x as will enable
him to get integral values of y since it is easier to plot
integral units than the fractional units.
4. The graph of an even function is symmetric with
respect to the axis of ordinates (i.e. y-axis) and the
graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to
the origin.
On What is Symmetry of a
Curve with Respect to a Line
A curve is said to be symmetric with respect to a line
or symmetrical about a line) when all chords of the
curve drawn perpendicular to the line are bisected by
it. The lines of most importance in our “discussion”
of an algebraic curve are the x-axis, the y-axis the
lines bisecting the first and second quadrants which
are y = x and y = –x.
If the curve is symmetric with respect to x-axis,
y = o, two points on the curve with the same abscissa,
x, will have the ordinates y and –y. That means that
substitution of –y for +y in the equation y = f (x) will
result in an equation that is same as or can be reduced
to the original equation. Thus, in an algebraic equation,
if only even powers of y are present, or every term of
the equation contains an odd power of y, the locus of
the equation is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
Examples: The loci of the following equations are
symmetric with respect to the x-axis:
x2 + y2 = 25 (circle)
y2 = x (parabola)
y2 = x3 (semi-cubical parabola)
xy – y3 = 0
A similar discussion will bring us to the conclusion
that if only even powers of x are present in the equation
y = f (x), or every term of the equation y = f (x) contains
an odd power of x, its locus is symmetric with respect
to the y -axis.
Examples: The loci of the following equations are
symmetric with respect to the y-axis:
x2 + y2 = 25 (circle)
x2 = y (parabola)
y3 – x2 y = 0
If the curve is symmetric with respect to the line y
= x, a pair of symmetric points, lying on opposite
sides of this line will have their coordinates reversed.
This can be shown geometrically. It means that we
should be able to interchange the x and y in the
equation y = f (x) and obtain an equation that can be
reduced to the original one. Hence, if the x and y in an
algebraic equation can be interchanged without
producing an essentially different equation, the locus
of the equation will be symmetric with respect to the
line y = x.
Examples: The loci of x2 + y2 = 25 and xy = 1 are
symmetric with respect to the line y = x.
Similarly, if the subsitution of –y for x and –x for y
gives an equation that is essentially the same as the
original one, the locus of the equation y = f (x) is
symmetric with respect to the line y = –x.
On What is Symmetry with
Respect to the Origin
A curve is said to be symmetric with respect to a
point (about a point) when the point bisects all chords
of the curve drawn through it. Such a point of
symmetry is called the centre of the curve. The most
important point for our study is, perhaps, the origin.
If the curve is symmetric with respect to the origin
and the point (x, y) is on the curve, then the point
(–x, –y) will be on the curve, a fact that is made
apparent by a figure. Hence, if substitution in an
algebraic equation of –x for x and –y for y results in
an equation that can be reduced to the original, the
locus of the equation is symmetric with respect to the
origin.
Examples: The loci of the following equations are
symmetric with respect to the origin.
 Function 101

x2 + y2 = 25 (circle) N.B.: A graph of the identity function y = x is a line

xy = 5 (hyperbola) which
x2 – y2 = 25 (hyperbola) (i) Passes through the origin.
y = x3 (cubical parabola) (ii) Bisects the angle between first and third quadrant
N.B.: A parabola is a U-shaped curve which cups or it is a line with slope 1.
x y
(curves into the shape of a cup) up or cups down. 3. y = –x y

The Graphs of y = f (x) x y 4

y k 3
1. y = k y = –x –1 1
k
4
k 2 –2 2
–1 k 1 –1
3
0 k
1 2 –2
2
y=K 1 k x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
1
2 k
K –1

x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –2

–1
–3

–2
–4

–3
N.B.: The graph of the function y = –x is a line
–4
(i) Passing through the origin and
(ii) bisecting the angle between the second and the
fourth quadrants, i.e. it is a line with slope –1.
N.B.: A graph of a constant functions y = k is a line.
4. y = mx + c. x y
(i) Parallel to the x-axis.
(ii) Above the x-axis at a distance k from it if k > o. y
(iii) Below the x-axis at a distance | k | from it if k > o.
(iv) On the x-axis if k = o. m<0
C<0
2. y = x x y
y C
x
4 0
y=mx+C C
3 y=x
–1 –1
0 0 2
1 1 y y
2 2 1 m=0
y=C C>0
x m<0
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 C=0
C
–1 y=mx
x x
0 0
–2

–3

–4
102 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

8. y = –x2
5. y = x y
2
⇒ y = x x y = –x2
y
1 –1
5 2 –4
y = x 0 3 –9
x
4

2
3 y = –x

1
N.B.:
1. The curve y = x2 is symmetric with respect to the
0
x y-axis since f (–x) = f (x), ∀ x ∈R . Also, it lies on and
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
above the x-axis passing through the origin.
–1
x y= x 2. The curve y = –x2 is symmetric with respect to the
–2 y-axis since f (–x) = f (x), ∀ x ∈R . Also, it lies on and
0 0
below the x-axis passing through the origin.
1 1
4 2
On the Graphs of y = | f (x) |
9 3
16 4 The graphs of y = | f (x) | is the graph of the union
of two functions defined by
6. y = sin2 x + cos2 x y = f (x), when f (x) > 0
or y = –f (x), when f (x) < 0
Note: The conditions f (x) > 0 and f (x) < 0 imposed on
y = f (x) and y = –f (x) determine the intervals where f
(x) is positive or negative whereas the condition f (x)
= 0 on f (x) > 0 determines the points where two curves
y = f (x) and y = –f (x) intersect the x-axis.

How to Draw the Graph of y = | f (x) |

The method of procedure is to determine firstly the
intervals where f (x) is positive and negative and
secondly the points where y = f (x) and y = –f (x)
7. y = x2 intersect the x-axis.
x y = x2 The graph of a function y = | f (x) | is always ob-
tained from the graph of the function y = f (x) whose
1 1 portion lying above the x-axis remains unchanged for
2 4 positive part of y = f (x) and the portion lying below
3 9 the x-axis as a plane mirror is taken as the image of
negative part of y = f (x) on and above the x-axis in the
required interval.
 Function 103

How to Determine the Intervals 5. The same method of procedure is applicable to

Where f (x) is Positive or Negative draw the graph of those functions containing absolute
value function.
1. Find the zeros of f (x), i.e. the roots of f (x) = o.
2. Partition the real line by zeros of f (x).
The Graph of y = | f (x) |
3. Consider the intervals:
a f a f
−∞ , x1 , (x1, x2), (x2, x3) ... (xn–1, xn), x n , ∞ , if 1. y = | x |
The graphs of y = | x | is the graphs of the union of
x1, x2, x3, …, xn are the zeros of f (x) such that x1 = the
smallest number among all the zeros of f (x). xn = the two functions defined by
greatest number among all the zeros of f (x). y = x and x > 0
4. Check the sign (i.e. positivity and negativity) of or y = –x and x < 0
f (x) in each interval determined by the zeros of f (x). on using the slope-intercept method, we graph y =
x where the domain of y is {x: x > 0}.
How to Check the Sign of y
f (x) in Different Intervals
4
1. Take one particular point ‘c’ belonging to each of 3
the adjacent intervals. x
2

=
y
2. Put the particular point c in f (x).
1
3. Use the facts:
af af
(i) : f c > 0 ⇔ f x i.e. y is positive for every x 0 1 2 3 4
x

in that interval where c belongs.

af af
(ii) : f c < 0 ⇔ f x i.e. y is negative for every x The equation y = –x where x < 0 defines a function
in that interval where c belongs. whose domain is {x: x < 0}. Again using the slope-
For example, let us consider intercept method, we graph y = –x.
y = x2 – 4x and y = 4x – x2
a
In −∞ , 0 f y

a
f (x) = x2 – 4x > 0 for every x ∈ −∞ , 0 f
a
since f (–1) = 5 > 0 where –1 ∈ −∞ , 0 f 4

a f
3
In 4 , ∞ : =
y

a f
2
–x

f (x) = x2 – 4x > 0 for every x ∈ 4 , ∞

a f
1
since f (5) = 5 > 0 where 5 ∈ 4 , ∞ x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
In (0, 4):
a f
–1
f (x) = –x2 + 4x > 0 for every x ∈ 0 , 4
a f
–2
since f (1) = 3 > 0 where 1 ∈ 0 , 4 –3
Notes: –4
1. y = f (x) is positive in an interval
⇒ is positive in its subinterval. Also, {(x, y): y = | x |} = [(x, y): y = x and x > 0] ∪ [(x,
2. y = f (x) is negative in an interval y): y = –x and x < 0]
⇒ is negative in its subinterval. Now, we combine the last two graph to obtain the
3. The graph of y = | f (x) | always lies on and above graph as under:
the x-axis.
4. The graph of y = – | f (x) | always lies on and below
the x-axis.
104 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

y
af a f
∴ D y = −∞ , 2 ∪ 2 , ∞ = −∞ , ∞ andf a f
4 x R a yf = 0 , ∞f
=
y

=
y
y
–x

2
135°
1 4
45° 2–x
y=
x 2 3
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x–2
2 y=
2
1
Note: A table of ordered pairs also easily can be
x
constructed and the absolute value function y = | x | –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
can be graphed as given below:
x y=|x|
–4 4 2 x − x
–2 2 4. y =
3
0 0
x
1 1 ⇒y= for x > 0
3 3 3
and y = –x for x < 0
2. y =
x
af a f
∴ D y = −∞ , 0 ∪ 0 , ∞ = −∞ , ∞ f a f
R a yf = 0 , ∞f
x
⇒ y = 1 for x > 0
or y = –1 for x < 0
af a f f a f
y
∴ D y = −∞ , 0 ∪ 0 , ∞ = −∞ , ∞
R (y) = {–1, 1} y = –x 4

y 3 x
y=
3
2
1
y=1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. y = | x2 –4x |
y = –1
2 2
⇒ y = x − 4 x for x − 4 x ≥ 0 , i.e. x (x – 4) > 0
i.e. x < 0 or x > 4
x−2 and y = – (x2 – 4x) for x2 – 4x < 0, i.e. x (x – 4) < 0,
3. y = i.e. 0 < x < 4
2
x−2
af a a f
∴ D y = −∞ , 0 ∪ 0 , 4 ∪ 4 , ∞ = −∞ , ∞ fa f
⇒ y= for x > 2 and
af f
2
2−x R y = 0, ∞
or y = for x < 2
2
106 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

The Graph of y = | f1 (x) | + | f2 (x) |

in −1 , 1
1. y = | x | + | x – 1 | y= x+1 + x −1
x = 0 and x = 1 are the zeros of x and (x – 1)
a f a f
⇒ −∞ , 0 , [0, 1] and 1, ∞ are required intervals
⇒ y = (x + 1) – (x – 1) = x + 1 – x + 1 = 2
since (x + 1) > 0 and ( x – 1) < 0 in (–1, 1)
whose union is the domain of the given function y =
| x | + | x – 1 |. in 1 , ∞a f
a
in −∞ , 0 f y= x+1 + x −1

y = x + x −1 ⇒ y = x + 1 + x – 1 = 2x

⇒ y = –x – (x –1) = –x – x + 1 = –2x + 1 since (x + 1) > 0 and (x – 1) > 0 in 1, ∞ a f

y
in 0 , 1
y= x + x−1
y = –2x y = 2x
⇒ y = x – (x – 1) = x – x + 1 = 1
a f
in 1 , ∞ 2

y= x + x−1 1

⇒ y = x + x – 1 = 2x – 1
x
y –1 0 1

Notes:
1. x + 1 > 0 and x – 1 > 0 ⇒ x > 1 ⇒ y > 2 since x >
y = –2x + 1 y = 2x – 1
1 ⇒ 2x > 2 ⇒ y > 2.
y=1 2. x + 1 < 0 and x – 1 < 0 ⇒ x < –1 ⇒ y > 2 since x
< –1 ⇒ –2x > 2 ⇒ y > 2.
x 3. The range of y = | x + 1 | + | x – 1 | is the set of all real
0 1
numbers greater than or equal to 2, i.e. the semi-closed
interval 2 , ∞ . f
3. y = 2 | x – 2 | – | x + 1 | + x
2. y = | x + 1 | + | x – 1 | x = –1 and x = 2 are the zeros of (x – 2) and (x + 1)
x = – 1 and x = 1 are the zeros of (x + 1) and (x – 1).
a f a f a f
⇒ −∞ , − 1 , [–1, 2] and 2 , ∞ are the intervals
a f
⇒ −∞ , − 1 , [–1, 1] and 1, ∞ are the required
whose union is the domain of the given function y =
intervals whose union is the domain of the given 2 | x – 2 | – | x + 1 | + x.
function y = | x + 1 | + | x – 1 |.
a
in −∞ , − 1 f a
in −∞ , − 1 : f
y = 2 x − 2 − x +1 + x
y= x+1 + x −1
⇒ y = –2 (x – 2) + (x + 1) + x = 5
⇒ y = – (x + 1) – (x – 1) = –x – 1 – x + 1 = –2x
a
since (x + 1) < 0 and (x – 1) < 0 in −∞ , − 1 f in −1 , 2 :
y = 2 x − 2 − x +1 + x
⇒ y = –2 (x – 2) – (x + 1) + x = –2x + 3
 Function 107

a f
in 2 , ∞ :
y

y = 2 x − 2 − x +1 + x 4

⇒ y = 2 (x – 2) – (x + 1) + x = 2x – 5 3

2
y
1
x
5 0 1
y=5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
–1
4
–2
3 y = –2 x + 3
–3
2
y = 2x – 5 –4
1
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
x [x] = y

Hence, the given function can be rewritten as

under:
5 R| x < −1 0≤ x<1 0
S|
y = −2 x + 3 −1 ≤ x ≤ 2 1≤ x < 2 1
T
2x − 5 x > 2
2≤x<3 2
Therefore, the graph of y = 2 | x – 2 | – | x + 1 | + x is
a polygonal line as above. −1 ≤ x < 0 –1
−2 ≤ x < − 1 –2
On the Graph of y = [f (x)]
The graph of y = [f (x)] is a set of horizontal line
segments (i.e. a set of line segments, each being
parallel to x-axis), each of which includes the left end N.B.: The graph of y = [x] lies on and below the line y
point but excludes its right end point. A small shaded = x.
circle is put at the left end point of a horizontal line to
show the inclusion of that point and a small unshaded 2. y = [–x]
circle o is put at the right end point of a horizontal line ∴ y = −x = 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ − x < 1 ⇔ 0 ≥ x > −1
to show the exclusion of that point as n n+1 ⇔ −1 < x ≤ 0
Moreover one should note that each horizontal y

line representing the graph of y = [f (x)] always lies on

and below a straight line. 4
The graph of a function y = [f (x)] is always 3
obtained from the graph of y = f (x) where y = [f (x)] ∈ I 2
is marked on the y-axis of unit length such as [–2, 1), 1
[–1, 0), [0, 1), [1, 2) etc. for which horizontal lines are 0 1 2 3 4
x
drawn through integers till they intersect the graph. –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
Further, one should note that on y-axis for the form
–2
[n, n + 1), y = n if y increases in its domain.
–3
The graph of y = [f (x)]
–4
1. y = [x]
∴y = x =0⇔ x ≤ −x <1
108 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x [-x] = y
LM x OP + 1 lies on and below
N.B.: The graph of y =
N2 Q
the line y = x + 1.
4. y = 2 [x] – 1
−2 < x ≤ − 1 1
0 y
−1 < x ≤ 0
0< x≤1 –1 4
x+1
1< x ≤ 2 –2 3

N.B.: The graph of y = [–x] lies on and below the line x

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = –x.
LM OP
–1
x
3. y =
N Q
–2
+1
2
LM OP
–3
x x
y=
2N Q
= 0⇔ 0 ≤ <1⇔ 0 ≤ x < 2
2
–4

x 2 [x] [2x] – 1 = y
4

1
0≤ x<1 0 –1
x 1≤ x < 2 2 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 2≤x<3 4 3
–2

LM x OP LM x OP + 1 = y
x
N2 Q N2 Q N.B.: The graph of y = [2x] – 1 lies on and below the
line y = x – 1.

On the Graph of y = | [x] |

0≤ x<2 0 1
The graph of y = | [x] | consists of all parallel line
2≤x<4 1 2 segments each being parallel to x-axis which lie on
and above the x-axis such that all parallel line segment
on the right side are on and below the line y = x and all
−2 ≤ x < 0 –1 0 the parallel line segments on the left are on and above
the line y = –x.
−4 ≤ x < − 2 –2 –1
1. y = | [x] |
∴y = x =0⇔ x =0⇔0≤ x<1
 Function 109

a f LMN x +2 4 OPQ
y

(iv) f x =
4

f a xf = x −
3 1
(v)
2 x
1 Answers:
x 1. (i)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 y

–2

–3

–4 x + |x |
f (x) =
2

x | [x] | = y
x
0

(ii)
−2 ≤ x < − 1 2 y

−1 ≤ x < 0 1
2
0≤ x <1 0 1
2≤x<3 2 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1

–2 f (x) = |x – 3| – 4
Exercise on Graphing the Functions
–3
1. Graph the following functions: –4
(3, –4)

af
(i) f x =
x+ x
2 (iii)
y
(ii) f (x) = | x – 3 | – 4
(iii) f (x) = 2x – [x], where [x] = greatest integer
function. 4 f (x) = 2 x – [x]
(iv) f (x) = [x – 2] + 2, where [x – 2] = greatest integer 3
function.
2
(v) f (x) = 2x2 – 12x + 20
1
(vi) f (x) = –x2 + 8x – 16
x
2. Construct graphs for the following functions. –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
(i) y = x –2

(ii) f (x) = | 2x – 1 | –3

(iii) f (x) = 2x | x – 1| –4
110 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(iv) y (ii) y

4
4
3 f (x) = [ x – 2] + 2
3
2
2 f (x) = |2x – 1|
1
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1 0 ½ 1 2 3 4
–2

–3 (iii)
y
–4

2
(v)
y f (x ) = 2x |x – 1|
1

4
f (x) = 2(x – 3) + 2
2 x
3 0 1 2
2
(3, 2)
1
(iv) y
x
0 1 2 3 4

4
(vi)

MN PQ
y x + 4
2 f (x) =
2

x x
–4 –2 0 2 4
0 1 2 3 4

2
f (x) = –(x – 4)
(v)
f (x) = |x| – 1
y [x ]
f (x) is undefined for 0 ≤ x < 1
2. (i)
y 2

1
y = x

x
–2 –1 0 1 2

x
0

On the Inverse of a Function
Before defining the inverse of a function with respect
to different aspects, one must know the following
facts:
af
1. A function f : A → f A is always on-to
function.
2. f : A → B is one-one function ⇒ f : A →
af
f A ⊂ B is a bijection, where
A = domain of f
B = codomain of f
f (A) = range of f, also denoted by R (f).
3. If A and B are finite sets and f : A → B is a
bijection, then n (A) = n (B), i.e. number of elements in
domain = number of elements in co-domain.
4. When there is only one value of the function y = f
(x) for every value of x = a in its domain, then the
function y = f (x) is said to be single valued function
in its domain.
The polynomial, the rational fraction, exponential
and logarithmic functions are important functions
which are single valued.
5. When there are two values of the function y = f (x)
for each value x = a in its domain, the function y = f (x)
is said to be two valued (or, double valued) function
in its domain.
Examples of double valued functions are:
2 n
(i) y = a o x + a1 x
n −1
a f
+ ... + a n −1 x + a n n ≥ 1
N2
(ii) y = where N and D are polynomials in x.
D the original function y = f (x), it is meant that for each
6. When both y = f (x) and x = f–1 (y) obtained by
solving y = f (x) for x in terms of y, are single valued
functions, then the function f establishes a bijection
(or, a one-to-one correspondence) between its domain
and range.
Now, the definition of the inverse of a function is
provided.
Definition 1: (In terms of one-one function): The
inverse of a one-one function f, denoted by f–1 is the
function which is defined for every y = f (x) in the
range of f by f –1 (y) = x, i.e. if f is a function which is
one-one in a part D of its domain and R is the set of
Function 111
values taken by f at points of D, then the function f–1
with domain R and range D, denoted by f–1 (y) = x if y
= f (x) for every y ∈R is said to be the inverse of the
function f on D.
Notes:
1. In some cases when the given function f is not
one-one function in the entire domain, a part D of its
domain is selected where the function f is one-one
and the inverse of a function will exist over f (D) for
the new domain of f.
2. A function has an inverse ⇒ it is a one-one
function in its domain and the equation y = f (x) can
be solved for x in terms of y, i.e. x = f –1 (y) which must
be single valued. For an example, y = 3x + 2 is a 1-1
function.
y−2
⇒x= is a single valued function.
3
3. It may or may not be possible to find the inverse of
a given function in the following cases:
If the given equation y = f (x) gives x = f–1 (y) which is
double valued function or the given equation is
double valued function, then in both cases, the given
function (or, equation) y = f (x) has no inverse, as for
an example,
2
y= x +9⇒ x=± y − 9 which determines
two different values of x for each value of y ≠ 9 in
the range of f.
4. When it is said that the inverse x = f–1 (y) of the
function y = f (x) is single valued for y = b in range of
member y = b of the range of the original function y =
f (x), there is exactly only one element in the domain
of the original function y =f (x).
Definition 2: In terms of one-one and on-to
function: If f is a one-one and onto from A to B, then
−1
there exists a unique function f : B → A such
that for each y ∈B there exists exactly only one
element x ∈ A such that f (x) = y, then f–1 (y) = x. The
function f–1 so defined is called the inverse of f.
Further, if f –1 is the inverse of f, then f is the inverse
of f–1 and the two functions f and f –1 are said to be the
inverse of each other.
112 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
Notes: 1
1. A function f:A→B has an inverse Hence, the inverse of the function f x = x+1
2
−1 is the function f–1 (x) = 2x – 2.
f ⇔ f : A → B is one-one and on-to.
2. Find the inverse of the function y = x2, for x > 0.
2. If a function f is continuous, monotonic and
Solution:
defined on a real interval working as a domain of the
Step 1: On solving for x in terms of y:
given function f, then a continuous monotonic inverse
y = x2
f–1 exists. For example, f (x) = y = 2x + 3 where 0 < x <

a yf = x = 21 a y − 3f where 3 <
2
−1 ⇒ y = x = x = x ( 3 | x | = x because x >
1, has an inverse f
0)
y < 5. Step 2: On interchanging x and y:
The variables x and y are often interchanged in the
y= x
inverse function, so that in this example f (x) = y = 2x
+ 3 is said to have the inverse. The inverse of a function y = x2, x > 0 is the
function y =
f
−1
axf = y = 12 ax − 3f x.
One should note that, unlike the restricted function
This can be written y = x2, x > 0 the unrestricted function y = x2 is not one-
one and on-to and therefore has no inverse.
f : x → 2 x + 3 on 0 , 1

f
−1
:x→
1
2
a f
x − 3 on 3 , 5
On the Criteria to Test Whether
a Given Function f has its Inverse
There are following criteria to test whether a given
How to Find f–1 as a Function of x function y = f (x) from its domain D to its co-domain C
Step 1: The equation y = f (x) should be solved for x has an inverse.
in terms of y. Criterion 1: One-oneness and ontoness of the
Step 2: x and y should be interchanged. The resulting function, i.e. one should show that the given function
equation will be y = f–1 (x). y = f (x) from its domain D to its codomain C is a one-
one and on-to function.
Solved Examples Note:
Criterion 1: Is fruitful to test the existance of an
1
1. Find the inverse of y = x + 1. inverse of the function y = f (x) whose domain D and
2 whose codomain C are known.
Solution:
Criterion 2: Single valuedness of both the function
Step 1: On solving for x in terms of y:
f and f–1, i.e. one should show that both the given
1 function y = f (x) defined on its domain and x = f–1 (y)
y= x +1
2 defined on the range of y = f (x) are single valued.
⇒ 2y = x + 2 Criterion 3: One-oneness and single valuedness of
a function, i.e., one should show that the function y =
⇒ x = 2y – 2 f (x) from its domain D to its range R (in case range is
Step 2: On interchanging x and y: known but its codomain is not known) is one-one
y = 2x – 2 and then show that the function x = f–1 (y) obtained
 Function 113

by solving the given function y = f (x) for x in terms of ⇒ (x1 – 1) (x2 – 3) = (x1 – 3) (x2 – 1)
y is a single valued function. ⇒ –3x1 – x2 + 3 = –3x2 – x1 + 3
Notes: ⇒ 2x2 = 2x1
1. In case of function whose domain and range are ⇒ x1 = x2
known but whose codomain is not known, one should ∴ f is 1 – 1
suppose that range is coincident with codomain and
x −1
then use any one of the criteria to show whether the Also, any y ∈Y , y =
given function has the inverse. x−3
2. In case of a function whose domain and range are ⇒ y (x – 3) = x – 1
known, one can use either the criterion (2) or the ⇒ x (y – 1) = –1 + 3y
criterion (3) which is easy.
3y − 1
Criterion 4: One should see whether a given function ⇒x= ,y ≠1
y = f (x) is continuous, monotonic and defined on a y −1
real interval working as a domain of the given function
3y − 1
f. ∴ y ∈Y ⇒ ∃ x = ∈x such that y = f (x)
y −1
Note: Criterion (4) is fruitful to test the existance of
an inverse of the function y = f (x) whose domain is ⇒ all the elements of y are f-images of an element in
known and its range can be determined by using any x, i.e., f is on-to.
mathematical manipulation. Hence, f is one-one and on-to ⇒ f has an inverse.
To remember: Let the inverse of f be g, i.e. g = f–1
1. The domain of the inverse of a function f–1 is the
set of all values of y for which x = f–1 (y), i.e. the range af
Then g y = x =
3y − 1
y −1
⇒ x= f
−1
a yf = 3yy−−11 .
of the function f, i.e. the domain of f–1 is the range of
f.
2. The range of the inverse of a function f–1 is the set Thus f
−1
a yf = 3yy −−11 ⇒ f
−1
a xf = 3xx −−11 is
of all values of x for which y = f (x), i.e. the domain of
f, i.e. the range of f–1 is the domain of f. the inverse function of f.
3. A function which has an inverse is said to be LM π π OP
invertible.
4. The symbol denoted by f–1 is read as “eff inverse”.
2. Test whether the function f : −
N ,
2 2
→ −1 , 1
Q
LM π π OP
Solved Examples
defined by f (x) = sin x, x ∈ −
N ,
2 2 Q
has its inverse

1. Test whether the function f : x → y defined by if so, find f–1.

LM π , π OP
af
f x =
x −1
x−3
where. Solution: x1 ≠ x2 and x1 , x 2 ∈ −
N 2 2Q
x = R – {3} and Y = R – {1}, R being the set of reals, ⇒ sin a x f ≠ sin a x f ⇒ f a x f ≠ f a x f
1 2 1 2
has its inverse. ⇒ f is one-one.
Solution: For x1 , x2 ∈R − 3 , kp LM π , π OP
f (x1) = f (x2) Again any y ∈ −1 , 1 ⇒ ∃ x ∈ −
N 2 2Q
that f (x) = y, i.e. y = sin x ⇒ f is on-to.
such

x1 − 1 x2 − 1
⇒ =
x1 − 3 x3 − 3
114 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Hence, f is one-one and on-to ⇒ f has its inverse ⇔ x = ± y which is a double valued function for

kp
which is given by
+
−1 LM
π π OP every y ∈R ∪ 0 .
f : −1 , 1 → − ,
2 2N Q ⇒ y = | x | has no inverse.
defined by However, if the domain of f is restricted to 0 , ∞ f
a yf = sin a yf , y ∈ −1, 1
f
−1 −1 a f
or −∞ , 0 , f will have the inverse.

⇒ f a x f = sin a x f , x ∈ −1 , 1
−1 −1
is the required Case 1: When the restricted domain is 0 , ∞ then yf
inverse of the given function. = | x | = x, x > 0
3. Does the function y = x2 have an inverse in the af f
⇒ y = x , D f = 0 , ∞ and R f = 0 , ∞ af f
interval [–1, 1]?
Solution: y = f (x) = x2 is the given function whose af
Now, for every value of x ∈D f , a unique value

domain is R and −1 , 1 ⊆ R af
of y ∈R f is determined.
–1 < x < 1 ⇒ y = x is a single valued function ∀ x ∈D f . af
⇒ –1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1 Again, y = f (x) = x
⇒ 1 > x2 > 0 and 0 < x2 < 1
⇒ 0 < x2 < 1
⇒x= y⇒ f a yf = x = y
−1

⇒ 0 < f (x) < 1 ⇒ D e f j = R a f f = 0 , ∞f

−1

⇒ Range of f is [0, 1]
Now y = x ⇒ x = ±
2
y for y ∈ 0 , 1 ⇒ For ever value of y ∈R a f f , a unique value of
x ∈D a f f is determined.
∴x = ± y
⇒ x = y is a single valued function for every
⇒ for each value of y in [0, 1], the range of f, x
does not have a unique value.
af
y ∈R f .
Hence, y = f (x) = x is single valued function for
⇒ x = ± y is not a single valued function.
every x ∈D fa f as well as x = f (y) = y is a single
–1

valued function for every y ∈R a f f .

Hence, f has no inverse.
4. Show that y = | x | has no inverse. Restrict its domain
suitably so that f–1 may exist and find f–1. ⇒ y = f (x) has its inverse in its restricted domain
Solution: y = | x |
0, ∞ .f
R x, x ≥ 0
⇒ y=S Now, since x = f–1 (y) = y
T− x , x < 0 ⇒ y = f–1 (x) = x is the required inverse for y = f (x)

af kp f
+
= x.
Clearly, D (y) = R and R y = R ∪ 0 = 0 , ∞
now, for every x ∈D a f f , a unique value of y ∈R a y f
a
Case 2: When the restricted domain is −∞ , 0 , then f
y = –x, x < 0
is determined ⇒ y = x is a single valued function afa f af a f
⇒ y = − x , D f = −∞ , 0 and R f = 0 , ∞
for every x ∈D f . af Now, it is observed that for every x ∈D a f f , a
Now, y = | x | for y ∈ 0 , ∞ f unique value of y ∈R a f f is determined.
2 2
⇔ y = x
 Function 115

⇒ y = f (x) = – x is a single valued function for 6. Find the inverse of the function defined as:
af a
every value of x ∈D f = −∞ , 0 . f R|x , x < 1
af a f f a xf = Sx , 1 ≤ x ≤ 4
2
Again, y = f (x) = –x, D f = −∞ , 0 and
af a f
R f = 0 , ∞ which
|T8 x , x > 4
⇒ −x = y⇒ x = −y Solution: The given function is piecewise function
defined as:
⇒ f a yf = x = − y
−1
R|x , x < 1
⇒ f a y f = − y which is a single valued f a xf = S x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 4
−1 2

function for every y ∈R a f f .

|T8 x , x > 4
⇒ Both y = –x in its domain and x = –y in the
range of f are single valued functions.
Now, y = f x ⇒ x = f af −1
a yf
⇒ y = –x has its inverse which is x = f–1 (y) = –y, y = x, x < 1
⇒ x = y, y < 1
e j = R a f f = a0 , ∞f .
i.e., f–1 (x) = –x, D f
−1
2
y = x ,1 ≤ x ≤ 4
5. Does the function f (x) = 1 – 2–x have an inverse?
Solution: f (x) = 1 – 2–x is defined for every value of ⇒x= y , 1 ≤ y ≤ 16
x ∈R
Further, f (x) = 1 – 2–x
e3 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 ⇒ 1 ≤ x 2
≤ 16 j
⇒ y = 1 – 2–x where y = f (x) y=8 x,x>4
⇒ y – 1 = – 2–x
⇒ 1 – y = 2–x y
2
⇒x= , y > 16
⇒ x = –log2 (1 – y) which is defined for y < 1 64
af a
R y = −∞ , 1 f e3 x > 4 ⇒ x > 2 ⇒ 8 x > 16 j
af
Now, for every value of x ∈D f = R , a unique
Hence,
af a f
value of y ∈R f = −∞ , 1 is determined.
R|
⇒ f (x) = 1 – 2–x is single valued in its domain.
af
Also, for every value of y ∈R f , a unique value of | y, y < 1
x = S y , 1 ≤ y ≤ 16
af
x ∈D f is determined from the equation x = f–1 (y) = || y 2

–log2 (1 – y) is a single valued function in the range of

the given function y = 1 – 2–x.
T 64 , y > 16
Hence, y = 1 – 2–x exhibits a one-one correspon-
dence between its domain and range.
R|
⇒ y = 1 – 2–x has an inverse. | y, y < 1
⇒ f a y f = S y , 1 ≤ y ≤ 16
−1
Now, f–1 is found in the following way:
x = f–1 (y) = –log (1 – y) || y 2

⇒ f–1 (x) = –log (1 – x) which is the required T 64 , y > 16

inverse of the given function f (x) = 1 – 2–x.
116 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R|
2. No inverse
3. No inverse

⇒ f
−1 | x, x < 1
axf = S x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 16 4. f a xf = x − 2
−1 3

|| x 2 domain: a−∞ , ∞f
T 64 , x > 16 5. f a x f =
−1 1
is the required inverse of the given piecewise a2 − xf
function. domain: R – {2}

a xf = − FGH 13x−+2 x4 IJK

Note: While finding the inverse of a piecewise
−1
function, one should find the inverse of each function 6. f
defined in its respective sub domain.

domain: R − R ST 21 UVW
Exercises on finding the inverse of a function

Exercise 1.25

7. f a x f =
−1 8−x 3
Find the inverse of the given function, if there is one x
and determine its domain. domain: R – {0}
1. f (x) = x3
2. f (x) = x2 + 5
8. f
−1
a xf =
2+ x

af
3. f x =
1
2
8x
domain: x < –2 or x > 0
x
9. No inverse
4. f (x) = (x + 2)3
10. No inverse
af
5. f x =
2x − 1
x Exercise 1.26

af
6. f x =
x+4
2x − 3
Perform each of the following steps on the given
function:

af
(a) Solve the equation for y in terms of x and express
8
7. f x = 3
y as one or more functions of x:
x +1 (b) For each of the functions obtained in (a), determine
if the function has an inverse, and if it does, determine
af
8. f x = 2
2 the domain of the inverse function.
8x − 1 1. x2 + y2 = 9
2. x2 – y2 = 16
9. f (x) = 2 | x | + x
3. xy = 4
af
10. f x =
3
1+ x
4. y2 – x3 = 0
5. 2x2 – 3xy + 1 = 0
Answers: 6. 2x2 + 2y + 1 = 0

1. f axf = x
−1 3
Answers:

domain: a−∞ , ∞f af 2
af
1. (a) f 1 x = 9 − x , f 2 x = − 9 − x ;
2

(b) Neither has an inverse.

 Function 117

2. (a) f 1 x = af 2
af 2
x − 16 , f 2 x = − x − 16 ;
2. f (x) = (x + 3)3

(b) Neither has an inverse. af

3. f x = x −
2 1
,x>0
a f 4x
x
3. (a) f x =
af
4. f x =
1
,x≤0
axf = 4x , domain: R – {0}.
2
−1 x +4
(b) f
5. f (x) = x5 + x3
f a xf = x , f a xf = − x
3 3 3
4. (a) 1 2
6. f (x) = x3 + x
Answer:
(b) f 1
−1
a xf = x ; domain: R
3 2
1. domain of f
−1
f
: 0 , ∞ range of f −1
: 4,∞ f
f2
−1
a xf = x ; domain: R.
3 2
2. domain of f
−1
: R range of f–1: R

f axf = a f
2
2x + 1 −1
5. (a) 3. domain of f–1: R; range of f : 0, ∞
3x
(b) No inverse. −1 F 1 OP ; range of f : a−∞ , 0
−1

6. (a) f x = − af
2x + 1
2 4. domain of f
H 4Q
: 0,

2
5. domain of f–1: R; range of f–1: R
(b) No inverse.
6. domain of f–1: R; range of f–1: R
Exercise 1.27

Determine if the given function has an inverse, and if

it does, determine the domain and range of the given
function.
af
1. f x = x−4
118 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
2
Limit and Limit Points
These two concepts are defined based on the
following concepts.
1. Open ε-neighbourhood of a Given Point
The set of all points (on the number line, or in a plane,
or in an n-dimensional space, or in any space where
the distance between any two points can be measured)
whose distances from a given point are less than a given
positive number ‘ε’ is called an open ε-neighbourhood
of a given point.
In notation, we express an open ε-neighbourhood
of a given point x0 on the number line as:
Nε (x0 ) = {x ∈ R : | x – x0 | < ε, ε > 0}
Notes: 1. x ∈ Nε (x0 ) ⇔ | x – x0 | < ε
⇔ x ∈ (x0 – ε, x0 + ε )′
2. (i) on the real line, an open e-neighbourhood of a
given point is a line segment (a part of the real line)
without (not counting) the end points whereas the given
point whose open e-neighbourhood is sought is the
midpoint of the line segment, i.e., an open interval with
a midpoint x0 and without left end point x0 – e and
right end point x0 + e represented as (x0 – e, x0 + e ) is
an e-neighbourhood of a given point x0.
ε ε
–∞ x0 – ε x0 x0 + ε +∞
(ii) In two dimensional space (in the real plane or
complex plane), an open ε-neighbourhood of a given
point is the set of all those points excluding the
circumference which is also termed as boundary of
the circle in real analysis. In other words, a circle
centred at a given point (whose open ε-
neighbourhood is sought) and whose radius is the
given number ∈ is an open ε-neighbourhood of the
given point if we exclude all those points whose
distances from the center equal the radius. In real
analysis, a circle in a plane is termed as circular
neighbourhood of the given point.
∈
x0
(iii) In three dimensional space, it is the set of all
those points inside the sphere. A sphere is also
termed as spherical neighbourhood of a given point.
3. An open ε-neighbourhood of a given point is also
termed as:
(i) Open sphere (centred at the given point with a given
radius ε) and it is symbolized as Sε (x0 ) or S (ε, x0 ).
(ii) Open ball (centred at the given point with a given
radius ε ) and it is symbolized as Bε (x0 ) or B (ε, x0 ).
2. A Closed ε -neighbourhood of
a Given Point
The set of all points (in any space) whose distances
from a given point are less than or equal to a given
positive number ‘ε’is called a closed ε-neighbourhood
of a given point.

2. The world “every, each or all” used before ε-
neighbourhood or neighbourhood emphasizes
firstly that the said properly must hold even if the
ε-neighbourhood or neighbourhood of the given point
P is arbitrarily small and secondly that if there exists
even one ε-neighbourhood or neighbourhood of the
point P which does not contain at least one point of
the set which is not P, P can not be said to be a limit
point of the set A.
Notes: 1. The limit points of a set may or may not
belong to the set.
2. The limit point of a set is also termed as:
(i) Limiting point
(ii) Accumulating point and
(iii) Cluster point.
3. The set of all the limit points of a set A is called the
derived set which is denoted by A′ or D (A), i.e.,
(i) A′ = D (A) = {x0 ∈ R : Nε (x0) – {x0} ∩ A ≠ φ,
∨ Nε (x0)} = {x0 ∈ R : x0 is the limit point of A} on the
number line R.
(ii) A′ = D (A) = {x0 ∈ X : Sε (x0) – {x0} ∩ A ≠ φ,
∨ Sε (x0)} in a metric space X.
(iii) A′ = D (A) = {x0 ∈ X : N (x0) – {x0} ∩ A ≠ φ,
∨ N (x0)} in a topological space X.
4. x0 ∈ D (A) ⇔ x0 is a limit point of A.
⇔ Sε (x0) – {x0} ∩ A ≠ φ in a metric space
⇔ ((x0 – ε, x0) ∪ (x0, x0 + ε)) ∩ A ≠ φ on the real line
⇔ N (x0) – {x0} ∩ A ≠ φ in a topological space
5. We may divide a limit point of a set into two halves
namely.
(a) Left limit point and
(b) Right limit on the number line R.
Now we define each one on the number line R in
the following way:
(a) Left limit point of a set: A point x0 ∈ R is a limit
point of the set A ⊆ R ⇔ ∨ ∈ > 0, there is at least one
point x ∈ A such that 0 < x0 – x < ε (x0 – ε < x < x0).
i.e. (i) A point x0 ∈ R is right limit point (or right hand)
limit point of the set A ⇔ x0 is a limit point of the
subset of A lying to the right of the point x0.
(b) Right limit point of a set: A point x0 ∈ R is a right
limit point of a set A ⊆ R ⇔ ∨ ε > 0, there is at least
one point x ∈ A such that 0 < x – x0 < ε (x0 < x < x0 +
Limit and Limit Points 123
ε ) Further, one should keep in mind that x0 ∈ R is a
limit point of a set A ⊆ R ⇔ x0 ∈ R is a left limit point
or a right limit point of the set A ⊆ R.
A Nε (x 0)
–∞ x0 – ε x0 x0 + ε +∞
i.e. (ii) A point x0 Î R is left limit point (or left hand)
limit point of he set A Û x0 is a limt point of the subset
of A lying to the left of the point x0.
6. A set A is closed ⇔ each limit point of the set A is
a member (point) of the set A ⇔ A point x is a limit
point of a set A and x ∈ A ⇔ the set A contains all its
limit points ⇔ D (A) ⊂ A.
7. x0 ∉ D (A) ⇔ x0 ∉ closure of A – {x0} ⇔ x0 is not
a limit point of the set A.
8. More on closure point and closure of a set: A
closure point or closure of a set is also defined in
terms of the limit point of a set.
(i) Closure point of the set (in terms of the limit
point): A point x0 in a space X is called a closure
point of the set A contained in the space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔
x0 ∈ A or x0 is a limit point of A.
(ii) Closure of a set: Closure of a set denoted by • is
the set of all points of A together with all those points
(in space) which are arbitrarily close to A. That is, the
closure of A, denoted by •, is the union of the set A
and the set of all its limits points, i.e., • = A ∪ D (A).
Now, we give the definition of an isolated point of
a set.
2. Isolated Point of a Set
It is also defined with respect to different aspects.
Definition (i): (In terms of neighbourhood): A point
of a set is called an isolated point of the set ⇔ there
exists a neighbourhood of that point in which there is
no other point of the set. That is, a point of the set
whose one neighbourhood includes in itself
(contains) no other point of the set, i.e., N x0 = {x0},
is called an isolated point of the set.
Definition (ii): (In terms of deleted neighbourhood):
A point of a set whose one deleted neighbourhood
does not intersect the given set is called an isolated
point of the set. That is, a point belonging to the set
124 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
which is not the limit point of the set is called an
isolated point of the set.
Hence, in notation we can express the definition
of an isolated point of the set in different spaces in
the following ways:
(a) A point x0 ∈ A ⊆ R is called an isolated point of
the set A ⇔ Nε (x0) – {x0} ∩ A = φ ⇔ Nε (x0) ∩ A =
{x0} for some Nε (x0).
(b) A point x0 ∈ A ⊆ X, where X is a metric space, is
called an isolated point of the set A ⇔ Sε (x0) – {x0} ∩
A = φ ⇔ Sε (x0) ∩ A = {x0} for some Sε (x0).
(c) A point x0 ∈ A ⊆ X, where X is a topological
space, is called an isolated point of the set A ⇔ N x0
{x0} ∩ A = φ ⇔ N x0 ∩ A = {x0}, for some Nx0
Notes: 1. An isolated point of a set is a point of the
set.
2. x0 is an isolated point of the set A ⇔ x0 is not a
limit point of the set A ⇔ x0 ∉ D (A).
3. Roughly speaking, an isolated point of a set is a
point x0 of the A around which there is no point of the
set A which is different from (distinct from, or other
than) the point itself namely x0.
Kinds of the Limit Point of a Set
There are two types of the limit point of a set namely:
(a) Interior point of a set.
(b) Boundary point of a set.
Each one is defined with respect to different aspects:
(a) Interior point:
Definition (i): (In terms of the limit point): An interior
point of the set is a point of the set which is not the
limit point of the complement of the set. That is, a
limit point x0 of the set A is an interior point of the set
A ⇔ there are only the points of the set A in some
neighbourhood of the point x0.
Definition (ii): (In terms of neighbourhood): A point
x0 in a space X is called the interior point of the set A
contained in the space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ There is a
neighbourhood of the point x0 which is a subset of
the set A whenever the point x0 is in the set A ⇔ x0 ∈
A and ∃ a N x0 such that N x0 ⊆ A.
Hence, in notation, we can express the definition
of the interior point of a set in different spaces in the
following ways:
(i) On the number line, a point x0 in a set A ⊆ R is
called an interior point of the set A ⇔ x0 can be en-
closed in an interval (x0 – ε, x0 + ε), ∈ > 0, such that all
the point of this interval are the points of the set A,
e.g: every point of a line segment other than (not
counting, or without) the end points of the line seg-
ment is the interior point of the set composed of all
points of the line segment.
(ii) In a metric space X, a point x0 in a set A ⊆ X is
called an interior point of the set A ⇔ x0 can be en-
closed in an ε-neighbourhood Nε (x0) such that all the
points of this ε-neighbourhood Nε (x0) are the points
of the set A.
N (x)
ε0
A
X
(b) Boundary point:
Definition (i): (Intuitive concept): A point x0 in a
space X is called a boundary point of the set A
contained in a space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ x0 is arbitrarily
close to both the set A and its complement AC. That
is, the points which are arbitrarily close to both the
set and the complement of the set are called boundary
points of the set.
Definition (ii): (In terms of limit point): A point x0 in
a space X is called a boundary point of the set A
contained in a space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ x0 is the limit point
of both the set A and its complement AC.
Definition (iii): (In terms of neighbourhood): A point
x0 in a space X is called boundary point of the set A
contained in a space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ every
neighbourhood of the point x0 intersects both the set
A and the complement of the set A (AC ) at some points
⇔ x0 is a point of closure of both the set A and its
complement AC.
A
x0
N ( x)

Hence, in notation we can express the definition
of the boundary point of a set in different spaces in
the following ways:
(i) A point x0 on the number line R is a boundary
point of the set A contained in a space R (A ⊆ R) ⇔ ∨
Nε (x0), Nε (x0) ∩ A ≠ φ, Nε (x0) ∩ AC ≠ φ.
(ii) A point x0 in a metric space X is a boundary point
of the set A contained in the space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ ∨
Sε (x0), Sε (x0) ∩ A ≠ φ, Sε (x0) ∩ AC ≠ φ.
(iii) A point x0 in a topological space X is a boundary
point of the set A contained in a space X (A ⊆ X) ⇔ ∨
Nx, Nx ∩ A ≠ φ, Nx ∩ AC ≠ φ.
Besides these, in connection with the interior points
of the set and the boundary points of the set, there
are two more sets namely:
1. Interior of a set and
2. Boundary of a set
Which are defined in the following ways.
1. Interior of a set: A set whose members are all the
interior points of the set is called interior of the set,
that is, the set A = {x: x ∈ A and some Nx ⊆ A} is
called the interior of the set A.
The symbol to denote the interior of a set A is int
(A), Ai or A0.
2. Boundary of a set
Definition (i): (intuitive concept): The boundary of
a set A is the set of all those points which are arbitrarily
close to both the set A and its complement AC.
Definition (ii): A set of all those points which are
boundary points of a set A is called the boundary of
a set A.
The boundary of a set A is symbolized as:
b (A), Ab or ∂ (A)
Hence, in terms of interior point and boundary
point of a set, we can say,
A set is closed ⇔ all the limit points (interior and
boundary points both) of a set belong to the set.
Similarly, in terms of the interior and the boundary
of a set, we can express the closure of a set A as:
A = int (A) ∪ b (A)
Now we define one more important concept know
as “open set” in the following way:
Open set: A set A of points (on the number line, or in
the plane, or in ordinary space, or in n-space or in any
space) is called open if, whenever it contains a point
Limit and Limit Points 125
P, it also contains all points (on the number line, or in
the plane, and so forth) near P, that is, all points of
some interval with midpoint P. That is, a set A
contained in a space X (A ⊆ X) is called open ⇔
every point of the set A is an interior point of the set
A (i.e., A = int (A)), or in other words, A set A contained
in a space X (A ⊆ X) is called open given any point x
in A, ∃ a neighbourhood of the point x (Nx) such that
Nx ⊆ A.
Notes: 1. Roughly speaking, the ‘boundary’ of a
region (a set of points which is either a non empty
open set or such a set together with some or all of the
points forming its boundary), if it exists, is the set of
points in the region from those not in (Simply to avoid
clumsiness of language we often say ‘points are in a
region’ instead of ‘the points are points of region’.
All the regions considered by us will be what are known
as ‘open region’; so that in the cases in which we use
it, our definition of boundary agrees with the usual
definition, in which points of the region may also be
the points of the boundary).
2. In 3-pace, the closure of a set A is the set A together
with all its skin, whether the skin is part of the set or
not. The interior of the set A is the set A minus any
part of the skin which it contains. The boundary of a
set A is its skin.
A A A
0
b ( A)
3. End points of any interval on the number line are
the boundary points of the interval.
4. A boundary point may belong to either the set A
or its complement AC but the boundary point is the
limit point of both of them.
5. Every point of an open set is an interior point lying
in the set itself.
6. x0 is a limit point of A ⇒ x0 ∈ A and x0 ∉ A .
7. x0 ∈ A ⇒ x 0 is a closure point of the set A
trivially.
8. Every limit point of the set A is also a point of
closure of the set A but not conversely.
126 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
9. Every interior point of the set A is also a limit point.
Dense Set
We consider three kinds of sets:
1. Dense set or dense in itself set.
2. Everywhere dense set in a space.
3. Non-dense set or nowhere dense set.
Each one is defined in the following ways:
1. Dense set (dense in itself set)
Definition (i): (Intuitive concept): A set in a space is
said to be dense in itself (or simply dense set) Û For
any two distinct arbitrary points in the set, there is at
least one distinct point between the two given points.
Definition (ii): (In terms of neighbourhood): A set A
in a space X is said to be dense in itself Û Every
neighbourhood of every point x of the set contains at
least one point of the set which is not x.
Definition (iii): (In terms of the limit point): A set A
in a space X is said to be dense in itself Û Every point
of the set A is the limit point of the set A.
2. Everywhere dense set in a space
Definition (i): (Intuitive concept): A dense set A in a
space X means that the points of the set A are distrib-
uted ‘thickly’ throughout the space X. In other words,
the set A contains points as near as we like to each
point of the space X Û No neighbourhood of any point
in the space X is free from the points of the set A Û
The set A is dense (or, every where dense) in a space X.
Definition (ii): (In terms of distance): A set A in a
b g
space X A ⊆ X is said to be dense (or, every-
where dense) in the space X ⇔ Given any point x in
b g
the space X x ∈ X and any small number ε > 0 ,
b g
there is at least one an other number x0 in the set
A x0 ∈ A such that the distance between the point
x in the space X and the point x0 in the set A is less
than the given small positive number ε , i.e.,
(a) x − x 0 < ε on the number line
b g
(b) d x , x0 < ε in a metric space
(c) x − x0 < ε in a normed space
Definition (iii): (In terms of neighbourhood): A set
A in a space X is dense (or, everywhere dense) in the
space X ⇔ Every neighbourhood of every point
c b gh
P N P in a space X contains at least one point of
the set A.
Definition (iv): (in terms of closure point): A set A in
a space X is dense (or, everywhere dense) in the space
X ⇔ Every point of the space X is a point of closure
of the set A ⇔ Every point of the space X is a point
bg
of the set A or a limit point of the set A (i.e.
X = A = A ∪ D A ).
space X b A ⊆ X g is said to be dense (or everywhere
Definition (v): (In terms of limit point): A set A in a
dense) in the space X ⇔ Every point of the space
X – A is a limit point of the set A).
3. Nowhere dense (or, non-dense) set in a space
Definition (i): (In terms of neighbourhood): A set A
b g
in a space X A ⊆ X is said to be nowhere dense
(non-dense) in the space X ⇔ Every neighbourhood
of every point in a space X contains a certain
neighbourhood of a point in a space such that this
certain neighbourhood is free from the points of the
set A ⇔ For every point x in the space X x ∈ X b g
and each neighbourhood of x (N (x)), there is a
neighbourhood of an other point y (N (y)) in the
b g
space X y ∈ X such that N y ⊂ N x and bg bg
bg
N y ∩ A = φ ⇔ interior of the closure of the set
c h c h
o
A is empty (i.e., A = int A = φ ).
Definition (ii): (In terms of dense exterior): A set with
b g
dense exterior is said to be a non-dense set, i.e., A set
A in a space X A ⊆ X is said to be nowhere dense
(or, non-dense) in the space X ⇔ The complement
of the closure of the set A is dense in the space X.
Definition (iii): (In terms of closure and boundary):
A set whose closure is a boundary set is a non-
dense set.
Notes: 1. The statement :The interior of the closure
of the set A is empty” means that the closure of the
set A has no interior point.
2. The complement of the closure of a set is its
exterior.
3. One should note that nowhere dense sets are
closed sets with no interior points, i.e., nowhere dense
sets are closed sets with only boundary points
whereas more generally closed sets are sets with in-
terior points and boundary points. A nowhere dense
set is thought of as a set which does not cover very
much of the space.
 Limit and Limit Points 127

4. A set A is nowhere dense in R (real line) ⇔ Generally, there are two ways to describe a sequence.
For each x and each neighbourhood N x bg 1. A sequence is described by listing its first few
b g
= x − ε , x + ε , there is another neighbourhood terms till we get a rule for writing down the other
bg b g
N y = y − ε, y + ε , ∀ y ∈ X different terms of the sequence, e.g.
bg bg bg
such that
N y ⊂ N x and N y ∩ A = φ .
RS1, 1 , 1 , 1 , L UV is the sequence whose nth term is
Perfect set: A set A in a space X is perfect ⇔ The
set A is dense in itself and closed ⇔ Every point of
T 2 34 W
1
bg
the set A is a limit point of the set A and every limit .
point of the set A belongs to the set A ⇔ D A = A . n
2. An other way of representing the terms of the
Sequence and Its Related Terms sequence is to specify the rule for its nth term, e.g: the
A sequence is nothing but a special kind of the RS 1 1 1 UV can be written as {x }
T , , ,L
W
sequence 1, n
function whose domain is the set of all natural numbers 2 3 4
and the range is a set contained in a space, i.e., A
function f : N → S is called a sequence, where where xn =
1
, ∀ n ∈ N gives a rule for the nth term
N = the set of natural numbers, n
S = a set contained in a space X, i.e., of the sequence.
S ⊆ X , where
X = any space, namely, a real line, a metric space, a Different Types of Sequence
normed spaced or a topological space, etc. 1. Constant sequence: The sequence {xn} where
S = R1 ⊆ R ⇒ the sequence is real sequence, i.e., xn = c ∈ R , ∀ n ∈ N is called a constant sequence.
A real sequence is a function from the set N of natural
numbers into the set R1 of real numbers where
l q l
In this case x n = c , c , c , c , L . q
2. Cauchy sequence: A sequence {xn} is called
R1 ⊆ R .
cauchy sequence ⇔ After a certain term of the
Hence, 1. S ⊆ X where X = a metric space ⇒
sequence, the numerical difference between any two
the sequence is said to be in a metric space. terms of the sequence is less than any given small
2. S ⊆ X , where X = a normed space ⇒ the positive number ε .
sequence is said to be in a normed space.
In notation, a sequence {xn} is a cauchy sequence
3. S ⊆ X , where X = a topological space ⇒ the
⇔ given any small number ε > 0 , there is an integer
sequence is said to be in a topological space.
One should understand real sequence wherever
N depending on ε i.e. N ε b g
such that
the term sequence is used (as we will consider them xi − x j < ε, ∀ i > N , j > N, i.e. after a certain term
only). namely the Nth term, the difference or the distance
between any two terms of the sequence is less than ε .
Notation: A sequence with general term xn is written
as: {xn}, (xn) or <xn> 1 2 3 4 Nε i j

x
Nomenclature of Terms of the Sequence x1 x2 x3 x4 Nε xi xj

The term written on the extreme left is called ‘first Notes: (i) It is not necessary that all the terms of a
term’ next to it ‘second term’ and so on and a term sequence should be different from each other.
whose subscript is n, i.e., xn = nth term which is a (ii) Care must be taken to distinguish between the
function of n always. range of the sequence and the sequence itself, e.g. the

Different Ways of Describing a Sequence

n
b g
sequence {xn}, where xn = –1 , ∀ n ∈ N is given
128 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
l q l q
by xn = 1, − 1, 1, − 1, L whose range is −1, 1 , l q
i.e. the range of this sequence {xn} is a finite set
whereas the sequence is an infinite set.
(iii) A sequence, by definition, is always infinite while
the range of the sequence need not be infinite, e.g:
The sequence {xn} for which xn = 1, ∀ n ∈ N , i.e.
l q l q
xn = 1, 1, 1, 1, L is an infinite sequence whose
range is {1} which is a finite set.
(iv) One should always remember that whenever it is
written “a term (or, terms) of a sequence”, it always
means a member (or, members) of the sequence.
Boundedness and Unboundedness
In the light of definitions of a bounded set and an
unbounded set, boundedness and unboundedness
of a sequence and a function are defined. This is why
firstly the definition of a bounded set is presented.
Boundedness of a Set
1. Bounded below set (or a set bounded on the left)
Definition: A set D is said to be bounded below or
bounded on the left ⇔ ∃ a number m such that no
member of the set is less than the number m ⇔ ∃ an
m ∈ R : x ≥ m , ∀ x ∈ D ⇔ ∃ a point m such that no
point of the set lies to the left of m.
xα x β xγ
x ≥m
Where xα , xβ , x γ , ... are points of the set D.
2. Bounded above set (or a set bounded on the right)
Definition: A set D is said to be bounded above or
bounded on the right ⇔ ∃ a number k such that all
the members are less than or equal to the number
⇔ ∃ a k ∈ R : x ≤ k , ∀ x ∈ D ⇔ ∃ a point k such
that no points of the set lie to the right of k.
xα x β xr
x≤k
Where xα , xβ , x γ , ... are points of the set D.
3. Bounded set
Definition: A set D is bounded ⇔ it is bounded
above and below ⇔ ∃ two numbers k and m such
that all the members of the set are contained in the
closed interval [k, m], i.e., k ≤ x ≤ m, ∀ x ∈ D and
k ≤ m ; or, in other words: A set D is bounded ⇔ ∃
an m > 0 such that x ≤ m, ∀ x ∈ D .
xα xβ xγ
x=K x=m
Where xα , xβ , x γ , ... are points of the set D.
Unboundedness of a Set
1. Unbounded above set (or, a set unbounded on the
right)
Definition: A set D is said to be unbounded above
or unbounded on the right ⇔ whatever the number
k is chosen (or taken) however large, some member of
the set D is > k.
2. Unbounded below set (or, a set unbounded on the
left)
Definition: A set D is said to be unbounded below
or unbounded on the left ⇔ however large a number
m is chosen (or taken), there is some member of the
set D which is < –m.
3. Unbounded Set
Definition: A set D is said to be unbounded (not
bounded) if it is not a bounded set, i.e., for any m > 0,
∃ x ∈ D such that | x | > m.
Boundedness of a Sequence
1. Bounded above sequence (or a sequence bounded
on the right)
Definition: A sequence {xn} is said to be bounded
above or bounded on the right ⇔ the range of a
sequence is a set bounded above ⇔ ∃ a
k ∈ R : x n ≤ k , ∀ n ∈ N ⇔ ∃ a point k such that
no terms of the sequence lie to the right of k.

x3 x2 x1
xn ≤ k
Where x1, x2, x3, … are terms of the sequence.
2. Bounded below sequence (or a sequence bounded
on the left)
Definition: A sequence {xn} is said to be bounded
below or bounded on the left ⇔ the range of a
sequence is a set bounded below ⇔ ∃ an
m ∈ R : xn ≥ m, ∀ m ∈ N ⇔ ∃ a point m such that
no terms of the sequence lie to the left of m.
x1
xn ≥ k
Where x1, x2, x3, … are terms of the sequence.
3. Bounded sequence
Definition: A sequence {xn} is said to be bounded
⇔ the range of the sequence is bounded ⇔ the
range of a sequence is a set bounded above and below
both at the same time ⇔ ∃ a positive number m such
that xn ≤ m, ∀ n ∈ N ⇔ in other words, the
sequence is bounded by two number –m and m, i.e.
xn ∈ −m, m , ∀ n ∈ N ⇔ geometrically, all the
terms of the sequence lie in a certain neighbourhood
(m-neighbourhood) of the point x = 0
x1 x2 x3 x4
–m
Where x1 , x 2, x 3, … x n, … are points of the
sequence.
Unboundedness of a Sequence
1. Unbounded above sequence (or a sequence
unbounded on the right)
Definition: A sequence {xn} is said to be unbounded
above or unbounded on the right ⇔ whatever the
number k is chosen, however large, there is some
member of the sequence > k ⇔ the range of the
sequence is unbounded above or unbounded on the
right.
Limit and Limit Points 129
2. Unbounded below sequence (or a sequence
unbounded on the left)
Definition: A sequence {xn} is said to be unbounded
below or unbounded on the left ⇔ how large a number
m is taken, there is some member of the sequence
< –m ⇔ the range of the sequence is unbounded
below or unbounded on the left.
3. Unbounded sequence
Definition: A sequence {xn} is unbounded ⇔ the
range of the sequence is unbounded ⇔ ∀ m > 0, ∃
an n : x n > m .
Boundedness of a Function
x2 x3
1. Bounded above function (or a function bounded
on the right)
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain
D is said to be bounded above or bounded on the
right ⇔ the range of the function f is bounded above
or bounded on the right ⇔ ∃ a real number m such
bg
that f x ≤ m for all x ∈ D , where the number m
itself is termed as an upper bound of the function f.
2. Bounded below function (or a function bounded
on the left)
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain
D is said to be bounded below or bounded on the left
⇔ the range of the function f is bounded below or
bounded on the left ⇔ ∃ a real number k such that
xn
bg
f x ≥ k for all x ∈ D , where the number k itself is
m termed as a lower bound of the function f.
3. Bounded function
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain
D is bounded ⇔ the range of the function f is
bounded ⇔ the range of the function f is bounded
above and bounded below ⇔ ∃ two real numbers k
bg
and m such that k ≤ f x ≤ m for all x ∈ D and
k ≤ m . In other words there exists M > 0 such that
af
f x ≤ M ,∀ x ∈D.
In the language of geometry, a function y = f (x)
whose domain is D is bounded ⇔ the curve (the
graph of the function) y = f (x) defined on its domain
D is situated between two horizontal lines.
130 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Unbounded Function For example, f (x) = x2 is unbounded on R but if the

function f is restricted to the closed interval [0, 1], it
1. Unbounded above function (or a function
becomes bounded. But when the function f is
unbounded on the right)
restricted to the positive real numbers, it remains
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain unbounded.
D is said to be unbounded above or unbounded on
Illustrations:
the right ⇔ whatever the number k is chosen,
however large, f (x) > k for some x ∈ D ⇔ the range
of the function is unbounded above or unbounded
bg
1. f x =
x
x
,x≠0

bg
on the right. x
2. Unbounded below function (or a function un- ⇒ f x = = 1 when x > 0
x
bounded on the left):
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain bg
and f x =
−x
x
= −1 when x < 0
D is said to be unbounded below or unbounded on
the left ⇔ however large a number m is taken, f (x) < ∴ The range of the function f is [–1, 1] which is a
–m for some x ∈ D ⇔ the range of the function f is finite set containing only two members –1 and 1.
unbounded below or unbounded on the left. Therefore f is a bounded function.
3. Unbounded function (The function f (x) is said to
be unbounded ⇔ one or both of the upper and lower bg
2. f x =
1
x−2
,2 < x ≤5
bounds of the function are infinite)
Q 2< x≤5
Definition: A function y = f (x) defined on its domain
D is unbounded ⇔ the range of the function is ∴ 0< x −2≤5
unbounded ⇔ the range of the function is
1
unbounded above or unbounded below or both at Now, x − 2 > 0 ⇒ → + ∞ as x → 2
x−2
af
the same time.
i.e. ∀ M > 0, f x > M , for some x ∈ D . 1 1
Also, x − 2 ≤ 3 ⇒ ≥
Notes: 1. One should note that the set, the variable, x−2 3
the sequence or the function is said to be bounded
above, bounded below or bounded whereas the LMQ 1 1 OP
constant or the number which bounds (keeps on the
left or on the right side of itself) the set, the variable,
N x − 2 > 0 and a ≥ b > 0 ⇒ ≤
a b Q
the sequence or the function is termed as lower bound,
upper bound or simply bound (plural bounds) of
∴ 2 < x ≤5⇒
1 1
≥ ⇒ f x ≥
x−2 3
1
3
bg
these.
2. The fact that a sequence, a function, a variable or ∴ The range of the function f is bounded below
a set is bounded by two numbers k and m (k ≤ m) 1
and is its greatest lower bound and f is not
geometrically means that all the terms of the sequence, 3
all the values of a function or a variable or all the bounded above.
members of the set are contained in a closed interval
[k, m]. bg
3. f x =
1
x
, 0 < x < ∞ is unbounded because by

bg
3. If the domain of a bounded function is restricted,
1
the function remains bounded. choosing x sufficiently small, the function f x =
4. The restriction of an unbounded function may or x
can be made as large as required, i.e., infinitely great
may not be bounded.

also
1
x
a f
> 0 in 0 , ∞ . Hence this function is bounded
below but not bounded above.
4. f (x) = x sinx defined on domain 0 < x < ∞ takes
positive and negative values and is unbounded below
and above, because by choosing sufficiently large
values of x, f (x) can be made sufficiently large and
positive or large and negative.
Note: One must remember that a mathematical
quantity or entity is called bounded ⇔ its absolute
value does not exceed some constant positive number
M. For example, cosx is bounded for all real values of
the variable x because cos x ≤ 1 .
Limit of a Sequence
It is defined in various ways:
Definition (i): (In terms of ε -neighbourhood): A
fixed number ‘l’ is the limit of a sequence {xn} ⇔
Any ε -neighbourhood of that fixed number ‘l’
bg
denoted by N ε l contains all the terms of the
sequence {xn} after a certain term namely the Nth
term (xN) of the sequence {xn} N depending on ε .
Definition (ii): ( ε – N definition): A fixed number ‘L’
is the limit of a sequence {xn} ⇔ Given any small
positive number ε , it is possible to find out a term
namely xN such that all the terms after the Nth term
(xN) of the sequence differ from the fixed number ‘l’
by a number which is less than ε ⇔ Given a small
number ε > 0 , ∃ an integer N such that xr − l < ε
for every value of r which is greater than N (i.e.
∀ r > N ).
1 2 3 4 Nε r
x
x1 x2 x3 x4 Nε xr
Notes: (i) when a variable takes on the values of a
sequence which has a limit ‘l’, it is said that the variable
has the limit ‘l’. If x is a variable and ‘L’ is the limit of
the sequence {xn} defined by x = xn, n = 1, 2, 3, …, one
must indicate that x has the limit l by the notation
x → l instead of xn → l as n → ∞ , where the
Limit and Limit Points 131
notation n → ∞ means that the numbers of the terms
of the sequence {xn} becomes very great. Hence, a
constant ‘l’ is the limit of the variable x defined by x =
xn, n = 1, 2, 3, … ⇔ Any given small number ε > 0 ,
there exists a positive integer N ε (N depends on ε )
so that for all values of n greater than N ε , x differs
from L in absolute value by a number less than ε .
Further, the definition is symbolized as follows:
Given x = xn, n = 1, 2, 3, …, then ‘l’ is the limit of the
variable x ⇔ Given any small number ε > 0 , an
integer N ε exists such that x − l < ε for all
n > Nε .
(ii) To indicate that N is a function of ε or N depends
on ε , it is usual to write N ε instead of merely N.
(iii) When a sequence has a limit, it is said to be
convergent.
(iv) Already the terms limit point of a set, and limit of
a sequence have been discussed. But there is a little
difference among them. One should note that a set
has a limit point whereas a convergent sequence has
a limit which is unique. There is another term ‘limit
point of a sequence’ which is used and discussed in
real analysis. By limit point (limit points) of a sequence,
one means the limit (limits) of a convergent
subsequence (convergent subsequences) of a
sequence. In case the sequence itself is convergent,
to the limit l, any sub-sequence also converges to the
same limit l.
Note: The limit of a convergent sequence may or may
not by a member (or, term) of the sequence itself. For
1
example, if there is a sequence {xn} where xn = ,
n
then lim xn = 0 but it can be seen that there is no
n→∞
member (or, the term) of the sequence whose value is
zero.
b g
Use of ε − N Definition
a f
The ε − N definition of the limit of a sequence does
give us a criterion to check whether a given fixed
number obtained by any mathematical manipulation
or method is the limit of the sequence or not.
How to show that a given number is the limit of a
sequence?
132 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solve the inequality xn − L < ε , where L = a

n2 + 1
given number which is required to be shown the limit Now xn = , ∀n ε N
of the sequence and xn = nth term of the sequence, 2n 2 + 5
bg
and obtain the inequality n > f ε using if method.
1 n2 + 1 1 −3
Examples: 1. Show that the sequence {xn} where and xn − = − =

xn =
1
, ∀ n ∈ N converges to ‘0’.
2 2n 2 + 5 2 2 2n 2 + 5 e j
n
Solution: In order to show that {xn} converges to 0, 1 −3 3
∴ xn − = = <ε
it is required to be shown that for an ε > 0 , it is
possible to obtain a positive integer N ε such that
2 e
2 2n 2 + 5 j e
2 2n 2 + 5 j
xn − 0 < ε for all n > N ∈ . 3
if, <ε
Now xn − 0 < ε 4n 2 + 10
1 4n 2 + 10 1
If −0 <ε or, if, >
n 3 ε
1 3
or, if <ε or, if, 4n + 10 >
2
n ε
1 3
or, if, 4n > − 10
2
or, if <ε
n ε
1 3 − 10 ε
or, if n > or, if, 4n >
2
ε ε

or if n > N ∈ where N ∈ = LM 1 OP + 1 , i.e., whatever 3 − 10 ε

N ∈Q or, if, n >
2
4ε
ε is chosen, the absolute difference between the nth
term and 0 can be made as small as one likes after a 3 − 10 ε
or, if, n > = f (say)
4ε
certain term namely x N ε , i.e., by definition
or if n > N ∈ where N ∈ = f + 1
lim xn = 0 , i.e. {xn} converges to 0.
n→∞ Hence, for any ε > 0 , ∃ a positive integer N ε
2
n +1 1
2. Show that the sequence {xn} where x n = 2
, such that xn − < ε, ∀ n > N ∈ .
2n + 5 2
1
∀ n ∈ N converges to .
2 1
⇒ by definition lim x n =
1 n→∞ 2
Solution: To show that {xn} converges to , one is
2 1
⇒ {xn} converges to .
required to show that for an ε > 0 , it is possible to 2
1
obtain an N ε such that xn − <ε∀n> N.
2
 Limit and Limit Points 133

How to Find N ε Algebraically FG sin n IJ = 0 ; FG cos n IJ = 0

for a Given Epsilon
3. lim
n→∞ H nK lim
n→∞ H n K
Solve the inequality xn − l < ε for n after The following theorems on limits of sequences are
substituting the given expression in n for xn using if also stated without proofs and can be made use of
them in working out examples while finding the limits

l q RST UV
method.
1 of given sequences.
Examples: 1. Find N if xn = 1 − n and
1
2 W If lim x n = l and nlim
n→∞ →∞
yn = m , then
ε=
b g
.
128
Theorem 1: nlim xn + yn
Solution: lim x n = 1 →∞
n→∞
= lim xn + lim yn = l + m
1 n→∞ n→∞
1
∴ xn − 1 < ε where xn = 1 − and ε =
2
n 128 Theorem 2: nlim
→∞
xn − yn b g
1 1 = lim xn − lim yn = l − m
if 1 − n
−1 < n→∞ x→∞
2 128

1 1 Theorem 3: nlim
→∞
b g
xn ⋅ y n
or, if − <
= F lim x I ⋅ F lim y I = l ⋅ m
2n 128
1 1 H n→∞ K H n K
n→∞ n
or, if n <
2 128
Theorem 4: lim G J
Fx I
Hy K
n
or, if 2 n > 2 7 n→∞
n

or, if n > 7 = N ε (or, simply N = 7)

F lim x I
Hence, for a given ε =
1 H n→∞ K = l , if m ≠ 0
n

128
, an integer N = 7 was =
F lim y I m
found such that xn − 1 < ε for n > N = 7 N a f H n→∞ K n

Theorem 5: lim bc x g
depends on the choice of ε and so N is a function
of ε . n→∞
n

F I
= c G lim x J = c ⋅ l , where c is a constant.
Theorems of the Limit of a Sequence
The following results can be proved by making use
H n→∞ K n

b g
of the ε − δ definition of the limit of a sequence Note: To find the limit of a sequence whose nth term
is given means that one is required to find out the
and use of these can be made in working out problems
limit of its nth term as n → ∞ which can be determined
af
of finding the limits of the given sequences.
by using the same method of evaluation of lim f x
1 x→∞
1. nlim =0 replacing x by n which will be explained in methods of
→∞ n
a finding the limit of a function y = f (x) at a point x = c.
2. lim p = 0 , where a is any real number and p is
n→∞ n
positive.
134 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
Geometrical Meaning of the
Limit of a Sequence
Geometrically lim xn = l means that however close
n→∞
the horizontal lines y = l + ε and y = l – ε are taken,
there exists a vertical line at x = N such that all the
points (n, xn) to the right of the vertical line x = N lie
within the horizontal lines Y = l ± ε .
l +ε y = l+ ε
l 2ε (n, x n)
l –ε y=l–ε
N=x
0 1 2 N x 3. The sequence xn = 1 + (–1)n, n ∈ N has only two
On the Relation Between the Limit of
a Sequence and Limit Point of the Range
Set (or, Simply Range) of the Sequence
One should note that there is no term limit point of a
sequence because in fact only an infinite set which is
dense has a limit point whereas a finite set has no limit
point. But there is a theorem which described the
relationship in between the terms “limit of a sequence
and the limit point of the range of the sequence in a
space”.
Statement of the theorem: Let {xn} be a sequence in
a space such that lim xn = x . Let A be the range
n→∞
of the sequence {xn}. Then
(a) If A is a finite set, then xn = x for infinitely many
‘n’.
(b) If A is an infinite set, then ‘x’ is the limit point
of A.
Remarks: 1. the limit points of a sequences {xn} are
either the points of the range of the sequence or the
limit points of the range of the sequence.
2. If a point is a limit point of the range of a sequence,
then it is also a limit point of the sequence but the
converse may not always be true.
3. If a sequence has a limit ‘l’, then it is the limit point
of the sequence but converse is not usually true.
Examples: 1. The constant sequence xn = c ,
∀ n ∈ N has only one limit point namely c in the
a f
sense that c ∈ c − ε , c + ε , i.e. any ε -
neighbourhood of C contains at least one term of the
sequence which is not necessarily different from ‘C’.
Further one should note that the constant sequence
xn = c , ∀ n ∈ N has its range {c} which is a finite
set and so the range of the constant sequence has no
limit point.
1
2. The sequence xn = , ∀ n ∈ N has ‘0’ as a
n
limit point which is also a limit point of its range
RS1, 1 , 1 , 1 , LUV .
T 234 W
limit points namely ‘0 and 2’ whereas its range {0, 2}
has no limit point.
b g FGH1 + n1 IJK , ∀ n ∈ N has
4. The sequence xn = − 1
n
only two limit points namely 1 and –1 which is also the
R U
limit points of its range S− 2, 2 , − , , − , , LV .
3 3 4 4
T 2 2 3 3 W
Definition of Limit Point of a Sequence
In the above, the meaning of the term ‘limit points of
a sequence’ has been explained. Now the definitions
available in connection with ‘limit points of a
sequence’ are provided.
The concept of the limit points of a sequence is
defined in two ways.
Definition 1: (In terms of neighbourhood): A point p
is the limit point of the sequence ⇔ For any given
small number ε > 0 and any given integer N, ∃ an
other integer n ≥ N such that xn − p < ε .
Or, in words, a limit point of a sequence is a point
p such that for any given integer N, each
neighbourhood of p contains at least one term of the
sequence after the Nth term.
Or, it can be said that a limit point of a sequence is
a point p such that for any given integer N, each
neighbourhood of p contains infinite number of terms
 Limit and Limit Points 135

of the sequence after the Nth term in the sense that 2. A sequence may contain one or more convergent
the terms having the same value are counted as often subsequences.
as they occur as terms of the sequence. 1
Remarks: 1. One should note that elements of the Examples: 1. The sequence {xn} where xn = ,
n
sequence need not be distinct appearing in definite
∀ n ∈ N has only one limit point namely the real
order as various distinct terms of the sequence like
first term, second term, a third term and so on. As a 1
consequence, all the infinitely many terms xn of this number ‘0’ since xn = is a convergent sequence.
n
definition may be the same number and so any number
that occurs an infinite number of times in a given
sequence or in a subsequence (subsequences) of a
2. The sequence {x n } for which xn = −1 , b g n

sequence is a limit point of the sequence according ∀ n ∈ N , i.e. {xn} = {–1, 1, –1, 1, –1, …} has got two
to the definition 1 since what the definition 1 requires limit points namely 1 and –1 since there are two
is that there should be at least one term, i.e., an infinite
number of terms of the sequence in the sense that the subsequences x2 n = −1 b g 2n
b g
and xb2 n + 1g = − 1
2n + 1
,
same element is counted as often as it occurs as a
∀ n ∈ N , whose limits are 1 and –1 respectively.
term of the sequence.
2. A constant sequence xn = c , ∀ n ∈ N has only 1
one limit point namely the constant ‘c’. 3. The sequence {x n } for which xn = 1 + ,
n
Example: Let there be a sequence defined by ∀ n ∈ N , has got only one limit point namely 1 since
b gn
xn = −1 , ∀ n ∈ N , i.e. it is a convergent sequence.
4. The sequence {xn} where xn = 1, ∀ n ∈ N has only
lx q = l− 1, 1, − 1, 1, Lq . This sequence has 1 and
n one limit point namely 1 since it is a convergent
–1 as limit points. The reason for which is that every sequence.
neighbourhood of 1 contains an infinite number of 5. The sequence {xn} where xn = n, ∀ n ∈ N has no
terms x2, x4, x6, … and every neighbourhood of –1 limit point since it is not a convergent sequence.
contains an infinite number of terms x1, x3, x5, … in
the sense that the same element is counted as often Difference Between Limit and
as it occurs as terms (first term, second term, third Limit Point of a Sequence
term and so on) of the sequence.
There are some distinctions between a limit point and
Moreover one should note that each of the terms
the limit of a sequence.
x2 = second term, x4 = fourth term, x6 = sixth term, …
1. If all the members of the sequence {xn} from a
is 1 and each of the terms x1 = first term, x3 = third
certain term x N bε g onwards (i.e. x N + 2 , x N + 3 , L )
term, x5 = fifth term, … is –1.
Lastly one should note that the sequence b g
lie within the interval l − ε , l + ε , then l is the limit

b g
n
xn = − 1 , ∀ n ∈ N is itself not convergent.
Definition 2: (in terms of limit of a subsequence):
The limit (limits) of a convergent subsequence
(convergent subsequences) of a sequence is (are)
called the limit point (limit points) of the sequence.
Remarks: 1. There is a convergent sequence ⇒
The limit and the limit point of the sequence both are
same.
of the sequence. But when l is the limit point of the
sequence {xn}, then it is sufficient that at least one
term of the sequence (not necessarily different from
b g
‘l’) lie within the interval l − ε , l + ε . e.g.: For any
b g
ε > 0 , xn = 1 ∈ 1 − ε , 1 + ε , ∀ n ∈ N . This is
why 1 is the limit point of the constant sequence.
Further it should be noted that 1 is also limit of the
constant sequence xn = 1.
136 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. Limit of a sequence is unique if it exists whereas a
limit point of a sequence is not unique since a limit
point (limit points) of a sequence is the limit (limits)
of a convergent subsequence (convergent
subsequences) of a sequence which means that there
may be one or more than one limits according as there
is one or more than one convergent subsequences of a
sequence whereas the sequence whose convergent
subsequence (convergent subsequences) is (are)
considered, need not be convergent and in case the
sequence is convergent, its limit and limit point both
are same, e.g.: The sequence defined as xn = −1 , b gn
∀ n ∈ N is divergent, i.e. it has no limit. But it has
two subsequences xn′ = − 1 b g2n
and xn′′ = −1 b g
2n + 1
whose limits are 1 and –1 respectively which are
termed as the limit points of the sequence
b g n
xn = −1 , ∀ n ∈ N noting that the sequence
b g n
( xn = −1 , ∀ n ∈ N ) itself has no limit but it has
got two limit points namely 1 and –1 respectively
accordingly as n is even or odd.
Definition (ii): ( ε - δ -definition): A fixed point ‘p’ is
the limit of a function f at a limit point ‘a’ of the domain
of the function f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ a δ > 0 ( δ depends
on ε ) such that for every value of x in the deleted
neighbourhood 0 < x − a < δ , the value of the
function f (x) lies in the neighbour-
b g
hood p − ε , p + ε i.e. ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ δ > 0 ( δ
depends on ε ) such that ∀ x 0 < x − a < δ
bg
bg
⇒ f x − p < ε ⇒ xlim →a
f x = p . Which
means p is the limit of the function f at x = a, where a
is a limit point of the domain of the function.
Note: It is common to say that y = f (x) has a limit p at
a point x = a instead of saying that y = f (x) has a limit
p at the limit point x = a of its domain.
b
Explanation of ε − δ definition g
The following example as an explanation of ε − δ b g
definition of the limit of a function is presented.

b g eb x − 2g j is not defined at x = 2
5 x2 − 4
Limit of a Function f x =

5b x − 2gb x + 2g
The concept of the limit of a function is defined in
various ways:
Definition (i): (In terms of neighbourhood): we say
Now f b x g =
b x − 2g = 5b x + 2g when
that a fixed point p is a limit of the function f at a limit x≠2
point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f if there is a
fixed point ‘p’ such that if we choose any ε -
bg b g bg
[∴ x = 2 ⇒ f 2 = 5 2 + 2 , i.e. f 2 ≠ 20 ]
neighbourhood of the point ‘p’ denoted by N ε p , itbg In fact, f b x g − 20 = 5 b x + 2g − 20 , for
is possible to find a ε -neighbourhood of the limit
point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f denoted by x≠2
bg
N δ a such that the values of the function lie in = 5x − 10 = 5 x − 2 , x ≠ 2
bg
N ε p for every value of the independent variable x
which lies in δ -deleted neighbourhood of the limit ∴ 0< x−2 <
1
50
⇒ f x − 20 < bg1
10
point ‘a’ of domain of the function denoted by
bg
N δ′ a = 0 < x − a < δ , i.e. There is a fixed point ‘p’ Similarly, 0 < x − 2 <
1
bg bg
such that for every N ε p , ∃ a N δ a such that 500
bg bg bg
f x ∈ N ε p for all x ∈ N δ′ a ⇔ The fixed point
⇒ f x − 20 < bg1
‘p’ is the limit of the function f at the limit point ‘a’ of 100
the domain of the function f.
0< x−2 <
1
5000
⇒ f x − 20 < bg1
1000
 Limit and Limit Points 137

Hence, we see that for every small positive Step 3: Thirdly, out of the two expressions f1(k) and
number ε , f2(k) obtained after simplification, one should choose

0< x−2 <

1
5ε
bg
⇒ f x − 20 < ε
that one which is greater.
Step 4: Fourthly, one should form the inequality
bg bg bg
f 1 k < ε , where f 1 k > f 2 k and lastly solve
In other words, for any small ε > 0, ∃ a δ
bg
f 1 k < ε for k.
1
(= Note: When f1 (k) = f2 (k), anyone can be chosen to
bg
in this example) such that
5ε form the in equality f 1 k < ε .
bg
f x − 20 < ε whenever 0 < x − 2 < δ .
Solved Examples
This fact is expressed by saying that 20 is the limit

e j as x tends to 2. it is written as
5 x2 − 4
1. Show that lim 3x + 2 = 8
x→2
b g
of f b x g =
b x − 2g Proof:
Method 1: Let 3x + 2 − 8 = u … (i)
5 e x − 4j
2
and x − 2 = k , i.e., x = 2 ± k
lim
x→2 b x − 2g = 20
Note: The bε − δ g definition does not provide a
b
∴ x = 2 + k ⇒ u = 3 2 + k + 2 − 8 , from g
technique to calculate the limit which is a fixed number (i).
‘l’. What the bε − δ g definition does is supply a = 6 + 3k + 2 − 8 = 3k + 2 − 2 = 3k
criterion which one uses to test a number ‘l’ to see
whether it is actually the limit of a function f as x tends = 3k bQ k > 0g
to a, where ‘a’ is the limit point of the domain of the
function.
b
and x = 2 − k ⇒ u = 3 2 − k + 2 − 8 , from (i) g
= 6 − 3k + 2 − 8
How to find a δ > 0 for a given f, l, a
= – 3k + 2 − 2
and ε > 0 algebraically

The process of finding a δ > 0 such that for all x

= – 3k b
= 3k Q k > 0 g
0< x−a <δ⇒ f x −l <ε af Now, 3k < ε ⇔ k <
ε
3
= δ (say)
Consists of the following steps:
ε
Step 1: Firstly, one should suppose that ∴ x−2 <δ=
af
f x − l = u and simplify it. 3
Step 2: Secondly, on supposing that ‘k’ is a small b g
⇒ 3 x + 2 − 8 < ε ⇔ lim 3x + 2 = 8 ,
x→2
b g
positive number and letting x − a = k , i.e.,
Hence proved.
x = a ± k , one should make the substitution x = a +
bg
k and x = a – k respectively in f x − l = u and Method 2: xlim
→2
3x + 2 = 8b g
simplify it which gives two expressions in K namely
if 3x + 2 − 8 < ε
f1(k) and f2(k) (say).
or, if 3x − 6 < ε
138 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

or, if 3 x − 2 < ε b g
⇔ 17 + 30 ε k < 100 ε

ε 100 ε
or, if x − 2 < = δ (say) ⇔k < = δ (say)
3 17 + 30 ε
ε
Thus 0 < x − 2 < δ = 100 ε
3 ∴ 0< x−2 < =δ
17 + 30 ε
b
⇒ 3x + 2 − 8 < ε g
2x − 3
b g
1
∴ lim 3 x + 2 = 8 . Hence, proved. ⇒ − <ε
x→2 3x + 4 10

F 2 x − 3IJ = 1
lim G
FG 2 x − 3IJ = 1 Hence, proved.
2. Show that
x→2 H 3x + 4 K 10 ⇔ lim
x→2H 3x + 4 K 10
2x − 3
3. Show that lim G
F x − 4I = 4
2

H x − 2 JK
1
Proof: Let − =u
3x + 4 10 x→2

and x − 2 = k ⇒ x = 2 ± k Proof:

F x − 4I − 4 = u
2
Now, u =
2x − 3
−
3x + 4 10
1 Method 1: Let GH x − 2 JK … (i)

and x − 2 = k , i.e., x = 2 ± k
20 x − 30 − 3x − 4 17 x − 34
=
b
3x + 4 10 g =
b g
3x + 4 10 F x − 4 I − 4 , from (i).
2

17 x − 2
Now u = GH x − 2 JK
=
b3x + 4g 10 ... (i)
b x − 2gbx + 2g − 4 = b x + 2g − 4
17k
=
b x − 2g
∴x = 2 + k ⇒u =
10 + 3k 10 b g = x−2
17 k
and x = 2 − k ⇒ u =
b
10 − 3k 10 g ∴ x=2+k⇒u= 2+k −2 =k

and x = 2 − k ⇒ u = 2 − k − 2 = k
17 k 17k
But
b
10 − 3k 10
>
g
10 + 3k 10 b g ∴ k < ε = δ (say)
Hence, 0 < x − 2 < ε = δ
17 k
Now,
b g
10 − 3k 10
< ε , for sufficiently small k.
F x − 4I − 4
2

⇔ 17k < 10 ε b10 − 3k g

⇒ GH x − 2 JK <ε

⇔ 17k < 100 ε − 30 ε k

⇔ 17k + 30 ε k < 100 ε
 Limit and Limit Points 139

⇔ lim G
F x − 4 I = 4 . Hence, proved.
2 But k 2 + 4 k > 4 k − k 2
x→2 H x − 2 JK Now, k 2 + 4 k < ε

Method 2: lim G
F x − 4I = 4
2 ⇔ k 2 + 4k − ε < 0
x→2 H x − 2 JK ⇔k <
− 4 + 16 + 4ε
=
−4 + 2 4 + ε

F x − 4I − 4 < ε
If G
2
2 2

H x − 2 JK = −2 + 4 + ε = δ (say)

Thus, 0 < x − 2 < − 2 + 4+ε =δ

b x − 2gb x + 2g − 4 < ε
or, if
b x − 2g ⇒ x2 − 4 < ε

or, if b x + 2 g − 4 < ε
⇔ lim x 2 = 4 . Hence, proved.
x→2

or, if x − 2 < ε = δ (say) Method 2: lim x 2 = 4 *

x→2

∴0 < x − 2 < ε = δ
(* Q x 2 − 4 = x − 2 b g 2
+ 4x − 4 − 4
F x − 4I − 4 < ε
2
b g
⇒ GH x − 2 JK = x−2
2
+ 4x − 8

F x − 4 I = 4 . Hence, proved.
2
∴ x2 − 4 = b x − 2g 2
+ 4x − 8
⇔ lim G
H x − 2 JK
x→2
= b x − 2g 2
+4 x−2 )

4. Show that xlim x2 = 4 x2 − 4 < ε

→2

Proof:
Method 1: Let u = x − 4 2
… (i)
if b x − 2g 2
+4 x−2 <ε
2
or, if x − 2 +4 x−2 −ε<0
and x − 2 = k , i.e., x = 2 ± k
− 4 + 16 + 4 ε
∴ x=2+k ⇒u= b2 + k g 2
−4 or, if x − 2 <
2

= 4 + 4k + k 2 − 4 = k 2 + 4k −4 + 2 4 + ε
or, if x − 2 <
b
= k 2 + 4k Q k > 0 g = −2 + 4 + ε = δ (say)
2

and x = 2 − k ⇒ u = 2 − k b g 2
−4
Thus, x 2 − 4 < ε
= 4 − 4k + k 2 − 4 = k 2 − 4k
if 0 < x − 2 < δ = − 2 + 4 + ε
= 4k – k2 for small k,
140 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇔ lim x 2 = 4 . Hence proved.

x→2 ⇒ e2 x 2
− 3x + 4 − 9 < ε j
x→3
e
5. Show that lim 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 = 13 . j ⇔ lim
x→3
e 2x 2
j
− 3x + 4 = 13 . Hence, proved.
Proof:
Method 1: Let 2 x − 3 x + 4 − 13 = u
2 … (i)
bg
Method 2: Here f x = 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 , l = 13 and
a=3
and x − 3 = k , i.e., x = 3 ± k bg
f x − l = 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 − 13 = 2 x 2 − 3x − 9

= 2b x − 3 g b g
Now u = 2 x − 3x + 4 − 13
2
2
+2 x−3
= 2 x 2 − 3x − 9 , from (i) bg
∴ for any ε > 0, f x − l < ε

2 b x − 3g + 9 b x − 3g < ε
∴ x =3+ k ⇒u 2
if
= 2 3+ kb g − 3b3 + k g − 9
2
2
or, if 2 x − 3 +9 x−3 <ε
= 2 e9 + 6k + k j − 9 − 3k − 9
2
2
or, if 2 x − 3 +9 x−3 −ε<0
= 18 + 12 k + 2 k − 3k − 18 2
− 9 + 81 + 8ε
or, if x − 3 < = δ (say)
= 2k 2 + 9k = 2k 2 + 9k Q k > 0 b g 4

− 9 + 81 + 8ε
and x = 3 − k ∴ 0< x −3 <δ=
4
⇒u= 2 3− k b g 2
b
−3 3− k − 9g e
⇒ 2 x 2 − 3x + 4 − 9 < ε j
e
= 2 9 − 6k + k 2
j − 9 + 3k − 9 e
⇔ lim 2x 2 − 3x + 4 = 13 j
x→2
= 18 − 12 k + 2 k 2 + 3k − 18

= 2 k 2 − 9 k = 9 k − 2 k 2 , for small k.
b
The use of ε − δ Definition g
to Prove Theorems
But 2 k + 9 k > 2 k − 9 k
2 2
b g
The ε − δ definition does not only give a criterion
Now 2 k + 9 k < ε
2 to check the value obtained whether it is limit or not
but also it enables us to prove many theorems and
⇔ 2k 2 + 9k − ε < 0 many useful results.

− 9 + 81 + 8ε Theorem 1: xlim
→a
bg bg
f x = f a ⇒ lim f x
x→a
bg
⇔k< = δ (say)
4
= f x bg
− 9 + 81 + 8ε
∴ 0< x−3 <δ=
4 Proof: bg
f x − f x bg bg
≤ f x − f a … (i)bg
 Limit and Limit Points 141

Also, lim f x = f a
x→a
bg bg LM f a xf OP = lim f x
x→a
af l
N g a xf Q lim g a x f m
(iv) lim = , provided
⇒ for any given x→a

bg bg
x→a
ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 s.t f x − f a < ε , ∀ x for
m≠0
which 0 < x − a < δ … (ii) (v) For any positive integer n = 1, 2, 3, …
∴ (i) and (ii) ⇒ ∀ ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 s.t
a f = LMN lim x OPQ
n
n
lim f x =l .
bg
f x − f a bg < ∈, ∀x for which
x→a x→a

LM OP n
0< x−a <δ [If follows that lim x n = lim x
x→a N x→a Q = an ]

∴ lim
x→a
bg
f x = f a bg (vi) When m and n are positive integers, then
n n

Theorem 2: Show that lim c = c (a) if m is even lim x m = a m for 0 < a < ∞
x→a
x→a

Proof: Here, f (x) = c and l = c n

(b) if m is odd lim x m = a m for − ∞ < a < ∞
n

∴ bg
f x −l = c−c =0
x→a

bg
(vii) If f 1 x ≤ f 2 x ≤ f 3 x bg bg
bg
for all x in an
∴ ∀ ε > 0, f x − l < ε for
open interval containing ‘a’ except possibly at
0 < x − a < δ , where δ > 0 is any number. x = a and if
x→a
af
lim f 1 x = lim f 3 x = l , then
x→a
af
Theorem 3: lim x = a
x→a af
lim f 2 x = l
x→a
af
Proof: = f x − l = x − a (This theorem is called ‘Sandwitch Theorem or

∴ af
f x − l < ε when 0 < x − a < δ
Pinching Theorem’)
Note: The expression ‘except possibly at x = a’ means
Hence, the result. that f (x) may or may not be defined at x = a.
Now, we state (without proof) some results on limits Now, we can make use of these results in evaluating
x→a
af
Let lim f x = l and lim g x = m
x→a
bg limits of polynomials, rational functions and powers
of such functions.
And let C be any constant. Then
Examples: Evaluate
(i) lim
x→a
bg bg
f x + g x
e
1. lim 2 x 3 − 3x 2 + 6 x + 5 j
x→2
= lim f b x g + lim g b x g = l + m
x→a x→a
e
Solution: lim 2 x − 3x + 6 x + 5
3 2
j
L O
x→2

(ii) lim C f b x g = C M lim f a x fP = C ⋅ l = lim e2 x j − lim e3x j + lim b6 x g + lim b5g

x→a N x→a Q x→2
3
x→2
2
x→2 x→2

(iii) lim f b x g ⋅ g b x g
x→a = 2 lim e x j − 3 lim e x j + 6 lim a x f + lim b5g
3 2
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2

LM lim f a xfOP ⋅ LM lim g a xfOP = l ⋅ m

N
x→a QN x→a Q = 2 ⋅ 23 − 3 ⋅ 22 + 6 ⋅ 2 + 5
142 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

= 16 − 12 + 12 + 5
= 21 =
e2.3 2
− 3.3 + 4 j = 13
17 17
Note: We see in the above example that if
bg
f x = 2 x 3 − 3x 2 + 6 x + 5 , then, lim f x = 21
x→2
bg 3. xlim
→4
e
x2 + 2x − 5 j 3

e j
Also, f (2) = 21 3

bg
Hence, lim f x = value of f (x) at x = 2 = f (2).
x→2
Solution: xlim
→4
x2 + 2x − 5

bg bg LM e jOPQ
3
However, lim f x = f a is not in general

true. We have
x→a

already seen that if

N
= lim x 2 + 2 x − 5
x→4

= LM lim e x j + lim b2 x g + lim b − 5gOP

3

b g eb x − 2g j , then N Q
2
5 x2 − 4
f x = bg
lim f x = 20
x→2
x→4 x→4 x→4

= e4 + 2.4 − 5j
2 3
But f (2) is undefined. We will see in the
definition of the concept of continuity that if
= 19 3
bg bg
lim f x = f a , then f (x) is said to be continuous
e5 j
x→a 3 −5
4. lim x + 3x 2 − 2 x 4
at x = a. x → 64
As seen above, f (x) = 2x 3 – 3x2 + 6x + 5 is
continuous at x = 2. Solution: lim
x → 64
e5 x + 3x 2 − 2 x
3 −5
4
j
In fact, any polynomial function is continuous for
−5
each value of x ∈ R .
1 3
= 5 lim x 2 + 3 lim x 2 − 2 lim x 4
x → 64 x → 64 x → 64

F 2x 2 I
− 3x + 4
2. lim GH x J
+ x+5 K b g
= 5 64
1
+ 3 ⋅ 64 b g 3
−2⋅
1
b64g
2 2
x→3 2 5
4

Solution: Limit of the denominator is

e j
1 2
lim x 2 + x + 5 = 5 ⋅ 8 + 3 ⋅ 83 − 2 ⋅ 5
= 40 + 1536 −
x→3 4 1024

x→3
e j
= lim x 2 + lim x + lim 5
x→3
bg x→3
bg = 1576 −
2
1024
=
1576 × 1024 − 2
1024
= 32 + 3 + 5 = 17 which is not zero.
F 2 x − 3x + 4 I
1613822
2 =
∴ lim G
H x + x + 5 JK
1024
x→3 2
5. Prove that lim sin x = 0
x→0

lim e2 x − 3x + 4j
2
π π
x→3
= Proof: From the figure, for − <x<
lim e x + x + 5j
2 2 2
x→3
length of MP
lim e2 x j − lim b3x g + lim b4g
2 sin x =
x→3 x→3 x→3
OP
=
17
 Limit and Limit Points 143

∴ By Pinching theorem and (i), we get

FG 1 IJ = 0
MP
=

= MP
1 lim x sin
x→0 H xK
Note: The above result (results) can be shown in
≤ length of AP various ways which is (are) shown in this book.
≤ length of arc AP 7. Prove that lim cos x = 1
x→0
B
P π π
Proof: For − <x< ,
2 2

cos x = 1 − sin 2 x ≥ 1 − sin 2 x

x
0 M A π π
1 (Q − < x < ⇒ 0 < cos x < 1 and
2 2
∴ sin x ≤ x
0 ≤ a ≤ 1⇒ a ≤ a )
∴ sin x − 0 = sin x ≤ x − 0 π π
Hence, we have for − <x< ,
∴ For any ε > 0, ∃ a δ > 0 s.t sin x − 0 < ε 2 2

for 0 < x − 0 < δ 1 − sin 2 x ≤ cos x ≤ 1 ... (i)

Hence, lim sin x = 0

e j F lim sin xI 2
x→0 Since, lim 1 − sin 2 x = 1 −
x→0 H x→0 K
FG 1 IJ = 0 = 1 − 0 = 1 , It follows from Pinching theorem and (i)
6. Prove that lim x sin
x→0 H xK that lim cos x = 1 .
F 1I
x sin G J ≤ x sin G J
F 1I x→0

Proof: Q 0 ≤ H xK H xK ≤
FG sin x IJ = 1
x ⋅1 = x
8. lim
x→0 H xK
Note 1: This limit plays a significant role in
FG 1 IJ mathematical analysis. It is often called first remarkable
∴ 0 ≤ x sin
H xK ≤ x limit.
Note 2: A strict proof of this limit depends upon
Now, since lim x = 0 defining sin x as a power series in x and upon certain
x→0 properties of power series. Therefore, its proof by
∴ By the Pinching theorem geometrical argument will be presented in the chapter
FG 1 IJ to find the limits of trigonometrical function using
lim x sin
x→0 H xK =0 … (i) practical methods.

Again, One Sided Limits

FG 1 IJ FG 1 IJ ≤ FG 1 IJ It is recalled that in the definition of the limit of f (x) as
− x sin
H xK ≤ x sin
H xK x sin
H xK x tends to a, it was required that the function f (x)
should be defined in some deleted neighbourhood of
144 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

‘a’ (i.e., a is an interior point of an open interval where 0 < x < δ , the value of the function f (x) lies in the ε -
f (x) is defined and f (x) may or may not be defined at b g
neighbourhood p − ε , p + ε i.e. given any ε > 0 ,
x = a). it is possible to find a δ > 0 such that 0 < x − a < δ
Now, let us consider the function f (x) = x−2 bg
⇒ f x − p <ε that is a< x<a+δ
clearly, f (x) is not defined for x < 2. Hence, f (x) is not
defined in any deleted neighbourhood of 2.
bg
⇒ p − ε < f x < p + ε.

Hence, lim
x→2
x − 2 does not exist. Notation:
x → a+
bg e j
lim f x , f a + and f a + 0 areb g
available notations for the right hand limit of a
Similarly, lim x and lim x 2 − 9 do not function f at x = a, where ‘a’ is right limit point of the
x→0 x→3
domain of the function f.
exist.

F πI
Definition (ii): (left hand limit): (In terms of
sin G J
H x K , then lim f b xg does not
neighbourhood)
Note: If f b x g =
(a) A fixed point p is the left hand limit of the func-
F πI
sin G J
x→0 tion f at the left limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the
H xK function f if there is a fixed point p such that if we
choose any ε -neighbourhood of p denoted by N ε p , bg
1 it is possible to find a δ -neighbourhood of the left
exist. In fact for x = (where n = any nonzero
n limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f denoted
FG π IJ = 0 and so f (x) is not defined. bg
by N δ p such that the values of the function f (x) lie
integer) sin
H xK bg
in N ε p for every value of the independent variable
x which lies in the left hand δ -deleted neighbourhood
Hence, in any deleted neighbourhood of x = 0, we of the left limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the function
have points where f (x) is undefined.
bg
f denoted by N δ′ a = 0 < a – x < δ i.e., a − δ < x < a .
Definition (i): (Right hand limit): (In terms of
neighbourhood):
b g
(b) (In terms of ε − δ definition): A fixed point ‘p’
is the left hand limit of a function f at the left limit
(a) A fixed point ‘p’ is a right hand limit of the function
point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 ,
f at the right limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the function
f if there is a fixed point p such that if we choose any
b g
∃ a δ > 0 δ depends on ε such that for every value
ε -neighbourhood of p denoted by N ε p , it is bg of x in the left deleted δ -neighbourhood 0 < a – x <
δ , the value of the function f (x) lies in the ε -
possible to find a δ -neighbourhood of the right limit
point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f denoted by
b
neighbourhood p − ε , p + ε . g
bg
N δ p such that the values of the function f (x) lie in That is, given ε > 0 , it is possible to find δ > 0
bg
N ε p for every value of independent variable x such that
which lies in a right hand δ -deleted neighbourhood 0<a – x<δ⇒ f x − p <ε bg
bg
of the right limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the function
bg
f denoted by N δ′ a = 0 < x – a < δ . or, a − δ < x < a ⇒ p − ε < f x < p + ε
b g
(b) (In terms of ε − p definition): A fixed point ‘p’
Notation: bg e j
lim f x , f a − and f (a – 0) are
is the right hand limit of a function f at the right limit x → a−
point ‘a’ of the domain of the function f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 ,
available notations for the left hand limit of a function
∃ a δ > 0 ( δ depends on ε ) such that for every f at x = a, where ‘a’ is the left limit point of the domain
value of x in the right hand δ -deleted neighbourhood of a function.
 Limit and Limit Points 145

Notes: 1. Limit of a function f is said to exist at an Limit of a function f as x → − ∞ : Let the function f
interior point of its domain or at the limit point not in
its domain ⇔ left hand limit and right hand limit of
b g
be defined on the interval − ∞, a , then it is said
the function are finite and equal at the interior point that a number L = lim
x → −∞
bg
f x ⇔ ∀ ε > 0, ∃ a
of the domain of the function. number M ε > 0 such that
2. Limit of a function f is said to exist at the right limit
point of its domain ⇔ right hand limit of the function ∀ x<−M ⇒ f x − L <εaf
f is finite at the right limit point of the domain of the
function f.
Notes: 1. One must note that if lim f x = L , then
x→∞
af
3. Limit of a function f is said to exist at the left limit
point of its domain ⇔ left hand limit of the function
lim f x
x→∞
bg = lim
x → +∞
bg
f x = lim
x → −∞
bg
f x = L
f is finite at the left limit point of the domain of the
F KI = + ∞
function f.
4. The δ -neighbourhood of a point ‘a’ excluding
2. (i) One must use lim
+
x→0 H xK (K is a

the point ‘a’, is divided into two parts by the point ‘a’
b
on the real line. These are intervals a – δ , a and g positive number)

b g
a , a + δ where it is required to restrict x to lie to F K I = − ∞ (K is a positive number)
find the left hand limit and right hand limit respectively.
(ii) lim−
x→0 H xK
Limit of a Function as x → ∞ FKI
lim G J = ∞ (K is a positive number)
HxK
(iii)
x→0
Cauchy definition: (Also, termed as “( ε – M)
definition): To define the limit of a function f as x → ∞ ,
F K I = 0 (K is a positive number)
first of all the domain of a function f is fixed.
Let a function f be defined out side of some interval
(iv) lim
x → +∞ H xK
[c, d], or it can be said that the function f is defined in F K I = 0 (K is a positive number)
the neighbourhood of infinity (symbolized as ∞ ), i.e.
the function f is defined for all x satisfying the
(v) lim
x → −∞ H xK
inequality | x | > K, (i.e. x > K or x < –K, where K > 0), FKI
lim G J = 0 (K is a positive number),
HxK
i.e. the domain of the function f is not bounded. (vi)
bg
x→∞
∴ A number L = lim f x ⇔ ∀ ε > 0, ∃ a
x→∞

number M ε > 0 M > K b g such that x > M lim

x→∞ x
K
=0
bg
⇒ f x − L < ε. (vii) The notation
It is sometimes of interest to consider two separate
cases of seeking the limits of a function f, viz., when x
bg
lim f x = ∞ ⇔ lim
x→a x →a
bg
f x =∞
tends to + ∞ and when x tends to − ∞ . We define
each one in the following way. bg
(viii) A function f for which lim f x = 0 is called
x→a

Limit of a Function f as x → + ∞ : Let the function infinitesimal as x → a i.e. a function whose limit is
b g
f be defined on the interval a, + ∞ , then it is said zero at the limit point ‘a’ of the domain of a function f
that a number L = lim f b xg ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ a is called infinitesimal.
x → +∞
number Mε > 0 such that ∀x> M∈
bg
⇒ f x − L < ε.
146 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solved Examples 3
or, if <ε
1 | x| − 2
1. Prove that lim =0
x→∞ x or, if 3 < ε | x | − 2ε

Proof: Let f x −bg 1

x
and it is given L = 0
or, if ε | x | > 3 + 2ε

3 + 2ε
∴ bg
f x − L < ε,
or, if | x | >
ε
= M (say)

1 x+5 3 + 2ε
i.e., ⇒ −0 <ε Hence − 1 < ε for x >
x x+2 ε

if
1
<ε FG x + 5 IJ = 1
x ⇒ lim
H x + 2K
x→∞

Remark: 1. lim f b x g ≠ lim f b x g

1
or, if <ε
x x → +∞ x → −∞

1 ⇔ lim f b x g does not exist.

or, if x > x→∞
= M (say)
ε
F 2x + 3 I
Question: Prove that lim G
GH 4 x + 2 JJK
2
1 1
Hence, − 0 < ε for x > does not
x ε x→∞

1 exist.
⇒ lim =0
x→∞ x
F I
FG x + 5 IJ = 1 GG JJ
2
2x + 3
Proof: lim
2. Prove that lim
x→∞ H x + 2K x → +∞
H 4x + 2
K
Proof: Let f x =bg x+5
x+2
and it is given L = 1 x 2+
3
x2 2

bg
= lim
x → +∞ FG 2
=
4 IJ … (i)
∴ f x − L < ε,
H
x 4+
x K
x+5
i.e., ⇒ −1 <ε F I
x+2
and lim GG 2x2 + 3
JJ
x + 5 − x− 2
x → −∞
H 4x + 2 K
if <ε
x+2
LM − x 2 + 3 OP
MM x P 2 2
F 2I P
3
<ε = lim =− … (ii)
G J
or, if
MN H x K PQ
x → −∞ 4
x+2 x 4 +
 Limit and Limit Points 147

F I Hein’s Definition of the Limit of a Function

Hence, (i) and (ii) ⇒ lim G
GH
2x2 + 3
JJ does not Let f : X → R , X ⊆ R , and supposing that ‘a’ is a
x→∞ 4x + 2 K limit point of the set X which is the domain of the
exist. function f.

x→a
bg
2. The notation lim f x = ∞ means that Definition: (Hein’s): A number l is the limit of the
function f at a limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the
lim
x→a
bg
f x = +∞ . x→a
bg
function f, i.e., lim f x = L ⇔ For any sequence
of values of x converging to the number ‘a’
FG 1 IJ = ∞ since lim 1
Examples: (i) lim
x→0 H xK x→0 x
=+∞ (x1, x2, x3, … xn, … belonging to the domain of
definition of the function and being different from a,

FG 1 IJ = ∞ since lim 1 = + ∞ i.e., xn ∈ X , xn ≠ a ).

(ii) lim
x→2 H x − 2K x−2
x→2
The corresponding sequence of values of y
b g y = f bx g , y = f b x g , ...,
y1 = f x1 ,
f b x g = ∞ ⇔ for every positive number M,
2 2 3 3

= f b x g , ... has a limit, which is the number L.

3. lim
x→∞
yn n
however large, there exists a positive number P such
that f x bg > M whenever x > P . Notes: (i) It is emphasized that the concept of the

In other words lim

x→∞
bg
f x = + ∞ , i.e.
limit of a function at a point ‘a’ is possible only for a
limit point ‘a’ of the domain of the function.

lim
x → +∞
f x b g = +∞. (ii) Hein’s definition of the limit of a function is
conveniently applied when it is required to show

F 2x I = ∞
that a function f (x) has no limit. For this it is
2
Example: lim
x→∞ GH x + 1JK
2
sufficient to show that there exist two sequences

x n′ and xn′′ such that lim xn′ = lim x n′′ = a

n→∞ n→∞

Since 2
2x3 but the corresponding sequences m f bx ′ g r
n and
x +1
m f b x ′′g r do not have identical limits, i.e. if
F 2x I
n

lim m f b x ′ g r ≠ lim m f b x ′′g r , then lim f b x g

2
x G
=
H x + 1JK
2 x n′ → 0
n
x n′′ → 0
n x→0

does not exist and if lim f b x g = L , then

F I
x→0

G 2 J lim f b x g = L for every sequence x → 0 .

x ⋅G
GH 1 + x1 JJK
n n
xn → 0
= → + ∞ as x → + ∞
F 1I
Example: 1. Show that lim sin G J does not exist.
2
H xKx→0

lim f b x g = ∞ is possible for the function y =

1
N.B: Solution: On choosing two sequences xn′ =
x→∞ 2n π
f (x) whose domain is a subset of R and the range is
1
unbounded. and xn′′ = (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
π
2n π +
2
148 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

We get Solved Examples

xn′ → 0 ≡ n → ∞ Evaluate the following ones:
xn′′ → 0 ≡ n → ∞ FG 1 IJ
Now,
(i) lim x ⋅ sin
x→0 H xK
FG 1 IJ F 1I
H xK lim x ⋅ cos G J
H xK
lim sin (ii)
x→0
x→0

FG 1 IJ FG 1 IJ
a f H x′ K
= lim sin
x n′ → 0 n
Solution: (i) Let f (x) = x and g x = sin bg H xK
= lim c sin b2 n π gh = 0 bg
Now, lim f x = lim x = 0
n→∞ x→0 x→0

F 1I
Also, lim sin G J F 1I
and g b x g = sin G J ≤ 1, ∀ x , x ≠ 0
x→0 H xK H xK
= lim sin G J
F 1I ⇒ g b x g is bounded in a deleted neighbourhood
a f H x ′′ K
x n′′ → 0 n of the point ‘0’.
F F π II
= lim G sin G 2n π + J J = 1 FG 1 IJ = 0
H H
n→∞ 2 KK
Hence, lim x sin
x→0 H xK
Hence, lim f b x ′ g = 0 and lim f b x ′′g = 1
x n′ → 0 n x n′′ → 0 n
FG 1 IJ
F 1I
(ii) Let f (x) = x and g (x) = cos
H xK
∴ lim sin G J does not exist.
x→0 H xK bg
Now lim f x = lim x = 0
x→0 x→0
Limit of The Product of an Infinitesimal
F 1I
and g b x g = cos G J ≤ 1 , ∀ x , x ≠ 0 .
and a Bounded Function
H xK
⇒ gb x g is bounded in a deleted neighbourhood
Definition (i): A function f is bounded in a δ -
neighbourhood of a point x = a ⇔ ∃ a real number
bg
‘m’ such that f x ≤ m , ∀ x in x − a < δ .
of the point ‘0’.
FG 1 IJ = 0
Definition (ii): A function f is bounded in a deleted
δ -neighbourhood of a point x = a ⇔ ∃ a real
Hence, L x cos
x→0 H xK
number m such that f x ≤ m , ∀ x in bg Geometrical Meaning of the
0 < x − a < δ. Limit of a Function
Now an important theorem which provides us a
On the Limit: In the language of geometry, the limit of
relation between an infinitesimal and a bounded
a function y = f (x) at a point x = c, where c is a limit
function.
bg
point of the domain of the function f, can be stated as:
Theorem: lim f x = 0 and g (x) is bounded “If given any ε > 0 , ∃ a δ ε > 0 (i.e. a positive
x→a

in a deleted neighbourhood of the point real number δ depending upon ε ): such that a part

bg bg
⇔ lim f x ⋅ g x = 0 .
x→a
(i.e. a portion) of the graph of the function y = f (x) lies
in the rectangle bounded by the lines
 Limit and Limit Points 149

Y y = f( x)
x = c − δ , x = c + δ (vertical lines)
y = l − ε , y = l + ε (horizontal lines) l+ε
ε l
then ‘L’ is the limit of the function y = f (x) at the point Nε(l) 2ε
l
x = c. ε
l–ε
That is, a portion of the graph of the function y = f
(x) can be obtained in a rectangle whose height can
be taken as small as one pleases by choosing the
width as small as one requires.
δ

Y
0 c–δ c x
y = f( x )

l+ε y=l+ε Nδ (c)

ε l
Nε(l) 2ε y=l
l
ε
l–ε y=l–ε Right (or right hand) Limit
x=c+δ
x=c–δ

In the point of the view of geometry, the right limit of

x=c

the function y = f (x) at a point x = c, where c is the

δ δ right limit point of the domain of the function f, is
0 c–δ c c+δ x narrated as:
“Given any ε > 0, ∃ a δ ε > 0 : a portion of the
N δ(c)
graph of the function y = f (x) lies in the rectangle
bounded by the lines
Left (or left hand) Limit x = c, x = c + δ
Geometrically, the left limit of the function y = f (x) at a y = L − ε, y = L + ε
point x = c, where ‘c’ is the left limit point of the
then f (x) is said to have the right limit at x = c.
domain of the function f, can be stated as:
That is, a portion of the graph of the function y = f
“Given an ε > 0 , ∃ a δ ε > 0 : a portion of the (x) can be obtained in a rectangle whose height is
graph of the function y = f (x) lies in the rectangle arbitrarily small by choosing the width (on the right of
bounded by the lines the point x = c) as small as one requires.
x = c − δ, x = c (vertical lines)
Y y = f( x)
y = l − ε , y = l + ε (horizontal lines)
then it is said that f (x) has the left limit at the point l +ε y=l +ε
ε l 2ε
x = c. Nε(l ) l y=l
ε
That is, a portion of the graph of the function y = f l –ε y=l –ε
(x) can be obtained in a rectangle whose height is
x=c +δ
x=c

arbitrarily small by choosing the width (on the left of

the point x = c) as small as one requires.
δ
0 c c +δ x

Nδ(c )
150 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
A Short Review on the Limit and the
Value of a Function y = f (x) at a Point x = c
In connection with the limit and the value of a function
y = f (x) at a point x = C, the following points should
be noted.
1. While finding the limit of a function y = f (x) at a
point x = c, one is required to consider the values of
the function at values of x in the deleted
neighbourhood of the point x = C which are arbitrarily
close to a fixed number l named as the limit of the
function y = f (x) at the point x = c.
2. The value of the function y = f (x) at the point x = c
is left out of the discussion. This (i.e. f (a)) may or
may not exist. Even if f (a) exists, f (a) need not be
equal to or even close to the limit l of the function f
at c.
For example,
bg
Let f x =
x2 − 4
x−2
,x≠2
= 6, x = 2
In this example f (2) = 6 is given but the limit of f (x)
at x = 2 is 4.
Difference Between the Limit and the
Value of a Function y = f (x) at a Point x = c
The main difference between the limit and the value
of function y = f (x) at a point x = c is the following:
The limit of a function y = f (x) at a point x = c is a fixed
number L in whose ε -neighbourhood lie the values
of the function f (at each value of the independent
variable x situated in the δ -deleted neighbourhood
of the limit point of the domain of the functions f)
which are arbitrarily close to (i.e. at little distance from
l, i.e. little less or little more in absolute value) to the
fixed number l while the value of the function y = f (x)
at a point x = c represented by f (c) is a number obtained
by use of the substitution x = c in the given function
x→c
bg
y = f (x), i.e. (f (x))x = c = f (c) or in brief, lim f x is a
fixed number close (near) to which there are values of
the function f for each value of x lying in the deleted
neighbourhood of the limit c of the domain of the
function f whereas f (c) is the value of the function f
(x) at x = c which is a number obtained from the rules
defining the function by making the use of
substitution x = c in it.

3
Continuity of a Function
In general, the Limit of a function y = f (x) at a limit
point of its domain namely x = a need not be equal to
the value of the given function y = f (x) at the limit
point x = a which means that the limit of the given
function may or may not be equal to the value of the
given function, i.e. lim f ( x ) is not necessarily equal
x→a
to f (a).
However, there is an important class of functions
for which the limit and the value are same. Such
functions are called continuous functions.
Definition: If x = a is a limit point in the domain of a
given function y = f (x) and the limit y = f (x) at x = a is
f (a), then the function y = f (x) is said to be continuous
at the given limit point x = a and ‘a’ is termed as the
point of continuity of the given functions y = f (x), i.e.
f (x) is continuous at the limit point x = a of its domain
⇔ lim f (x) = f (a). Hence, in words, the continuity
x→a
of a given function at a given limit point in the domain
of the given function ⇔ limit of the same function at
the given limit point = value of the given function at
the given limit point.
Notes: 1. The definition of continuity says that given
function should be defined both for the limit point x =
bg
a ∈ D f and for all other points near x = a (near x = a
means in the open interval (a – h, a + h), where ‘h’ is
a small positive number) in D (f).
2. In more abstract form, the definition of continuity
of a function at the limit point in its domain tells us
that a function f is continuous at the limit point
x=a⇔
Continuity of a Function 151
(i) f (a) is defined, i.e., the limit point ‘a’ lies in the
domain of f.
(ii) lim f ( x ) exists
x→a
(iii) xlim
→ a f (x) = f (a)
3. One should note that
bg
(i) The definition of lim f x = p requires that ‘a’
x→a
is the limit point of D (f) where ‘a’ is not necessarily in
D (f) while the definition of continuity of a function at
the limit point ‘a’ requires that the limit point ‘a’ must
be in D (f) which means that it is a must for ‘a’ to be an
interior point of D (f).
(ii) By definition of continuity given above it is pos-
sible for a function to be continuous at a limit point in
its domain D (f) but not to have a limit as x → a .
Situation arises in the case of a function that is con-
tinuous at an isolated point of its domain D (f).
( ε − δ ) Definition of Continuity of a
Function at the Limit Point of its Domain
It says that a function y = f (x) is continuous at the
limit point x = a ⇔ ∀ given ε > 0 , ∃ δ (ε ) such
that x − a < δ ⇒ f ( x ) − f (a ) < ε .
The definition of continuity of a functions y =
f (x) at the limit point x = a of its domain, given
above, implies that, if any neighbourhood
( f (a ) − ε , f (a) + ε ) is chosen of the number f (a),
of arbitrary length, 2 ε where ε is any positive
152 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
number, however small, then for this ε -neighbourhood
of f (x), there is always a δ -neighbourhood
a f
a − δ , a + δ of the limit point ‘a’ such that for
every value of x in the δ -neighbourhood, the
value of f (x) lies in ε -neighbourhood
( f (a ) − ε , f (a) + ε ) .
a f
Remarks: In connection with ε − δ definition of
limit and continuity of a function at the limit point of
(and in) its domain, one should note that
a f a
(i) ε − δ definition of continuity is same as ε − δ f reciprocal of a functions, the function in denominator
definition of limit of a function in which “l = limit of f
(x) at the limit point x = a” is replaced by f (a) = value
of the function f (x) at x = a.
(ii) ε > 0, however small, means that one may take
ε = 01 . , 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001 and so on according to
degree of accuracy which one proposes to adopt.
The key point is that ε is an arbitrary (not fixed)
number of our own selection, and that it may be taken
as small as we please.
(iii) It is common to say that y = f (x) is continuous at
bg
a point x = a ∈ D f instead of saying that y = f (x)
is continuous at a limit point x = a in the domain of the
given function y = f (x).
Continuity of a Function at a Limit Point in
its Domain in the Language of a Sequence
In the language of sequences, the definition of
continuity of a function at a point may be stated in
the following way:
“A function y = f (x) is continuous at the point x =
a if for any sequence of the values of the independent
variable x = a1, a2, a3, …, an, … which converges to
‘a’, the sequences of the corresponding values of
the function f (x) = f (a1), f (a2), f (a3), …, f (an), …
converges to f (a).
Theorems on continuous functions at a point: Some
theorems on continuous functions at a point of its
domain are direct results of definition of continuity of
a function and theorems on limits at a point.
A. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two
continuous functions at any point x = a in their
domain is continuous at the same point x =a, provided
in the case of quotient, the divisor (the function in
denominator) at the same point x = a is not zero, i.e. if
f (x) and g (x) are two functions continuous at any
point x = a, then the functions (i) y = f (x) + g (x) (ii) y =
f ( x)
f (x) – g (x) (iii) y = f (x) · g (x) (iv) y = ,
g ( x)
g (a ) ≠ 0 are also continuous at the same point x = a.
B. The scalar multiple, modulus and reciprocal of a
function continuous at a point in their domain are
continuous at the same point, provided in case of
is not zero at the point where continuity of y is required
to be tested, i.e., if f (x) is a function continuous at a
point x = a and k is any constant, then the functions
1
(i) y = k f (x), (ii) y = 1 f (x)1, (iii) y =, f (a ) ≠ 0
f ( x)
are also continuous at the same point x = a.
C. Continuity of a composite function at a point: If
the inner function of a composite function is
continuous at a point a in its domain and the outer
function is continuous at the point representing the
value of the inner function at the point a, then the
composite function is continuous at the point a of
continuity of the inner function, i.e. if y = f (x) is
continuous at the point x = a and the function u = g
(y) is continuous a the point f (a) = b (s a y), then the
composite function u = g (f (x)) = F (x)
(say) is continuous at the point x = a. i.e.,
c b gh
lim g f x = g {f (a)}.
x→a
Remember: 1. Every point at which the given function
is continuous is called a point of continuity of the
function.
2. Every point at which the condition of continuity of
the given function is not satisfied is called a point of
discontinuity of the function.
Question: When a given function y = f (x) is
continuous or discontinuous at a point x = a? Mention
the commonest functions continuous or
discontinuous at a point (points).
Answer: 1. On continuity: A function y = f (x) is
continuous at x = a ⇔ lim f ( x ) = f (a )
x→a
 Continuity of a Function 153

The Commonest Functions
Continuous at a Point(s)
(i) All standard functions (algebraic polynomial, ra-
tional, irrational, trigonometric, inverse trigonomet-
ric, exponential, logarithmic and constant functions
(symbolised as APRL-CIT E functions) at each point
of their domain Hence, xlim sin x = sin a for all real
→a
numbers in the domain of sin x which means sin x is
continuous at every point which lies in its domain.
(ii) lim cos x = cos a for all real numbers in the
x→a
domain of cos x which means cos x is continuous at
every point which lies in its domain.
(iii) lim tan x = tan a where ‘a’ is a real number
x→a
(viii) lim cos –1 x = cos –1 a where – | < a < | which
x→a
means cos–1 x is continuous for every value of x from
–1 to +1.
(ix) lim tan –1 x = tan –1 a for all real number in the
x→a
domain of tan–1 x which means tan–1 x is continuous
for all real values of x.
(x) lim cot –1 x = cot –1 a for all real numbers which
x→a
means cot–1 x is continuous for all real values of x.
(xi) lim sec –1 x = sec –1 a where a is a real number
x→a
> 1 or < –1, which means sec–1 x is continuous for all
values of x which do not belong to the open interval
(–1, 1).

other than a
2n + 1 f
π odd multiple of (xii) lim cosec –1 x = cosec –1 a where a is a real >1
x→a

a f
2
π or < –1 which means cosec–1 x is continuous for all
n = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ... which means tan x is con-
2 real values of x which do not belong to the open
tinuous for all real values of x excepting interval (–1, 1).
a fπ
x = 2 n + 1 , n being an integer.
2 (xiii) lim x = a
n n
for all real number, provided
x→a
(iv) lim cot x = cot a where a is a real number other
x→a n ≥ 0 and for all real numbers other than zero,
than (different from) nπ , multiple of provided n < 0 which means xn is continuous for all
a f
π n = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ... , which means cot x is real values of x when n (i.e., index or exponent of the
base of power function xn) is non-negative and xn is
continuous for all real values of x excepting x = n π ,
continuous for all real values of x excepting zero when
n being an integer. n is negative.
(v) lim sec x = sec a where a is real number (xiv) lim e x = e a , for all real numbers which means
x→a

a f
x→a
π
other than 2 n + 1 = odd multiple of ex is continuous for all real values of x.
2
π
2
a f
n = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ... which means sec x is
x
(xv) lim a = a
x→c
c
aa > 0f for all real number which
continuous for all real values of x excepting means a x (a > 0) is continuous for all real values of x.
a f
π
x = 2 n + 1 , n being an integer.
2
(xvi) lim log x = log a provided a > 0 which means
x→a

(vi) lim cosec x = cosec a where ‘a’ is a real number
x→a
a
other than n π , multiple of π n = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , ... , f
which means cosec x is continuous for all values of x
excepting x = n π , n being an integer.
(vii) lim sin –1 x = sin –1 a where – | < a < | which
x→a
means sin–1 x is continuous for every value of x from
–1 to +1.
log x (x > 0) is continuous for all positive values of x.
(xvii) lim log x = log a provided a ≠ 0 which
x→a
means log |x| (x > 0 or x < 0) is continuous for all
positive and negative values of x but not at x = 0.
(xviii) lim α = α , for all real numbers which means
x→a
a constant function α is continuous for all real values
of x.
154 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. Discontinuity: A function y = f (x) is discontinuous a point of discontinuity at a common point (points) of

adjacent intervals, e.g.:
at a point x = a ⇔ lim f ( x ) ≠ f (a ) , i.e., a
x→a
af R|−2 x , for x ≤ 3 is discontinuous at x = 3.
S| 3 x , for x > 3
2
function y = f (x) is discontinuous at a point x = a (or, (i) f x =
a function y = f (x) has a point of discontinuity namely T
R| e2 x + 3j for − ∞ < x ≤ 1
‘a’) if and only if limit and value of the function are
2
not equal at the same point x = a.
| 6 − 5 x for 1 < x < 3
1

(ii) f a x f = S
5

The Commonest Functions

|| x − 3 for 3 ≤ x < ∞
Discontinuous at a Point(s)
T
is continuous at x = 1 and discontinuous at x = 3.
1. One of the commonest cases of discontinuity which
4. Whenever a function is defined by
af af
occurs in practice is when a function is defined by a
af
f x
f x = f 1 x , if x ≠ a
single formula y =
af
g x
with a restriction = a constant, if x = a (i.e. f (a) = constant)
then there is a chance of having, a point of continuity
af
g x ≠ 0 y assumes the form a fraction with a zero or a point of discontinuity at x = a, e.g.:
denominator for a value (or, a set of values) of x af
(i) f x = x + 2 , if x ≠ 2
provided by the equation g (x) = 0, e.g.: = 3, if x = 2

a f 1x , x ≠ 0 i.e., it is discontinuous at x = 0.
(i) f x =
has a point of discontinuity at x = 2.
af
(ii) f x = x + 2 , x ≠ 2

(ii) f a x f =
sin x = 4, x = 2
, x ≠ 0 i.e., it is discontinuous at x
x has a point of continuity at x = 2.
= 0.
af F 1 I , x ≠ 0 i.e., it is discontinuous Remember: 1. A function of undefined quantity is
(iii) f x = sin
H xK F 1 I , cos F 1 I
at x = 0.
always undefined. For this reason sin
H xK H xK
F 1 I are undefined at x = 0.
2. All standard and non-standard functions defined
by a single formula y = f (x) are continuous at each
and tan
H xK
point of their domain excepting a finite set of points
at which they are undefined which means all standard On Limits of a Continuous Function
and non-standard functions are discontinuous at a 1. The limit of a continuous function of variable =
point (or, a set of points) at which they are not defined, that function of the limit of the variable, i.e.

b g FGH IJ
e.g.:

(i) f x = afx –1
2
, x ≠ 1 is discontinuous at x = 1.
x→a x→a K
lim f x = f lim x where f (x) is a continuous

x−1 functions at x = a.
(ii) f (x) = tan x and sec x are discontinuous at 2. The limit of a continuous function of a continuous
a
x = 2n ± 1 f π2 , and continuous at all other values function of an independent variable = outer
continuous function of the limit of the inner
of x. continuous function of the independent variable, i.e.,

c b gh = f FH lim g b xgIK provided y = g (x)

(iii) f (x) = cot x and cosec x are discontinuous at x =
b g
n π , n ε I and continuous at all other values of x. lim f g x
x→a x→a
3. When a function is a piecewise function, then it
is continuous at the point x = a and the function u =
has a chance of having both a point of continuity and
f (y) is continuous at the point g (a) = b (say).
 Continuity of a Function 155

Remember: 1. Finding the limit of a continuous Geometrical Meaning of Continuity

function may be replaced by finding the value of the of a Function y = f (x) at a given
function of the limit of the independent variable, i.e., Point x = a in its Domain
if f (x) is continuous function, then xlim
→a
f x = bg From the point of view of geometry, a function y = f (x)

F lim xI . This is sometimes expressed briefly is continuous at a given point x = a in its domain
f
H K
x→a
means that the graph of the functions y = f (x) is
unbroken at P (a, f (a)) ⇔
thus: the limit sign of a continuous function can be 1. The point P (a, f (a)) lies on the graph of the function
put before the independent variable, e.g.: y = f (x), i.e. f (x) is defined at x = a.
(i) lim x = a 2. If Q (x, y) is a point on the graph of y = f (x) and
x→a
nearer to the point P (a, f (a)), then on which ever side
F lim xI = sin a , etc. of the point P, the point Q may be, it must be possible
(ii) lim sin x = sin
x→a H K
x→a to make the distance between P and Q as small as one
wants along the graph of the function by making the
2. The concept of continuity of a function can be
distance between x and a small accordingly.
used to find its limit, i.e., if the function f (x) is con-
y
tinuous at x = a, then in order to find its limit
bg
lim f x , it is sufficient to calculate its value at the
x→a
P (a, f( a))
Q (x, y )
Q (x, y )

point x = a since xlim

→a
bg bg
f x = f a .
f ( a)

F 1 + 2 sin x IJ
lim G
Example: Evaluate:
x→ H 3 x + cos x K
π
2
x
0 x x=a x
Solution: The functions in numerator and denomi- P′ (a, 0)
nator are continuous for all positive values of x. so
F 1 + 2 sin x IJ is also con-
If a function y = f (x) is continuous throughout an
the quotient function y = G
interval (a, b), the graph of the function in this interval
H 3 x + cos x K is without any gap, break or jump, i.e. the graph of the
function is unbroken in this interval, i.e. the graph of
tinuous for all positive values of x which means it is
the function has no point missing corresponding to
π each value of the independent variable in this interval.
continuous at x = and hence,
2 In rough language, if the point of a pencil is placed at
F πI
FG 1 + 2 sin x IJ = 1+ 2 sin GH 2 JK = 2
one end of the graph, we can move the pencil on the
graph to the other end of the graph without ever
lim
π H 3 x + cos x K 3FG π IJ + cos FG π IJ π having to lift the pencil off the paper. Further, if a line
x→
2
H 2K H 2K is drawn across the graph, it will pass through at least
one point on the graph.
3. A function y = f (x) defined in an interval is said to Note: It is better to say that f is continuous at a point
be piecewise continuous if the interval (in which given x = a ⇔ the graph of the function y = f (x) is unbroken
function f (x) is defined) can be divided into a finite at and in the neighbourhood of the point (a, f (a)).
number of non overlaping open subintervals over If a function is discontinuous at a point x = a, then
each of which the functions f (x) is continuous. it is a must that the graph of the function has a gap, a
break, or hole at the point whose abscissa is x = a, i.e.
the point (a, f (a)) will be missing on the graph of y =
156 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

f (x). If the function y = f (x) is not defined at x = a, then The function f (x) has a discontinuity at x = 0.
there is a gap, a break or a hole in the graph as there is
af
2 2
no point on the graph whose abscissa is x = a. x −a
2. f x = ,x≠a
Moreover, if a function is defined by different formulas x−a
(different expression in x) in different intervals whose y
left and right end points are same known as adjacent
intervals in succession, there is usually a possibility
of discontinuity at the common points of the adjacent 2a
intervals. Thus, if we have one functional formula y =
f1 (x) for x ≥ a and another y = f2 (x) for x < a we have
the possibility of a discontinuity at x = a.
y
x
0

y = f1 (x ) Here the function f (x) is discontinuous at x = a.

y = f2 (x) Remember: If a function y = f (x) is not defined (has
no finite value) for any particular value of its
independent variable, then the corresponding point on
the graph of the function will be missing and the graph
will have a hole (a break) at that point.
x
0 ( a, 0)
Two Sided Continuity
In case the point of the pencil is made to move on of a Function at a Point
the graph of the function, then at the point of the
discontinuity, the point of pencil will have to be lifted In general, a function y = f (x) defined on its domain is
off the paper and will jump from one part of the curve right continuous (continuous from the right) at the right
to the other. i.e., while drawing a graph when the point
of the pencil leaves contact with the paper, the function
limit point x = c in its domain ⇔ lim+ f x = f c
x →c
af bg
becomes discontinuous at the point where contact is and it is left continuous (continuous from the left) at
left.
the left limit point x = c, in its domain ⇔ lim− f x
x→c
bg
Illustrations on Discontinuity
of a Function at a Given Point = f c .bg
R| a , when x < 0 Hence, a function y = f (x) is continuous at the limit
f a x f = S2 a , when x = 0 point x = c in its domain ⇔ . It is both right continuous
|T3a , when x > 0
1.
and left continuous at x = c.
y y

f(x) = 3 a

( c , f( c )) y = f( x )

2a

f (x ) = a

x
0 c– c c+
c–δ c+δ
x
0
 Continuity of a Function 157

Continuity of a Function functions, i.e., these are functions continuous at every

in an Open Interval point on its domain.
A function y = f (x) is said to be continuous in an
Classification of Points of
open interval (a, b) ⇔ it is continuous at every point Discontinuity of a Function
of the interval (a, b) ⇔ Geometrically, the graph of
the function y = f (x) is unbroken between the points Let x = a be the limit point of the domain of the
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). function y = f (x). The point ‘a’ is a point of
discontinuity of the function f (x) if at this point, f (x)
Continuity of a Function is not continuous.
in a Closed Interval Let f (x) be defined in a deleted neighbourhood of
the point ‘a’ then ‘a’ is
A function y = f (x) is said to be continuous in a
1. A point of removal discontinuity of the function f
closed interval [a, b] ⇔ it is continuous in the open
interval (a, b) and is continuous at the left end point x→a
af
(x) if there is a limit lim f x = b , but either f (x) is
x = a from the right and is continuous at the right end
point x = b from the left. not defined at the point a or f (a) ≠ b. If we set f (a)
Geometrically, a function y = f (x) is continuous in = b, then the function f (x) becomes continuous at the
point ‘a’, i.e., the discontinuity will be removed.
a closed interval (a, b) ⇔ The graph of the function
y = f (x) is an unbroken line (curved or straight) from 2. A point a of discontinuity is of the first kind of the
the point (a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)).
Furthers, one should note that a function y = f (x)
bg
function f (x) if there are lim + f x and lim − f x
x→a x→a
af
defined over [a, b] is continuous at the left end point
bg bg
x = a from the right ⇔ lim + f x = f a and the x→a
bg
but lim + f x ≠ lim − f x .
x→a
bg
x→a
3. A point a of discontinuity is of the second kind of
function y = f (x) defined over (a, b) is continuous at
the function f (x) if at least one of the one sided limits
the right end point x = b from the left
bg bg
of the function f (x) does not exist at the point x = a,
⇔ lim − f x = f b .
x→b bg
i.e., either or both of lim + f x and lim − f x do
x→a x→a
bg
y
not exist.
y = f( x )
4. A point a is of mixed discontinuity if one of the one
sided limits exists, i.e., if one of the limits namely

x → a+
bg
lim f x or lim f x exists.
−
x→a
bg
f( b )
f (a )
5. A point is of infinite discontinuity of the function
f (x) if either or both of the one sided limits are infinite,
0
+ –
x=a x=a x=b x=b
x
x→a
bg
i.e., if either or both of lim + f x and lim − f x
x→a
bg
Continuity of a Function are infinite.

A function y = f (x) is called continuous ⇔ It is Notes: One should note that ‘a’ is
(i) A point of discontinuity of the first kind from the
continuous at every point on its domain, e.g.: ex, sin
x, cos x, any polynomial function in x are continuous
x→a
bg x→a
bg
left at a if a lim − f x exists but lim − f x ≠ f (a).
158 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
(ii) A point of discontinuity is of the first kind
from the right at a if lim + f x bg exists but
1
f x =
x
af
, when x ≠ 0 , f 0 = 1 . Then f (x) is
x→a
defined in (–1, 1) and continuous at every point in

x → a+
bg bg
lim f x ≠ f a . this interval except at x = 0. Evidently no two fixed
1
(iii) A point of discontinuity is of the second kind numbers can be found such that m < < M for all x
bg
x
from the left at a if lim − f x does not exist. in (–1, 1)
x→a

(iv) A point of discontinuity is of the second kind 2. If f (x) is continuous and positive at x = c in its

bg
domain, then for all sufficiently small values of h, f (c
from the right at a if lim + f x does not exist. + h) and f (c – h) are both > 0. In other words, if f (x) is
x→a
continuous and positive at x = c, then a h-
neighbourhood of the point ‘c’ can be found
Properties of Continuous Functions throughout which f (x) is positive.
Now we state without proof some important proper- Similarly, if f (x) is continuous and negative at x = c
ties of continuous functions. in its domain, then f (c + h) and f (c – h) are both,
1. If f (x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b], then negative for all sufficiently small values of h.
range of f (x) is bounded. In other words, if f (x) is
y
continuous in [a, b], then we can find two numbers m
af
and M such that m < f x < M , ∀ x ε a , b
y = f(x)
y

y = f( x) f( c – h ) f(c) f( c + h )
M
x
0 c–h c c+h
m
x y
0 a b

Note: This property may not be true if the domain of

(c – h ) c (c + h )
f (x) is not a closed interval or if f (x) discontinuous x
0
even at a single point in its domain. For example, if

af
f(c – h) f(c) f( c + h )
1
f x = , then f (x) is continuous in the open
x
interval (0, 1), its range consists of all real numbers
> 1 and evidently no number M can be found such
y = f ( x)
1
that < M for all x in 0 < x < 1. Again consider the Note: If h > 0, the symbol f (c + h) indicates the value
x
of the function f (x) for a value of x greater than c,
function f (x) defined in (–1, 1) as follows:
whereas the symbol f (c – h) indicates the value of the
functions f (x) for a value of x less than c.

4
Practical Methods of
Finding the Limits
Practical Methods on Limits of a Function
f (x) as x → a, where f (x) is Expressed in a
Closed Form
In practice, the classical definition or ε − δ b g
definition of the limit of a function at x = a (or, as
x → a ) is not used in finding out the limit of a
function at x = a (or, as x → a ) whenever a single
function whose limit is required to be found out is
provided to us. This is why for most practical
purposes, we can adopt the following method to find
the limit of the function f (x) at x = a (or, as x → a ), in
many examples.
x→a
bg bg
1. lim f x = f a if f (a) is finite (where f (a) =
value of the given function f (x) at x = a). But when f
(a) = any indeterminate form, then
x→a
bg x→a
bg bg
2. lim f x = lim g x = g a if g (a) is finite
(where g (a) = value of the function g (x) at x = a)
where f (x) is simplified to avoid its in determinate
form and g (x) is the simplified form of the given
function f (x).
⇒ The above method (1) tells us in words that
whenever we are required to find out lim f x , we
x→a
bg
first put x = a in the given function f (x) and find f (a).
If f (a) does not assume meaningless form, then this is
the required limit.
Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 159
Similarly, the above method (2) tells us that if
f (a) assumes any meaningless form, then various
mathematical techniques are applied to simplify f (x)
such that when we put x = a in the simplified form of
the given function, it does not assume any
meaningless form and so we get the required result
having a finite value obtained by putting x = a in the
simplified form of the given function f (x).
N.B.: Simplified form g (x) of f (x) is obtained by using
any mathematical manipulation (or, technique) like
factorization, rationalization, substitution, changing
all trigonometric functions in terms of sine and cosine
of an angle or using any formula of trigonometry or
algebra, etc. whichever we need.
Problems based on the limit when the value of the
function is not indeterminate:
bg
Working rule: To evaluate lim f x , firstly, we
x→a
check on putting x = a in the given function whether
it assumes a meaningless form or not. If f (a) does not
assume indeterminate form, this will be required limit,
i.e., lim f (x) = f (a) if f (a) is finite.
x →a
Examples:
1. lim (3x2 + 4x2 – 5x + 6) = 3.0 + 4.0 – 5.0 + 6 = 6
x →0
3 + 2x – x2 3 + 2 × 2 – 22 3
2. lim = =
x→2 x + 2x – 3 2 + 2 × 2 – 3 5
2 2
160 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x 3 − 8 23 − 8 8 − 8 0 0
3. lim = = = =0 2. All the indeterminate form can be reduced to
0
x→2 x+2 2+2 4 4
∞
or .
x 2 + 5x + 6 0 + 5 × 0 + 6 6 ∞
4. lim = = =∞
x→0 | x 3| + | x| 0+0 0 0
3. or any indeterminate form may contain a
FG π IJ
0
common factor which makes the given function
1 + sin 2 x H 2K
1 + sin 2 ⋅ indeterminate whose removal by various techniques
5. limπ
x → 2 1 − cos 4 x
=
Fπ I
1 − cos G ⋅ 4J
provides us a determinate form.
H4 K Question: When to use which method?
1+ 0 Answer: 1. Method of factorization is generally used
1 + sin π 1
=
1 − cos π
=
b g
1 − −1
=
2
when given function is in the quotient form whose
numerator and denominator contains algebraic or

f bxg
trigonometric functions which can be factorized.
2. Method of rationalization is generally used when
f bxg
1
To evaluate lim where both f (x) and g (x)
x→a the given function is in the quotient form whose
2
are zero when x = a is put in the given function: numerator and denominator contains algebraic or
Working rule: trigonometric expression under the square root
1. Reduce the indeterminate form to a determinate
symbol .
form by using various mathematical techniques
3. Method of substitution or differential method is
namely:
generally used when given function can not be
(i) Method of factorization or method of division. factorized easily or factorization of the given function
(ii) Method of substitution or differential method. is difficult or not possible. The given function may be
(iii) Method of rationalization. algebraic or trigonometric expression in the quotient
(iv) Method of expansion. form.
(v) Method of simplification by using any 4. Method of simplification is generally used when
mathematical manipulation which are generally use the given function contains trigonometric functions.
by trigonometrical formulas, algebraic formulas or This method tells us to modify the given trigonometric
changing all trigonometrical ratios in terms of sine function by simplification in such a fashion that when
and cosine of an angle. we put x = given limit of the independent variable, we
2. Put x = a in the determinate form of the function must get a finite value. This method is also used when

b g. given function is in the difference form like

f1 x
bxg
f2
Remember:
1. For most practical purposes, we can obtain the
limit in case of an indeterminate form as the value
which is obtained by reducing the indeterminate form
into a determinate form by some algebraic operations
like removing common factor or using expansion such
as binomial, exponential, logarithmic or trigonometric
substitution, etc.
LM 1 − 1 OP
providing us ∞ − ∞ form at
MN f b xg f b xg PQ
1 2
x = a.
5. Expansion method is applied when given function
contains trigonometric functions like sin x, cos x, tan
x, exponential function ex, logarithmic functions like
log x, log (1 + x) or binomial expression like (x + a)n,
etc., whose expansion is known to us and it is quite
possible to remove the common factor from numerator
and denominator after expansion.
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 161

Problems based on algebraic functions In order to find the limit of f (x) in such a case, our first
f1 x b g where f (x) and f (x) are polynomials aim is to remove the vanishing factor from the

bxg
Form: numerator and denominator of f (x) with under-
f2 1 2
standing that (x – a) is not zero, however small it may
in x and x → a . be and then in the resulting expression, which is
determinate, we put x = a = limit of the independent
The above form is evaluated in the following way.
variable. Thus the required limit is obtained.
Rule 1: If g (a) = value of the function appearing in 2. If we put x = + a and the given function becomes
bg
f x f a bg 0
denominator ≠ 0, then lim
bg =
bg
which , then (x – a) is a common factor appearing in
x→a g x g a 0
numerator and denominator of the given function (or,
means we put x = a = limit of given independent rational algebraic function) under consideration.
variable in the numerator and denominator of the given 3. If we put x = –a and the given function becomes
fraction (or, rational function) provided the value of
0
the denominator at x = a is not equal to zero. , then (x + a) is a common factor appearing in both
0
Rule 2: If f (a) = g (a) = 0 ⇒ value of the function at numerator and denominator of the given function
x = a in Nr = value of the function at x = a in Dr = 0, under consideration.
then we adopt the following working rule. 4. The vanishing factor (x – a) ≠ 0 because x → a
LM f b xg OP b
⇒ x ≠ a ⇒ x − a ≠ 0. g
MN f b xg PQ
1
Working rule to evaluate the limit if
2 x=a
5. The phrase “at the point x = a or for the value
x = a” means “when x assumes or takes the value a”
0
= . Remember:
0
bg f1 x bg f1 x b g.
1. Let f x =
b xg bxg
1. Numerator and denominator are divided by the and we require lim
common factor appearing in numerator and f2 x→a f2
denominator of the given fraction.
f1 (a) = f2 (a) = 0 ⇒ (x – a) is a common factor of the
2. Remove the common factor from numerator and
given function appearing in numerator and
denominator by the rule of cancellation.
denominator of the given function f (x).
3. Put x = a = given limit of the given independent
variable in the simplified form of the function (i.e., the f1 x b g is done
function free from common factor appearing in Nr
and Dr directly or indirectly) which gives us the
2. Simplification of the expression
f2 bxg
required limit of the function as x → a . 0 ∞
whenever it assumes the form or on putting
Facts to know: 0 ∞
‘a’ for x while finding the limit of f (x) as x → a .
0
1. When f (x) assumes the indeterminate form for Problems Based on Method of Factorization
0
x = a, it does so on account of (x – a) or power of Examples worked out:
(x – a) occurring as a factor in both numerator and Find (or, evaluate)
denominator of the given function f (x) under
consideration. Such a common factor which produces x2 − 4x + 3
1. lim
0
x →1 x 2 − 5x + 4
form or any indeterminate form is called “The
0
vanishing factor” because this factor always vanishes.
162 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: 3
LM x 2
− 4x + 3 OP =
1− 4 + 3 =
16 + 8 – 1 24 − 1 23
= = .
MN x 2
− 5 x + 4 PQ x =1
1−5+4 4+2 6 6
Alternative method: By direct division
4−4 0
= = . x3 − 2x2 − 9x + 4 x−4
5−5 0 = =x−
x2 − 2x − 8 x2 − 2x − 8
∴ (x – 1) is a common factor in Nr and Dr of the
given fraction. Dividing Nr and Dr by the common b x − 4g = x − 1 b3 x ≠ 4g .
factor (x – 1), we get =x −
b x − 4gb x + 2g b x + 2g
x2 − 4x + 3 b x − 1gb x − 3g = x − 3 ; b x ≠ 1g Now, taking the limits on both sides as x → 4 , we
x − 5x + 4 b x − 1gb x − 4g x − 4
2
=
get

L x − 4 x + 3 OP = lim L x − 3 O = 1 − 3
∴ lim M
x3 − 2x2 − 9x + 4
MN x − 5x + 4 PQ MN x − 4 PQ 1 − 4
2
lim
x →1 2 x →1 x→4 x2 − 2x − 8

−2 2 = lim x −
LM 1 OP
= = .
−3 3 x→4
N x+2 Q
x3 − 2x2 − 9 x + 4 1
lim x − lim
2. lim x→4 x→4 x+2
x→4 x2 − 2x − 8

Lx
Solution: 3 M
3
− 2x2 − 9x + 4 OP =4−
1
4+2
1 24 − 1 23
=4− = =
6 .
MN PQ
6 6
x2 − 2x − 8 x=4
LM x − 5x + 7 x − 3OP
3 2

=
64 − 32 − 36 + 4 68 − 68 0
16 − 8 − 8
= =
16 − 16 0
3. lim
x→3
MN x − x − 5x − 3 PQ
3 2

∴ (x – 4) is a common factor in Nr and Dr of the

Solution: M
L x − 5x + 7 x − 3 OP
3 2
=
0
given fraction. Dividing Nr and Dr by the common
factor (x – 4), we get
MN x − x − 5x − 3 PQ
3 2
x=3
0

x3 − 2x2 − 9x + 4 b x − 4g e x + 2 x − 1j
2 ⇒ Nr has (x – 3) as a factor and Dr has (x – 3) as
a factor.
x2 − 2x − 8
=
b x − 4gb x + 2g Now, dividing Nr and Dr by the common factor
(x – 3), we get

=
x2 + 2x − 1
x+2
; x≠4 . b g x 3 − 5x 2 + 7 x − 3 b x − 3g ex 2
− 2x + 1 j
=
Now taking the limits on both sides as x → 4
x − x − 5x − 3
3 2
b x − 3g ex 2
+ 2 x + 1j

since both sides are equal (i.e., if two functions are

a f
2
equal, their limits are equal), we get, x − 2x + 1
= 2
; x≠3
x − 2x − 9x + 4
3 2
x + 2x − 1 2 x + 2x + 1
lim = lim
x→4 x − 2x − 8
2 x → 4 x+2
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 163

∴ lim
LM x − 5x + 7 x − 3 OP
3 2
x2 − 1
MN x − x − 5x − 3 PQ
5. lim
x→3 3 2 x →1 x − 3x + 2
2

L x − 2 x + 1OP LM x2 − 1 OP 0
= lim M
2
=
MN x + 2 x + 1PQ
x→3 2
Solution:
MN x 2
− 3 x + 2 PQ x =1
0

⇒ (x – 1) is a common factor in Nr and Dr of the

32 − 2 × 3 + 1
4 1 given fraction.
= 2 = =
3 + 2 × 3 + 1 16 4 Now, dividing Nr and Dr by (x – 1), we get

x 7 − 2x5 + 1
x2 − 1 b x + 1gb x − 1g
x − 3x + 2 b x − 1gb x − 2g
4. lim 3 2
=
x → 1 x − 3x 2 + 2

Solution: 3
LM x 7
− 2x5 + 1 OP =
0 =
x+1
x−2
; b x ≠ 1g .
MN x 3
− 3x 2 + 2 PQ x =1
0
Now taking the limits on both sides as x → 1 , we
∴ (x – 1) is a common factor in Nr and Dr of the get
LM OP
given fraction.
Now, dividing Nr and Dr by (x – 1) we get x2 − 1 x +1
= lim
N Q
lim
x 7 − 2 x5 + 1
x →1 x − 3x + 2
2 x → 1 x−2

x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 1+1 2
= = = −2
1 − 2 −1
b x − 1g ex 6
+ x5 − x 4 − x 3 − x 2 − x − 1 j
=
b x − 1g ex 2
− 2x − 2 j LM x 2
− 3x + 2 OP
6. lim
x→2
MN x−2 PQ
x + x − x − x − x − x−1
b g LM x OP
6 5 4 3 2
= ; x ≠1 2
− 3x + 2 0
x2 − 2x − 2 =
Now taking the limits on both sides as x → 1
Solution:
MN x−2 PQ x=2
0

⇒ Nr has (x – 2) as a factor and Dr has (x – 2) as

L x − 2 x + 1 OP
lim M
7 5
a factor
x →1
MN x − 3x + 2 PQ
3 2 Now dividing Nr and Dr by the common factor
(x – 2), we have

= lim M
Lx + x − x − x − x − x−1 OP b gb g b g
6 5 4 3 2
x 2 − 3x + 2 x −1 x −2
x →1MN x − 2x − 2 2
PQ x−2
=
x−2
= x −1 ;
b g
=
1+1−1−1−1−1−1 b x ≠ 2g
1−2 − 2 Now, taking the limits on both sides as x → 2 , we
have
2−5
= =1 x 2 − 3x + 2
1−4 lim
x→2 x−2
164 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

b g
= lim x − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1
x→2
Now dividing Nr and Dr by the common factor
(x – 2), we get,

x 3 − 3x 2 + 5x − 15 x2 − 4 b
x−2 x+2 gb g
=
b g
7. lim
x→3 x 2 − x − 12 x−2 x−2

LM x 3
− 3x 2 + 5 x − 15 OP =
0 b gb
= x + 2 ; 3x ≠ 2 g
Solution:
MN x + x − 12
2
PQ x=3
0

⇒ Nr has (x – 3) = a factor and Dr has (x – 3) = a ∴ lim

x→2
x2 − 4
x−2
= lim x + 2
x→2
b g
factor: ⇒ (x – 3) is a common factor in Nr and Dr.
Now, dividing Nr and Dr by the common factor = 2 + 2 = 4.
(x – 3), we get
x3 + 1
x 3 − 3x 2 + 5 x − 15 b x − 3g e x + 5j 2 9. xlim
→ −1 x +1
x 2 − x − 12
=
b x − 3gb x + 4g LM x + 1OP
3
0
=
x2 + 5
; 3x ≠ 3 b g
Solution:
MN x + 1 PQ x = −1
0
x+4
⇒ Nr has (x + 1) as a factor and Dr has (x + 1) as

∴ lim
LM x − 3x + 5x − 15OP
3 2 a factor: (x + 1) is a common factor in Nr and Dr of the

MN x − x − 12 PQ
given fraction.
x→3 2
Now, dividing Nr and Dr by the common factor

L x + 5 OP
(x + 1), we get

∴ lim M
2

x →3
MN x + 4 PQ x3 + 1
=
b
x + 1 x2 − x + 1 ge j
x +1 x +1
lim e x + 5j
b g
2
x→3 = x 2 − x + 1 for x ≠ − 1
lim b x + 4g
=
x→3
∴ lim
x → −1
x3 + 1
= lim x 2 − x + 1
x + 1 x →−1
e j
32 + 5 9 + 5 14
= = = =2
3+4 7 7 = 1 – (– 1) + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

x2 − 4 Exercise 4.1
8. xlim
→2 x−2
Problems set on method of factorization or division
LM x − 4 OP
2
=
0 Find the limits of the following functions:
Solution:
MN x − 2 PQ x=2
0 Answers
x 7 − 2x5 + 1
⇒ Nr has (x – 2) as a factor and Dr has (x – 2) as 1. L (Bhag—65A) (1)
x → 1 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2
a factor: ⇒ (x – 2) is a common factor of Nr and Dr of
the given fraction. x −1 FG − 1IJ
2. x L
e
→ 1 x − 3x 2 + 2
3 (I.I.T.—1976)
j H 3K
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 165

2 x2 − 7x + 6 FG 1 IJ Facts to know about rationalizing factor:

3. L
x→2 5x 2 − 11x + 2
(Bombay—65)
H 9K (a) ea + b j and ea − b j are rationalizing factors
x 2 − 7 x + 12 FG 1 IJ of each other.
4. L
x→4 x 3 − 64
(Bombay—69, 70)
H 48K (b) e a + b j and e a − b j are rationalizing
x −a
4 4
factors of each other.
5. L (R.U.—65) (4a3)
x−a
ep j and e p j are rationa-
x→a
2 (c) a +q b a −q b
x − 4x + 3
6. L 2
(2) lizing factors of each other.
x→3
2 x − 11x + 15
x 3 + 27 FG 1 IJ N.B.:
7. L
x → − 3 x 5 + 243 H 15K 1. Any one of ea + b j , e a + b j or
x+3 FG 1 IJ ep j
a + q b may be provided in the question
8. L
x → − 3 x 3 + 27 H 27 K whose limit is required to find out where a and b
1 − 32 x 5 FG 5IJ indicate a function of x.
9. L1
1 − 8x 3
x→ 2 H 3K 2. Our main aim is to remove the common factor by
rationalization of Nr or Dr or both Nr and Dr.
Type 2: Limits of irrational functions as x → a .
3. After removing the common factor, we put x = a =
Form 1: bg bg
f x or f x
m
n limit of the independent variable x in the irrational
function free from the common factor known as
f b x g ± f b x g occurring in the Nr or
Form 2: simplified form.
bg bg
1 2

in Dr or in both Nr and Dr. 4. The above rule is valid when f1 x ± f2 x

Working rule for form 1: 0
If the given function has the form 1 mentioned above, becomes at x = a.
0
we adopt the following working rule:
Use the following formulas:
Problems based on the form 1 bg
f x or f x bg m
n

1. lim
x→a
f x = bg lim f x
x→a
bg
Solved Examples
f b x g = LM lim f b x gOP
m
m n

N Q
n
2. lim Evaluate:
x→a x→a

Working rule for from 2: 8x + 1

1. lim
1. If only Nr contains the radical of the above form, x →1 x+3
rationalize Nr by multiplying Nr and Dr by
rationalizing factor of Nr. 8x + 1
2. If only Dr contains the radical of the form Solution: lim
x →1 x+3
mentioned above, rationalize Dr by multiplying Nr
and Dr by rationalizing factor of Dr.
3. If Nr and Dr both contain radicals of the above F 8x + 1I a f
lim 8 x + 1
lim G
H x + 3 JK
x →1
lim a x + 3f
type, rationalize Nr and Dr both separately by = =
x →1
multiplying and dividing Nr and Dr by rationalizing x →1
factor of Nr and Dr.
166 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

=
lim 8 x + lim 1
x →1 x →1
=
81 +1bg =
x +1+1
lim x + lim 3
x →1 x →1
1+3 e x +1 j ; (for x ≠ 1 )

9 3
= . x2 − 1 + x −1
= Hence, lim
4 2 x →1
x −1 2

Exercise 4.2 x +1+1

= lim
x →1 x +1
On the form f x or f x bg bg m
n
1+1 +1 2 +1
Find the limit of the following: = =
1+1 2
Answers

1. L 2x + 1
2
e 3j 2. lim
x3 − 1 − x − 1 b g
x →1 x →1 x −1

2. L
x →1
16 − x
2
e 15 j LM x3 − 1 − x − 1 b g OP 0

3. L b x − 4g 1 − 3x (–10)
Solution:
MN x −1 PQ x=1
=
0
x → −1

Problems based on the form 2 bg

f1 x ± bg
f2 x Now,
x3 − 1 − x − 1 b g
Examples worked out: x −1
Evaluate:

x2 − 1 + x −1 =
b x − 1g ex 2
+ x +1 − x −1 j b g
1. xlim
→1 x −1
x2 − 1

LM OP LM OP
x2 − 1 + x −1 0 =
x −1
N x2 + x + 1 − x−1
Q
Solution: MN x2 − 1 PQ x =1
=
0 x −1

x2 − 1 + x−1
= x2 + x + 1 − b x − 1 ; for x ≠ 1 g
− 1 − b x − 1g
Now,
x2 − 1 x3
Hence, lim
x →1 x −1
b x − 1gb x + 1g + x − 1
=
b x − 1gb x + 1g LM OP
= lim
x →1 N x2 + x + 1 − x −1
Q
=
b x − 1g x + 1 + 1 = 1+1+1 − 1−1 = 3−0= 3
x − 1 e x + 1j
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 167

e2 − j
Note: The above examples gives as a hint that we
should not rationalize the given irrational function x−1

ex j
blindly but we must check whether it is possible to Hence,
2
− 25
remove the common factor (or, not) by factorization
which is present in Nr and Dr of the given irrational
function, i.e., if it is possible to remove the common 2− x−1 2+ x −1
= ×
factor from the numerator and denominator of x − 25
2
2+ x −1
irrational function after factorization and then using
cancellation, we must remove it. b g×
22 − x − 1 1
x − a
=
b x − 5gb x + 5g 2 × x −1
3. lim
x→a b x − ag 4− x +1

Solution: M
L x − a OP 0
=
b x + 5gb x − 5g e2 + x−1 j
MN b x − ag PQ =
0
− b x − 5g
x=a

=
x − a x − a b x + 5gb x − 5g e2 + x−1 j
Now,
b x − ag =
e xj − e aj
2 2

−1
=

=
x − a b x + 5g e2 + x−1 j
e x + a j e x − aj 2− x−1
∴ lim
; b for x ≠ ag
1 x→5 x − 25
2
=
x + a −1
= lim
x − a
x→5 a x + 5f e2 + x −1 j
Hence, lim
x→a b
x−a g −1
=
= lim
1 b5 + 5g e 5−1+2 j
x→a x + a −1 −1
=
=
1
=
1 10 e 4 +2 j
=
10 × 2 + 2b g
a + a 2 a −1 1
= =−
10 × 4 40
2− x −1
4. lim 3− 5+ x
x→5 x − 25
2
5. lim
x→4 1− 5− x
LM 2 − x−1 OP
Solution:
MN x 2
− 25 PQ =
0
0
and Nr contains LM 3 − 5+ x OP =
0
MN 1 − 5 − x PQ
x=5 Solution:
0
x=4
as irrational expression which means rationalizing of
Nr is required. Since Nr and Dr both contain radicals whose
factorization is not possible which means we are
168 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

required to rationalize Nr and Dr both separately on

multiplying and dividing by the rationalizing factor.
=
b4 − xg e1 + 5 − x j for
x≠4
Nr = 3 − e 5+ x j − b4 − x g e3 + 5 + x j

=
e3 − je
5+ x 3+ 5+ x j =−
e1 + 5− x j
e3 + 5+ x j e3 + 5 + xj

b3g − e 5 + x j
2 2

∴ Required limit = lim

e
− 1+ 5− x j
=
e3 + 5 + x j x→4
e3 + 5 + xj

F I
=
9−5− x
b g GH 13 ++ 55 −+ 44 JK
= −1
e3 + 5+ x j
4−x b− 1gb1 + 1g = − 2 = − 1
=
e3 + 5 + x j
=
b3 + 3g 6 3
Dr = e1 − 5 − x j x − 2 − x2
6. lim
x →1
2x − 2 + 2x2
=
e1 − 5 − x je1 + 5 − x j
e1 + 5 − x j Solution: lim
x − 2 − x2
x →1
2x − 2 + 2x2

=
b1g − e 5 − x j
2 2
Now on rationalizing the Nr and Dr with the help
e1 + 5 − x j of rationalizing factor of Nr and Dr.

{x − e2 − x j}{2 x + 2 + 2 x }
2 2 2

1 − b5 − x g FH 2 x − 2 + 2x I F x + 2 − x I F2x + 2 + 2x I
= lim
KH KH K
x →1
= 2 2 2

1+ 5− x

=
x− 4
= lim
{x − e2 − x j}{2 x + 2 + 2 x }
2 2 2

1+ 5− x

Nr
x →1
{4 x − e2 + 2 x j}{ x + 2 − x }
2 2 2

Now, given expression =

e2 x − 2jFH 2 x + IK
Dr
2
2 + 2x2
b4 − x g
e2 x − 2j FH x + IK
= lim ; (for x ≠ 1 )
x →1
e3 + 5 + x j 2 − x2
2

=
b x − 4g
e1 + 5 − x j
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 169

2
2x + 2 + 2x2 x − x
= lim [on removing the common 4. L (3)
x →1 x →1 x −1
x+ 2− x 2

factor] 2
x + 8 − 10 − x
2
FG 2 IJ
=2 5. L
x →1 2
x +3− 5− x
2 H 3K
4 − x2
7. xlim
→2
3− x2 + 5 3 x −1−1 FG 1IJ
6. L
x→2 a
x− 2f H 3K
e4 − x j 2
Solution: lim
x→2
3− x2 + 5 a2 x − 3f e x − 1j FG − 1 IJ
Now on rationalizing the Dr only since radical
7. L
x →1
e2 x + x − 3j 2
H 10 K
appears in Dr only

e4 − x jFH 3 + x + 5IK FG 1IJ

2
x +3−1
H 3K
2 2

= lim
x→2 FH 3 − x + 5IK FH 3 + x + 5IK
2 2
8. L
x →1 x+2a f
2x + 3 − 3
9. L
b x − 6g (0)

e4 − x j FH 3 + x + 5IK (for x ≠ 2 )
x→3
2 2

= lim
e4 − x j
; x+4 − 5 F 1I
x→2 2
10. L
x →1 a
x −1 f GH 2 5 JK
= lim F 3 + x + 5I
x→2 H 2
K 3− 5+ x FG − 1IJ
= 6.
11. L
x→4 1− 5− x H 3K
Problems based on method of rationalization Type 3:

Exercise 4.3 bg
Form: f 1 x − f 2 x = ∞ − ∞ as x → a bg
Working rule: To evaluate bg
f1 x − f 2 x =bg
Find the limit of the following Answers
∞ − ∞ as x → a our main aim is to reduce the form
2− x −1 FG 1 IJ b∞ − ∞g to the form 00
1. L
x →1 1− x
(M.U. 68)
H 2K which can be explained in

x −1 the notational form in the following way:

2. L (0)
x →1
bg bg
2
x −1+ x −1 1 1
1. Write f 1 x − f 2 x = 1
−
1
2− x FG 1 IJ bg
f1 x bg
f2 x
3. L
x→4 x−4 H 4K
170 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 1 LM 1 ± 1 OP = ∞ ± ∞ , we take
2. Write 1 =
f2 x
−
f1 x
=
0 bg
whose limit is
bg Note 2: If lim
x→a
MN f b xg f b xg PQ
1 2
1 1 0
f1 x
⋅
f2 x bg bg first l.c.m and then we subtract. Taking l.c.m and

found by the method already explained. subtracting reduces the form ∞ − ∞ to the form b0
0
g
Note: 1. In practice, to reduce the form ∞ − ∞ to b g for which we adopt the usual method of removing
common factor of Nr and Dr as factorization of
0 cancellation, etc.
the form , we generally simplify the given
0 Problems based on the form:
expression by using any mathematical operation (like
taking l.c.m or changing all trigonometric functions in LM 1 ± 1 OP b= ∞ ± ∞ as x → ag
to sin and cosine of an angle, etc.). After obtaining
0
MN f b xg f b xg PQ
1 2

the form , we are able to find its limit, e.g.:

0 Examples worked out:
b
(i) limπ tan x − sec x , = ∞ − ∞ form gb g Evaluate
x→ 2
LM 2 + 1 OP
MN1 − x x − 1PQ
sin x 1. lim
1 x →1 2
tan x − sec x = −
cos x cos x
Solution: M
L 2 + 1 OP
=
sin x − 1 0
cos x
= as →
0
π
2
MN1 − x x − 1PQ 2

F 1 − cos θ IJ , b= ∞ − ∞ formg LM 2 1 OP b g
lim G
= − , = ∞ − ∞ as x → 1
(ii)
θ→0 H θ K 2 MN1 − x 2
1− x PQ
θ 2 1
1 − 1 + 2 sin 2 Now, −
1 − cos θ 2 1− x 2
1− x
=
θ2 θ2
b g
2 − 1+ x
2 sin
θ 2
=
b gb g
1− x 1+ x
= 2 = 0 as θ → 0 .
θ2 0 b1 − xg = 1
LM 2 1 OP b= ∞ − ∞ formg as x → 1
=
b1 − xgb1 + xg b1 + xg
−
MN1 − x PQ
(iii)
2
1− x L 2 + 1 OP = 1
Thus, M
MN1 − x x − 1PQ 1 + x
… (1)
2
2 1
=
b1 + xgb1 − xg − b1 − xg Now taking the limit on both sides of (i) as x → 1 ,

2 − b1 + x g b1 − xg = 0 as x → 1 we get
=
e1 − x j b1 − xgb1 + x g 0
=
2 LM 2 +
1 OP
lim
x →1
MN1 − x 2
x −1 PQ
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 171

= lim
1
=
1
=
1 LM 2a
−
1
= lim −
1 OP LM OP
x →1 1+ x 1+1 2 lim
x→a MN x 2
−a 2
x−a x → a x+a PQ N Q
LM 1 − 2 OP 1 1 −1
2. xlim
→1
MN x − 1 x − 1PQ
2 4 = − lim
x →a x+a
=− =
a + a 2a

L O
Solution: M 1 − 2 P ; b= ∞ − ∞ as x → 1g
LM
1
− 2
4 OP
MN x − 1 x − 1PQ
2 4 4. xlim
MN
→2 x − 2 x −4 PQ
1
− 4
2
=
x2 + 1 − 2 LM 1 − 4 OP b= ∞ − ∞ as x → 2g
e je j MN x − 2 x PQ
Now, Solution:
x −1 x −1
2
x2 − 1 x2 + 1 2
−4

ex 2
−1 j LM 1 − 4
=
x+2−4OP
MN x − 2 x PQ
1 Now,
= =
e x − 1je x + 1j x + 1 −4 x2 − 4
2
2 2 2

L 1 − 2 OP = 1 x−2 b x − 2g
Thus, M
=
x −42
=
b x + 2gb x − 2g
MN x − 1 x − 1PQ x + 1
2 4 2
… (1)
1
Now taking the limits on both sides of (1) as
x → 1 , we have
=
b g
x + 2 ; (for x ≠ 2 )

LM 1 − 2 OP = lim LM 1 OP LM 1 − 4 OP = 1
lim
x →1
MN x − 1 x − 1PQ MN x + 1PQ
2 4 x →1 2
Thus,
MN x − 2 x 2
− 4 PQ x + 2
… (1)

Now taking the limits on both sides of (1) as

1 1
= = x → 2 , we have
1+1 2

L OP LM 1 − 4
= lim
OP 1
lim M
2a
−
1 lim
x→2
MN x − 2 x 2
−4 →
PQ
x+2
MN x PQ
x 2
3.
x→a 2
−a 2
x − a
1 1
LM 2a −
1 OP b
, = ∞ − ∞ as x → a g
= =
2+2 4
Solution:
MN x − a
2 2
x−a PQ LM 1 − 1 OP
L
Now, M
2a
−
1 O 2a − x − a
P= x −a
5. lim
x→2
MN x − 2 x − 3x + 2 PQ 2

MN x 2
− a2 x − a PQ e j 2 2
L 1 − 1 OP b= ∞ − ∞ formg
Solution: M
=
a− x
=−
1 MN x − 2 x − 3x + 2 PQ 2

x+a … (1)
x2 − a2 as x → 2
Now taking the limits on both sides of (1) as x → a
172 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM 1 − 1 OP LM8x − 3 − 4 x + 1OP
2
FG 7 IJ
Now,
MN x − 2 x 2
− 3x + 2 PQ 3. L
x→
1
2
MN 2 x − 1 4 x − 1PQ
2 H 2K
=
1
x−2
−
1
b
x −2 x −1 gb g L 1 − 3 OP
L M FG 1IJ
4. x→3MN x − 3 x − 3x PQ
2
H 3K
x−1 1
=
b x − 2gb x − 1g − b x − 2gb x − 1g L M
L 1 + 6x OP
x−2
5. x→2 MN x − 2 8 − x PQ 3 (0)
=
b gb g
x−2 x−1
L 1 − OP FG 3IJ
L M
2

=
1
; b for x ≠ 2g
6. x→2 N x − 2 x a x − 1fa x − 2f Q H 2K
x −1
L M
L 1 − 8 OP FG 1IJ
LM 1 − 1
=
OP
1 7. x→8 MN x − 8 x − 8x PQ
2
H 8K
Thus,
MN x − 2 x 2
− 3x + 2 x PQ
−1
... (1)
L 1 − a OP
L M FG 1 IJ
MN x − a x − a x PQ H aK
Now, taking the limits on both sides of (1) as
8. x→a 2
x → 2 , we have

LM 1 − 1 OP Problems based on the formulas:

lim
x→2
MN x − 2 x − 3x + 2 PQ
2
(i) lim
xn − a n
= n a n −1 ; (where n is an integer > 1)
x→a x−a
= lim M
L 1 OP = 1 = 1
x→2
N x − 1Q 2 − 1 (ii) lim
xm − am
=
m m−n
a ; (where m and n are
x→a x −a
n n
n
Problems based on the form:
LM 1 − 1 OP →
integers > 1)

MN f b xg f b xg PQ
1 1
b g
− or, ∞ − ∞ as x → a
0 0 (i) To show: lim
xn − an
= n a n − 1 provided n is
x−a
1 2 x→a

an integer > 1
Exercise 4.4
Proof: 3 we know that

Find the limit of the following Answers xn − an

LM 1 − 3 OP b ge
= x − a x n − 1 + a x x − 2 + a 2 x n − 3 + ... + a n −1 j
1. L
x →1MN1 − x 1 − x PQ 3
(–1)
… (1)
on dividing both sides of (1) by (x – a), we get
1 L 1 2 O FG 1 IJ
x − 1 N x + 3 3 x + 5 PQ
M H 32 K
2. L − xn − an
x →1
x−a
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 173

bx − agex n −1
+ a x n − 2 + a 2 x n − 3 + ... + a n −1 j
On dividing both sides of (1) by h, we get
=
bx − ag xn − an
h
e
= x n −1 + a x n − 2 + a 2 x n − 3 + ... + a n −1 … (2) j an ⋅n⋅
h
a
1+
2
LM
n−1 h
N
⋅ + terms containing higher powers of h
Na
OP
Q
=
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (2) as h
x → a , we get … (2)
On putting x – a = h on the l.h.s of (2), we get
xn − an
lim xn − an
x→a x−a
x−a
x→a
e
= lim x n −1 + a x n − 2 + a 2 x n − 3 + ... + a n − 1 j h LM
n −1 h OP
a n ⋅n⋅ 1+
N N
⋅ + terms containing higher powers of h
Q
e j
a 2 a
= lim x n −1 + lim a x n − 2 + h
x→a x→a
… (3)
lim a 2 x n − 3 + ... + lim a n −1 Lastly on taking the limits on both sides of (3) as
x→a x→a
h→0
n −1 n−2
=a + a⋅a + a 2 ⋅ a n − 3 + ... + a n − 1
xn − an
n −1 n −1 n −1 n −1 lim
=a +a +a + ... + a (up to n terms) h→0 x − a

= n a n −1 hLM n−1 h OP
N.B.: This relation is true for n = any rational number = lim
an ⋅ n⋅
a
1+
N 2 a N
⋅ + terms containing higher powers of h
Q
h→ 0 h
whose proof is provided with the help of binomial
1
expansion. = an ⋅ n ⋅ = n a n −1
x = a + h ⇒ x – a = h and as x → a , h → 0 a

b g −a
∴ a+h
n n
∴ lim
x→a
xn − an
x−a
= n a n −1 3 x → a ⇔ h → 0 b g
R|F h I U| R|F h I U|
a SG 1 + J V − a = a SG 1 + J − 1V
n n

T|H a K W| T|H a K W|
x m − a m m m− n
n n n
(ii) To show: xlim = a where m and
→a xn − an n
LR| n F h I n bn − 1g F h I U| OP
= a MS1 + G J +
n are integers > 1

MN|T N1 H a K N2 GH a JK + ... V|W − 1PQ

2
n

ex − a j m m

h L n−1 h x
m
−a
m
a x − af
= a ⋅ n ⋅ M1 + =
a N N2 ⋅ a +
n

ex − a j
Proof: n n n n
x −a

O a x − af
terms containing high powers of hP … (1)
Q b x − ag ex
=
m −1
+ a x m − 2 + ... + a m −1 j
b x − ag e x n−1
+ ax n−2
+ ... + a n −1
j
174 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Examples worked out:

x m −1 + a x m − 2 + ... + a m − 1
= … (1) Evaluate:
x n −1 + a x n − 2 + ... + a n − 1
LM x 5/ 2
− a 5/ 2 OP
MN x PQ
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (1) as 1. lim
x → a , we get
x→a 1/ 2
− a 1/ 2

xm − am x 5 / 2 − a 5/ 2
lim Solution: lim
x → a x 1/ 2 − a 1/ 2
x →a xn − an

5 / 2 ab g
m−1 m− 2 m −1 5/ 2 − 1/ 2
x + ax + ... + a =
= lim n −1 n−2 n −1
x→a 1/ 2
x + ax + ... + a
4

m −1 = 5a 2
ma m m− n
= n −1
= a
na n = 5a 2
N.B.: This relation holds true even if m and n are 1
rational numbers. x6 − 2
2. lim
x → 64 1
x −a n n
x3 − 4
Aid to memory: 1. lim = index of power
x →a x − a
b g
1 1 1
x6 −2 x6 − 64 6
‘an’ times base ‘a’ raised to the power n minus 1. Solution: lim = lim
x → 64
− b64g
1 x → 64 1 1
−a x m m x3 −4 x3 3
2. xlim F 1 1I
1 GH 6 − 3 JK
→a x n − a n
⋅a
m = index of the power of the contant appearing in Nr = 6 (using formula)
= × the
n = index of the power of the contant appearing in Dr 1
constant raised to the power m minus n. 3
Problems based on the formulas
G − J 1 G F 1 1I F 1 − 2 IJ
= × × a H 6 3K = a H 6 K
1 3
n n
x −a n −1 6 1 2
(i) L = na
x →a x−a
1
1 −6 1 1
m n = a = ⋅ 1
x −a m m−n 2 2
(ii) L n n
= a a6
x→a
x −a n
1 1
=
Working rule: We should use the formulas (i) and 2 6a
(ii) directly provided that given function has the form
xn − an xm − am =
1
2
⋅ 6
1
64
bas a = 64g
either (i) , or (ii) n and we are
x−a x − an
required to find the limit of these functions as x → a . =
1
⋅
1
=
1 1 1
× =
e j
1
2 2 2 4
26 6
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 175

or alternatively,
x4 − a4
b gd i
3. lim x−1
bg
⋅ 1 d 4 i ( 3 Here,
x→a x−a 1 1− 1
1
lim = 1 4
=
−3
x →1 1
1
x −1
4 1
x −a
4 4 4
Solution: lim = 4a 4 − 1 (using the formula) 4
x→a x−a 1
m = 1, n = ) (according to formula)
LM x 3
− a2
3 OP 4

lim M PP = 4a
2 1
3
=4⋅
MN x b1g
4.
x→a − a2
2 3

Q
4

4
F3 I =
Fx 3 3 I 3 GH 2 − 2JK 1

lim G JJ = 2
⋅a
− a2 =4
GG x
2

JK
Solution:
H − a2
x→a 2
2 Problems based on the form
xm − am xn − an
G F 3 − 4 IJ (i)
xn − an
(ii)
x−a
= × × aH 2 K
3 1
2 2
Exercise 4.5
F 1I
3 GH − 2 JK 3 1 3
= a = × =
4 4 a 4 a Find the limit of the following: Answers

L x − 1 OP
3
x −a
3
FG 3 a IJ
5. lim M H5 K
−2
1. L
MN x − 1PQ
x→a 5 5
x →1 1 x −a
4

L x − 1 OP
5
x − 32 FG 20IJ
Solution: lim M
1 2. L
x→2 3 H 3K
MN x − 1PQ
x →1 1
4
= lim
x →1
1
x4 − 1 bg 1
4
x −8
2
x −1 x −4 4 2
1 3. L
= x →2 x x −2 2 3
1
4
⋅ 1 d4 i
1 −1
bg 5
x − 32
4. L (80)
1 x→2 x−2
=
1
× 1 c 4h
−3
af 5
x − 32 FG 5 IJ
4
1
5. L
x→2 4
x − 16 H 2K
=
1
×1 x − 2 F 1I
4 6. L
x→2 x−2
GH 2 2 JK
4
=1×
x − 3 F 1I
GH 2 3 JK
1
=4 7. L
x→3 x−3
176 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1− x
7 LM x + 5x OP = 0 form as x → 0 ⇒ (x – 0)
2

MN 4 x PQ 0
8. L (7) Solution:
x →1 1 − x

3 is a factor of Nr and Dr on dividing Nr and Dr by

x +8
9. L (12) (x – 0) = x, we get
x→ –2 x + 2

Problems based on types of functions mentioned

2
x + 5x
=
x/ x + 5
=
x+5 a f ... (1)
earlier but x → 0 instead of x → a 4x 4 x/ 4
Working rule: When x → 0 (zero) and types of the On taking the limits on both sides of (i) as x → 0 ,
functions are same as mentioned earlier when x → a we get
(any constant)
LM x + 5x OP = lim L 0 + 5 O = 0 + 5 = 5
2

MN 4 x PQ MN 4 PQ 4 4
Rule: When x → 0 , the same rule is applied to find lim
out the limit of a function as x → a which means x→0 x→0

rule to find out the limit of a function as x → a

(constant) = rule to find out the limit of a function as x +1−1
3. lim
x → 0 (zero). x→0 x
LM OP = 0 form as x → 0
Theorem: If f (x)
= a polynomial in x = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + ... + an x +1−1

(where a0, a1, a2, … an are constants and n is a +ve

Solution:
MN x PQ 0 on rati-

integer) then xlim

→0
bg
f x = a n = the constant present onalizing the Nr, we get

in the given polynomial in x which is free from the x +1−1

lim
variable raised to any +ve index. x→0 x
Examples worked out:
= lim
LM x+1−1
×
x+1+1 OP
Evaluate: 1. xlim e
3x + 4 x − 5x + 6
2 2
j x→0
MN x x + 1 − 1 PQ
→0

2 2
e
Solution: lim 3x + 4 x − 5x + 6 j = lim
b x + 1g − 1 = lim x
x e x + 1 + 1j xe j
x→0
x→0 x→0
x+1+1
= lim 3 x 2 + lim 4 x 2 − lim 5x + lim 6
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
1
= lim
x →0
e
⇒ lim 3x + 4 x − 5x + 6
2 2
j x→0
e x+1+1 j
= 3 lim x 2 + 4 lim x 2 − 5 lim x + 6 =
1
=
1
=
1
x→0 x→0 x→0
0+1+1 1+1 2
= 3.0 + 4.0 − 5.0 + 6
= 6. x+a − a
LM x + 5x OP
4. lim
2 x→0 x
2. lim
x→0
MN 4 x PQ LM x + a − a OP = 0 form as x → 0 on,
MN x PQ 0
Solution:

rationalizing the Nr, we get

 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 177

lim
x+a − a b3 log 1 = 0g on rationalizing the Nr, we get
x→0 x L x + 1 − 1OP
lim M
= lim
LM x+a − a
×
x+a + a OP x→0
MN log b1 + xg PQ
x→0
MN x x+a + a PQ

= lim M
L x + 1 − 1 × x + 1 + 1OP
⇒ lim
x→0
x+a − a x→0
MN log b1 + xg x + 1 + 1PQ
x
x
= lim
bx + ag − a = lim
x→0
b
log 1 + x ge x +1+1 j
x→0
x e x+a + a j LM x + 1 − 1OP
=
0+a +
1
a
=
2 a
1 ⇒ lim
x→0
MN log b1 + xg PQ
1
= lim
5. xlim
x x→0
b
log 1 + x g ⋅e1
x
x+1+1 j
→0 1− 1− x

LM OP = 0 form as x → 0
1 1
= ×
x e 0+1+1 j log e e
MN1 − 1 − x PQ 0
Solution: , on

rationalizing the Dr, we get LM x + 1 − 1OP = 1 × 1

L x OP
⇒ lim
x→0
MN log b1 + x g PQ 2
lim M
x→0
MN1 − 1 − x PQ F3 lim b1 + xg = eI
H K
1

L x × 1+ OP
x
x→0

= lim M
1− x
x→0
NM1 − 1 − x 1 + 1 − x PQ
⇒ lim M
L x + 1 − 1OP = 1
x e1 + 1 − x j
x→0
MN log b1 + xg PQ 2
= lim
x→0 x
7. lim M
L 5 + 3x OP
F I = lim 1 + x→0
N 7 − 2x Q
⇒ lim GH 1 − x
J
1− xK
e 1− x j
x→0 x→0

Solution: M
L 5 + 3x OP ≠ 0 which ⇒ given function
=1+ 1− 0 N 7 − 2x Q 0
F b5 + 3xg I does not assume FG 0 IJ form at x = 0
= 1 + 1 = 2.
x+1−1 GH b7 − 2 xg JK H 0K
6. lim
x→0 b
log 1 + x g
LM x + 1 − 1OP = 0 form as x → 0 ∴ lim M
L 5 + 3x OP = lim b5 + 3xg
x→0
Solution:
MN log b1 + xg PQ 0 x→0
N 7 − 2 x Q lim b7 − 2 xg
x →0
178 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

lim 5 + lim 3x
x→0 x→0 5 + 3.0 5 LM b1 + xg 1
5
−1 OP 0
=
lim 7 − lim 2 x
x→0 x→0
= =
7 − 2 .0 7
Solution:
MN x PQ = 0 form as x → 0
We put 1 + x = z
Some Important Forms Now, 1 + x = z ⇒ z → 1 as x → 0

b1 + xg b1 + xg − 1
First important form: 1 1
−1
ba ± xg
5 5

∴ lim = lim
b1 + xg − 1
n
−a n
x→0 x→0
as x → 0 x
x ( = independent variable)
1 1
z 5 − 15
Working rule: = lim
1. Put a ± x = z z →1 z −1
2. Change the limit as x → 0 ⇔ z → a
3. The above substitution transforms the given =
1
5
1 af 1 −1
5 =
1
5
problem in to the form:
zn − a n 1+ x −1
as z → a 3. lim
x→0
z−a x
Solution: We put 1 + x = z
zn − an Now, 1 + x = z ⇒ z → 1 as x → 0
4. Use the formula: lim = n a n −1
z−a
LM OP = lim 1 + x − 1
z→a
1+ x −1
Examples worked out:
Evaluate:
∴ lim
x→0
MN x PQ b1 + xg − 1
x→0

1. lim
b1 + xg 1
n
−1
= lim
1
z 2 − 12
1

x→0 x z →1 z − 1

LM b1 + xg 1
n
−1 OP 0 =
1
⋅ 1 bg 1 −1
2
Solution:
MN x PQ = 0 form as x → 0 2
1
We put 1 + x = z =
2
Now, 1 + x = z ⇒ z → 1 as x → 0
b x + hg 1
− x2
1

LM z − b1g OP
2

b1 + xg − b1g 1
n
1
n
1
n
1
4
4. lim
h→ 0 h
∴ lim
x→0 b1 + xg − 1 = lim
z →1 MN z − 1 PQ Solution: We put x + h = z
Now, x + h = z ⇒ z → x as h → 0
=
1
n
× 1 bg 1 −1
n
=
1
n ∴ lim
b x + hg 1
2
− x2
1

= lim
1
z2 − x2
1

h→ 0 h z→ x z−x
2. lim
b1 + xg 1
5
−1 ( 3 h = x + h – x = z – x)
x→0 x 1 − 12 1 1
= x = 1
=
2 2x 2 2 x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 179

5. lim
b x + hg 2
− x2
Problems based on limits of a function as x → 0
h→ 0h
Exercise 4.6
Solution: We put x + h = z
Now, x + h = z ⇒ z → x as h → 0 Find the following limits: Answers
b x + hg 2
−x 2
b x + hg − x 2 2
e
1. lim x + 9 x − 7 x + 4
4 3
j
∴ lim = lim
b x + hg − x
(4)
h →0 h→ 0 x→0
h
x
z2 − x2 2. xlim
→0
(1)
= lim = 2x x
z→ x z − x
5x 3 FG 5IJ
Second important form: A rational function in x
3. lim
x→0 3x 3 H 3K
whose Nr and Dr consist of a polynomial of fractional x2
indices and the independent variable x → 0 . 4. lim (0)
x →0 x
Working rule: Divide Nr and Dr (each term of Nr x
and Dr) by the lowest power of x occurring in the 5. lim (0)
x→0 x
given function
1
Examples worked out: 6. lim does not exist
x →0 x
Evaluate
x
7
x 10 + 3x 5 + 2 x
4
7. lim does not exist
x →0 x3
1. lim
FG 2 IJ
x→0 1 2 1
x 3 + 4x 3 + 2x 5
3x + 4
LM x 7
10
+ 3x + 2 x
4
5 OP = 0 form as x → 0 . 8. lim
x→0 5x + 6 H 3K
Solution:
MN x
1
3
+ 4x + 2x
2
3
1
5 PQ 0 9. lim
2x2 + x − 2
(–2)
Now, on dividing Nr and Dr by the lowest power x→0 3x 2 − x + 1
1
x 5 , we get
b∞ g
2
6x − 2 x + 5
7 4 1 3 4 10. lim
x 10 + 3x 5 + 2 x x 2 + 3x 5 + 2 x 5 x→0 3
x + x
2
1 2 1
= 2 7 … (1)
x 3 + 4x 3 + 2x 5 x 15 + 4 x 15 + 2
b x − 1gb2 x + 3g FG 3 IJ
Lastly, on taking the limits on both sides of (1), as
x → 0 , we get
11. lim
x→0 b x + 5gb3x − 2g H 10 K
x 2 − 3x + 2 FG − 1 IJ
H 3K
7 4 1 3 4
x 10 + 3x 5 + 2 x x 2 + 3x 5 + 2 x 5 12. xlim
lim = lim →0 x2 + x − 6
x→0 1 2 1
x→0 2 7
x 3 + x 3 + 2x 5 x 15 + 4 x 15 + 2
2 x 2 + 3x FG − 3IJ
=
0+0+0 0
= =0
0+0+2 2
13. xlim
→0 3x 2 − 5x H 5K
x 2 − 4x − 5 FG 5 IJ
14. lim
x →0 x2 + x − 2 H 2K
180 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

of the numerator and denominator of the given

x 2 + 5x fraction by the highest power of x occurring either in
15. lim 2 (5) numerator or in denominator. After division by
x→0 x + x
highest power of x present either in numerator or in
1+ x − 1− x denominator of the given fraction, each term of the
16. lim (1) numerator and denominator of the given fraction will
x→0 x be reduced to the forms:
1 + 2 x − 1 − 3x FG 5 IJ
H 2K
b c d
17. lim
x→0 b
x 1+ x g a, , ,
x x2 x3
, …, etc. where a, b, c, d, …, are

constants.
1 + x − 1 + x4 2. Take the limits of each term of numerator and
18. lim
x→0
(1) denominator both as x → ∞ noting that
1 − x4 − 1 − x
b c d
, , , …, etc. (appearing in numerator and
x 2 c x2 x3
19. lim
x→0
(a + |a| ) denominator) all → 0 excepting a constant ‘a1’ in
a − a2 − x2 numerator and another constant ‘a2’ in denominator

1+ x −1 FG 3 IJ FG a IJ will give us the required limit

H 2K Ha K
1
20. xlim whose quotient
→0 3 1+ x +1 2
of the given fraction, if a2 ≠ 0 .
9−x −3 FG 1 IJ
21. lim
x→0 x H 6K Notes: 1. Highest power of x may be present in either
numerator or in denominator.
2. Highest power of x of numerator and denominator
x2 may be the same.
22. lim (2)
x→0 3. The determination of limit of a function y = f (x) as
1 − 1 − x2
x → + ∞ and x → − ∞ are also sometimes used to
23. lim
x →0
x2
does not exist find out the range of y = f (x) when x ∈ − ∞ , + ∞ b g
x5 and f (x) is continuous in R.

1− 1− x FG 1IJ Explanation: 1. f (x) = x

24. lim
x→0 H 8K ⇒ lim f x = a f L a xf = − ∞
F 1 I
x x →−∞ x → −∞

x+h − GG JJ f a xf = L a x f = + ∞
3 3
x
H3 x K
25. lim and lim
h →0
3 2 x → +∞ x→ ∞
h
F 1I R b f g = b− ∞ , + ∞g , since
x+h −
GH 2 x JK
x Hence, f (x) is
26. lim
h →0 h continuous.
2. f (x) = x2
af
f1 x
To evaluate lim
x→∞ af
f2 x
, where f1 (x) and f2 (x) are ⇒ L
x → −∞
ex j = + ∞ and
2
L
x → +∞
ex j = + ∞
2

polynomials in x.
Working rule: One should: Further x 2 ≥ 0 and x 2 = 0 for x = 0
1. Divide f1 (x) and f2 (x) by the highest power of x
occurring in the given fraction, i.e., divide each term
bg g
Hence, R f = 0, + ∞ , since f (x) is continuous.
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 181

3. f (x) = x3
= lim
LM 2 x OP − lim LM x OP
⇒ Lex j = − ∞ and L ex j = + ∞
x → −∞
3
x→∞
3
x→∞
N x − 1Q x→∞
N x + 1Q
Hence, R b f g = b − ∞ , ∞g , since f (x) is continuous. LM OP LM OP
Fe − e I = lim MM 1 PP − lim MM 1 1 PP
2

4. f b x g = G
x −x

H 2 JK
x→∞ x→∞
Nx − x Q N1 + x Q
⇒ L f a x f = − ∞ and L f a x f = + ∞
=2–1=1
x → −∞ x→∞
3 e2 x + 2 e − 2 x
Hence, R b f g = b − ∞ , ∞g , since f (x) is continuous.
3. xlim
→∞ 4 e2 x − e− 2 x
Problems based on the form:
3 e2 x + 2 e − 2 x
f1 x b g , where f (x) and f (x) are polynomials Solution: xlim
→∞ 4 e2 x − e− 2 x
lim
x→∞ f2 b xg 1 2

2
in x. 3 ⋅ e2 x +
= lim e2 x
Examples worked out: x→∞ 1
Evaluate: 4 ⋅ e2 x +
e2 x
2 x − 3x + 5
2

1. xlim
→∞ 3x 2 + 27 x − 29 3+
2
= lim e4 x
2 x 2 − 3x + 5 x→∞ 1
Solution: xlim 4+
→∞ 3x 2 + 27 x − 29 e2x

3 5 3+0
2−
+ 2 =
x x 4+0
= lim (on dividing Nr and Dr
x→∞ 27 29 3
3+ − 2 =
x x 4
by the highest power of x, i.e., x2 ) 2
[N.B.: 3 as x → ∞ , e 4 x → ∞ ⇒ → 0]
2 e4x
=
3 Problems based on the form:

N.B.: As x → ∞ ,
1 1
→ 0, 2 → 0 a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ... + a
x lim
x x→∞ b0 x n + b1 x n − 1 + b2 x n − 2 + ... + b
LM 2 x − x OP
2. xlim
→∞
N x − 1 x + 1Q Exercise 4.7

Solution: lim M
L 2 x − x OP Find the following limits: Answers
N x − 1 x + 1Q
x→∞
6 x 3 − 5x 2 + 4 FG 3IJ
1. xlim
→∞ 4 x − 4x + 7
3 H 2K
182 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG a IJ
2
makes the coefficient of highest power free from
ax + bx + c highest power of x in the following examples.
2. lim
x→∞ 2
l x + mx + n H lK a
5. Remember that lim = 0 if n > 0
x→∞ xn
3. xlim
→∞
x4 − x2 + 3
x 2 + 5x + 13
b∞ g Examples worked out:
Evaluate:
x + x + x +1
3 2
4. lim (0) x4 + 1 − x4 − 1
x→∞ x5 + 1 1. lim
x→∞ x
5x − 3 FG 5 IJ e j
5. xlim
→∞ 7x + 8 H 7K x4 + 1 − x4 − 1
= lim
x→∞ FH IK ;
ax + b FG a IJ x x4 + 1 + x4 − 1
6. xlim
→∞ cx H cK (on rationalizing Nr)

5x 2 + x + 1 FG 5 IJ x4 + 1 − x4 + 1
7. xlim
→∞ 6 x 2 − 3x − 5 H 6K = lim
x→∞
x FH x4 + 1 + x4 − 1 IK
2 x 2 − x + 100
8. xlim (0) 2
→∞ 4x3 + 2 = lim
x→∞
x FH x4 + 1 + x4 − 1 IK
b x + 1gb2 x + 3g FG 2 IJ
9. xlim
→∞ b x + 2gb3x + 4g H 3K =0
LM OP
Problems based on rationalization when x → ∞ 2. lim
x→∞ N x2 + 1 − x2 − 1
Q
Remember:
LM OP
1. If only Nr contains radical, rationalize Nr by its
rationalizing factor (rationalizing factor is also known
Solution:
N x2 + 1 − x2 − 1
Q
as conjugate).
2. If only Dr contains radical, rationalize Dr by its x2 + 1 − x2 − 1
= × x2 +1 + x2 − 1
conjugate. x +1+
2
x −1
2
3. If Nr and Dr both contain radicals, rationalize Nr
and Dr both by its conjugate.
4. After rationalization, we have =
x2 + 1 − x2 − 1 e j
Nr = an expression in x x2 + 1 + x2 − 1
Dr = an expression in x with radical or without
radical, then we divide the rationalized function by 2
the square root of highest power of x (i.e. =
x +1+
2
x2 − 1
highest power of x ) seeing the power of x under
the radical sign of the radical signs in Nr and Dr
contain an expression in x, i.e. the process of division ∴ lim FH x2 + 1 − x2 − 1 IK
x→∞
of rationalized function by highest power of x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 183

= lim
2 Solution: lim x FH x2 + 1 − x2 − 1 IK
x→∞ x→∞
x +1+
2
x −1 2

LM x FH x2 + 1 − IK FH
x2 − 1 × x2 + 1 + x2 − 1 IK OP
2 = lim
x→∞
MM FH IK PP
= lim
x→∞ 1 1
x
N x2 + 1 + x2 − 1
Q
1+ + 1− 2
e j
2
x x
x x2 + 1 − x2 + 1
(dividing by x2 = x )
= lim
x→∞ FH x2 + 1 + x2 − 1 IK
=0
FH
3. lim x x − x2 + 1 IK 2 x*
x→∞
= lim
x→∞ FH x2 + 1 + x2 − 1 IK
FG IJ
H K
2
Solution: lim x x − x +1
x→∞ 2x

LM x FH x − x + 1IK × FH x +
2
x2 + 1 IK OP = lim
x→∞ 1 1
x ;

= lim
x→∞
MM FH x + x + 1IK PP 1+ 2 + 1− 2
x x
N Q
2

(dividing by x2 = x )

e
x x2 − x2 + 1 j =
2
= lim
x→∞ LMx + x + 1OP 1+ 1
N Q
2

2
=
x b − 1g
2
= lim
L x 1 OP =1
x M1 +
x→∞ 2
Note: * Highest power of x in Nr = x
MN x + x PQ 2 2
Highest power of x in Dr = x2 = x
This is why we divide each term of Nr and Dr by x
(dividing by x2 = x )
16x 2 − 9 x + 5 − 9 x 2 + 5x − 7
b− 1g 5. lim
x→∞ b2 x − 3g
= lim
x→∞ LM1 + 1
1+ 2
OP
MN x PQ 16x 2 − 9 x + 5 − 9 x 2 + 5x − 7
Solution: lim
x→∞ b2 x − 3g
=
b− 1g
=−
1
1+ 1+0 2
16 −
9 5
+ 2 − 9+
5 7
− 2
x x x x
FH − 1I
K
lim
x→∞ FG 2 − 3 IJ ;
x +1−
H xK
4. lim x 2 2
x
x→∞
184 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(dividing by x2 = x ) 3− 2
=
3
16 − 0 + 0 − 9 + 0 − 0
=
2−0 Some Miscellaneous Problems

4−3 Evaluate:
=
2
1. lim
e3n 2
−1 − j e2n 2
+1 j
1
= n→∞ 4n + 3
2
LM 1 1 OP Solution: Let us put n =
1
N.B.: 3
N ,
x x2
→ 0 as x → ∞
Q ∴ x → 0 as n → ∞
x

3x + 4 x + 5 −
2
2x + 3
2
Making this substitution and after simplification,
6. lim
x→∞ b3x + 7g we get

3x 2 + 4 x + 5 − 2x2 + 3 lim
e3n 2
−1 − j e2n 2
+1 j
Solution: lim
x→∞ b3x + 7g n→∞ 4n + 3

Note that highest power of x in Nr = x 2 = x and

lim
e3 − x j − e2 + x j
2 2

highest power of x in Dr = x. x→0 4 + 3x

3x 2 + 4 x + 5 − 2x2 + 3 3− 2
=
x→∞
lim
b3x + 7g 4

F 3x I F 2x I =
1
e 3− 2 j
GH x JK GH x JK
2 2
4x 5 3 4
2
+ 2 + 2 x2 − 2
+ 2 x2
x x x
An important form:
= lim
x→∞ F 3x + 7 IJ
xG
H x xK f1 x b g or f b xg 1

4 5 3
Form:
n f2 b xg f b x g 1
x 3+ + 2 −x 2+ 2
x x x
FG IJ
= lim Examples Worked Out:
x→∞ 7 Evaluate:
x 3+
H
x K
x2 − 3
1. lim
3+
4
x
5
+ 2 −
x
2+
3
x2
x→∞
3
ex 3
+1 j
= lim
x→∞ FG 7 IJ
H
3+
x K Solution: lim
x2 − 3

=
3+0−0 − 2+0
x→∞
3
ex 3
+1 j
3
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 185

F x − 3I 4
GH x JK
2
=
x2 2 FG 1 IJ
= lim
x→∞
F x + 1I x→∞
lim 2 +
H x2 K
GH x JK
3
3 x3 4
3
=
2+0
3
x 1− =
4
= lim x2 2
x→∞ 1
x 31+ =2 2
x3
Problems on irrational functions when x → ∞
FG1 − 3 IJ
=
lim
x→∞ H xK 2 Exercise 4.8

F 1 IJ
lim G 1 +
3
x→∞ H xK 2
Find the following limits: Answers
1. lim
x→∞
e 1 + x − 1 − xj b∞ g
1−0
lim F x + 8 x − 7 − x IK
=
3 1+0 2.
x→∞ H 2 2
+ 2x + 5 (3)

1
= 3. lim
x
Find
1 x→∞
1 + x2 − 1
=1

2. xlim
4x x2 + 4 − x2 + 1 FG 3IJ
→∞
2x + 1
2 4. lim
x→∞
x 2 + 16 − x2 + 9 H 7K
Solution: xlim
4x
e j FG c IJ
→∞
2x2 + 1
5. lim
x→∞
x x+c − x (P.U. 66)
H 2K
= lim
x→∞
x⋅4
6. lim
x→∞
FH x2 + 4x − IK
x 2 − 4 x (L.N. 86) (4)
1
2+
FH IK
x
x2
7. lim x x3 + 4x − x 3 − 4 x (M.U. 86) (4)
x→∞

= lim
4
FH x − FG − 1 IJ
IK (I.I.T 75)
x→∞

x
1
2+ 2
8. lim
x→∞
x2 + x
H 2K
bg F∞ I
Problems based on summation of series G formJ
=
lim 4
x→∞ H∞ K
1 Working rule:
lim 2+ 1. Use the formulas for the sum of n-natural number,
x→∞ x 2
square of n-natural numbers or cube of n-natural
186 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

numbers for which the following formulas are very

FG1 + 1 IJ FG 2 + 1 IJ
fruitful.
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n = sum of n-natural numbers = lim
H nK H nK = 2 = 1
n→ ∞
a f
n 6 6 3
= ⋅ n+1
2 n
2. lim
(ii) 12 + 23 + 32 + … + n2 = sum of square of n-natural n→ ∞ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n

numbers =
b
n n + 1 2n + 1 gb g. Solution: lim
n
6 n→ ∞ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + … + n3 = sum of cube of n-natural

L n an + 1f OP
n
2 = lim
numbers = M
N 2 Q
. n→ ∞ n
2
b
n+1 g
(iv) ∑ a r n − 1 = a + ar + ar2 + … + arn – 1 =
e j
a 1 − rn 2
b1 − r g = lim
2
n→ ∞ n + 1
= lim
b
n→ ∞
n
1 g FG IJ =
0
1+0
=0
Refresh your memory: Method of finding the limit of
f (n) as n → ∞ .
1+
n H K
We divide the numerator and denominator by the
LM n n OP
highest power of n-occurring in f (n) an then use the
M ∑ 3

PP = 1
3. Show that lim M
1 1 n =1
, … all → 0 as n → ∞
MM n PP 4
idea that ,
n n2 n→∞ 4

Examples worked out:

Evaluate
N Q
F1 I ∑
n
b
n2 n + 1 g 2

GH n JK
2
22 32 n2
1. lim + + + ... + Solution: We know that n3 = … (i)
n→ ∞ 3
n3 n3 n3 4
n =1

F1 2
22 32 n2 I n
b g
GH n JK ∑n
2
Solution: lim + + + ... + 3 n2 n + 1
n→ ∞ 3
n 3
n 3
n3 n =1 4
∴ =
F 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n I
4
n n4
2 2 2 2
= lim G
H JK LM n OP n

∑ P
n→ ∞ n 3
3

⇒ lim M
M
F n bn + 1g b2n + 1g I MM n PPP
n =1

= lim G JK n→∞ 4

H 6n
n→ ∞ 3
MN PQ
F 1I F 1I
n G1 + J G 2 + J ⋅ n R|n bn + 1g U|
H nK H n K
2
lim S V|
2

= lim
n→ ∞ 6n 2 =
|T 4
n→∞
W
lim n 4
n→
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 187

R| n bn + 1g U| 2
bg bg
t1 x
S| 4 n V|
2

t bxg
= lim Type 1: To find lim f x = lim
x→a x→a
n→∞
T W 4 2
Where f (x) = a trigonometric function whose
R| 1 F 1 I U|
= lim S G 1 + J V
2 Numerator = Nr = t1 (x) = a trigonometric function or

|T 4 H n K |W
trigonometric expression and denominator = Dr = t2
n→∞ (x) = a trigonometric function or trigonometric
expression.
1 F 1I
lim G1 + J
2
Moreover, x = the angle of trigonometric function
=
4 n→∞ H nK which tends to a finite number.
Working rule: When numerator and denominator
1
= . both are trigonometric functions or trigonometric
4 expressions which can be expressed in terms of sin θ
Problems based on the limits of f (n) as n → ∞ and cos θ and cancellation of common factor from
Nr and Dr is possible, we adopt the following
procedure.
Exercise 4.9
1. Express all trigonometrical terms into sin θ and
cos θ and cancel the common factor from numerator
Find the limits of the following functions: and denominator.
Answers 2. Put x = a = given limit of the independent variable
∑ n3 FG 1 IJ in the expression free from common factor (i.e., a factor
1. lim
n→∞ n 4
H 4K which makes f (a) meaningless) which gives us the
required limit of the given function f (x) as x → a ,
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n FG 1 IJ
2. lim
n→∞ n2 H 2K where a =
π π π π
, , , , π , or 1, etc., for example.
2 6 4 3
b
n n−1 n−2 n−3 gb gb g Facts to know:

b gb gb gb g
3. lim (1) 1. We may face the circumstances where changing
n→∞ n−4 n−5 n−6 n−7 given function in terms of sin x and cos x to remove

FG 1 IJ
the common factor does not provide us a common
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3
H 4K
4. nlim factor which means further modification is required
→∞ n4 + 1 which is done by using formulas of trigonometrical
ratios of submultiple angle. Thus firstly changing of
n 4 + 5n 2 + 7n − 3 t-ratios in terms of sin x and cos x and secondly using
5. lim (1)
n → ∞ n 2 ( n 2 + 2n − 7) the formulas of t-ratios of submultiple angles, we are
n able to find out the common factor which is cancelled
6. lim (0) from numerator and denominator.
n → ∞ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
2. After cancellation of common factor from numerator
and denominator, we get the determinate value of the
6n5 + n 4 − 7n 3 + 5
7. lim (6) simplified function at a given value x = a = limit of the
n→∞ n 5 + 7n 3 + 6 independent variable.
3. Modification of the given function is not stopped
Limits of trigonometric functions as x → a
unless we get a determinate value of the simplified
Form:
0 ∞ at x = a function which provides a finite value = required limit
or
0 ∞ of the given function as x → a .
188 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

4. Various mathematical manipulations can be

FG π ± hIJ
adopted to remove the common factor which is not
apparent directly in the given function. H 2 K = lim 1 − cos h
1 − sin
= lim
h→0 Fπ I
cos G ± hJ
b± sin hg
h→0
Remember: When the methods discussed above fail
to give the limit of a function, a general method of H2 K
evaluation known as method of substitution or h-
method or differential method is adopted. All F hI
tan G J
H 2 K ⋅ FG h IJ
h 2
questions solved by various methods can be solved 2 sin
FG h IJ H 2 K
= ± lim 2 = ± lim
with the help of this method too. h→0 h h h→0
Method of substitution:
2 sin ⋅ cos
2 2 H 2K
1. Put x = a ± h (when x → a ) where h → 0
= ± 1× 0 = 0.
through +ve values.
b g
2. Find lim f a ± h when y = f (x) = algebraic or
2. We never put x = a while finding the limit of
b g as x → a but we always put the limit
bg
h→0 f1 x
trigonometric or mixed transcendental functions or
any type of function.
f x =
f2 b xg
N.B.: 1. We always put x = a ± h so that when of the independent variable x = a in the simplified
x → a , h → 0 through +ve values [but for simplicity
bg bg
f1 x
of calculation we put x = a + h (or x = a – h)] because
the limit of f (x) is said to exist at x = a if right hand
form of the function f x =
bg
f2 x
whose limit is

bg
limit (or, right limit) lim f x and left hand limit
x→a
required as x → a , when f1 (a) = f2 (a) = 0.
x > a Problems based on type 1

bg
Examples worked out:
(or, left limit) xlim
→a
f x exist and are equal, e.g.: Evaluate:
x < a
1 + sin 2 x
1. limπ
x+2 x→ 4 1 – cos4 x
(i) Evaluate lim
x→0 x + 1
FG 1 + sin 2 x IJ for x ⇒ π ≠ 0 (i.e., given
Solution: Put x = 0 ± h , then for h > 0, we have Solution:
H 1 – cos4 x K 4 0
b
lim 0 ± h + 2
x + 2 h→0
g function does not assume meaningless form as
lim
x→0 x +1
=
b
lim 0 ± h + 1
h→0
=2
g x→
π
)
4
(ii) Evaluate limπ (sec x – tan x)
x→ FG π ⋅ 2IJ
F 1 + sin 2 x IJ = H4 K
1 + sin
2

π Hence, lim G
Solution: Put x = ± h , then for h > 0, we have H 1 – cos4 x K 1 – cos FG π ⋅ 4IJ
π
2 x→
4
H4 K
b g FG 1 − sin x IJ
x→
limπ sec x − tan x = limπ
x→ H cos x K F πI
1 + sin G J
H 2K = 1 + 1 = 2 = 1
2 2

1 − b − 1g 2
=
1 – cos π
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 189

tan x + cot x FG 1 − sin x IJ tan x

2. lim
x→
π
2
tan x − cot x
3. lim
x→
π
2
H cos2 x K
FG tan x + cot x IJ ∞
Solution: M
L b1 − sin xg ⋅ tan xOP
Solution:
H tan x − cot x K x → π2
=
∞
⇒ form is
MN cos 2 x PQ x→ π
=0×∞⇒
2
meaning-less form is meaningless.
sin x
+
cos x FG IJ FG
Now, 1 − sin x ⋅ tan x = 1 − sin x ⋅ sin x
IJ
Now, tan x + cot x
tan x − cot x
=
cos x
sin x
sin x
cos x
, x≠
nπ
4
; n ∈z H
cos2 x K cos2 x H cos x K
−
cos x sin x
FG sin x + cos x − 2 sin x ⋅ cos x IJ sin x
H 2 2K
2 2
2 2
sin x + cos x =
FG cos x + sin x IJ FG cos x − sin x IJ cos 2 x
2 2

=
sin x cos x
sin 2 x − cos 2 x
H 2 2K H 2 2K
sin x cos x
FG cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ sin x
2

H 2 2K
esin x + cos xj × bsin x ⋅ cos xg
2 2 =
FG cos x + sin x IJ FG cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ cos 2 x
=
bsin x ⋅ cos xg × esin x − cos xj
2 2 H 2 2K H 2 2K
1 1 FG cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ sin x
=
esin x − cos xj
2 2
=−
cos2 x H 2 2K nπ π
=
FG cos x + sin x IJ ⋅ cos 2 x for x ≠
2
+
4
Thus, we get,
tan x + cot x
=−
1
for H 2 2K
tan x − cot x cos 2 x
π
nπ or nπ + ; n ∈z
x≠ … (i) 2
4 Thus, we get,

F x xI
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (1) as

x→
π
, we get FG 1 − sin x IJ ⋅ tan x = GH cos 2 − sin 2 JK ⋅ sin x
2
H cos2 x K FG cos x + sin x IJ cos 2 x
lim (given function) = lim (simplified form
x→
π
x→
π
H 2 2K
2 2
which does not give us meaningless form at
of the given function)
π
⇒ lim G
F tan x + cot x IJ x= ⇒ This is required simplified form … (i)
H tan x − cot x K
2
π
x→ Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (1) as
2

F 1 IJ = − 1 = − 1 = 1
= lim G −
π
x → , we get limπ (given function) = limπ
H cos 2 x K cos π − 1
x→
π
2
2 x→ 2
(simplified form of the given function)
x→ 2
190 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG 1 − sin x IJ ⋅ tan x Now, taking the limits on both sides of (i) as

⇒ limπ
x→ H cos2 x K
2 x→
π
2
, we get lim (given function) = lim
x → π2 x → π2

FG cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ sin x (simplified form of the given function).

H 2 2K F cosec x − 1I = lim F 1 I
= lim
x→ FG cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ cos 2 x
π ⇒ limπ GH cot x JK GH cosec x + 1JK
H 2 2K
2 x→ 2 x→ π
2 2

1 1 1
FG cos π − sin π IJ ⋅ sin π =
π
=
+
=
H 2 4K 2 cosec + 1 1 1 2
2
=
F π πI
cos π ⋅ G cos + sin J F 1 − sin x I
H 4 4K 5. xlim GH 1 – sin x JK
3

2
→π

F 1 − sin x IJ ⋅ tan x
2

⇒ lim G
H cos2 x K Solution: G
F 1 − sin x I 3

H 1 - sin x JK
x→ π
0
2
2
= form
π 0
FG 1 − 1 IJ ⋅ 1 x→
2

H 2 2K = 0 b1 − sin xg e1 + sin x + sin xj

b− 1g FGH 12 + 12 IJK
=
2
1 − sin 3 x
Now,
1 – sin 2 x
=
b1 − sin xgb1 + sin x g
F cosec x − 1I =
1 + sin x + sin 2 x π
for x ≠ 2n + 1 , n ∈z b g
4. lim G
H cot x JK
1 + sin x 2
x→ π 2
2
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i), we

Solution: G
F cosec x − 1I = 0 form get

H cot x JK
limπ (given function) = limπ (simplified form
2
0 π x→ 2
x→ 2
x→
2 of the given function)
cosec x − 1 cosec x − 1 F 1 − sin x I
3
Now,
cot x 2
=
cosec x − 1
2 ⇒ limπ
x→ 2
GH 1 − sin x JK
2

bcosec x − 1g F 1 + sin x + sin x I

=
bcosec x − 1gbcosec x + 1g
2
= limπ
x→GH 1 + sin x JK
2

1 nπ
=
b
cosec x + 1
for x ≠ ; n ∈z
g F 1 + sin π + F sin π I I
G 2 JK J
2
2
G 2 H
=G
which does not give us a meaningless form at
π
⇒ GG 1 + sin π JJJ
this is the required simplified form
2
…(i) H 2 K
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 191

=
1+1+1 3
= b1 + cos x g cos x = cos x
2 2

1+1 2 =
b − cos x gb1 + cos xg 1 − cos x
1

FG sin 2θ IJ 1 + cos x cos2 x

6. limπ
θ→ 2H cos θ K Thus, we get
tan x 2
=
1 − cos x
for

F I
Solution: G sin 2θ J 0 nπ
H cos θ K θ→ π
2
=
0
form x≠
2
, n ∈z … (i)
Now on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
sin 2θ 2 sin θ ⋅ cos θ x → π , we get
Now, = = 2 sin θ for
cos θ cos θ lim (given function) = lim (simplified form
x→π x→π
π
θ ≠ nπ + … (i) of the given function)
2
F 1 + cos x I = lim F cos x I 2

get
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i), we i.e., GH tan x JK
lim
x→π 2 GH 1 − cos x JK
x→π

limπ (given function) = limπ (simplified form

θ→ 2
θ→ 2
cos π b− 1g = 1
2 2

1 − cos π 1 − b− 1g 2
of the given function) = =

FG sin 2θ IJ = b g
⇒ limπ
θ→ H cos θ K θ→
limπ 2 sin θ
8. lim G
F sin x − cos x IJ
2 2
H cos2 x K
x→ π
4
π
= 2 sin = 2.1 = 2
2
Solution: G
F sin x − cos x IJ = 0
F 1 + cos x I H cos 2 x K 0 x→ π

GH tan x JK
4
7. lim
x→π 2
sin x − cos x sin x − cos x nπ π
Now, = ; x≠ +
F 1 + cos x I cos x − sin x
cos 2 x 2 2
2 4
Solution: G
H tan x JK bsin x − cos xg
0
2
= −1
0
x→π =−
bsin x − cos xgbsin x + cos xg = bsin x + cos xg
1 + cos x 1 + cos x b1 + cos xg ; sin x − cos x −1
Now, 2
=
sec x − 12
=
F 1 − 1I Thus, we get, =
b …(i)
g
GH cos x JK sin x + cos x
tan x cos 2 x
2
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as

nπ π
x≠ x→ , we get
2 4

=
b1 + cos xg = b1 + cos xg cos x 2
limπ (given function) = limπ (simplified form
x→ 4
x→ 4

e1 − cos xj e1 − cos xj
2 2 of the given function)

cos2 x
192 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F sin x − cos x I = lim F − 1 I 1

i.e., limπ
x→ 4
GH cos 2 x JK x→
GH sin x + cos x JK
π
4
= −2 ×
2
=− 2

−1 −1 10. lim (sec x – tan x)

= = x→ π
π π 1 1 2
sin + cos + Solution: (sec x – tan x)
4 4 2 2
F 1 − sin x I = F 1 − sin x I x ≠ nπ + π
−1 2 1 = GH cos x cos x JK GH cos x JK ;
FG 2 IJ
= =−
2
=−
2
2

H 2K ∴ bsec x − tan x g
F 1 − sin x IJ = 0
=G
x=
H cos x K
π

L sin 2 x − b1 + cos 2 xg OP
2 0 x= π

9. lim M
2

x→MN cos x − sin x PQ

π
4 2 x 2 x x x
1 − sin x sin 2 + cos 2 − 2 sin 2 cos 2

Solution: M
L sin 2 x − b1 + cos 2 xg OP =
0
Now,
cos x
=
x
cos2 − sin 2
x
MN cos x − sin x PQ x→ π
0 2 2

FG cos x − sin x IJ
4

sin 2 x − b1 + cos 2 x g
2

Now, H 2 2K
cos x − sin x =
FG cos x − sin x IJ
H 2 2K
2 2

2 sin x cos x − 2 cos x2

nπ
= ; x≠ , n ∈z
cos x − sin x 4
FG cos x − sin x IJ FG cos x − sin x IJ
b
− 2 cos x cos x − sin x g = − 2 cos x H 2 2K H 2 2K
=
bcos x − sin xg
=
FG cos x − sin x IJ FG cos x + sin x IJ
H 2 2K H 2 2K
sin 2 x − b1 + cos 2 x g
Thus, we get,
cos x − sin x
= − 2 cos x FG cos x − sin x IJ
H 2 2K
… (i) =
FG cos x + sin x IJ
H 2 2K
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
π
x→ , we get
4 1 − sin x
Thus, we get, (sec x – tan x) =
limπ (given function) = lim (simplified form cos x
x→ 4
π x→ 4
x x
of the given function) cos − sin
2 2
LM sin 2 x − b1 + cos 2 xg OP =
x
cos + sin
x … (i)
i.e., limπ
x→ 4 MN cos x − sin x PQ 2 2
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
lim b− 2 cos x g = − 2 cos
π π
= π x→ , we get
x→ 4
4 2
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 193

limπ (given function) = limπ (simplified form F sin x − cos x I F 1I

x→ 2
x→ 2 5. limπ
x→
GH tan x − cot x JK
4
GH 2 2 JK
of the given function), i.e. limπ (sec x – tan x)
x→ 2
b1 − sin θg FG 1 IJ
F cos x − sin x I cos π − sin π 6. lim
H 2K
G 2 2 JJ = 4 4 cos2 θ
π
θ→
lim G
2

=
x→
GH cos 2x + sin 2x JK cos 4π + sin π4
π
2 bcot x − cos xg FG 1 IJ
7. limπ
x→ 2 cos3 x H 2K
1 1
−
0 1 − sin 3 x FG 3IJ
H 2K
2 2
=
1
+
1
=
FG IJ
2
=0 8. limπ
x→ cos2 x
H K
2

2 2 2
cos2 x
9. limπ (1)
Notes: We observe from the just above solution that x→ 2 1 − sin 2 x
(i) Firstly sec x and tan x are changed into sin x and
cos x to remove the common factor but on changing cosec x − 1 FG 1 IJ
sec x and tan x in terms of sin x and cos x, no common
10. limπ
x→ 2 cot 2 x H 2K
factor is cancelled which means further modification
is required. 1 = cos3 x
11. lim (3)
(ii) Secondly, using formulas of t-ratios of submultiple x→π 1 + cos x
angles, we are able to find out the common factor and
after cancellation of common factor, we get a finite 2 − sec 2 x
12. lim (2)
value ‘0’ for the simplified form (of the given function) x→π
4 1 – tan x
π
at the given value x = . (i.e. at the limit of the 1 + cos3 x FG 3IJ
independent variable x).
2 13. lim
x→π sin 2 x H 2K
Problems based on type 1 F 3 sin x − cos x − 2 I
2 2
14. limπ
x→ 3
GH 1 − 2 cos x JK (2)
Exercise 4.10
1 + cos π x FG 1 IJ
Evaluate Answers 15. lim
x→1 tan π x
2
H 2K
F sin x − cos x I FG cos x − cos α IJ
e 2j
2 2
lim G
1.
x→ H sin x − cos x JK
π
4
16. lim
x→α H cot x − cot α K esin αj
3

F tan x − cot x I
e2 2 j bg
2 2
lim G
2.
x→ H sec x − cosec x JK
π
4
Type 2: To find lim f x where f (x) = a
x→a
trigonometrical function (or expression) mixed with
F 2 - cosec x I 2
an algebraic function in any way (generally algebraic
3. limπ
x→ GH 1 – cot x JK
4
(2) function appears as addend, subtrahend, minuend,
multiplicand or divisor of trigonometric function or

lim G
F 2 cos x − sin 2 x I
2
expression) i.e.; to find
4.
x→ H cos 2 x JK
π
4
(1)
194 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

bg bg bg
a1 x ± t1 x
3. A trigonometric function is provided which does
(i) lim f x = lim
bg bg
not contain a common factor.
x→a x→a a2 x ± t 2 x
Facts to Know:
a b xg ⋅ t b xg 1. If there exists a factor of t-ratios of angle θ as
(ii) xlim
→a
bg
f x = lim
x→a
1
t b xg
2
1
sinθ , cosθ , tan θ or cot θ , etc, we are required to
write it as
t1 x bg sin θ
or xlim
bg bg
→a a x ⋅ t x
1 2
sin θ =
θ
⋅θ

bg t x bg tan θ =
tan θ
⋅ θ so that standard results of
(iii) xlim
→a
f x = lim 1
x→a a x
1 bg θ
limits of t-ratios may be used.
or xlim
→a
bg bg
a1 x ⋅ t1 x
2. Standard results of limits of t-ratios are following
sin m x

bg a x bg (i) lim
x→0 x
=m
(iv) xlim
→a
f x = lim 1
x→a t x
1 bg (ii) lim
tan m x
=m
Where a1 (x) and a2 (x) = algebraic functions (or, x→0 x
expression) (iii) lim cos m x = 1
t1 (x) and t2 (x) = trigonometric functions (or, x→0
expression)
sin x
a = a finite value (iv) xlim =1
→0 x
π π π π
= , , , , π or 1 for instance tan x
2 6 4 3 (v) 1 = xlim
→0
We adopt the following working rule: x
Working rule: (vi) lim cos x = 1
x→0
1. Put x = a + h (or, a – h) (where h → 0 ) in the given
function. Remember:
2. Modify the given function obtained after θ
substitution x = a + h or x = a – h and remove the 1. θ → 0 ⇒ 2 θ → 0 ⇒ →0
2
common factor if it occurs.
3. Take the limit of the modified form which is a θ
In general, θ → 0 ⇒ m θ → 0 ⇒ → 0 where
function of h as h→0 since
x→a
bg
lim f x
m = any integer
m

b g
= lim f a + h (where h → 0 ).
h→0
Question: When to use method of change of limit,
method of substitution, h-method or differential
method?
Answer: Method of change of limit is used when
1. The given trigonometric function can not be
simplified easily.
2. The factorization of the given trigonometric
function is not possible or difficult.
2. Modification of the function obtained after
substitution x = a + h in the given function is done by
simplification using various trigonometrical formulas
and mathematical manipulations so that standard
formulas of limits of trigonometrical function
mentioned above may be applied.
3. f (a + h) = a function obtained by putting the
independent variable = x = a + h in the given function
where h → 0 .
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 195

4. The method of substitution is sometimes termed

LM h ⋅ tan FG π + π h IJ OP
N 2 H 2 2a K Q
= lim sin
as substitution and modification method since firstly
h→0
we substitute x = a ± h in the given function and
then we modify the function containing a ± h . b g L h F π h IJ OP
= lim Msin ⋅ G − cot
N 2 H 2a K Q
Problems based on type 2
h→0
Examples worked out:
Evaluate
b
1. limπ sec x − tan x g LM OP
x→ 2
MM F h I PP
bg
Solution: limπ sec x − tan x
M − G sin J
H 2 K PP
= lim M
x→ 2

F 1 − sin x IJ h→0MM tan FG π h IJ ⋅ FG π h IJ PP

= lim G
x→H cos x cos x K
π
MM H 2FaπKh IH 2a K PP
NM GH 2a JK QP
2

F 1 − sin x IJ
= lim G
x→H cos x K
π
2

Fπ I FG h IJ
1 − sin G + hJ H 2K
H2 K
sin
= lim
Fπ I
− lim
h→0 FG IJ
h
cos G + hJ H 2K
h→0

H2 K =
F π hI
tan G J
H 2a K F π I
FG π h IJ ⋅ GH a JK
1 − cos h
= lim
b g
lim
h→0 h→0

H 2a K
- sin h

h
2 sin 2
= − lim 2 −1 −1 a a
h→0 h
2 sin ⋅ cos
h =
FG IJ
π
=
1
× =−
π π
2 2
H K
a
FG h IJ
tan
H 2 K ⋅ FG h IJ 3. limπ
F
cos x
I
= − lim
h→0 FG IJ H 2 K
h
x→ 2
H
π
−x
K
H 2K 2

π π
=1×0=0 Solution: Putting x = + h ⇒ h → 0 as x →
FG x − a IJ ⋅ tan FG π x IJ
2 2
2. lim sin
H 2 K H 2a K FG π + hIJ
H2 K
x→a
cos x cos
Solution: Putting x = a + h where h → 0 as x → a ∴ limπ
x→ FG π IJ = lim
h→0 π Fπ
− G + hJ
I
b g H −x
K 2 H2 K
2

∴ lim given function 2

x→a
196 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG − sin h IJ sin h
F 1 − 1 + 2 sin h I F hI
H –h K 2 sin G J
= lim = lim =1
G 2J H 2K
2 2
h→0 h→0 h
= lim G J = lim
N.B.: Here we observe that Nr = a trigonometric
function while Dr = an algebraic function. Hence, they
h→0
GH h 2
JK h h→0 2

can not have any factor in common. This is why we

FG sin h IJ 2
must make use of method of substitution.
H 2K
FG 2 x − π IJ = 2 lim
F hI
4⋅G J
h→0 2
4. limπ
x→ 2 H cos x K H 2K
Solution: Putting x =
π
+ h ⇒ 2 x − π = 2h =
2
lim M
L bsin h / 2g OP 2

2 4 h→0 MN h / 2 PQ
F I L sin h OP
F 2 x − π IJ G JJ
2

∴ lim G = lim G 1 M
= M lim P = ⋅ b1g =
2h
GG cos FGH π + hIJK JJ
1 1
H cos x K
2 2
2 M
N 2 PQ
x→ π h→0 h→0 h
H 2 K
2 2 2

F h IJ L 3 cos x + cos 3x OP
lim M
= − 2 lim G
H sin h K
h→0
6.
x→ π
2MN b2π - xg PQ 2

= −2 × 1 = −2 . π π
Solution: Putting x = + h ⇒ h → 0 as x →
N.B.: Here we observe that Dr = a trigonometric 2 2
function while Nr = an algebraic function. Hence, they
∴ limπ
LM 3 cos x + cos 3x OP
MN a2π – xf PQ
can not have any factor in common. This is why we 2
x→
must make use of method of substitution. 2

b1 − sin xg L 3cos x + 4 cos x − 3cos x OP

lim M
3
5. limπ
x→
FG π − xIJ 2
=
x→ π
MN b2π − xg PQ 2

H2 K
2 2

4 cos3 x
π π = limπ
Solution: Putting x =
2
+ h ⇒ h → 0 as x →
2
x→ 2 b2 x – π g 2

b1 − sin xg Fπ I
4 cos G + hJ
H2 K
3
∴ limπ
x→
FG π − xIJ 2
= lim
H2 K LM2 FG π + hIJ − πOP
2
h→0 2

LM1 − sin FG π + hIJ OP N H2 K Q

= lim M
H2 KP FG 1 − cos h IJ − sin 3 h
h→0 MM b− hg PP 2 = lim
h→0 H h K 2 = 4 lim
h→0 4 h3
⋅h
N Q
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 197

L F sin h IJ OP
= − M lim G
3
F I
N H h KQ
⋅ lim h G
lim G
sin x − cos x J
GH x − π4 JJK
h→0 h→0
8. x→ π
4
= −1 × 0 = 0

2 − cos x − sin x π
7. limπ
x→ 4 b 4x − π g 2 Solution: Putting x =
4
+ h where h → 0 as

π π
Solution: Putting x = + h where h → 0 as x→
4 4

π sin x − cos x
x→ Now, given function =
4 π
x–
b
∴ limπ given function g 4
x→ 4
FG π + hIJ − cos FG π + hIJ
LM F π + hI + sin F π + hI OP =
sin
H4 K H4 K
= lim
2 − cos
N H 4 K H 4 KQ π
+h−
π
h→0
LM4 F π + hI − πOP 2 4 4

N H4 K Q π π π LM π OP
LMπ π π π OP =
sin
4 4 4 N
⋅ cos h + cos ⋅ sin h − cos ⋅ cos h − sin sin h
4 Q
= lim N
2 − cos ⋅ cos h − sin ⋅ sin h + sin cos h + cos sin h
4 4 4 4 Q h
h→0 16 h 2 2 cos h + 2 sin h − 2 cos h + 2 sin h
=
2h
2 −
1
2
b
cos h − sin h + cos h + sin h g =
2 2 sin h
= simplified form of the given
= lim 2h
h→0 16 h 2
function.

= lim
2 − 2 cos h
= lim
b
2 1 − cos h g Now, limπ (given function = lim (simplified
x→ 4
h→0
h→0 16 h 2 h→0 16 h 2 form of the given function)

LM FG h IJ OP F I
2 × 2 sin 2
N H 2K Q G
⇒ lim G
sin x − cos x J
GH x − π4 JJK
2 sin h
= lim π
= lim
h→0 2 x→ h→0 h
16 h 4

FG h IJ
= lim
2
⋅
sin 2
H 2K × 1 = 2 lim
h→0
sin h
h
= 2 ⋅1= 2
h→0 8 2

LMb g FGH π2x IJK OPQ

h 4
4 1 − x tan
2 1 2
9. lim
→1
x
N
= ×1× = Solution: Method 1
8 4 32
198 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Putting x = 1 + h ⇒ h → 0 as x → 1
F π ⋅h I
b πx
g FGH IJK 2 G
× lim G 2
JJ = 2 ⋅ 1 = 2
∴ given function = 1 − x tan
GG tan FG π h IJ JJ π π
= lim
2 h→0 π h→ 0

H H 2 KK
b g π2 b1 + hg
= − h tan
N.B.: 1. This example gives us light that we may put

c3 1 − x = 1 − b1 + hg = 1 − 1 − h = − hh x = a ± h in the given function while adopting h-

method, the result is same. But when (a – x) appears
L πO
= b− hg M− cot hP = h cot
πh
in the question, we prefer to put x = a – h for easiness.

N 2Q 2 FG π x IJ
h
2. The above function = (1 – x) tan
H2K whose

=
F πhI
tan G J
limit is required can be done by expressing it in sin x
H2K and cos x.
Method 2:
πh
L 2 π O LMb1 − xg tan FG π x IJ OP
2
= ×
π FG IJ MN3 h = π × 2 × hPQ
2
πh
lim
x →1
N H 2 KQ
H K
tan
2 LM F π xI O
sin G J P
L F π xIO = lim Mb1 − x g ⋅
H 2 KP
∴ lim Mb1 − x g tan G J P MM F π x IJ PP
N
x →1 H 2 KQ x →1
cos G
H 2 KQ
N
FG π h IJ We get,
FG 2 IJ ⋅ lim H 2 K = 2 ×1= 2 LMb1 − xg tan FG π x IJ OP
= lim
h→0 H πK h→0 F π hI π π
tan G J
lim
N H 2 KQ
H2K x →1

or, alternatively: b− hg sin π2 b1 + hg

Putting x = 1 – h in the given function, we have = lim
cos b1 + hg
h→0 π
b1 − xg tan FGH π2x IJK = 1 − b1 − hg ⋅ LMNtan π2 b1 − hgOPQ 2

F π π h IJ b− hg cos FGH π2h IJK

= h tan G −
H2 2 K = lim
h→0
b− 1g sin FGH π2h IJK
LM 2 × π × h OP
F I c3 cos b90 + θg = − sin θh
H 2 K tan FG π h IJ = MM tan FG π h IJ PP
= h cot G J =
π h h π 2

H 2 K MN H 2 K PQ F π hI
h cos G J
H2K
L
∴ lim Mb1 − x g tan G
F π x IJ OP
= lim
h→0 F π hI
sin G J
h→1
N H 2 KQ H2K
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 199

FG π h IJ ⋅ lim h sin 3x − 3 sin x

= lim cos
h→0 H2K F πhI
sin G J
h→ 0
7. xlim
→π
bx − πg 3 (–4)

H2K
2 x sin x − π
2 F πhI
8. lim (–2)
×G J
π cos x
π H 2 K
x→
F hI
= lim cos G J ⋅ lim
π
2

h→0 H2K F π hI
sin G J
h→0 1 − sin x FG 1IJ
H2K 9. lim
x→
π
2
bπ - 2 x g 2
H 8K
FG π h IJ 1 − 2 cos x
F π hI 2
= lim cos G J ⋅ × lim
H2K 10. lim
π FG
π IJ e 3j
h→0 H2K π F π hI
sin G J
h→0
x→
3 sin x –
H K
H2K
3

2− 3 cos x − sin x FG 1 IJ
2
=1× ×1=
π
2
π
11. lim
x→
π
6
b6 x − π g 2
H 36K
Problems based on type 2 3 cos x + cos 3x FG − 1 IJ
Exercise 4.11
12. lim
x→
π
2
b2 x − π g 3
H 2K
2 + cos x − 1 FG 1 IJ
bπ − xg H 4K
Evaluate Answers 13. lim
x→π 2
1 + cos x
1. lim (0)
x→π 1 − sin x

1 + cos x
14. lim
π
sin θ − cos θ
FG π IJ e 2j
2. lim
x→π π−x
(0)
θ→
4 θ−
H 4 K
3. lim 1 + cos x FG 1 IJ 3 − tan x FG 4 IJ
a
x→π x – π 2 f H 2K 15. lim
x→
π
3
π − 3x H 3K
FG π x IJ b1 − xg 2

4. lim
cos
H2K bπ g 16. lim
x →1 sin π x
(0)
x →1 1– x
1 + cos π x Fπ I
GH 2 JK
2
sec x − tan x FG 1 IJ 17. lim
x→1
b1 – xg 2
5. lim
x→
π
2
π
−x H 2K
b− πg
2 sin π x
FG π − xIJ tan x
18. lim
x→1 bx −1 g
6. lim
x→
π
2
H2 K (1)
200 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG π x IJ bg
x f a −a f x bg
cos π x + sin
H2K F 3π I 2. L = lim
x→a x−a
… (i)
GH 8 JK
2
19. lim
x→1
bx − 1g 2
bg bg
x f a −a f a −a f x − f a bg bg
∴ L = lim
x 2 − 3x + 2 FG − 1 IJ x→a x−a
20. lim
x →1 x 2 − x + sin x − 1 b g H 2K b g b x − ag − a lim f b xg − f bag
f a

e
sin x 2 − 1 j
= lim
x→a bx − ag x→ax−a

b x − 1g = f ba g − a f ′bag
21. lim (2)
x→1

= value of the function f (x) at x = a – a times d.c of

Special types of functions: f (x) at x = a, e.g.:

bg
1. F x =
bg
xf a −af x b g whose limit as x → a 1. lim
x sin a − a sin x
= sin a − a cos a
x−a x→a x−a
is required
bg bg bg bg
x f a −af x bg
bg
2. F x =
f x − f y
x− y
whose limit as x → y is
Type 1: F x =
x−a
whose limit is

required as x → a .
bg
required or F x = bg
f x − f y bg =
bg
f y − f x bg Working rule:
x− y y− x
whose limit as y → x is required.
b g
1. Put x = a + h ⇒ x − a = h where h → 0
(h > 0 or h < 0).
Remember: 2. If f = sin or cos, use C ± D formulas to convert it
Definition: into product form and if f = tan, cot, sec or cosec, then

1. If lim
bg
f x − f a b g = L = a fixed value then L is we are required to transform tan, cot, sec or cosec
into sin and cos and then use C ± D formulas to
x→a x−a
convert it into product form.
called the differential coefficient of f (x) and it is
denoted as f ′ x . bg Examples working out:
Evaluate:
2. If lim
b
f x+h − f x g b g , = L = a fixed value, then x sin a − a sin x
h→0 h 1. lim
x→a x−a
L is called the differential coefficient of f (x) and it is
denoted as f ′ x .
Note:
bg Solution: Putting x = a + h ⇔ (x – a) = h ⇔
(x – a) → 0 as x → a.
1. In the above definition of f ′ a , we denote a bg x sin a − a sin x
particular value of the independent variable x by a Now, xlim
bg
while in the definition of f ′ x , we denote a particular
→a x−a
value of x by itself x instead of a. Thus, we observe x
has to play two roles at a time, one of which is of the = lim
ba + hg sin a − a sin ba + hg
independent variable and the second is of a particular
h→0 a+h−a
value of the independent variable, i.e.; the first role is
of a variable while the other role is of a constant. = lim
ba + hg sin a − a sin ba + hg
h→0 h
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 201

LM a msin a − sin ba + hgr + h sin a OP bg

Type 2: F x =
b g b g whose limit is required
f x − f y
= lim
h→0 MN h PQ x− y
as x → y or,
FG h IJ bg bg bg bg
FG2a + hIJ H 2 K ⋅ FG − h IJ + h sin a
sin −
bg
F x =
f x − f x
=
f y − f x
a ⋅ 2 cos
H 2 K FG − h IJ H 2 K
⋅ x− y y−x

= lim
H 2K whose limit is required as y → x .
h→0 h Working rule:
First method:
using C ± D formula
1. If f = sin or cos, we use C ± D formula to convert
F hI
sin G − J
the sum or difference into the product form and if
F
= lim a ⋅ 2 cos G
2a + h I H 2K F h I f = tan, cot, sec or cosec, we are required to transform
h→0 H 2 JK ⋅ FG − h IJ ⋅ GH − 2 JK + sin a tan, cot, sec or cosec into sin and cos and then use
H 2K C ± D formula to convert it into product form.
= – a cos a + sin a = sin a – a cos a. N.B.: as x → a , x − a → 0
Notes: 1. When we put x = a ± h , then h → 0 2
through positive values which means h > 0 and Second method:
–h < 0 and when we put x = a + h, then h → 0 means 1. Put x = a + h ⇔ (x – a) = h where h → 0 .
h > 0 or h < 0 (both possibilities remain). 2. If f = sin or cos, we use C ± D formula to convert
2. In questions, in case a function is given defined the sum or difference into the product form and if
by a single formula: f = tan, cot, sec or cosec, we are required to transform
(i) y = f (x) tan, cot, sec or cosec into sin and cos and then use

bg bg
1 C ± D formula to convert it into product form.
(ii) y = ,f x ≠0
f x Examples worked out:

f b xg
Evaluate:
, g b x g ≠ 0 and one is required to find
g bxg
(iii) y= sin x − sin a
1. lim
x→a x−a
its limit at a given point, there is no need to calculate
Solution: First method:
the right hand and left hand limit separately, i.e. it is
sufficient to use the substitution either x = a + h or x x+a x−a
sin x − sin a = 2 cos ⋅ sin
= a – h in the given function to obtain a function h 2 2
and put h = 0 after simplification.
sin x − sin a
3. In case a function is defined by a single formula ⇒
into its domain, it is turmed as uniform function. x−a

FG x + a IJ ⋅ sin FG x − a IJ
4. When a given function is a non uniform function
or a piecewise function and the question says to
examine the existence of the limit of the function, then
2 cos
H 2 K H 2 K⋅1
it is a must to calculate the right hand and left hand =
FG x − a IJ 2
limit separately, i.e. it is necessary to use the
substitution x = a + h and x = a – h both in the given
H 2 K
function to obtain a function of h and lastly put h = 0 sin x − sin a
in the function of h after simplification. ⇒ lim
x→a x−a
202 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG x + a IJ ⋅ sin FG x − a IJ FG h IJ
H 2 K H 2 K
cos
F h I H 2 K ⋅ bhg
cos G a + J ⋅
sin
= lim
x→a FG x − a IJ H 2 K FG h IJ
H 2 K =
H 2K
h
sin G
F x − a IJ
= lim cos G
F IJ ⋅ lim H 2 K
x + a FG h IJ
x→a H 2 K FG x − a IJ
x→a F hI H 2K
= cos G a + J ⋅
sin

H 2 K H 2 K FG h IJ … (i)
H 2K
F a + a IJ ⋅ 1 FG3 as x → a , x − a → 0IJ
= cos G
H 2 K H 2 K Now taking the limit on both sides of (i) as h → 0 ,

F 2a I
we get
= cos G J
H2K lim
x→a
sin x − sin a
x−a
= cos a.
Second method:
FG h IJ
Putting x = a + h ⇒ x – a = h → 0 F hI
= lim cos G a + J ⋅ lim
sin
H 2K
⇒ x→a⇒ x −a→0⇒h→0 h→0 H 2K h→0 FG h IJ
sin x − sin a H 2K
Now,
x−a = cos a ⋅ 1 = cos a .

=
b g
sin a + h − sin a
2. xlim
cos x − cos a
h →a x−a

FG a + h + a IJ ⋅ sin FG a + h − a IJ cos x − cos a

=
2 cos
H 2 K H 2 K Solution: xlim
→a x−a

FG x + a IJ ⋅ sin FG x − a IJ
h

F hI F hI
2 cos G a + J ⋅ sin G J H 2 K H 2 K
− 2 sin

=
H 2K H 2K = lim
x→a b x − ag
h

F hI sin G
F x − a IJ
F hI
sin G J
H 2 K F hI F
= lim G − 2 sin
x + aI
J H 2 K⋅1
2 cos G a + J ⋅
H 2 K FG h IJ ⋅ GH 2 JK x→a H 2 K ⋅ lim
x→a FG x − a IJ 2
H 2K H 2 K
=
1F I
= − 2 sin a × 1 × G3 as x → a , → 0J
h x−a
2H 2 K
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 203

1
b g FG cos x − cos a IJ
=
2
× − 2 sina
2. xlim
→a H x−a K b− sin ag
= – sin a

lim G
F tan x − tan a IJ
3. xlim
→y
tan x − tan y
x− y
3. x→a H x−a K esec aj
2

Solution: Putting x = y + h ⇒ h = (x – y)
lim G
F sec x − sec a IJ
b g
∴ x → y given ⇒ x − y → 0 ⇒ h → 0 4. x→a H x−a K bsec a ⋅ tan ag
tan x − tan y
lim G
F cosec x − cosec a IJ
Now, xlim
→y x− y 5. x→a H x−a K b− cosec a ⋅ cot ag
= lim
b
tan y + h − tan yg F cot x − cot a IJ
y+h− y lim G e− cosec aj
H x−a K
h→0 2
6. x→a

LM b g
1 sin y + h sin y OP
= lim
h→0
MN b g
h cos y + h
−
cos y PQ Method of Rationalization

1 L sin b y + hg cos y − cos b y + hg sin y O

Whenever a square root of a trigonometrical function
= lim
h→0h MN
M cos b y + hg ⋅ cos y
PPQ appears in the given function whose limit is required
as x → a , we adopt the following working rule:

1 L sin b y + h − y g O
Working rule:
= lim
h→0
M P
h MN cos b y + hg cos y PQ
1. Rationalize the Nr or Dr or both whose square
root appears.
2. Put x = a + h where h → 0
L1
= lim M ⋅ sin h ⋅
1 1 O
P 3. Simplify the function of (a + h) and put h = 0 in the
cos b y + hg cos y PQ
⋅
MN h
h→0 simplified function of h.
Examples worked out:
F sin h IJ ⋅ lim 1 ⋅ lim 1
= lim G
Evaluate:
H hK
h→0 cos b y + hg
h→0 h→ 0cos y
2 + cos x − 1

= 1⋅
1
1. xlim
→π
bπ − xg 2

cos2 y
2 + cos x − 1
Solution: Given function =
= sec y .
2
bπ − x g 2

Or rationalizing the Nr, we get

Exercise 4.12
2 + cos x − 1
Evaluate Answers bπ − xg 2

FG sin x − sin a IJ
1. xlim
→a H x−a K bcosag =
e 2 + cos x − 1je 2 + cos x + 1j
bπ − xg e 2 + cos x + 1j
2
204 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 + cos x Now, letting ∠ POA = θ > 0

=
e 2 + cos x + 1 π − x jb g 2 As θ → 0 , then P → A
PN → 0 (zero)
Now, we put x = π + h , where h → 0 as x → π ON → OA
then the above expression becomes
b g
P
1 + cos π + h
=
e b
2 + cos π + h + 1 ⋅ h 2g j O
θ
N
A

1 − cos h
=
e b2 − cos hg + 1j ⋅ h 2

But length OP = r = radius remains constant.

2 + cos x − 1
∴ Required limit = lim Now,
x→π
bπ − x g 2

lim sin θ = lim

p
= lim
PN
=
O
= 0 (zero)
= lim
a1 − cos hf θ→0 θ→0 h θ → 0 OP OP
h →0
e a2 − cos hf + 1j ⋅ h 2
lim cos θ = lim
θ→0 θ→0
b
= lim
ON OA
=
h θ → 0 OP OA
= 1 (3 OA
3 aπ − x f = aπ − π − hf = h
2 2 2
= OP = r)

= lim
a1 − cos hf ⋅ lim 1
lim tan θ = lim
p
= lim
PN
=
O
= 0.
h→0
h
2
e a2 − cos hf + 1j
h→0 θ→0 θ→0 b θ → 0 ON OA

F hI
Notes:

H 2 K ⋅ lim
2
2 ⋅ sin 1. When θ < 0 , let θ = ∠ POA = − θ ′ (i.e;
1
= lim
h→0
h
2
e a2 − cos hf + 1j
h→0 θ′ = − θ )
∴ θ → 0 ⇔ θ′ → 0
F sin F h I I 2

= 2 lim G
G H 2 K JJ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 As θ → 0 , , then P → A
PN → 0 (zero)
h→0
GH 2h JK 4 2 − 1 + 1 ON → OA

1 1 1
= 2 ⋅1⋅ ⋅ = .
4 2 4 N
A
O
To find the limits of trigonometric functions of an
angle θ as θ → 0
P
We have already derived the lim sin x = 0 and
x→0 But length OP = r = radius remains constant.
lim cos x = 1 on pages 142 and 143 but here we are
x→0
going to provide the same results with different θ ′→ 0
a f
∴ lim sin − θ ′ = lim sin θ = lim
θ→0
p
θ→0 h
= lim
− PN
θ → 0 OP
methods and some more results on limits.
Derivation: Let us consider a circle OAP and −O
= = 0 (zero)
PN ⊥ drawn form P to the radius OA. OP
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 205

a f
lim cos − θ ′ = lim cos θ = lim
b
= lim
ON af
f1 x
af af
θ′ → 0 θ→ 0 θ→ 0 h θ → 0 OP
lim
x→a af
f2 x
= 1 ⇔ f 1 x ≡ f 2 x as x → a

OA 2. As θ → 0 , we have
= lim =1
θ→ 0 OA
a
(i) sinθ ≡ θ (ii) tan θ ≡ θ (iii) log 1 + x ≡ x f
θ ′→ 0
a f
lim tan −θ = lim tan θ = lim
θ→0
p
θ→ 0 b
= lim
− PN
θ → 0 ON 2. To show that lim
sin θ
, where θ is measured in
θ →0 θ
−O
= = 0 (zero) circular measure (or, radian measure)
OA Proof: Let us consider a circular arc AB of radius ‘r’
2. The limits of trigonometric functions of an angle which subtends a positive acute angle θ at the
θ as θ → 0 can also be found by noting that (i) sin center C.
x, cos x and tan x are continuous functions at x = 0 (ii) Now we draw
lim x = C (iii) the limit sign of a continuous function 1. the chord AB
x →c 2. the tangent AD at A and extend it until it meets
can be referred to the independent variable (or, CB at D. Then AD is perpendicular to the radius CA = r
argument)
F I
D

i.e; lim f a x f = f lim x = f acf provided f (x) is a

x→c H K x→c
B

continuous function of x at x = c.
F I
r

H K
Hence, lim sin θ = sin lim θ = sin 0 = 0
θ→0 θ→ 0 C r A

F I We have
θ→0 H K
lim cos θ = cos lim θ = cos 0 = 1
θ→ 0 1 1 2
A1 = area of ∆ CAB = CA ⋅ CB sin θ = r sin θ … (i)
F I
2 2

θ→0 H K
lim tan θ = tan lim θ = tan 0 = 0
θ→0 A2 = area of the sector CAB =
1 2
2
r θ … (ii)

θ→0 θ→0
2
3. lim cos θ = lim 1 − sin θ = lim 1 − sin θ
θ→0
e 2
j A3 = area of the ∆ CAD =
1 1
⋅ AD ⋅ CA = CA ⋅
2 2
2 1 2
= lim 1 − lim sin θ = 1 − 0 = 1 tan θ CA = r tan θ … (iii)
θ→0 θ→ 0 2
4. When θ is very small, vertical segment drawn AD
from one end point of the radius of the circle = arc of ( 3 ∠ ACD = θ , ∴ tan θ = in ∆ ACD which
AC
the circle opposite to the central angle.
is a right angled triangle since AD being a tangent is
5. When θ → 0 , vertical segment → 0
⊥ to the radius OA = r)
Remember: Again we have, area of ∆ CAB < area of the sector
f1 xaf CAB < area of ∆ CAD … (iv)
1. If lim
x→a f2 x af= 1 , then f1 (x) and f2 (x) are called On putting the values of (i), (ii) and (iii) in (iv), we
get A1 < A2 < A3
equivalent functions as x → a which means
206 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 2 1 2 1 2 FG sin θ 1 1IJ
⇒
2
r sin θ < r θ < r tan θ
2 2 … (v)
H
= lim
θ→0 θ
× lim
θ → 0 cos θ 1 K
=1× =1

1 2 FG∴ lim sin θ = 1 and lim cos θ = 1IJ

On dividing (v) by
2
r sinθ , we get
H θ→ 0 θ θ→ 0 K
θ 1 θ
1< < 4. θlim
sin θ cos θ →0 tan θ

sin θ θ 1 1 1
⇒1>
θ
> cos θ Proof: lim
θ→ 0
= lim
tan θ θ → 0 F tan θ
=
I tan θF= =1
I
H K H K
1
lim
θ θ→ 0 θ
sin θ
⇒ lim 1 > lim > lim cos θ N.B.: Limit of the reciprocal of a function = reciprocal
θ→ 0 θ→ 0 θ θ→ 0
of its limit provided that the limit of the function is not
sin θ equal to zero.
⇒ 1 ≥ lim ≥1
θ→ 0 θ Limits of trigonometric functions as x → 0

⇒ lim
sin θ
= 1, ( 0 < θ < π i.e.; θ is positive) af af
t1 x
θ→ 0 θ Form 1: To find lim f x = xlim
θ→ 0 →0 af
t2 x
where f (x)

If θ is negative, let θ ′ = − θ , , i.e. θ = − θ ′ = a trigonometric function whose numerator = t1 (x) =

trigonometric function or trigonometric expression.
∴ θ → 0 ⇔ θ′ → 0
And denominator = t2 (x) = a trigonometric function
sin θ a f
sin − θ ′ a
− sin θ ′ f or trigonometric expression.
∴ lim
θ→0 θ
= lim
θ ′→ 0 a f
−θ ′
= lim
θ ′→ 0 −θ ′
=
a f Working rule: To find the limit of a trigonometric
function (whose both Nr and Dr are trigonometric
sin θ ′ functions or trigonometric expressions) as the
lim = 1 (by previous result)
θ ′→ 0 θ′ independent variable tends to zero, we adopt the
following working rule:
sin θ sin θ sin θ 1. We express all trigonometric functions in Nr and
∴ lim = lim = lim =1
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ θ→0 θ Dr in terms of sinθ and cosθ or in terms of product
θ>0 θ<0
of sinθ and cosθ by using C ± D formulas of trigo-
Remember: nometry or we may use any formula which is required
1. When θ is small, sinθ = θ (approximately) for simplification and cancel the common factor
θ (which makes f (0) meaningless) from Nr and Dr.
2. θlim =1 2. Lastly, we use the results gives below:
→ 0 sin θ
sin θ
(i) lim =1
θ 1 1 1 θ→ 0 θ
Proof: lim
θ→0
= lim
sin θ θ → 0 sin F
θ
=
I
sin θ
= =1
F I tan θ
H K H K
1 =1
lim (ii) lim
θ θ→0 θ θ→0 θ

tan θ (iii) lim cos θ = 1

θ→0
3. Prove that lim =1
θ→0 θ Note:

tan θ sin θFG 1 IJ 1. Never forget to write:

sin θ
Proof: lim
θ→0 θ
= lim
θ → 0 cos θ H
×
θ K (a) sin θ =
θ
⋅θ
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 207

tan θ sin 3x
(b) tan θ = ⋅ θ so that we may use the 4. xlim
θ → 0 sin5 x
standard formulas of limits of trigonometrical ratios
mentioned above. sin 3x
Solution: xlim
→ 0 sin5 x
Problems based on the form 1

LM sin 3x ⋅ 5x ⋅ 3 OP
Examples worked out:
Evaluate: = lim
sin 3x
x→0 N 3x sin 5x 5 Q
F sin 3x IJ ⋅ FG lim 5x IJ ⋅ lim F 3I
1. lim
= G lim
x→0 tan 4 x
sin 3x H 3x K H sin 5x K H 5K
x→0 x→0 x→0
Solution: lim
x→0 tan 4 x
3
= 1⋅1⋅
sin 3 xLM OP 5
3
= lim ⋅
x→0 4
3
tan 4 x MM PP =
3

4 N Q 5

L lim F sin 3x I OP tan 5 x

3 M
5. lim
= ⋅M
H 3x K P
x→0
x →0 x

4 M F tan 4 x I
MN lim H 4 x K PPQ
tan 5 x
Solution: lim
x →0 x →0 x
sin 5x
=
3 1
× = lim
4 1 x→0 x ⋅ cos 5x
3
= = lim
sin 5x
⋅ 5 ⋅ lim
1
4 x→0 5x x → 0 cos 5x
sin 2 x
2. lim =1·5·1
x→0 2x =5
sin 2 x FG sin m θ IJ
H =m
K
n
Solution: lim = 2 3 lim sin 6 x
x→0 2x x→0 mθ 6. lim n
x→0
x
sin ax
3. lim n
x→0 x sin 6 x
Solution: lim
L sin ax OP x→0 n
x
Solution: lim M
x→0N x Q F sin 6 x I ⋅ a6 xf n

H 6x K
n

= lim M
L sin ax ⋅ a OP = lim
N ax Q
x→0 x→0
x
n

= a lim M
L sin ax OP = a ⋅ 1 = a FG sin 6 x IJ F6 ⋅ x I
n n

GH x JK
n

N ax Q
x→0 = lim
x→0 H 6x K ⋅ lim
x→0 n
208 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG IJ n FG tan x − sin x IJ
H 1 − cos x K
sin 6 x
H K
n
= lim ⋅6 Solution: xlim
→0
x→0 6x

= 1⋅ 6 = 6
n n
F sin x − sin x I F sin x − sin x cos x I
G
= lim G
cos x J
J = lim G
G cos x JJ
tan α x
7. xlim
→ 0 tan β x
GH
x →0 1 − cos x J
K GH 1 − cos x JK
x→0

Solution: xlim
tan α x
LM sin x ⋅ FG 1 − cos x IJ OP = lim sin x
N cos x H 1 − cos x K Q
→ 0 tan β x = lim
x→0 x→0 cos x
LM sin α x ⋅ cosβ x OP
= lim
N cos α x sin β x Q F sin x I ⋅ lim x
H xK
sin x
x→0 lim ⋅ x lim
x →0 x x→0 x→0

= lim M
L sin α x ⋅ 1 ⋅ cos β x ⋅ β x ⋅ α x OP lim cos x
=
lim cos x
N α x cos α x sin β x β x Q
x →0 x→0
x→0

L sin α x ⋅ 1 ⋅ cosβ x ⋅ β x ⋅ α OP 1⋅ 0 F I
= lim M
=
H
= 0 3 lim x = 0
K
N α x cos α x sin β x β Q
1 x →0
x→0
cos 7 x − cos 9 x
α LM FG sin αx IJ 1 FG βx IJ FG IJ a fOP 10. xlim
N H K → 0 cos 3 x − cos 5x
= lim
β x → 0 αx
⋅ lim
x → 0 cos αx H
⋅ lim
x → 0 sin βx K H
⋅ lim cos βx
x→0 K Q
α α cos 7 x − cos 9 x
= ⋅ 1⋅1⋅1⋅1 = . Solution: xlim
→ 0 cos 3x − cos 5 x
β β

sin α x 2 sin 8 x ⋅ sin x 2 sin 8x

8. xlim
= lim = lim
→ 0 sin β x x→0 2 sin 4 x ⋅ sin x x → 0 2 sin 4 x

sin α x F sin 8 x ⋅ 8 x/ I
Solution: xlim
→ 0 sin β x G
= lim G 8 x
JJ = 8 = 2
L sin α x ⋅ β x ⋅ α OP
x→0
GH sin4 x4 x ⋅ 4 x/ JK 4
= lim M
x→0 N α x sin β x β Q sin 7 x − sin x
LM F 1 I O 11. xlim
→0

sin β x J α P
sin 6 x
F sin α x I G
MM H α x JK × GG lim β x JJ ⋅ β PPP
= M lim G
x→0 x→0 Solution: xlim
sin 7 x − sin x

N H K Q →0 sin 6 x

2 cos 4 x ⋅ sin 3x
1 α α = lim
=1× × = x→0 2 sin 3x cos 3x
1 β β
cos 4 x
tan x − sin x = lim
9. xlim
→0 1 − cos x
x→0 cos 3x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 209

1 sin 7 x − sin x
= 12. (1)
1 sin 6 x
=1
sin 5x − sin x
Problems based on the form 1 13. (1)
sin 4 x
Exercise 4.13
a f
sin α + x − sin α − x a f b−cot αg
Find the limits of the following functions as x → 0 .
14.
a f
cos α + x − cos α − x a f
Answers tan x − sin x

FI
15. (0)
sec 4 x − sec 2 x 3 1 − cos x
1.
sec 3x − sec x HK
2 1 − cos 2 θ F 4I
Fa I
2
16.
1 − cos 5 θ H 25K
2.
1 − cos ax
1 − cos bx
GH b JK
2
af
Form 2: To find lim f x where f (x) = a trigono-
x→0
metrical expression mixed with an algebraic function
sin 2 x − sin 4 x
3. Find in any way (generally algebraic function appears as
sin 4 x − sin 6 x addend, subtrahend, minuend, multiplicand or divisor
of trigonometric function or expression), i.e.’ To find
cos 2 x − cos 8 x
4. Find
af af af
a1 x ± t1 x
af af
sin 3x (i) lim f x = lim
x→0 x →0 a2 x ± t 2 x
tan x − sin x F 1I a a xf ⋅ t a xf t a xf
5. 3
H 2K (ii) lim f a xf = lim
a axf t axf
t a xf
1 1 1
sin x or lim
x→0 x→0 2
x→0 1 2
sin x − tan x F − 1I (iii) lim f a x f = lim t a x f
6.
sin x
3
H 2K x→0 a a xf
x→0
1

a a xf
(iv) lim f a x f = lim
1
7. sin x ⋅ cos (0)
t a xf
1
x x→0 x→0 1
1 − cos x where a1 (x) and a2 (x) = algebraic functions
8. (0)
1 + cos x t1 (x) and t2 (x) = trigonometric function

1 − cos 2 x F 1I We adopt the following working rule:

9.
cos 2 x − cos 8 x H 15K Working rule: Modify the given function by using
trigonometric formulas if required so that standard
tan x − sin x F − 1I results of limits of trigonometric functions may be
10.
sin 3x − 3 sin x H 8K used.
N.B.: Standard results of limits of trigonometric
1 − cos x F 1I functions
11. 2
sin 2 x a f H 8K sin x
1. lim =1
x→0 x
210 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

tan x
=1 LM F sin x I 2 OP
F I G 2J
2. lim
= 4 ⋅ lim MG PP
MMH x JK ⋅ GGH x JJK
x →0 x sin x 1
⋅
PQ
Problems based on the form 2 x→0 4
Examples worked out
Evaluate:
N 2

FG cos x + cos 2 x IJ F sin x I 2

1. lim x
H sin x K = lim G
F IJ ⋅ GG lim 2 JJ
sin x
x→0
H xK G x J
H 2 K
x→0 x→0

Solution: lim x G
F cos x + cos 2 x IJ
x→0 H sin x K = 1 × (1)2

= lim MG
LF x IJ ⋅ acos x + cos 2 xfOP =1

x→0 NH sin x K Q 3. lim

x→0
tan x − sin x
x
3

LM O
cos x + cos 2 x f P
tan x − sin x
= lim M
a
MM FH sin x IK PPP
Solution: xlim
→0 3
x
x→0

N x Q = lim
LM tan x a1 − cos xf OP
lim acos x + cos 2 x f
x→0N x Q
3

x→0 3 tan x a1 − cos x f = tan x − sin x

=
F sin x I
lim
H xK LM F x IO
tan x I G 2 sin 2 J P
x→0

F
2

= lim MG J⋅
=
1+1
1
=2 x→0
MNH x K GGH x JJK PPQ 2

2 sin x − sin 2 x
2. lim F I
F IJ GG JJ
x→0 3
x 2 x
sin
= lim G
tan x
Solution: lim
2 sin x − sin 2 x x→0 H K GG x
⋅ lim 2 ⋅ 2 2
x→0 JJ
H K
x
x→0
x
3 ⋅4
4

2 sin x − 2 sin x cos x LM F sin x I OP

= lim
x→0 3 G 2 JJ P ⋅ 1
= 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ M lim G
MN GH 2x JK PQ 4
x
x→0

= lim
a
2 sin x 1 − cos x f
x→0 3
x
1
= 1⋅ 2 ⋅
2 x 4
2 sin
= lim 2 sin x ⋅ 2 1
x→0 3 =
x 2
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 211

tan 2 x − sin 2 x 2 5x
4. xlim 3
−2 sin
→0 2
x = lim
x→0 x
tan 2 x − sin 2 x
Solution: xlim
→0
x
3
LM sin 5x ⋅ a−2f OP
F 5I
2

LM tan 2 x b1 − cos 2 xg OP = lim M ⋅ xP

2

MM F 5x I ⋅ H 2 K PP
2
2
= lim x→0
x→0 MN x PQ 3
N H2K Q
LM sin F 5x I OP
2
tan 2 x ⋅ 2 sin x 2
= lim
x→0
x
3

= lim M
H 2 KP LMa−2f ⋅ F 5 I ⋅ xOP
2

FG tan 2 x IJ ⋅ 2 ⋅ lim FG sin x IJ 2 x→0MM H x IK PP

F 5
⋅ lim
x→0 MN H 2 K PQ
= lim
x→0 H 2x K H xK x→0
⋅2 N 2 Q
= 2 · 1 · 2 (1)2 =1×0=0
= 4. tan x − x
7. lim
1 − cos k x x→0 x
5. lim 2
x→0
x tan x − x
Solution: lim
x→0 x
1 − cos k x
Solution: lim
x→0
x
2
= lim
LM sin x ⋅ 1 − 1OP
F k xI x→0N x cos x Q
H2K
2
2 sin
F sin x IJ ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ − lim a1f
= lim G
= lim
x→0
x
2
H x K H cos x K
x→0 x→0 x →0

LM sin FG k x IJ OP
=1×1–1=0
a f
2

= 2 ⋅ lim M
H2K cos x − cos 3 x

MM FG k x IJ PPP a f
k2 8. xlim
⋅ →0 x sin 3x − sin x
x→0 4
N H2K Q a
cos x − cos 3 x f
Solution: xlim
a
→ 0 x sin 3x − sin x f
Fk I
= 2 ⋅ a1f ⋅ G J
2

H4K
2
F x + 3x I ⋅ sin F 3x − x I
H 2 K H 2 K
2 ⋅ sin
2
= lim
x→0 F x + 3x I ⋅ sin F 3x − x I
=
k .
2
x ⋅ 2 ⋅ cos
H 2 K H 2 K
cos 5 x − 1 2 sin 2 x ⋅ sin x
6. lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ sin x

cos 5 x − 1 sin 2 x
Solution: lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x ⋅ cos 2 x
212 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG sin 2 x IJ ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ LM 1 FG 1 − cos x IJ OP

= lim
H x K H cos 2 x K
x→0 x→0
= lim
x→0 N x H sin x sin x K Q
= lim G
F sin 2 x IJ ⋅ 2 ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ L 1 F 1 − cos x IJ OP
= lim M G
H 2x K
x→0 x→0 H cos 2 x K x→0 N x H sin x K Q
=1×2×1=2
LM xO
tan 2 x − x 2 sin P
2

9. xlim
→ 0 3 x − sin x = lim M
x→0
MN
x
× 2
2
PP
Q
sin x x
tan 2 x − x
Solution: 3x − sin x
LM F sin x I 2 OP
2 G 2J
2

F tan 2 x I ⋅ 2 x − x x F tan 2 x ⋅ 2 − 1I = lim M PP

MM sin x × 4 ⋅ GGH x JJK
x
H 2x K H 2x K x→0
PQ
=
F sin x I ⋅ x x F 3 − sin x I
=
N 2
3x −
H xK H xK 2
=1× ×1
FG tan 2 x ⋅ 2 − 1IJ 4
H 2x K for x ≠ 0 =
1
=
FG 3 − sin x IJ 2
H xK Problems based on form 2

Now, lim M
L tan 2 x − x OP Exercise 4.14
x→0 N 3x − sin x Q
Find the limits of the following functions as x → 0
LM F tan 2 x ⋅ 2 − 1I OP
= lim M
H 2x KP Answers

MM FH 3 − sin x IK PP 1 − cos x F 1I
H 2K
x→0

N x Q 1.
x
2

1 − cos x
F tan 2 x IJ − lim 1
2 G lim
2. (0)
H 2x K
x→0 x→0 2−1 1
x
= =
3−1
=
cosec x − cot x F 1I
H 2K
sin x 2
lim 3 − lim 3.
x →0 x→0 x x

FG cosec x − cot x IJ 1 − cos 2 x

H x K
10. lim 4. (0)
x→0 x
sin x − tan x
Solution: lim GH
F cosec x − cot x IJ 5. (0)
x→0 x K x
cos x − sec x
6. 2 (–1)
x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 213

Note: When given irrational trigonometric functions

F 0 I form at x = 0, we find the limit of
x tan x
7. 1 − cos x (2)
doe not assume H 0K
1 − cos 2 x irrational trigonometric functions by directly putting
8. 2 (2) x = 0 in the given function, e.g.:
x
a
x 1 + cos m x f F 2I 1 − cos x 1 − cos x FG0 IJ
9.
sin m x H mK 1. xlim
→0 1 + cos x
= lim
x → 0 1 + cos x
=
H2
=0
K
F 2 I x
GH a − b JK 2. x → 0 ⇒ → 0 ⇒ mx → 0
2
x
10. 2 2 m
cos bx − cos ax 3. After rationalization, we put x = 0 in the rationalized
cos x − cos 2 x F 3I form of the given irrational function provided
11. 2 H 2K independent variable ‘x’ tends to zero.

axf = f axf , we should find l.h.l

x
2

12.
a
sin 2 x cos 2 x − cos 3x f (5)
4. If we have f
and r.h.l and we should remove mod symbol by using
3
x the definition
LM 2 2 2 2
OP F 1 I af
f x af
= f x if f x ≥ 0af
PQ H 32 K
8 x x x x
⋅ 1 − cos − cos + cos ⋅ cos
13.
x
3
MN 2 4 2 4
and f a x f = − f a x f if f a x f < 0

14.
2
x + 3 x + 2 x − sin x
3
a f 2
(1)
and lastly if l.h.l = r.h.l, we say limit of the given
irrational trigonometric function exists and if l.h.l ≠
2 2 3
2 x cos x − 5 x r.h.l, we say that limit of irrational trigonometric
function does not exist.
2 cos x − 2 + x
2
F 1I
15.
x
4 H 12 K Examples worked out:
Evaluate:
x
Form 3: Limits of irrational trigonometric functions 1. lim
x→0 1 − cos x
as x → 0 .
To find the limits of irrational trigonometrical x
F 0I Solution: lim
x→0 x
H 0K
2
functions when it assumes an indeterminate form 1 − 1 + 2 sin
2
at x = 0, we adopt the following working rule:
x
Working rule: Method of rationalization is adopted = lim
x→0 2 x
to find the limit of irrational trigonometric functions 2 sin
which means removal of radical sign ( ) from 2
numerator or denominator or both which may be done
x
by using trigonometrical substitution or multiplying = lim
x→0 x
and dividing by the conjugate of irrational trigo- 2 sin
nometric expressions. 2
214 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x x af
(ii) l.h.l = lim f x means the variable x in f (x) is
l.h.l = lim
x→0
= lim
x→0 F I x→0
x<0
H K
x x
x<0 2 sin 2 −sin
2 2 restricted only to negative values of x.

F I 1 − cos x
=−
1 G x JJ
lim G
2. lim
x→0 sin x
2 x→0
GH sin 2x JK 2
1 − cos x 1 − 1 + 2 sin x
Solution: Let y = =
F x ⋅ 2I sin x sin x

=−
1 G J
lim G 2 J
GH sin 2x JK
2
2 x→0 2 sin x 2 sin x
= =
sin x sin x

F x I
=−
2 G J
⋅ lim G 2 J = −
2
×1= − 2 l.h.l = lim
2 sin x

GH sin 2x JK
x→0 sin x
2 x→0 2 x<0

x = lim
a
2 − sin x f
r.h.l = lim x→0 sin x
x →0 x
x<0 2 sin
2
e j FG sin x IJ
x
= − 2 lim
x →0 H sin x K
⋅2
x 2 e j
= − 2 ×1
2 F sin I 2 F sin I
= lim = lim
x→0 x→0
H 2K H 2K
x x
=− 2

F x I 2 sin x
=
2 G J
lim G 2 J
r.h.l = lim
x→0 sin x
2 x→0
GH sin 2x JK x>0

2 sin x
= lim
2 x →0 sin x
= ⋅1= 2
2
sin x
Hence, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l = 2 lim
x→0 sin x
x
Which ⇒ lim does not exist.
x→0 1 − cos x = 2 ×1
Note: = 2

x→0
af
(i) r.h.l = lim f x means the variable x in f (x) is
1 − cos x
x>0 Hence, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l which ⇒ lim
x→0 sin x
restricted only to positive value of x. does not exist.
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 215

Problems based on form 3

2 − 1 + cos x
3. lim 2
x→0 Exercise 4.15
sin x

2 − 1 + cos x Find the limits of the following functions as x → 0

Solution: Let y = 2
sin x Answers

e je j e 2j
x
2 − 1 + cos x 2 + 1 + cos x 1.
∴y= 1 − cos x
sin x
2
e 2 + 1 + cos x j
1 − 1 + tan x F − 1I
=
a
2 − 1 + cos x f 2.
tan x H 2K
a1 − cos xfa1 + cos xfe 2 + 1 + cos x j sin x

=
a1 − cos xf 3.
1 + sin x − 1
(2)

a1 − cos xfa1 + cos xfe 2 + 1 + cos x j sin x

4. (1)
1 x
= for x ≠ 0
b1 + cos x g e 2 + 1 + cos x j 2 + cos z − 1 F 1I
Thus, we get y =
1
5.
bπ − zg 2
;z=π−x
H 4K
a1+ cos xfe 2 + 1 + cos x j Limits of trigonometric functions as x → ∞
for x ≠ 0 … (i) To find the limits a function involving a trigonometric
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i), as function as the independent variable tends to infinity,
x → 0 , we get we adopt the following working rule:
Working Rule:
1
lim y = lim
x→0 x→0 a1 + cos xf e 2 + 1 + cos x j 1. Put x =
1
t
or t =
1
x
where t → 0 when x → ∞

1 1 1
=
a1 + 1f e 2 + 1+1 j N.B.: 1. The rule of putting x =
t
or t =
x
is

known as reciprocal substitution.

1 2. Reciprocal substitution is useful when
=
2 e 2 + 2 j independent variable x appears as a factor either in
numerator or denominator or when the angle of
1 trigonometrical function (or, ratio) is the reciprocal
= of x.
2×2 2
Examples worked out:
1 Evaluate:
=
4 2 F 1I
1. lim x sin
x→∞ H xK
216 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 1I LM F π I ⋅ sin F π I OP = π
Solution: Let y = x sin
H xK N
⇒ lim x ⋅ cos
x→∞ H 4x K H 4x K Q 4
1 1 An important fact to know:
On putting x = ⇒ t = , we have x → ∞ ⇔
t x
af
Theorem: If f (x) < g (x) < h (x) and lim f x = L and
x→a
t →0
1 sin t x→a
af x→a
af
lim h x = L, then lim g x = L.
∴y = ⋅ sin t = … (i)
t t N.B.: The result of this theorem remains true of either
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as or both of the given strict inequalities are replaced
x → ∞ , we get by <.
Many important results of limits can be easily
sin t
lim y = lim = 1 which obtained with the help of above theorem.
x→∞ t →0 t
Examples worked out:
1 FI 1. −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
⇒ lim x sin
x→∞ x HK
=1
1 sin x 1
L F π I ⋅ sin F π I OP
2. lim M x ⋅ cos
⇒−
x
≤
x
≤ for x > 0
x
x→∞ N H 4x K H 4x K Q F 1 I ≤ lim FG sin x IJ ≤ lim F 1 I
L F π I ⋅ sin F π I OP
⇒ lim −
x→∞ H xK x→∞ H xK x→∞H xK
Solution: Let y = M x ⋅ cos
N H 4x K H 4x K Q ⇒ 0 ≤ lim G
F sin x IJ ≤ 0 FG3 lim F ± 1 I = 0IJ
LM F π I OP H x K H H xK K
x→∞ x →∞

= Mcos
F π I ⋅ H 4x K ⋅ π P
sin
⇒ lim G
F sin x IJ = 0
MM H 4 x K π 4 PP H xK
N Q
x→∞
4x
2. −1 ≤ sin F I ≤ 1
1
Now, on putting t =
π
where t → 0 as x → ∞ , H xK
F 1 I ≤ x for x > 0,
4x

H xK
we have ⇒ − x ≤ x sin
LM sin t OP ⋅ π
y = cos t
Nt Q 4 … (i)
F 1I
and x ≤ x sin G J ≤ − x for x < 0
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as H xK
x → ∞ , we get
F 1I F
⇒ 0 ≤ lim G x ⋅ sin J ≤ 0 G3 lim b± x g = 0J
I
LM FG sin t IJ ⋅ π OP H xK H
x→0 x→0 K
x→∞
lim y = lim cos t ⋅
t→0 N H t K 4Q F 1I = 0
F sin t IJ ⋅ lim F π I H xK
⇒ lim x sin
= lim cos t ⋅ lim G
x →0

t→0 H t K H 4K
x→0 t →0 3. −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1

π π 1 1 1
=1×1× = which ⇒− ≤ cos x ≤ for x > 0
4 4 x x x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 217

F 1 I ≤ lim F 1 cos xI ≤ lim F 1 I Problems based on finding the limits of trigonometric

⇒ lim −
x→∞ H xK Hx K
x→∞ x→∞ H xK functions as n → ∞

cos x Exercise 4.16

⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
x→∞ x
Answers
F 1I
cos x
⇒ lim = 0.
x→∞

Examples:
x 1. lim x ⋅ sin
x→∞ H xK (1)

Evaluate: F 1I
θ
1. lim n ⋅ sin , θ being measured in radian.
2. lim x ⋅ tan
x→∞ H xK (Find)

n→∞ n
3. lim sin x (does not exist)
x→∞
θ
Solution: Let y = n sin
F sin x I
2

GH x JK
n
4. lim (0)
θ x→∞ 2
Now multiplying Nr and Dr by since we require
n
the same angle in denominator, we get sin 3 x
5. lim (0)
F sin θ I F sin θ I x→∞ x2
θ G nJ = θ G
y = n⋅ ⋅G
n G θ JJ GG θ n JJJ … (i) 6. lim
FG tan x IJ
H x K (does not exist)
H n K H n K x→∞

F 1I
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
n → ∞ , we get
7. lim 3x ⋅ sin
x→∞ H xK (3)

F sin θ I F πI e2 π j
G n JJ H xK
2
8. lim 2 π x ⋅ sin
lim y = lim θ ⋅ G x→∞
n→ ∞ n→ ∞
GH θn JK 9. lim
cos x
(0)
F sin θ I
x→∞ x

G n JJ
= θ ⋅ lim G
Form 2: When the independent variable or its power
appears in the given function as an addend or
n
GH θn JK
θ →0
minuend, we adopt the following working rule.
Working rule: It consists of following steps.
FG3 n → ∞ ⇒ 1 → 0 ⇒ θ → 0IJ Step 1: To divide Nr and Dr by the highest power of
H n n K x appearing in Nr and Dr.
Step 2: To take the limit as x → ∞ noting that
= θ ⋅1

F θI
a1 a2 a3
, …, etc. all → 0 as x → ∞ , provided
= θ which ⇒ lim n ⋅ sin G J = θ .
, ,
H nK
n→ ∞
x x2 x3
a1, a2, a3, …, etc. all are constants.
218 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Examples worked out “The product of a bounded quantity and an

Evaluate: infinitesimal is an infinitesimal”.

1. lim 3 4
x + sin x
2
af
e.g. Let f x =
1
4
x→∞ x
x + cos x
FG 1 IJ = F lim 1 I 4

Solution: y = 3
x + sin x
4
x + cos x
2
∴ lim
x→∞ H x K H xK
4 x→∞
=0

and let g (x) = sin x which is bounded since

−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
1 1
+ sin x
= 3
x
3

1
x
4

2
… (i)
x→∞
af af
Hence, lim f x ⋅ g x = lim
x→∞
1
4
sin x = 0
1+ 4
cos x x
x Remember: The above theorem is also true even if
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as g (x) is bounded in a deleted neighbourhood of c,
x → ∞ , we get e.g.:
F 1I = 0
1
3
+
1
4
sin x
(i) lim x sin
x→0 H xK
(ii) lim x cos F I = 0
lim y = lim x x
3
1
H xK
x→∞ x→∞ 1 2
1+ 4
cos x
x→0
x
F 1 IJ = 0
(iii) lim a x − a f sin G
F 1 + 1 sin x I H x − aK
G x JJ
lim G x
3 4
x→α

= 3
x→∞
GH 1 + 1 cos x JK 2 F 1 IJ = 0
(iv) lim a x − cf cos G
x
4 x→c H x − cK
Problems based on the form 2
F 1I
lim G J + lim G
F sin x IJ
=
x→∞ Hx K 3
Hx K x→∞ 4 Exercise 4.17
3
F cos x IJ
lim a1f + lim G
2

x→∞ Hx K x→∞ 2
Evaluate:
Answers

FG 0 + 0 IJ = 1. lim
x + sin x
(1)
=
H 1 + 0K 0 =0 x + cos x
3
3 x →∞

Note: Now we state a theorem which has a wide use. x − sin x

2. lim (1)
af
x→∞ 2
x + cos x
Theorem: If lim f x = 0 and g (x) is bounded,
x →c

f a x f ⋅ g a xf = 0 .
x − sin x
then lim 3. lim 2 (0)
x→∞
x →c 9 x + cos x
Which is expressed in the following way also.
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 219

On limits of a function containing are function θ

⇒ lim y = lim
Type 1: When a single inverse circular function of x→0 θ→ 0 sin θ
an independent variable (i.e. t–1 x, where t–1 stands
⇒ lim y = 1
for sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1) appears x→0
in a given function whose limit is required as x → 0
or x → a , then we adopt the following working rule: LM 1 − x OP
Working rule:
2. lim
x →1 MN π − 2 sin x PQ
−1

1. Put the inverse circular function of an independent 1− x

variable which appears in the given function = θ and Solution: Let y = −1
change the inverse circular function into circular π − 2 sin x
function, i.e.; put t–1 (x) = θ , where t–1 = sin–1, cos–1,
af
tan–1, etc. and write t θ = x where t = sin, cos, tan,
−1
We put sin x = θ ∴ x = sin θ , −
π
2
≤θ≤
π
2
cot, sec, cosec.
π
2. Change the limit of independent variable x in terms ∴x →1⇔ θ → −
of θ . 2
1 − sinθ
Note: 1. The general method of finding the limits of ∴y = … (i)
a given function containing the inverse circular π − 2θ
function of an independent variable x consists of Now, taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
changing the inverse circular function into the circular π
function (direct trigonometric function) for which it is θ→
2
better to substitute for an arc function (or, inverse
trigonometric function) or a relation a number ‘ θ ’. ⇒ lim y = limπ
LM1 − sin θ OP
2. Trigonometric function, trigonometrical functions x →1 θ→ 2 N π − 2θ Q
and circular functions are synonymus. π π
3. After changing inverse circular function into Again putting θ = − z ⇒ z → 0 as θ →
2 2
circular function, we use the rule of trigonometric
function as x → a if required, method of substitution FG π − zIJ
is adopted. 1 − sin
H2 K
Examples worked out:
∴ lim
z →0 Fπ I
π − 2 G − zJ
Evaluate: H2 K
−1
1. lim
sin x
F 2 sin z I
L 1 − cos z O G 2 JJ
2
x→0 x
= lim M P = lim G
Solution: y =
sin x
−1 N −2z Q GH +2z JK
z→0 z→0

We put sin
−1
x = θ , ∴ x = sin θ LM F sin z I 2 OP
1 G
= lim M ⋅ G 2 J F zI
MM z GH z JJK ⋅ H 2 K PPP
2
∴x→0⇔ θ→0
z→0

∴y =
θ
sin θ
… (i) N 2 Q
=1·0=0
Now taking the limits on both sides of (i) as θ → 0
220 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. lim
1− x
∴y =
b
sin θ 1 − cos θ g as 1 − x 2 = cosθ =
ecos x j
2
x →1 −1 θ 3 cos θ

cosθ in − π ≤ θ ≤ π
1− x
Solution: Let y = 2 2
ecos xj −1 2
2 θ
sin
= tan θ ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2
We put cos −1 x = θ ∴ x = cos θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π θ
3

∴x →1⇔ θ → 0
F sin θ I 2

∴ given limit = lim

1 − cos θ
=
tan θ G 2 JJ
⋅2⋅G …(i)
GH θ JK
θ→ 0 2
θ θ

F 2 sin θ I
G JJ
2
Now taking the limits on both sides of (i) as x → 0
= lim G 2
GH θ
θ→ 0 2
JK LM OP
F sin θ I 2

tan θ 1 G 2J
lim y = lim M PP
LM sin θ sin θ OP x→0 MM θ × 2 × GGH θ JJK
θ→0
PQ
= lim M2 ⋅ N
MN 2 2 4 PPQ
2 × 2 × 1 2
θ→ 0 θ θ

F sin θ I 2

LM F sin θ I F sin θ I OP L OP × lim F I × lim GG 2 JJ

= lim M
tan θ 1
GG 2 JJ ⋅ lim GG 2 JJ P = 1 × 1× 1= 1 NθQ
θ→ 0 H 2K GH 2θ JK
θ→ 0 θ→0
1
= × lim MM
2 θ→ 0
N GH 2θ JK GH 2θ JK PQ 2 θ→ 0 2
1
=1× ×1
LM x FG1 − 1 − x IJ OP 2

H KP
2

4. lim M
1
=
x→0 MM 1 − x esin xj PP 2 −1 3 2
N Q LM O
1− x P
MNecos xj PPQ
lim M
F I
x G1 − 1 − x J
5.
x →1 −1 2

H K
2

Solution: Let y =
1 − x esin x j
2 −1 3

1− x
Solution: y =
ecos xj −1 2
−1 π π
We put sin x = θ ∴ x = sin θ , − ≤ θ ≤
2 2
∴x → 0⇔ θ→ 0 We put cos −1 x = θ ∴ x = cos θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
∴x →1⇔θ→ 0
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 221

1 − cosθ θ
∴y = lim y = lim =1
2 x→0 θ→ 0 tan θ
θ
Or, alternatively

=
e1 − cos θ j e1 + cos θ j y=
θ
= θ ⋅ cot θ = θ ⋅
cos θ
=
θ
× cos θ …(i)
2
θ ⋅ 1+ e cos θ j tan θ sin θ sin θ
Now on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
θ 2
x → 0 , we get
2 sin
1 − cos θ
LM OP
= 2 = 2 2
e j e j
… (i)
θ ⋅ 1 + cos θ θ 1 + cos θ θ θ
lim y = lim = lim × cos θ
Now, on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as
x→0 θ→0 tan θ θ → 0 sin θN Q
x → 1 , we get FG θ IJ × lim cos θ = 1 × 1 = 1
LM 2 sin θ OP 2
= lim
θ→ 0 H sin θ K x→0

MN e + θ j PPQ
lim y = lim M 2 x
2 7. lim −1
x →1 θ→0
θ 1 cos x→0
tan x

x
LM 2 sin θ OP Solution: Let y = −1

2 P × lim L OP
2 tan x
= lim M MM1 + 1
MM 4 ⋅ F θ I PP
θ→ 0 2
N θ→ 0 cos θ PQ We put tan −1 x = θ ∴ x = tan θ , −
π
≤θ≤
π
N H 2K Q 2 2
∴x→0⇔ θ→0
2 1 2 1 1
⇒ lim y = × 1 × = ×1× = tan θ
x →1 4 1+ 1 4 2 4 e j ∴y =
θ
… (i)

−1 Now on taking the limits on both sides of (i) as

tan x x → 0 , we get
6. lim
x→0 x
tan θ
−1 lim y = lim =1
tan x x→0 θ→ 0 θ
Solution: Let y =
x Problems based on type 1
π π
We put tan −1 x = θ ∴ x = tan θ , − ≤ θ ≤ Exercise 4.18
2 2
∴x→0⇔ θ→0
Find the limits of the following functions
θ Answers
∴y = … (i)
tan θ sin x
−1
1. lim (1)
Now, taking the limits on both sides of (i) as x→0 x
x → 0 , we get −1
tan x
2. lim (1)
x→0 x
222 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. lim
sin x
−1
∴y =
π − θ
=
a
π−θ f as
e j
(1) θ
x→0 sin x 1 + cos θ 2 cos ⋅ π + θ
2
1+ x − 1− x
4. lim (1) θ θ
x→0
sin
−1
x cos = cos in 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
2 2

FH
x 1 − 1 − x2 IK F 1I
Again putting θ = π + z ⇒ z → 0 as θ → π

5. lim H 2K −z
x→0
1 − x 2 sin −1 e xj
3 ∴ lim
z →0 1
2 cos π + za π + π+z fe j
2
−1
FG 2 IJ
H πK −z
sin x
6. lim
F I πx = lim
F zI
2 sin G J e j
x→0 −1
tan
H K 2
z→0
−
H 2K π + π+z ]

x − cos esin x j −1
FG 1 IJ e xj
x − cos sin
−1
FG − 1 IJ
7. lim
x→ 1 − cot esin x j −1 H 2K 13. lim1
H 2K
1 − tan esin x j
1
2
x→ −1
2

−1
F 2I
H 3K
tan 2 x Type 2: If the given function contains a function of
8. lim the type t–1 [f (x)], where t–1 stands for sin–1, cos–1,
x→0 sin 3 x
tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1 and f (x) = an algebraic

9. lim
ecos xj −1
2

(2)
function of x.
Remember: We should remember the following
x →1 1− x
formulas which gives the idea where to use which
substitution:
esinj −1
x − 2x
F I R F 1 IU
2 2
10. xlim 1. (a) 1 − sin θ = cos θ (b) 1 − cos θ = sin θ
H 2 sin xK ST3 − 4 sin H 2 sin xK VW
→0 −1 1 −1 2 −1
sin x + 2 sin
2 2
2. (a) 1 + tan θ = sec θ (b) sec θ − 1 = tan θ
F − 1I
H 4K 2
3. (a) 1 + cot θ = cosec θ (b)
2
cosec θ − 1 = cot θ

1− F 1I θ 2 θ
H 4K
x 2
11. lim 4. (a) 1 + cos θ = 2 cos (b) 1 − cos θ = 2 sin
x →1
ecos xj −1
2

2
2
2
2
5. (a) 1 − 2 sin θ = cos 2 θ (b) 2 cos θ − 1 = cos 2 θ
−1 F I
π − cos
GH 1
J
x 2 2 2 2
6. cos 2 θ = cos θ − sin θ = 1 − 2 sin θ = 2 cos θ − 1
2π K
12. lim
x → −1 x+1
7. sin 2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
Hint: Put cos −1 x = θ ∴ x = cos θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π 2 tan θ
8. sin 2 θ =
∴ x → −1 ⇔ θ → π 1 + tan θ
2
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 223

2 F I
9. cos 2 θ =
1 − tan θ
1 + tan θ
2
⇒
1
tan θ
× sin
−1
GH
2 tan θ
2
1 + tan θ
JK
10. tan 2 θ =
2 tan θ
2
⇒
1
tan θ
× sin
−1
asin 2 θf
1 − tan θ
1 π π
⇒ × 2 θ as − ≤ 2θ ≤
3
11. sin 3 θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin θ
tan θ 2 2
3
12. cos 3 θ = 4 cos θ − 3 cos θ
2θ
⇒
3 tan θ − tan θ
3 tan θ
13. tan 3 θ =
1 − 3 tan θ
2
F I = lim 2 θ = 2
∴ lim
1
sin
−1
GH
2x
JK tan θ
a f
x→0 2 θ→0
tan θ + tan φ x 1+ x
14. (a) tan θ + φ =
1 − tan θ tan φ
1 −1 2x
2. lim tan
a f
tan θ − tan φ x→0 2
(b) tan θ − φ =
x 1− x
1 + tan θ tan φ
Solution: We put x = tan θ , − π < θ < π
π FG 1 + tan θ IJ
H K
15. (a) tan +θ = 4 4
4 1 − tan θ x→0⇔θ→0
FG π − θIJ = 1 − tan θ 1 −1 2x
(b) tan
H 4 K 1 + tan θ ∴
x
tan
1− x
2

2. (i) sin–1 [sin x] = x for − π ≤ x ≤ π F I

2 2 ⇒
1
tan θ
× tan
−1
GH
2 tan θ
2
1 − tan θ
JK
(ii) cos–1 [cos x] = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π

(iii) tan–1 [tan x] = x for − π < x < π

2 2
⇒
1
tan θ
× tan
−1
atan 2 θf
Problems based on type 2
× 2 θ as − π < 2θ < π
1
Examples worked out: ⇒
tan θ 2 2
Evaluate:
F I 2θ
1. lim
x→0
1
x
sin
−1 2x
1+ x
GH
2 JK ⇒
tan θ

2θ
Solution: We put x = tan θ , − π ≤ θ ≤ π
1 −1 2x
∴ lim tan = lim
4 4 x →0 x 1− x
2 θ → 0 tan θ
x→0⇔θ→0
θ
F I = 2 × lim = 2 ×1= 2
1
∴ sin
x
−1 2x
1+ x
2 GH JK θ→ 0 tan θ
224 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 3 I F 3 I
3. lim
x→0
1
x
tan GH
− 1 3x − x

1 − 3x
2 JK 4. lim
x→0
1
x
tan
−1 3 x − x

1 − 3x
GH
2 JK (3)

Solution: we put x = tan θ , − π < θ < π Type 3: If the given function contains the function
6 6 sin–1 [f (x)] or tan–1 [f (x)], where f (x) = an expression
x→0⇔θ→0 in x s.t f (x) → 0 as x → a for ‘a’ being a constant.

F 3 I Working rule:
1
∴ tan
x
GH
−1 3 x − x

1 − 3x
2 JK 1. Replace sin–1 [f (x)] by f (x) and tan–1 [f (x)] by f (x)
in the given function provided f (x) → 0 as x → a .

F 3 I 2. Find the limit of the modified form of the given

⇒
1
tan θ
tan GH
−1 3 θ − tan θ
2
1 − 3 tan θ
JK function (i.e.; the function obtained by substitution
sin–1 [f (x)] = f (x) or tan–1 [f (x)] in the given function)
as x → a , where a = any constant = given limit of

⇒
1
tan θ
tan
−1
atan 3θf the independent variable x.
Remember:
1. If f (x) is an infinitesimal as x → a , then
× 3 θ as − π < 3θ < π
1
⇒ (i) sin–1 [f (x)] ~ f (x) as x → a
tan θ 2 2
(ii) tan–1 [f (x) ~ f (x) as x → a
3θ
⇒ 2. The function f (x) is called an infinitesimal as x → a
tan θ
af
if lim f x = 0 which means af
f x =0=
F 3x − x I = lim 3 θ
lim
f ax f .
3 x→a x→a +0

∴ lim
1
x→0 x
tan
−1
GH 1 − 3x JK tan θ
2 θ→ 0
lim
x→a− 0

i.e. r.h.l of f (x) at x = a is equal to the l.h.l of f (x) at

θ x = a.
= 3 ⋅ lim = 3 × 1 = 3. From the definition of an infinitesimal, it follows
θ→ 0 tan θ
Problems based on type 2 x→a
af
that if lim f x = b , we may write f (x) = b + f1 (x)

Exercise 4.19 x→a

af
where f1 (x) is an infinitesimal (i.e. lim f x = 0 )

Now, we shall state some basic results in the form

Evaluate Answers of theorems.
F I Theorem 1: The algebraic sum or difference of two
1. lim
x→0
1
x
sin
−1 2x
GH
1+ x
2 JK (2) or more infinitesimals is an infinitesimal function.
Theorem 2: The product of an infinitesimal function
F1 − x 2 I (or simply infinitesimal) and a bounded function is an
2. lim
x→0
1
x
cos
−1
GH 1 + x 2 JK (2) infinitesimal. This is most important theorem on
infinitesimal which is widely used to find the limit of
bounded function times a function tending to zero as
F I the independent variable x → a .
3. lim
x→0
1
x
tan
−1 2x
GH
1+ x
2 JK (2)
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 225

Theorem 3: The product of a finite number of

2
infinitesimal function as x → a are also infinitesimals 1+ x −1
= lim
as x → a . x→0 2
x
Theorem 4: The quotient of an infinitesimal divided
by a variable quantity tending to a non-zero limit is an FG IJ FG IJ
H KH K
2 2
infinitesimal. 1+ x −1 1+ x +1
N.B.: In particular, the product of a constant quantity = limx→0 FG IJ
H K
2 2
by an infinitesimal is an infinitesimal. x 1+ x +1
Examples worked out
Evaluate:
1/ + x 2 − 1/

1. lim
tan
−1
a1 − xf 2 = xlim
→0
x2 FH 1 + x2 + 1 IK
x →1 2
x − 2x + 1

a1 − x f , bx ≠ 1g
2
−1 2 x
Solution: lim
tan
=
lim
x→0 FG IJ
H K
2 2
x →1
x
2
− 2x + 1 x 1+ x +1

a1 − xf 2
af a f
3 f x = 1 − x → 0 as x → 1
2 1
FG IJ
= lim 2 lim
x →1
x − 2x +1 x→0
H K
= 2
1+ x +1
2
x − 2x + 1
= lim 2 1
x →1
x − 2x + 1 =
1+1
= xlim
→1
1
1
=
=1 2

FG IJ −1
−1
ax − 1f 2

H K
2
1 + x − 1 sin x tan
3. lim
x →1 πx
2. lim 1 − sin
etan xj
x→0 −1 3
2
−1
ax − 1f 2

FG IJ
tan
−1 Solution: lim
πx
H K
2
1 + x − 1 sin x x →1
1 − sin
Solution: lim 2
etan xj a x − 1f
x→0 −1 3
2
= lim
x →1 πx
FG I
− 1J x
1 − sin
2
H K [3 sin
2
1+ x −1 −1
= lim x and tan x We put x = 1 + h, x → 1 ⇔ h → 0
x→0 3

a x − 1f
x
2
are ~x as x → 0 ] Hence, lim
x →1 πx
1 − sin
2
226 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a1 + h − 1f 2
sin
−1
x − sin
−1
a
= lim
h→ 0 F π + π hI 4. lim
x→a x−a
1 − sin
H2 2 K −1 −1
Solution: sin x − sin a
2
= lim
h→ 0
h
πh
= sin
−1
e x 1−a − a 1 − x as j
1 − cos
2 x >0, a >0

h
2
1 = e x 1−a − a 1 − x as x → a j
= lim
F π hI = lim
LM 2 sin F π h I OP
af e
h→ 0 h→ 0
H2K MM H 2 K PP j
2 2
2 sin 3f x = x 1 − a − a 1 − x → 0 as x → a
2

MN h PQ ∴ lim
sin
−1
x − sin
−1
a
x→a x−a
1
= lim
h→ 0 LM 2 ⋅ π ⋅ sin F π h I OP
2
= lim
e x 1−a − a 1− x j
H 2 KP
2

MM 4 PP
x→a x−a

MM h 4⋅ π
2 2

N PQ Now,
x 1− a − a 1− x
x−a

1 1 e x ⋅ 1− a − a ⋅ 1 − x ⋅ je x 1− a + a 1− x j
=
π
2
⋅ lim
x →1 F π hI =
ax − af e j
H2K
2
sin x 1− a + a 1− x
2
F π hI 2

e j −e j
H2K
2 2
x 1− a a 1− x
=
a x − af e x 1− a + a 1− x j
x a1 − a f − a a1 − x f
1 1
= ×
π
2
R| sin F π h I U| 2
=
lim S
H2K ax − af e x 1− a + a 1− x j
πh V
2
h→0
|| 2 ||
T W =
x − ax − a + ax
ax − af e x 1− a + a 1− x j
1 1
=
π
2
×
1
=
ax − af
2 ax − af e x 1− a + a 1− x j
2 1
= =
π
2
e x 1− a + a 1− x j
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 227

Hence, lim
x 1− a − a 1− x
2. lim
tan
−1
a x − 1f 2
(1)
x→a x−a x →1 2
x − 2x + 1

= lim
1
F 1 I
e j GH 1 + a JK
−1 −1
x→a x 1− a + a 1− x tan x − tan a
3. lim 2
x →1 x−a
1
=
a 1− a + a 1− a FG IJ −1
H K F 1I
2
1 + x − 1 sin x
=
2 a ⋅ 1− a
1 4. lim
x→0
etan −1
xj
3 H 2K
−1 −1 −1
F 2I
x − tan
H 3K
tan a tan 2 x
5. lim 5. lim
x→0
x→a x−a sin 3 x

LM x − a OP e j − etan xj
2 2

F 2I
−1 −1
−1 −1 −1 sin 2 x + sin x
x − tan a = tan
Solution: tan
N1 + ax Q for 6. lim
x→0 3x H 3K
a ⋅ x > −1 −1
F 3I
FG a f IJ
sin 3x
x−a x−a 7. lim
x →0 H 2K
H K
= 3f x = → 0 as x → a 2x
1 + ax 1 + ax
−1
F 2I
H 7K
sin 2 x
−1 −1 8. lim
tan x − tan a x →0 7x
∴ lim
x−a
F 5I
x→a
−1

H 3K
tan 5x
FG x − a × 1 IJ 9. lim
x →0 3x
= lim
x→a H 1 + ax x − a K −1
F 2I
H 3K
sin 2x
10. lim −1
1 x→0
= lim tan 3x
x → a 1 + ax
On limits of exponential function

b a fg a f , where a = 0/any
1 1
= = Evaluation of lim f x
g x
1 + a ⋅ a 1 + a2 x→a
constant/ ∞
Problems based on type 3 One may adopt any one of the two methods to
find the limit of the exponential function (f (x))g (x) as
Exercise 4.20 x → a , a being either a constant or ∞ .
Method 1: It consists of following steps.
Find the limits of the following functions: Step 1: Put y = (f (x))g (x)
Answers Step 2: Use log y = log (f (x))g (x) = g (x) · log f (x)

2 x − sin
−1
F 1I Step 3: Write lim log y = lim g (x) · log f (x) = b
H 3K
x x →a x →a
1. lim −1
x→0
2 x + tan x (say)
228 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Step 4: Required limit of the given exponential function 2 3

= lim f x
x→a
b a fg a f = e
g x b
(iv) e
−x
=1−
N N
x
1
+
x
2
−
x
3
+ ... ∞
N
Notes: 1. The limit of logarithm of a function is the
x log a x 2 log 2 a x 3 log 3 a
N N N
logarithm of the limit of the function as logarithm is a
(v) a = 1 + + + + ... ∞
x

continuous function, i.e., lim log f x

x→a
b a fg 1 2 3

R U
= log S lim f a x fV as logarithmic function is a
2. Method (2) is applicable commonly to find the limit
of the exponential function (f (x))g (x) as x → any
T x→a W
continuous function.
constant other than (different from) zero.
x
2. a = m ⇔ x = log a m , for a positive real number Examples worked out:
“m” and a positive real number " a ≠ 1 ". Evaluate the following:
3. The method of expansion for evaluating limits is appli-
cable to the functions which can be expanded in series.
1. lim 1 + x
x→0
a f 1
x

4. Method (1) is applicable commonly to find the limit

of an exponential function (f (x))g (x) as x → a or Solution: Let y = 1 + x x a ...(i) f 1

x → ∞. On taking logarithm on both sides of (i), we get

5. One must note that if f (x) is not throughout positive
bg log y = log 1 + x a f 1
x
=
1
log 1 + x a f
in the neighbourhood of x = a, then lim f x c b gh g x x
x→a
F 2 3 4
I
does not exist because in this case the function is not
defined in the neighbourhood of x = a.
=
1
x
x−
x
2
GH
+
x
3
−
x
4
+ ...
N N N JK
Method 2: It consists of following steps.
F x + x − x + ...I
= G1 −
2 3

H N2 N3 N4 JK
Step 1: Put x = a + h in y = (f (x))g (x)
Step 2: Use log y = log (f (a + h))g (a + h) = g (a + h) · log ...(ii)
(f (a + h))
On taking limit on both sides of (ii) as x → 0 , we
Step 3: Write lim log y = lim (g (a + h) · log f (a +
h→0 h→0
get
h)) = b (say)
a f F x + x − x + ...I = 2 3
Step 4: Required limit of the given exponential function
lim log y = lim 1 − GH N2 N3 N4 JK
= lim f x
x→a
b a fg a f = e
g x b x→0 x→0

F1 − 0 + 0 + ...I 2
Notes: 1. One can use the following expansion if
required in step (2) in any method mentioned above. GH N2 N3 JK
a f
2 3 4
(i) log 1 + x = x −
x
+
x
−
x
+ ... ∞ for F I
⇒ log lim y = 1 = log e a3 log e = log f
−1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4
H K x→0
e e=1

⇒ lim y = e
a f
2 3 4
x x x x→0
(ii) log 1 − x = − x − − − + ... ∞ for
a f
2 3 4 1
−1 ≤ x < 1 ⇒ lim 1 + x x =e
x→0
2 3
x x x x
(iii) e = 1 +
1
+
2
+
N N
3
+ ... ∞
N
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 229

F 1 I x
FG F π + hI IJ tan c π
2
+h h
a f
H K H H 2 KK
− cot h
2. lim 1 + ⇒ y = sin = cos h
x→∞ x

I F ⇒ log y = log acos hf = − cot h log acos hf =

x − cot h
1
Solution: Letting y = 1 +
K H
⋅ log acos hf
x 1
−
F 1 I F 1 1 + 1 + ...IJ
⇒ log y = x log 1 + = x G −
tan h
H x K H x 2x 2x K FG b gIJK
2 3

b g
⇒ limπ log y = lim −
H
1
⋅ log cos h
F 1 + 1 + ...IJ
= G1 −
x→ 2 h→ 0 tan h

H 2 x 3x K 2
F −log F1 − h + I I 2

F 1 + 1 + ...IJ = 1 GG GH N2 ...JK JJ
⇒ lim alog y f = lim G1 − = lim G
x→∞ H 2 x 3x K x→∞ 2 h→ 0
GG h + h + 2 h + ...JJJ
3
5

F I H 3 15 K
H K
⇒ log lim y = 1 = log e
F h + ... I
x→∞
2
⇒ lim y = e
x→∞
= lim G
G 2
JJ
F 1I
h→ 0 GG h + h + 2 h + ...JJ
3

H 3 15 K
x 5

H xK
⇒ lim 1 +
x →∞
=e

Remark: One should note that F3 log a1 − xf = − x − x − x − ...I 2 3

(i) lim 1 + xa f 1
x =e
GH N2 N3 JK
x→0

a f 1 F1 F h I I −1

= lim G h G 1 +
GH 2 H 3 JK JJK
1 2
(ii) lim 1 − x x =
x→0 e
h→ 0

F I
(iii) lim 1 + 1
x

x→∞ H K
x
= e and =0

F 1I x
1
4. lim x
x →1
af 1
x −1

(iv)
x→∞ H xK
lim 1 − =
e
; Further we must note that
Solution: Putting x = 1+ h in x af 1
x −1
, we have
a function in x appearing as an index is always
reciprocal of the function in x within the bracket. lim x af 1
x −1 = lim 1 + h a f 1
h a
= e 3 x → 1⇔ h → 0 f
3. limπ sin x
x→ 2
a f tan x
x →1 h→0

Exercise 4.21
Solution: Letting y = sin x a f tan x
and putting

π Evaluate the following:

x= +h
2 a
1. lim 1 + x
x→0
f 1
x
230 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f a f FG a I
1
2. lim 1 + α x x
−1
JK
x
x→0 Solution: let f x =
H
...(i)
x
F 3x I 4

H 2K And ax = 1 + h, where h → 0 as x → 0
x
3. lim 1 −
x→0

4. lim a1 + sin π x f
cot π x e3 a 0
=1j … (ii)
x →1
On taking logarithm on both sides of (ii) with base

FG π xI
πx ‘e’, we get
J
tan

H 2 K
x
5. lim 1 − cos log e (ax) = log e (1 + h)
x →1 ⇒ x log ea = log e (1 + h)

6. lim a1 + cos x f
x → π2
3sec x
⇒x=
a
log 1 + h f
log a
7. lim 1 − x a f 1

a f F log1+ah1+−1hfI = logh ⋅ log

x
a log a
a1 + hf 1 ⋅ log 1 + h
x→0 ⇒f x = = =
8. lim 1 + m xa f m
x GH log a JK h
a f
x→0

Answers: log a

α
3. e–6
1 1
6. e3 7.
1
8. e
m
2 a
log 1 + h f 1
h

F a I = log a
1. e 2. e 4. 5.
e e e
b a fg = lim G log log
H a1 + hf JK log e
Problems reducible to log (f (x))g (x) ⇒ lim f x 1
x→0 h→0 h
Evaluate the following.
a f F3 lim a1 + hf = eI
H K
1
log 1 + x h

1. lim h→ 0

= log a a3 log e = log e = 1f

x→0 x

Solution: Let y =
a
log 1 + x f F e − 1I x
e

3. lim G
H x JK
x

∴ y = log 1 + x f a 1
x
x→0

⇒ lim y = lim elog a1 + x f j

1
Solution: Putting a = e in the above solution of (2),
x
we have
x→0 x→0
Fe x I
F
= log lim a1 + x f
I lim GH −1
JK
= log e = 1
H K
1
x x→0 x
x→0

F I F 1 ± m x IJ
Problems put in the form: y = G
m

= log e 3 lim a1 + x f = e
x

H K H1 ± m xK
1 1
x and
x→0 2

= 1 a3 log e = log e = 1f e
x→0

F a − 1I
lim G
x
F 1 ± m x IJ
lim G
m

H x JK for a > 0
x

H1 ± m xK
Working rule: To evaluate 1 , one
2. x→0
x→0 2

may adopt the rule consisting of following steps.

 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 231

F 1+ 2 x IJ = a1+ 2 xf = a1+ 2 xfc h⋅

m 1
Step 1: To put the given index = ⋅ m1 m in 1 1 1

Solution: 3 G
x 2
x 2x

H 1− 2 x K a1− 2 xf a1− 2 xfc

x m1 x
m 1
1
x − 21x ha− f 2

Nr and = ⋅ m2 m in Dr.
x m2 x

∴ lim G
F 1 + 2 x IJ = lim a1 + 2 xfc h1 1 ⋅2

RS lim a1 ± m xf UV
x 2x

1
m1 ⋅m
H 1 − 2x K a1 − 2 xfc ha f − 21x
T W
x →0 x→0 −2
Step 2: To evaluate 1
m1 x
x→0

… (A1) (say)
RS lim a1 + 2 xf UV 1
2

RS lim a1 ± m xf UV = T W
2x
m2 ⋅ m
1 x →0
and
T W … (A2) (say)
RS lim a1 − 2 x fc h UVa f
m2 x
x→0
2 −2
− 21x
Step 3: To find the quotient of (A1) and (A2) to obtain T x→0 W
FG a1 ± m xf IJ
H a1 ± m xfK
1 2
the required limit, lim e 4
x→0 2 = −2
=e
e
Examples worked out:
Evaluate the following: F 2 + x IJ
lim G
1
x

F 1 + x IJ 1
3.
x→0 H 2 − xK
1. lim G
x

x→0H1 − xK F1 + x I 1

F 1 + x IJ = a1 + xf F 2 + xI G 2J
x
1 1 1

Solution: 3 G
Solution: 3 G
H 2 − x JK = GG 1 − x JJ
x x x

H 1 − x K a1 − xf 1
x
H 2K
=
a1 + xf 1
x

a f
{a1 − xfc h } − 1x
−1
F1 + x I c hc h 2 ⋅ 1

H 2K
x 2

=
∴ lim G
F 1 + x IJ = lim a1 + xf
1
x
1
F1 − x I c hc h − 2x − 12

H 2K
x

x →0H1 − xK {a1 − x fc h}
a
x→0 − 1x
−1 f
R| lim F1 + x I U| 1

S| H 2 K V|
2 2
x

lim a1 + x f F 2 + xI T W
1 1
x →0
∴ lim G
H 2 − x JK = R| F x I c h U|c
x x
x→0
= a f x →0 − 21 h
lim {a1 − x fc h }
−1 − 2x
− 1x
S| lim H1 − 2 K V|
x→0

e e 2
T W x→0

= = =e
RS lim a1 − xfc h UVa−1f
1
−1 e2
− 1x e = =e
T x→0 W e
− 12

F 1 + 2 x IJ
lim G
1
F 5 I 2

H K
x
4. lim 1 +
x

H 1 − 2x K
2. x
x→0 7
x →0
232 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 5 I F 5x I c h c h 2 7 ⋅ 10
F1 ± m I mx

H 7 K H 7K
x 5x 7
Solution: 3 1 + x = 1 +
G x JJ
1

Working rule: To evaluate lim G , one

R|F 5x I c h c h U|
x→∞
GH 1 ± mx JK
F 5I
2
⋅
∴ lim 1 + x = lim S 1 +
|TH 7 K V|W
2 7 10

H 7K
x 5x 7

x→0 x→0 may adopt the rule consisting of following steps.

R U c h FG x IJ ⋅ am m f
| F 5x I c h | Hm K
Step 1: To put the given index m x =
10

|T H 7 K V|W = e
= S lim 1 +
7 7
5x 10 1
7 1
x→0
FG x IJ ⋅ am ⋅ m f in Dr.
F 3x I 5
in Nr and m x =
Hm K 2 2

H 5K
x
5. lim 1 −
x→0 R| F m I e j U|a mm1 f
Step 2: To evaluate S lim G1 ± J
|T H x K V|W
x
m1
1
…(A1)
F 3x I = F1 − 3x I c ha f5 − 35x −3 x→∞

H 5K H 5K
x
Solution: 3 1 −
(say)

F 3x I R|F 3x I d ib g U| − 35x R| F m I e j U|amm f2

∴ lim G1 − J = lim SG 1 − J
5

V| and S lim G1 ± J
−3

V|
x
x

H 5K |TH 5 K |T H x K
m2
2
… (A2) (say)
x→0 x→0
W x→∞
W
a f
R 3x I c h U|
Step 3: To find the quotient of (A1) and (A2) to obtain
| F
= S lim 1 − V =e
− 35x
−3

F1 ± m I
−3

T| H 5 K W|
mx
x→0
G x JJ
1

the required limit, lim G

Exercise 4.22
GH 1 ± mx JK
x→∞ 2

Evaluate the following; Examples worked out:

Evaluate the following:
a
1. lim 1 + 2 x
x→0
f 1
x

FG 2 x − 1IJ x

F 1 + 3x IJ 1
1. lim
x→∞ H 2 x + 1K
lim G
x

2.
x→0 H 1 − 3x K F1 − 1 I 2x

lim a1 − x f
F 2 x − 1I H 2x K x

H 2 x + 1JK = F1 + 1 I
Solution: 3 G
4
3. x
x→0 2x

Answers: H 2x K
−4
1. e2 2. e6 3. e
Problems put in the form: F1 − 1 I a fc h
−2 x − 12

F1± m I mx
=
H 2x K
G x JJ
y=G
1
F1 + 1 I a 2x fc h
1

H 2x K
2

and x → ∞
GH 1 ± mx JK 2
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 233

R| lim F1 − 1 I a −2 x f U|c− h1
FG x + 4 IJ x

S| H 2 x K V| H x − 3K
2
3. lim
F
∴ lim G
2 x − 1I
J = T
x
x→∞
W
x→∞

x→∞H x K R| F 1 I a
2 + 1 f U|c h
1

F1 + 4 I
S| lim H1 + 2 x K V|
2x 2 x

T x→∞
W Solution: G
F x + 4I
J H xK x

H x − 3 K F1 − 3 I
= x

e
− 12
− 21 − 12 −1
H xK
= =e =e
F1 + 4 I c ha f x 4

H xK
1 4
2
e
=
FG 2 x + 3IJ x +1
F1 − 3 I c ha f − 3x −3
2. lim
x→∞ H 2 x + 1K H xK
F1 + 3 I x +1
R| lim F1 + 4 I c h U|a f 4

F 2 x + 3I H 2x K S| H x K V|
x
x +1 4

Solution: G J
H 2 x + 1 K F1 + 1 I
= F
∴ lim G
x + 4I T x x→∞
W
H x − 3 JK = R| F 3 I c h U|a f
x +1

H 2x K x →∞ − 3x
−3

S| lim H1 − x K V|
F 1 + 3 I ⋅ F1 + 3 I x T x→∞
W
=
H 2x K H 2x K
F 1 + 1 I ⋅ F1 + 1 I
4
x e 7
= =e
H 2x K H 2x K e
−3

F1 + 3 I c hc h ⋅ F1 + 3 I2x 3
FG x + 3 IJ x

H 2x K H 2xK H x + 2K
3 2
4. lim
x→∞
=
a f
F1 + 1 I ⋅ F1 + 1 I
c h 2x ⋅ 1

H 2x K H 2x K F1 + 3 I F1+ 3 I c ha f
2
x x 3

F x + 3I H xK H xK
3
x

F 2 x + 3IJ x +1 Solution: 3 G J
H x + 2 K F1 + 2 I
= =
F1 + 2 I c h a f
∴ lim G
x x

H 2 x + 1K
2

H xK H xK
2

x→∞

R| lim F1 + 3 I c h U|c h ⋅ lim F1 + 3 I 3

R| lim F1 + 3 I c h U|a f
S| H 2 x K V|
2x 2
3

H 2x K
3

S H x K V|
x

=T W
3

F x + 3I |
x→∞ x→∞

∴ lim G T x→∞
W
R|S lim F1 + 1 I U|Vc h ⋅ lim F1 + 1 I H x + 2 JK = R| F 2 I c h U|a f
1
2x 2
2
x→∞

|T H 2 x K |W H 2x K S| lim H1 + x K V|
x
2
x→∞ x→∞

3
T x→∞
W
e ×12

= 1 3
e
e2 = 2
=e
=e e
234 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F a I x
F 1I x
5. lim 1 +
x→∞ H x K H xK
4. lim 1 −
x→∞

F I = F1 + a I c h a f
a
x x a
F 3x + 2 IJ
lim G
x +2

H K H xK
a

Solution: 3 1 +
x
5.
x→∞ H 3x − 1 K
af
F aI R
| F a I c h U| F 2 x + 3IJ
a 2x +5
lim G
H x K = S|T lim H1 + x K V|W = e
x x

H 2 x + 1K
a a
∴ lim 1 + 6.
x→∞
x→∞ x→∞

F 5I x F x IJ
lim G
x

6. lim H1 − K
x→∞ x
7.
x→∞ H1 + xK
F 5 I = F1 − 5 I c ha f − x5 F 1I x +5

H xK
x −5
lim 1 +
H xK H xK
8.
Solution: 3 1 − x→∞

Answers:
R U a f
F 5I | F 5I c h |
− x5
−5
α α

H x K = S|T lim H1 − x K V|W = e

x
−5 1. e 2. e 3. e 4. e–1 5. e 6. e2 7. e–1 8. e
∴ lim 1 −
x →∞ x →∞
Problems reducible to the form:

F x IJ a f
x x
x a −1 e −1
7. lim G
y= , a > 0 and /
x→∞H1 + xK Remember:
x x

F I x
F a − 1I = log a , aa > 0f and
F x I G 1 J
x

GH x JK
x
Solution: 3 G
H 1 + x JK = GGH 1 + 1 JJK = F1 + 1 I
1 (i) lim e
x x→0

x H xK F e − 1I = log e = 1
F x I (ii) lim G
x

H x JK
x
∴ lim G J 1 1 −1
x→∞H 1 + x K lim F1 + 1 I e
= = =e x x→0
e

H xK
aany positive constant f
x→∞
x
−1
which mean lim
x→0 x
Exercise 4.23
= loge (the same positive constant)
Evaluate the following: Examples worked out:

F 1 I , aα ∈ R f
x+α
Evaluate the following ones.
1. lim 1 +
H xK Fe ax I
x→∞
1. lim GH −1
JK
F 1 I , aα ∈Rf
x→0 x
αx
2.
H xK
lim 1 +

− 1 ee j
x→∞ a x
ax −1
F α I , aα ∈Rf
e
x Solution: 3 =
3.
x→∞ H xK
lim 1 + x x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 235

Fe − 1I ee j − 1
m
ax
a x = log e a = m log e a = m log a
∴ lim G J = lim F3 I
x→0
H x K xx →0
lim G
5x
−1
JK
a
5.
x→0
H x
= log e e = a log e e = a ⋅ 1 = a

Fe − 1I − 1 e3 j
5 x
−x 5x −1
lim G J
3
Solution: 3 =
2.
x→0
H x K x x

ee j
−1 x F3
∴ lim G
5x 3 I−1 e j 5 x

Solution: 3
e
−x
−1
=
−1
x→0
H x
−1
= lim
x →0 x
JK
x x

Fe − 1I ee j − 1
5
−x
−1 x = log e 3 = 5 log e 3 = 5 log 3
∴ lim G J = lim Fe I
x→0
H x K x x →0
6. lim GH
ax
−e
a

JK
x→0 x
= log e = a−1f ⋅ log e = − 1
−1
e e

F a − 1I2x e
ax
−e
a a x
e ⋅ e −e
a e e −1
a
e x
j
lim G
H x JK
3.
Solution: 3 = =
x→0 x x x

Fe
∴ lim G
ax a I = lim e ee − 1j a x

a
2x
−1
=
ea j
2 x
−1
x →0
H
−e
x
JK x →0 x
Solution: 3
x x
x
e −1
Fa I = lim ea j − 1 2 x a a
2x = e lim =e
∴ lim GH −1
JK x→0 x
x→0 x x →0x
Fa m+ x m I
2
= log e a = 2 log e a = 2 log a
7. lim
x→0
GH x
−a
JK for a > 0
Fa mx I ea −1j
GH −1
JK for a > 0
m x
m+ x m a m x m
4. lim a −a a ⋅a − a
x →0 x Solution: = =
x x x

− 1 ea j
m x
−1 Fa m+ x m
I = lim a ea − 1j = a
m x
F a − 1I
x

GH −a
JK GH x JK
mx m
a ∴ lim lim
Solution: 3 = x→0 x x →0 x x→0
x x
m m
=a log e a = a
Fa
∴ lim G
mx
I = lim ea j − 1 m x log a

x→0
H x
−1
JK x →0x
236 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Exercise 4.24
ea − 1j − eb − 1j ⋅
x x
F a − 1 − b − 1I ⋅ F x I
x x

a f GH x x JK GH g axfJK
x
= =
x g x
Evaluate the following:
F 5 − 1I
lim G
x whose limit as x → 0 is the required limit.
1.
x →0
H x JK Fa
lim G
x
−b I = log F a I , aa , b > 0f
JK
x
Notes: (i)
H H bK e

F e − 1I
x→0 x
mx
lim G
2.
x→0
H x JK Fa
(ii) lim G
x
1 + a2
x
+ a + ... + a − n I
x
3
JK
x
n

F 7 − 1Ix
x→0
H x

lim G
3.
x→0
H x JK = log aa 1 a2 a3 ... a f , aa , ..., a > 0f
n 1 n

F 2 − 1I
Examples worked out:
Fa Ia
−x
lim G
H x JK f
x x
lim G JK
4. −b −2
, a,b > 0
H
x→0 1.
x→0 x
F e − 1I
lim G
3x

H x JK e j e j
x x
5. x x
a +b −2 a −1 + b −1
x→0
Solution: 3 =
x x
F 2 − 1I
lim G
x x
a −1 b −1
x

H x JK
6. = +
x→0 x x
Fa
lim G
x F I F
x I x x I
Answers:
1. log 5 x→0
H
+b −2
x
GH JK GH
= lim
x → 0
a −1
x
+ lim
x →
JK
0
b −1
x
JK
= log a + log b = log babg .
2. m
3. log 7
4. – log 2
F a + b + c − 3I
lim G
x x x
5. 3
6. log 2
2.
x→0
H x
JK , (a, b, c > 0)
Problems put in the form:

y=G
Fa − b I x x
a + b + c − 3 a −1 + b −1 + c −1 e x
je x
je x
j
H g a xf JK and x → 0 , where a > 0, b > 0.
x x x
Solution: 3 =
x x

Fa − b I
x x x
a −1 b −1 c −1
x x
= + +
Working rule: The rule to evaluate lim G
H g a xf JK
x x x
x→0
F a + b + c − 3I x x x

x x x x
∴ lim GH
x→0 x
JK
a −b a −b x
says to write
g x af =
x
⋅
g xaf F a − 1I + lim F b − 1I + lim F c − 1I
x x x
= lim G
x→0
H x JK GH x JK GH x JK x→0 x →0
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 237

= log a + log b + log c = log a b c a f Fa 2x I ⋅ lim F a − 1I ⋅ lim F x I

x

Fa x x I
= lim
x→0
GH x
−1
JK GH x JK GH sin x JK
x→0 x →0

lim G JK
−b
3.
x→0
H x = log a2 · log a · 1
= 2 log a · log a = 2 log2 a

Solution: 3
x
a −b
x
=
a −1 − b −1 e x
j e x
j 6. lim
ee 2x
−1 e −1 je x
j
x x x→0 x tan x

=
ea x
−1 j − eb x
−1 j ee 2x
−1 e −1 je x
j
x x Solution: 3
x tan x
Fa I = lim F a − 1I − lim F b − 1I
x x x x
∴ lim
x→0
GH JK −b
x
GH x JK GH x JK
x→ 0 x→0 =
e
2x
−1 e −1
⋅ ⋅
x
x

x x tan x
F aI ee je j
= log a − log b = log
H bK ∴ lim
2x
−1 e −1
x

Fa − b I
lim G
x x
x →0 x tan x

H sin x JK Fe I F I FG IJ
4. 2x x

GH −1
JK
e −1
GH JK
x→0 x

x x x x
= lim
x→0 x
⋅ lim
x→0 x
⋅ lim
x → 0 tan x H K
a −b a −b x
Solution: 3 = ⋅ = log e2 · 1 · 1
sin x x sin x = 2 log e = 2

∴ lim G
F a − b I = lim F a − b I ⋅ lim F x I
x x x x
Fa I
H x JK GH x JK GH sin x JK
sin x

x→0 x→0 x→0

7. lim
x→0
GH x
−1
JK for a > 0
F a I ⋅ 1 = log F a I
= log
H bK H bK Solution: 3
a
sin x
−1
=
a
sin x
− 1 sin x
⋅
x sin x x
ea − 1j ea − 1j for a > 0
2x x

5. lim Fa sin x I
x→0 x sin x ∴ lim
x→0
GH x
−1
JK
e a
2x
je
−1 a −1
x
j
Solution: 3 F a − 1I ⋅ lim F sin x I
GH sin x JK GH x JK
sin x
x sin x
= lim … (i)
2x x x→0 x →0
a −1 a −1 x
= ⋅ ⋅
x x sin x Now putting sin x = h so that as x → 0 , h → 0 ,

Fa 2x I we have from (i)

∴ lim GH −1
JK Fa sin x I = lim F a − 1I ⋅ 1 h
lim G JK GH h JK
x →0 x −1
x→0
H x x→0
238 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG FG sin x IJ = 1IJ a +b −2
x x x +1 x
a +b − 2 ⋅2
x x
= log a ⋅ 1 = log a 3 lim
H x→0 H xK K Solution: 3
x
=
x
Fe ax bx I ea j e
− 1 + bx − 1 − 2 2x − 1 j e j
GH JK
x
−e
8. lim
x→0
=
x x

e
ax
−e
bx
ee ax
−1 − ej e bx
−1 j =
a −1 b −1 2 2 −1
x
+
x
−
e x
j
Solution: 3 = x x x
x x
Fa + b − 2 Ix x x +1
=
e ax − 1 e bx − 1
x
−
x
∴ lim GH
x→0 x
JK
Fe ax
− ebx I
e ax − 1 F
e bx − 1 I F I F a − 1I + lim F b − 1I − 2 lim F 2 − 1I
∴ lim GH = lim JK − lim GH JK GH JK = lim G
x x x

H x JK GH x JK GH x JK
x →0 x x →0 x x→0 x
x→0 x→0 x→0
= loge ea – loge eb = a loge e – b loge e = a – b
a3 log e = log e = 1 f = log a + log b – 2 log 2 = log a + log b – log 22
e
F ab I
F5
lim G
x x I = log a + log b – log 4 = log
H4K
9.
x→0
H4 x
−3
−2
x JK
x sin x
11. lim x −x

F5 −3 I
x→0
x x
e +e −2

5 −3
x x GH x K
J x sin x x sin x
Solution: 3 =
Solution: 3
4 −2
x x
=
F4 x
−2 I
x e +e
x −x
−2 1
e + x −2
x

GH x
JK e
x x
x e sin x x e sin x
= =
F5
lim G
x
I x 2x
+ 1 − 2e
ex
ee x
j
2
−3
JK −1
e
F5 x x I= H x→0
GH 4 −3
JK
x
∴ lim
F4 −2 I F
I F sin x I 2

J G J
x x
⋅G
x→0 x x
−2
lim G JK x
− 1K H x K
x
=e
H
x→0 x He x

F x sin x I
F 5I log F 5I ∴ lim G
log
H 3 K = H 3K H e + e − 2 JK
x→0 x −x

=
F 4 I log 2
log
H 2K = lim e ⋅ lim G
F x I 2
FG sin x IJ
H e − 1JK H xK
x
⋅ lim
Fa + b − 2 I x→0 x →0 x x→0
x x x +1
10. lim G JK for a > 0, b > 0.
H = e ⋅ a1f ⋅ 1 = 1
0 2
x→0 x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 239

Exercise 4.25 x
e −1− x
14. lim 2
x→0
x
Evaluate the following ones:
x x
1. lim e
x
a −b
x→0 15. lim , a > 0, b > 0
x→0 x
x
e x
2. lim 3 −1
x→0 log x 16. lim x
x →0
2 −1
tx
e −1 x x
3. lim
x →0
7 −3
x 17. lim
x→0 x
ax bx
e −e sin x
4. lim a −1
x →0 x 18. lim ,a>0
x→0 sin x
ax
e −1
5. lim e
sin x
− 1 − sin x
x→0 sin x
19. lim 2
x→0
x
sin x
e −1
6. lim 2 −1
x
x →0 x 20. lim
x→0
a1 + xf 1
−1
eb g
2
2
x +h 2
− ex
7. lim x
h→ 0 h x2 − x
21. lim
x → 0 1 − cos x
tan x
e −1
8. limπ
x→ 2
e
tan x
+1 ex +h − ex
22. lim
h →0 h
− sin x
a −1 Answers:
9. lim ,a>0
x→0 x 1. 1
2
2. 0
x
e −1 3. t
10. lim 2 4. (a – b)
x→0
sin x 5. a
3x
6. 1 2
e −1 7. 2 x e
x
11. lim
x →0 x 8. Does not exist
x 9. – log a
2 −1 10. 1
12. lim
x→0 x 11. 3
12. log 2
x −x
e −e 13. 2
13. lim
x→0 x
240 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 log e − log e −1
14.
2 =
log e 2 − log e −2
F aI log e + log e
15. log
H bK =
2 log e + 2 log e
3 1
16. log =
2 2
F 7I F 3e 2x −2 x I
17. log
H 3K 2. lim
x→∞
GH 4e 2x
+ 2e
−e
−2 x JK
18. log a
F 3e + 2e I 2x −2 x
Solution: lim G
H 4e − e JK
1
19.
2 x→∞ 2x −2 x
20. Hint: Divide Nr and Dr by x. Answer: 2 log 2
21. 2 log 2 F 3e + 2 I
G e J
2x
22. ex

GH 4e − 1 JJK
= lim G
2x

Problems on R (ex) x→∞ 2x

Working rule: The rule we may adopt to evaluate 2x
e
lim R e x
x→0
e j is (1) to change R (e x) into the
F3 + 2 I
combination (sum, difference, product and/quotient)
= lim G
G e JJ = 3 + 0 = 3 4x

GH 4 − 1 JK 4 + 0 4
mx
e −1 x→∞
of (i) xn (ii) emx (iii) by using the method of
x 4x
rationalization or any mathematical manipulation and e
(2) to find the limit of the combination of (i), (ii) and mx
N.B.: As x → ∞ , e → ∞ if m > 0.
(iii) respectively.
1 Exercise 4.26
Notes: (a) one should write mx for e–mx whenever
e
it occurs in the given rational functions of ex. Evaluate the following ones:
(b) R (ex) is the notation for rational function of ex.
x −x
Examples worked out: a⋅e +b⋅e
1. lim x −x
x→0
Evaluate the following: e +e
Fe x
− e− x I
1. lim
x→0
GH e2x
+ e −2 x
JK 2. lim
x
ae + be
x −x
−x

x→∞
e +e
ee j e
x
− 1 − e−x − 1 j
ee − 1j − ee j
Solution: lim x −x
x→0 2x −2 x
−1 ae + be
3. lim x −x
x→∞
e +e
−x
e −1 e −1
x

= lim 2 x x
−
x R|F e x −x
I + tan F 1 I U|
x→0 e − 1 e −2 x − 1 4. lim S|GH e −e
JK H x K V|
x
−
x
x→∞
T x
+e
−x
W
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 241

Answers:
bg
∴ lim f x = lim sin x = sin 0 = 0 and
x→0 x→0
a+b
lim g a x f = lim cos x = cos 0 = 1
1.
2
x→0 x→0
2. a
3. b Hence, lim cos asin x f = cos lim asin x f
x→0 x →0
4. 2
= cos 0 = 1
On Limits of function of a function
e
2. lim sin cos x
3
j
b a fg
Evaluation of lim g f x , where a = 0, any
x→a
x →0

Solution: Let f (x) = cos3 x and g (x) = sin x

constant other than zero and/ ∞
Theorem: (Calculus by Burkey) Note: g is continuous at L ⇔ lim g (x) = g (L) which
x→ L
af
Let lim f x = L exists and g be continuous at
x →a
means the functional value of g (x) for x = L and the
limit of g (x) as x tends to L are equal.
L, then
af F I = a1f = 1
3

(i) lim g b f a x fg = g F lim f a x fI = g a L f H K

3
∴ lim f x = lim cos x = lim cos x
3

H K
x→0 x→0 x→0

and lim g a x f = lim sin x = sin 1

x→a x→a

F I
(ii) lim g b f a x fg = g G lim f a x fJ = g a Lf
x →1 x →1

x→a
+
H x→a K
+
b a fg
Hence, lim g f x = lim sin cos x
x→0 x→0
e 3
j = sin 1
F I
(iii) lim g b f a x fg = g G lim f a x fJ = g a L f
x→a
−
H x→a K − 3. lim sin e
x → −1
e j x

Solution: Let f (x) = ex and g (x) = sin x

Working rule: One may adopt the following
b a fg
procedure to evaluate lim g f x , a being zero,
x→a x → −1
af
∴ lim f x = lim e = e
x → −1
x −1
=
1
e
any constant different from zero and/infinity.
af F 1I
Step 1: Put the inner function = f (x) and find lim
x →a
and lim1 g x = lim1 sin x = sin
x→ e x→ e H eK
af
e j = sin FH 1e IK
(inner function) = lim f x = L (say)
x→a
Step 2: Put the outer function = g (x) and find lim
b a fg
Hence, lim g f x = lim sin e
x → −1 x → −1
x

x→ L

af F 1I , a ≠ 0
H xK
(outer function) = lim g x = g (L) which will be the
x→ L 4. lim sin
x→a
required limit of the given composition of two
functions, say g (f (x)) as x → a .
Solution: Let f a x f =
1
and g (x) = sin x
Examples worked out: x
Evaluate the following ones:
a f ∴ lim f a x f = lim
F 1I = 1
1. lim cos sin x
x→0
x→a H xK ax→a

Solution: Let f (x) = sin x and g (x) = cos x

and lim g a x f = lim sin x = sin
F 1I
x → a1 H aK
x → a1
242 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

b a fg F 1 I = sin F 1 I Method of Expansion

Hence, lim g f x = lim sin
x→a x→a H xK H aK Question: Where to use expansion method for
evaluating limits?
FG 1+ x + 2 x
2
IJ Answer: The method of expansion for evaluating
5. lim e
x→2 H K limits of a given function at a given point is applicable
to the function (or, functions) which can be expanded
Solution: Let f (x) = 1 + x + 2x2 and g (x) = ex
af
in series, i.e., if the given function (whose limit is
∴ lim f x = lim (1 + x + 2x2) = 1 + 2 + 2 × 4 = 11 required to be found out) contains some function (or,
x →2 x→2
functions) whose expansion in series is known to us,
g a x f = lim e
x 11 then firstly we make proper expansion for those
and lim =e
x → 11 x →11 functions which are capable of being expanded.

b a fg = lim FGH e IJ = e
1+ x + 2 x
2 Working rule:
K
11
Hence, lim g f x Step 1: We write the expanded form of the function
x→2 x→2
(or, the functions present in the given whose limit is
required) whose expansion is known to us.
Exercise 4. 27 Step 2: After expansion in series, we simplify and
cancel the common factor (or, factors) present in the
Evaluate the following ones: Answers numerator and denominator of the given quotient

F xI function if any one common factor exists. If there is

1. lim sin
x→0 H 2K 0 no common factor in the expanded form of the given
quotient function (or, functions), we leave the given
lim sin aa x + b f
quotient function in the expanded form.
2. sin (ac + b)
x→c Step 3: Lastly, i.e., after expansion and simplification,
2x
we put the limit of the independent variable (since
3. lim e 1
x →0 x → a means xlim
→a
x = a, or lim x = a) to find the
cos x value of the limit of the given function in the quotient
4. lim e e
x →0 form (or, in the product form).
Remember: Following expansions are widely used
5. lim x , c ∉ I
2
[c]2 for evaluating limits by method of expansion.
x→c
3 5 7
6. xlim sin x x x x
1. sin x = x −
N3 N N + − + ... ∞
→π
0
4
5 7
7. xlim
→π
cos x 1 2 4 6
x x x
N N N
4
2. cos x = 1 − + − + ... ∞
8. lim a
x→c
e j, a > 0x
ac
2 4
2
6

x 2 5
lim f b x g , when lim f b x g = l 3. tan x = x + + x + ... ∞
9. |l| 3 15
x→c x→c

a f a f
2 3
x x
4. log 1 + x = x −
N +
N
+ ... ∞ , −1 < x ≤ 1
10. lim cos x 1
x→0
2 3
− x

a f a f
2 3
11. lim e 1 x x
x→0 5. log 1 − x = − x −
N2
−
3 N
− ... ∞ , −1 ≤ x < 1
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 243

x x x
2 3
a1 + xf − 1 5

x a3 + 5x f
x
6. e = 1 +
1
+
2
−
N N
3
+ ... ∞
N Solution: lim
x→0

2 3
F1 + 5 x + 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ x + ...+ x I − 1
GH N1 JK
−x x x x 2
=1− +
N N
−
N + ... ∞
N2
7. e 5
1 2 3
x b3 + 5x g
= lim
a1 + xf = 1 + n x + n anN2− 1f x
x→0
n 2
8. + ... ∞ , (–1 < x

< 1), where n is a negative integer, a fraction and/any x e5 + 10 x + 10 x + ... + x j 5 2 4

x b3 + 5x g
= lim =
real number. x→0 3
x x log a a x log a f + ...∞2

a1 + xf − 1
9. a = e = 1 + x log a +
N2
1
n
2. lim
b1+ xg = 1+ n c x +
x→0 x
n
10. For positive integer,
a1 + xf
1
1

n c2 x 2 + ... + n cn x n
n
−1
Solution: lim
N.B.: 1. We put (–x) in (1 + x)n to obtain the expansion x→0 x
of (1 – x)n.
F1 + 1 ⋅ x + terms having higher powers of xI − 1
2. The method of expansion is also widely used when
= lim
H n K
(a) the given function is the product of reciprocal of x→0 x

power function x n (i.e.

1 1
, ,..., etc.) and a F 1 x + terms having higher powers of x I
x x2
trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential function of G
= lim G n
JJ
x which can be expanded in a series of power of x. x→0
GH x JK
(b) the integrand contains (a + x)n or 1 ± x and a a f n

F 1 + terms having x and its powerI = 1

function of x.
(c) all the expansions are valid even if x is replaced
= lim
x→0 Hn K n
F tan x IJ
by any other variable or a function of x, e.g.
3. lim G
3
2

H xK
x

a f
2 3
(i) log 1 + sin x = sin x − sin x + sin x + ... ∞ , (–1 x→0
2 3 N N
Solution: lim G
F tan x IJ 3

H xK
2
< sin x < 1) x

x→0

a f
2 3
sin x sin x
log 1 − sin x = − sin x − − − ... ∞ ,
N N
(ii)
2 3
Fx + x 2 I 3

G 3 JJ
2
x
2 5
(–1 < sin x < 1) + x + ... ∞
= lim G 15
Examples worked out:
GG
x→0 x JJ
Evaluate the following ones:
H K
a1 + xf 5
−1
1. lim
x→0
3x + 5x
2
F xI
= lim G1 +
3

H 3 JK
2 x2 1
= e3
x→0
244 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG 1 − 1 IJ 3

H sin x x K N e j
4. lim x 2
x→0 3 − 3 + ...∞
= lim 3 = 24
F 1 1I
Solution: lim G sin x − x J = lim G x sin x J
F x − sin x I x→0
x
3

x→0 H K H
x→0 K 3
+ ... ∞
N
R| x − F x − x + x − ...∞I U| Fe x
fIJ a
3

GH N3 N5 JK |
5
6. lim GGH − 1 + log 1 − x
JK
| x→0
sin x
3

|| x FG x − x + ...∞IJ V||
= lim S
F e − 1 + log a1 − xfI
x→0 3

|T H N3 K |W
x
lim G JJK
Solution:
x→0 GH sin x
3

3 R| x − x + ...∞ U|
5
R|F1+ x + x + x + ...I − 1 U| + F − x − x − x ...I
2 3 2 3

| N5 |V S|GH N2 N3 JK V| GH 2 3 JK
= lim S N3
= lim T W
x→0
2 || x − x + ...∞ ||
4
x →0
F x − x + x − ...I 3

T N3 W
3 5

GH N3 N5 JK
R| x F 1 − x + ...∞I U|
2
R| U|
| GH N3 N5 JK |V || x FH 16 − 13IK + ...
3

= lim S
3
|| 1
x→0
2 || x FG1 − x + ...∞IJ ||
2 = lim S
|| x F1 − x + x − ...I V| = − 6
|T H N3 K |W
x→0 3

||
2 4

|T GH N3 N4 JK
3

W
R| x F 1 − x + ...∞I U|
2
F tan x − sin x I
GH N3 N5 JK | lim G
| 7.
H sin x JK
|| FG1 − x + ...∞IJ V||
= lim S
x→0 3

2
=0
x→0

|T H N3 K |W F tan x − sin x I
Solution: lim
x→0
GH sin x JK 3

5. lim G
F 3 sin x − sin 3x IJ F x + x + 2 x + ...∞I − F x − x + x − ...∞I
x→0 H x − sin x K GH 3 15
3

JK GH N3 N5 JK 5
3 5

Solution: lim G
F 3 sin x − sin 3x IJ = lim
F x − x + x + ...∞I
H x − sin x K
x→0 3 5 3
x→0
GH N3 N5 JK
F x + x − ...∞I − FG 3x − b3xg + ...∞IJ
3G x −
3
FG 1 + 1 IJ + x FG 2 − 1 + ...∞IJ
H N3 N5 JK H N3
3 5

K x3
H 3 6 K H 15 N5 K
5

= lim
x→0 F
x− Gx−
I = lim
F x − x + x + ...∞I
H N3 + ...∞JK
3 3
x x→0

GH N3 N5 JK
3 5
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 245

F 1 + 1 I + x F 2 − 1 + ...∞I F1+ x + x + ...∞I + F1− x + x − ...∞I − 2

2 2

H 3 6 K H 15 N5 K GH N2 JK GH N2 JK
3 5
x
= lim
x→0
F x + x − ...∞I
x G1 −
2 4 3 = lim

H N3 N5 JK
3 x→0 2
x

F x + x + ...∞I
2 4

F 1 + 1 I + x F 2 − 1 I − ...∞
2 GH N2 N4 JK
H 3 6 K H 15 N5K
2
= lim 2
x→0
= lim
F1 − x + x − ...∞I 3
x
x→0 2 4

GH N3 N5 JK F 1 + x + x + ...∞I 2 4

GH N2 N4 N6 JK
= lim 2
x→0

F 1 + 1I = 1 F 1 + 0 + 0IJ = 2 = 1
=
H 3 6K 2 =2G
H N2 K N2
Fe − e I
x −x
F a − 1I
8. lim G
H x JK
x
10. lim G
H x JK
x→0 for a > 0.
x→0

Fe − e I x −x
F a − 1I
Solution: lim G
H x JK
x
Solution: lim G
H x JK
x→0
x→0

F1+ x + x + x + ...∞I − F1− x + x − x + ...∞I

F e − 1I
2 3 2 3

GH N2 N5 JK GH N2 N3 JK = lim G
x log a

= lim
x→0 x H x JK x→0

F x + x + ...∞I F1+ x log a + x alog a f + x alog af + ...∞ − 1I 2 3

GH JK
2 5
2 Gx + JK N2 N3
2 3

= lim
H N3 N 6 = lim
x →0 x
x→0 x
FG IJ
F x + x + ...∞I = 2 N blog ag
x
H K
2
2 4 = lim log a + + ... ∞
= lim 2 G1 +
H N3 N5 JK
x→0 2
x→0
= log a

F e + e − 2I F − 1x I
H K
1
−x
11. lim x e x − e
x
9. lim G
H x JK
x→∞
x→0 2

F − 1x I
H K
1
x ex − e
F e + e − 2I x −x
Solution: xlim
→∞
Solution: lim G
H x JK
x→0 2
246 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R|F F 1 I F 1 I F 1 I I F 1 + sin x + ...∞I

H N2 N3 K
2 3 2

| H x K + H x K + H x K + ...∞JJ −
G sin x
= lim x SG1 +
= lim
||GG N1 N2 N3 JJ x→0 2
x→∞ x
HT K FG sin x IJ ⋅ FG 1 + sin x + ...∞IJ = 1 = 1
2

F F 1 I F 1I F 1I IU
= lim
x→0 H x K H N2 N3 K N2 2
GG1 − H x K + H x K − H x K + ...∞JJ ||
2 3

JJ V|
log x
GG N1 N2 N3
14. lim
x →1 x −1
H K |W Solution: Method 1

F 1 F 1I F 1I I log x l a fq
log 1 + x − 1

G H K H K J
2 5 lim
x →1
= lim
x − 1 x →1 a f
x −1
= lim x ⋅ 2 G x + + ... ∞J R|a x − 1f − a x − 1f + a x − 1f − ...∞ U|
x x
x→∞ GG N1 N3 N5 +
JJ |
2

|V
2

H K = lim S 2 3
x →1
|| a x − 1f ||
1 F
= lim x ⋅ 2 ⋅ G1 + G J +
1 F 1 I 1 F 1I I
+ ...∞J = 2
4
T W
x →∞ x H N3 H x K N5 H x K K 2
R| a x − 1f + a x − 1f − ...∞ U|
= lim S1 − V|
2

Fe − 1 − xI
x x →1 |T 2 3 W
12. lim G
x→0
H x JK 2 =1–0+0=1
Method 2
Fe − 1 − xIx
Let x = 1 + h where h → 0 as x → 1
Solution: lim G
x→0
H x JK 2

∴ lim
log x
= lim
log 1 + h
= lim
a f
log 1 + h a f
F1 + x + x + x + ...∞I − 1 − x 2 3
x →1 x − 1 h→ 0 1 + h − 1 h→ 0 h

GH N1 N2 N3 JK h−
h
2
+
h
3
− ... ∞
= lim 2 = lim 2 3
x→0
x h→ 0 h

F 1 + x + ...∞I F 3
I
x
2
H N2 N3 K = 1 1 GH
h 1−
h h
2
+
3
− ... ∞ JK
= lim
x→0
x
2
N2 = 2 = lim
h→ 0 h

Fe I F h h
= lim G 1 − +
2
I
JK
sin x
lim G JK
− sin x − 1 − ... ∞ = 1
13.
x→0
H x
2 h→ 0
H 2 3
Fe I F log x − 1IJ
15. lim G
H x−e K
sin x

Solution: xlim
→0
GH − sin x − 1
x
2 JK x→e

Solution: Let x = e + h, where h → 0 as x → e

 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 247

FG log x − 1IJ = lim log ae + hf − 1 2 log x − 1 FG 2 IJ

∴ lim
x→e H x−e K h h→ 0
7. lim
x→ e x− e H eK
log ae + h f − log e
= lim
h→ 0 h
a3 log e = 1f 8. xlim
→1
log x
x −1
(1)

F e + hI a
log 1 + sin x f
log
H e K = lim log F1 + h I 1
9. lim (1)
H eK
h
x→0
= lim x
h→ 0 h h→0
sin x

|RF h I |UV
1 10. xlim a
→ 0 log 1 + x f (1)
= lim log S 1 +
e e

|TH e K |W
h

h→ 0 1 − cos x F 1I
11. xlim a
→ 0 x log 1 + x f H 2K
= lim log {a1 + h ′f } , where h ′ =
1
1
h′
h e

h ′→ 0
On existence of the limit of a function at a given point
e
1F I
Before one knows how to examine the existence of
= log e = log e = 3 lim a1 + x f = e
1
1
H K
1
e h the limit of a function y = f (x) defined on its domain at
e e x→0 an indicated point, it is required to be known some
more concepts given below.
Exercise 4.28 1. Adjacent intervals: Two intervals are said to be
adjacent ⇔ The left end point of one is the same as
Evaluate the following ones: Answers the right end point of the other.

a f
Hence, the intervals
log 1 + x t (i) x < 0 and x > 0
1. lim (x)
t →0 t (ii) 0 < x < 1 and 1 < x < 2
(iii) 1 < x < 2 and 2 < x < 3

2. lim
ee x
j a
− 1 log 1 + x f
(0)
(iv) 1 < x < 3 and x > 3, etc.
are examples of adjacent intervals because their left
x→0 sin x and right end points are same.
2. Nonadjacent intervals: Two intervals are said to
αx

3. lim
x→0
e −1
sin x
aαf be nonadjacent ⇔ The left end point of one is
different from the right end point of the other.
Hence, the intervals
7 7
x2 − 42 (i) x < 0 and x > 1
4. lim
x → 4 log x − 3 a f (112) (ii) 0 < x < 1 and 2 < x < 3
(iii) 0 < x < 2 and x > 3
2 (iv) x < 3 and x > 4, etc.
x
e −1 are examples of nonadjacent intervals because their
5. xlim
→0 2 (1) left and right end points are different (not same)
sin x
How to examine the existence of the limit of a function
1
6. lim log 1 + 2 sin θ
θ→0 θ
a f (2)
at a given point
To examine the existence of the limit of a function f at
a given point in its domain, one is required to use the
following rule:
248 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
Left hand limit (L.H.L or l.h.l) at a given point =
Right hand limit (R.H.L or r.h.l) at a given point ⇔
the limit of a given function at a given (indicated in
the question) point exists.
How to examine the nonexistence of the limit of a
function at a given point
To examine the nonexistence of the limit of a function
f at a given point in its domain, one is required to use
the following rule:
Left hand limit at a given point ≠ Right hand limit
at a given point ⇔ The limit of a given function at a
given point does not exist.
Notes: 1. In case, a function f is defined by a single
formula y = f (x) in a δ -neighbourhood of a point x =
c, there is no need to find out the left hand and right
hand limits separately for the given function f at a
given point ‘c’ where the given function f may or may
not be defined while evaluating the limit of a function
at a given point ‘c’ but while examining the existence
of the limit in the case of functions denoted by a
single formula y = f (x) defined in a δ -neighbourhood
of a given point ‘c’, it is a must to calculate both the
limits at a given point ‘c’ where the given function
may or may not be defined.
2. In case, a function f is defined by two or more than
two formulas (different forms or expressions in x) in
adjacent intervals, it is necessary to find out both the
left hand limit (for the expression in x which is one
form of the given function f defined in an interval
indicating the left end point) and the right hand limit
(for the expression in x which is an other form of the
given function f defined in an other interval indicating
the right end point) noting that the left and right end
points of adjacent intervals are same (common) where
the left and right hand limits are calculated whether
the question says to evaluate the limit or examine the
existence of the limit of a given function at the
common point of adjacent intervals.
3. In questions, where f (x) contains modulus or
greatest integer functions, one is required to find out
both the left and right hand limits at a given point or
at the point where |f (x)| = 0 or greatest integer function
is zero, i.e. [f (x)] = 0.
4. A piecewise function is always defined in adjacent
intervals with different forms (expressions in x).
5. General models of a piecewise function:
A:
1. f (x) = f1 (x), when x < a
f (x) = f2 (x), when x > a
f (x) = f3 (x), when x = a
2. f (x) = f1 (x), when x < a
f (x) = f2 (x), when x > a
3. f (x) = f1 (x), when x < a
f (x) = f2 (x), when x > a
B:
1. f (x) = f1 (x), when c < x < a, c < x < a or c < x < a
f (x) = f2 (x), when a < x < d, a < x < c or c < x < a
2. f (x) = f1 (x), when c < x < a
f (x) = f2 (x), when a < x < d
f (x) = f3 (x), when x = a
3. f (x) = f1 (x), when x ≠ a
f (x) = f2 (x), when x = a
Remarks: 1. f (x) = f1 (x), when x < a or c < x < a ⇒
The function f1 (x) is to be selected to find out left
hand limit as well as the value of the function f (x) at
x = a.
That is, in the case of piecewise function,
The left hand limit of a function at the right end
point of an interval = lim− (the function f1 defined in
x→a
an interval whose left end point is a) and the value of
the function f at x = a is (f1 (x))x = a.
2. f (x) = f2 (x), when x > a or a < x < d ⇒ The
function f2 (x) is to be selected to find out right hand
limit as well as the value of the function f (x) at x = a.
That is, in the case of piecewise function, the right
hand limit of a function f at the left end point of an
interval = lim+ (the function f2 defined in an interval
x→a
whose right end point is a) and the value of the
function f at x = a is (f2 (x)) x = a.
3. f (x) = f3 (x), when x = a ⇒ The function f3 (x) is to
be selected to calculate the value of the function f (x)
at x = a.
4. f (x) = f2 (x) when x ≠ a ⇒ The same function
f2 (x) is to be selected to find out the left and right
hand limits both since ⇔ x < a and x > a.

That is, (the left hand limit at x = a) = (the right
hand limit at x = a) = lim (the function of x opposite
x→a
to which x ≠ a is written) = lim f 3 x .
x→a
af
5. f (x) = a constant ‘c’ when x = a ⇒ The function
f (x) has the value ‘c’ at x = a, i.e., one is given the
value of a function f at x = a which is ‘c’ and for this
reason, there is no need to calculate the value of the
function.
6. The value of a function f (x) at a point x = a is not
required to be calculated while examining the existence
of the limit of a function at a given point.
7. The value of a function f (x) at a point x = a is
required to be calculated while testing or examining
the continuity of a function f at a given point x = a.
On existence and nonexistence of the value and the
limit of a function at a given point
The following possibility may arise.
1. The value of a function at a given point exists but
the limit of a function at a given point does not exist.
2. The limit of a given function at a given point exists
but the value of a given function at a given point
does not exist.
3. The value and the limit both of a function at a
given point exist but are not equal.
4. The value and the limit both of a function at a
given point exist and are equal.
5. The value and the limit both of a function at a
given point do not exist.
Notes: 1. When the value and the limit both of a
function at a given point exist and are equal, then the
function is said to be continuous at a given point and
in the rest cases, the function is said to be
discontinuous at a given point.
2. A function y = f (x) defined on its domain may not
always have a value for each value given to the
independent variable x. It is quite possible that for a
particular value or a set of values of x, there is no
value of the function y = f (x), (i.e. there is a value of
0 function
y = f (x) like ∞ ,
0
or imaginary). In such a case, it is
said that y = f (x) is undefined, undetermined,
interminate, meaningless or does not exist for those
values of x.
Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 249
Hence, the value of a function f at a point x = a
exists ⇔ the value of a function f at x = a is a finite
number.
How to find left hand limit of a piecewise function f at
a point x = a
Step I: Replace x by (a – h) in the given form of a
function f and also in an interval whose right end
point is a, where h → 0 through positive values (i.e.
h is a small positive number).
Step II: Simplify the function f (a – h), i.e. a function
in h and cancel out the common factor h (if any).
Step III: Substitute h = 0 in the simplified function
and its further simplification provides us the required
left hand limit of the given function f at the right end
point of adjacent intervals.
How to find right hand limit of a piecewise function f
at a point x = a
Step I: Replace x by (a + h) in the given form of a
function f and also in an interval whose left end point
is also a, where h → 0 through positive values (i.e.
h is a small positive number).
Step II: Simplify the function f (a + h), i.e. a function
in h and cancel out the common factor h (if any).
Step III: Substitute h = 0 in the simplified function
and its further simplification provides us the required
right hand limit of the given function f at the left end
point of adjacent intervals.
Notes: 1. In the case of modulus and greatest integer
functions, the above method of procedure is
applicable since indeed, it is these functions which
are piecewise functions.
2. In the case of functions defined by a single formula
in a neighbourhood of the given point, there is a need
to calculate left and right hand limit by making the
substitution x = a ± h in the given single formula
(expression in x) defined in the neighbourhood of a
given point x = a.
Problems based on functions containing no modulus
FG cos x IJ does not exist.
1. Show that lim
x →0 H x K
Solution: Let h → 0 through positive values.
250 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

cos 0 − h b
g = lim cos b−hg 0 −1 LM OP
∴ l.h.l = lim
h→ 0 b0 − hg b− h g h→0
=
0+1
= 0 e h → 0 as h → 0
N Q
Hence, l.h.l = r.h.l = 0
= lim
cos h
h→ 0 −hb g ⇒ lim f x exists.
x →0
af
F 1I
= lim G − J ⋅ lim bcos hg = − ∞ ⋅ 1 = − ∞ af ex
1

af
h→ 0 H hK l→a
3. If f x =
1 + ex
1 , show that lim f x does not
x→0

cos b0 + hg cos b +hg exist.

r.h.l = lim
h→ 0 b0 + hg = lim
b+hg h→0
e j 1
0− h
e
Solution: l.h.l = lim
= lim
cos h h →0
1+ e
e j 1
0−h
h→ 0 h

FG 1 IJ ⋅ lim bcos hg = ∞ ⋅ 1 = ∞ − 1h

H hK
= lim e
= lim − h1
=0
l →0 l→0 h→ 0 1+ e
Hence, neither l.h.l nor r.h.l exists
F cos x IJ does not exist.
⇒ lim G
e j 1
0+ h

H xK
e
Let h > 0 r.h.l = lim
x→0 h →0
1+ e
e j 1
0+h

af
2. If f x =
x ⋅ ex
1 , show that lim f x exists.
x→0
af = lim
eh
1

1+ e x 1
h→ 0 1 + eh

b0 − hg ⋅ e
e 1
0− h j eh ⋅ e
1 − h1
Solution: l.h.l = lim ,h = lim (multiplying Nr and
h →0
1+ e
e j 1
0−h
h→ 0 1⋅ e
− 1h
+e
− h1
⋅ eh
1

− 1h

= lim
b − hg ⋅ e d − i 1
h

=
0
=0
Dr by e )

1 + ed i
1
h→ 0 − 1
h 1+ 0 = lim =1
h→0 − h1
e +1

b0 + hg ⋅ e
e 1
j Hence, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l
af
0+h

r.h.l = lim ,h > 0 ⇒ lim f x does not exist.

h →0
1+ e
e j 1
0+ h x →0

b+hg ⋅ e d i 1
h af
5. If f x =
ex − 1
1 , show that lim f x does not af
= lim ex + 1 x→0
h→ 0
1 + ed i
1
h
exist.
h − 1h − h1
= lim (multiplying Nr and Dr by e ) e −1 0−1
h→ 0 e
− h1
+1 Solution: l.h.l = lim = = ,h>0
h →0
e
− h1
+1 0+1
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 251

LM − h1 OP That is,
= − 1 3 lim e
N h→0
=0
Q y=
RS− x , when x < 0
1 T x , when x ≥ 0
eh − 1 Now let h > 0;
r.h.l = lim 1 ,h>0
h →0 1 + eh ∴ x = 0 – h ⇒ y = – (0 – h) = + h, and x = 0 + h ⇒
y = (0 + h) = h,
− 1h
1− e Further, x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0– and x
= lim (multiplying Nr and Dr by
h→0 1+ e
− 1h = 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+

− 1h ∴ lim x = lim x = lim h = 0

). x → 0+ x → 0+ h→ 0
e
1−0 lim− x = lim− − x = lim h = 0
= =1 x→0 x→0 h→ 0
1+0
∴ l.h.l ≠ r .h.l Hence, lim+ x = lim− x
x→0 x →0

⇒ lim f x does not exist.

x →0
af ⇒ lim x does exist.
x→0

af 1

6. If f x = e , x ≠ 0 then show that lim f x

x

x→0
af x
2
2. Show that lim does not exist.
does not exist. x→0 x
Solution: Let h > 0;
2
e j 1
0− h c− h 1
Solution: y =
x
=
x
l.h.l = lim e = lim e h
=0 x x
h →0 h→0

F3 e − h1 I ⇒y=
x
= 1 , when x > 0 and
H → 0 as h → 0
K x
−x
e j 1
0+h ch 1 y= = −1 , when x < 0
r.h.l = lim e = lim e h
=∞ x

RS−1, when x < 0

h→ 0 h→ 0

F3 e → ∞ when h → 0I
That is, y =
T 1, when x > 0
H K
1
h

Now let h > 0;

∴ l.h.l ≠ r .h.l
∴ x = 0 – h ⇒ y = – 1, and x = 0 + h ⇒ y = 1
⇒ lim f x does not exist.
x →0
af Further, x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0– and x =
0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+
Problems based on modulus function
1. Examine the existence of lim x .
x →0
∴ lim+
x→0
x
x
= lim+ 1 = lim 1 = 1
x→0 h→0
af
Solution: y = | x |
⇒ y = x , when x > 0 and lim−
x→0
x
x x→0 h →0
a f
= lim− −1 = lim −1 = − 1 a f
y = –x, when x < 0
252 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Hence, lim+
x→0
x
x
≠ lim−
x→0
x
x 4. Examine the existence of lim
ex 2
−4 j
x →2 x−2
x
⇒ lim does not exist.
x→0 x
3
Solution: y=
ex 2
−4 j
x
3. Examine whether lim exists. x−2

a x − 2f a x + 2f , when x – 2 > 0
x →0 x

a− x f ⇒ y=
a x − 2f
3
x x
3 3
Solution: y = = = , when x < 0
x x x = (x + 2), when x > 2
3
a x − 2f a x + 2f , when x – 2 < 0
−a x − 2 f
x
=− = –x2, when x < 0 and y =
x
3 = – (x – 2), when x < 2
x
R|S b x + 2g , when x > 2
3 3
x x
Also, y = = = , when x > 0
x x
= x2, when x > 0
x That is, y =
|T−b x + 2g , when x < 2
Now, x = 2 + h, h > 0
3
x ⇒ y = (2 + h + 2),
Hence y = can be rewritten as = (4 + h),
x
and x = 2 – h, h > 0
|RS− x , when x < 0
2 ⇒ y = – (2 – h + 2),
y=
|T x , when x > 0
2 = – (4 – h),
Further, x = 2 + h ⇒ h → 0, when x → 2+ and x
Now let h > 0; = 2 – h ⇒ h → 0, when x → 2–
∴ x = 0 – h ⇒ y = – (0 – h)2, = –h2, and x = 0 + h
⇒ y = (0 + h)2, = h2, when h > 0
∴ lim+
ex − 4j =
2

a f
lim+ x + 2 = lim 4 + h = 4 a f
Further x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0– and x = x−2 h→ 0
x→2 x→2
0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+

x
3
2 2
ex − 4j = lim − a x + 2f = lim − a4 − hf = − 4
2

∴ lim+ = lim+ x = lim h = 0 and lim −

x−2 − h→0
x h→ 0 x →2 x →2
x→0 x→0

lim−
x
3
= lim− − x e j = lim e−h j = 0
2 2
Hence, lim+
e x − 4j ≠
2
lim
e x − 4j
2

x→0 x x→0 h→0 x→2 x−2 x → 2− x −2

e x − 4j does not exist.

3 3 2
x x
Hence, lim+ = lim−
x→0 x x→0 x ⇒ lim
x→2 x−2
3
x
⇒ lim does exist. sin x
x→0 x 5. Show that lim does not exist.
x→0 x
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 253

sin x FG sin x IJ when sin x > 0 and

Solution: y =
x
⇒y= 2
H xK
sin x F sin x IJ when sin x < 0
2 G
⇒y=
x
, when sin x > 0 and y=−
H xK
y=−
sin x
, when sin x < 0 R| 2 FG sin x IJ , when sin x ≥ 0 , x ≠ 0
x
That is, y = S
| H xK
R| sin x , when sin x ≥ 0 , x ≠ 0 ||− 2 FGH sinx x IJK , when sin x < 0
That is, y = S sinx T
|T− x x , when sin x < 0 Now, x = 0 + h, h > 0 and sin h > 0
FG sin h IJ , and x = 0 – h, h > 0 and sin
Now x = 0 + h, h > 0 and sin h > 0
a
sin 0 + h sin h f
⇒y=+ 2
H hK
⇒ y=
a0+h
=
hf , h>0
FG sin h IJ
and x = 0 – h, h > 0 and sin h > 0
− sin 0 − ha f
⇒y=− 2
H hK
sin h
⇒ y=
a0−h
=−
h f Further, x = 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+ and
x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0–
Again x = 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+ and
FG sin x IJ = lim 2 FG sin h IJ = 2
x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0– Hence, lim+ 2 H xK H hK
h→ 0
F sin x IJ = lim FG sin h IJ = 1
x→0

Hence, lim G
H xK H hK F sin x IJ = lim − 2 FG sin h IJ = − 2
2G
H xK H hK
+ h→ 0
x→0
and lim−
h→0
F sin x IJ = lim FG − sin h IJ = − 1
x→0

lim G −
H xK H hK F sin x IJ ≠ lim − 2 FG sin x IJ
2G
H xK H xK
− h →0
x→0 ∴ lim+ −

F sin x IJ ≠ lim FG sin x IJ = − 1

x→0 x→0

∴ lim G
x→0 H xK
+ H xK x→0
−
⇒ lim
1 − cos 2 x
does not exist.

⇒ lim G
F sin x I does not exist. x→0 x

x→0 H x JK 7. Examine the existence of lim e

x→0
− x

1 − cos 2 x − x
6. Does lim exist? Solution: y = e
x→0 x −x
⇒ y=e , when x > 0 and y = ex, when x < 0
1 − cos 2 x
Solution: y = R|e −x
x
That is, y = S| e , when x ≥ 0

2 sin x
2
sin x
T x
, when x < 0
= = 2 Now, x = 0 + h, h > 0
x x
254 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

−h Solution: Let h > 0;

⇒ y=e , and x = 0 – h, h > 0
∴ x = 2 + h ⇒ f (x)
⇒ y=e
h = f (2 + h) = 5, and x = 0 – h ⇒ f (x)
= f (2 – h) = (2 – h)2 + 1
Further, x = 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0+ and = 4 – 4h + h2 + 1
x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0– = h2 – 4h + 5, when –2 < h < 0
−x −h
Further x = 2 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 2 − and x =
0
∴ lim+ e = lim e =e =1
x→0 h→ 0
2 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 2 +
lim e = lim e = e = 1
x h 0
x → 0− h →0 ∴ lim+ 5 = lim 5 = 5
x→2 h →0
−x x
Hence, lim+ e = lim− e = 1
x→0 x→0
e 2
j
lim− x + 1 = lim h − 4h + 5 = 5
x→2 h→0
e 2
j
− x
⇒ lim e does exist and = 1
x→0
Hence, lim+ 5 = lim− x + 1
x→2 x→2
e 2
j
Problems based on piecewise function
1. Examine the existence of the limit of the function
x→2
af
⇒ lim f x does exist.
f (x) as x → 0 if it exists where
3. Examine the existence of the limit of f (x) at x = a,
f (x) = x, when x < 0
2 2
= 1, when x = 0 x −a
where f (x) = , when 0 < x < a
= x2, when x > 0 x−a
Solution: Let h > 0;
= 2a, when x > a
∴ x = 0 + h ⇒ f (x) Solution: Let h > 0;
= f (0 + h) = (0 + h)2 = h2 = h2, and x = 0 – h ⇒ f (x) ∴ x=a–h
= f (0 – h) = (0 – h) = –h,
Further, x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 – and
b g b g baba−−hghg −− aa
2 2

x = 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 + ⇒ f x = f a−h =
2 2
∴ lim+ x = lim h = 0 2 2 2
x →0 h→ 0 a − 2ah + h − a
=
lim− x = lim −h = 0
x→0 h →0
a f −h
2
2 −2ah + h
Hence, lim+ x = lim− x = 0 = and x = a + h
x→0 x→0 −h
af
⇒ lim f x does exist.
x →0
⇒ f (x) = f (a + h) = 2a
Further, x = a – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → a − and
N.B.: The value of the function f (x) = 1 at x = 0 is not
required to be considered to show the existence of x = a + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → a +
the limit of a given function at the point x = 0. Fx 2
− a2 I = 2a
2. Examine the existence of the limit of the function ∴ lim+
x→a
GH x 2
+ a2
JK
f (x) as x → 2 if it exists where

R|x + 1 , when 0 < x < 2 F x − a I = lim F −2ah + h I = lim h F −2a + h I

GH −h JK
2 2 2

f bxg = S GH x − a JK GH −h JK
2

|T5 , when x ≥ 0
lim−
x→a h→0 h→ 0
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 255

a f
= lim − −2a + h = 2a
h→ 0 R|x , when x < 1
2

F x − a I = 2a f a x f = S x , when x > 1
2

= lim G
2 2
|| 2 , when x = 1
H x − a JK
x→a − T
⇒ lim f a x f exists.
Let h > 0;
x→a ∴ x=1–h
Problems based on redefined function ⇒ f (x) = f (1 – h) = (1 – h)2
= (1 – 2h + h2)
1. Examine the existence of the limit of f (x) at x = 0, if and x = 1 + h
it exists where f (x) = 1, when x ≠ 0 ⇒ f (x) = f (1 + h) = (1 + h)2, when 1 + h > 1
= 2, when x = 0 = (1 + 2h + h2)
Solution: The given function
Further x = 1 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 − and x =
a f RST12 ,, when
f x =
x≠0
when x = 0 can be rewritten as under:
1 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 +

R|1, when x < 0

2
Now lim+ x = lim 1 + 2 h + h
h→ 0
e 2
j=1
f a x f = S1 , when x > 0
x →1

|T2 , when x = 0 2
and lim− − x = lim 1 − 2 h + h
h→ 0
e 2
j=1
x →1
Let h > 0;
2 2
∴ x=0–h ∴ lim+ x = lim− x = 1
⇒ f (x) = f (0 – h) = 1 and x = 0 + h x →1 x →1

⇒ f (x) = f (0 + h) = 1 af
⇒ lim f x does exist.
x →1
−
Further, x = 0 – h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 and x

= 0 + h ⇒ h → 0 when x → 0 + Exercise 4.29.1

x→0
bg bg
∴ lim− f x = lim f h = 1
h→0
Problems on functions defined by a single formula
with no modulus function
and lim f b x g = lim f bhg = 1 Do the limits of the following functions exist?
x → 0+ h →0

⇒ lim f a x f does exist.

F 1I
x →0
1. lim sin
x→0 H xK [Ans: Does not exist.]

Note: x ≠ a ⇔ x > a or x < a, where a ∈ R .

F 1I
2. Examine the existence of the limit of f (x) at x = 1, 2. lim cos
x→0 H xK [Ans: Does not exist.]
where f (x) = x2, when x ≠ 1
1
= 2, when x = 1 3. lim e x [Ans: Does not exist.]
x→0
Solution: The given function

a f R|S|x2 ,,when
−1 F 1I
H xK
2
when x ≠ 1 4. lim tan [Ans: Does not exist.]
f x =
T x =1
can be rewritten as under: x→0
256 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3 3 R| x 2
− 4x + 3
f axf = S
x
5. lim [Ans: Does exist.] , when x ≠ 1
|T
x→0 1. 2 [Ans. Exists]
x x −1
2 , when x = 1
Exercise 4.29.2
Rx
a f |S x , x ≠ 0 [Ans. Does not exists]
2. f x =
Problems on functions defined by a single formula
with the modulus function |T 0 , x = 0
Examine the existence of the limit of each given
f a x f = x ⋅ sin
F 1 I , when x ≠ 0 [Ans. Exists]
function. 3.
H xK
x−1
1. lim
x →1 a x−1 f [Ans: Does not exist.] = 0, when x = 0

2. lim
x
[Ans: Does not exist.]
af
4. f x =
sin x
x
,x≠0 [Ans. Exists]
x→0 1 − cos x = 0, x = 0

1 + cos 2 x On existence of limit of greatest integer function

3. lim [Ans: Does exist.] Firstly one should note the following key points:
x→0 2 cos x
1. [x] denotes the first integer less than or equal to x
1 − cos 2 x (given real number) lying on the number line to the
4. lim [Ans: Does not exist.]
x→0 sin x left side of x (given real number) ⇔ The integer on
the number line which is nearest to x on the left side
of the given real number. Hence, to find [x] numerically
Exercise 4.29.3
at any given real number for x, we always consider
the first integer (or, nearest integer) which is on the
Problems on piecewise functions left side of the given real number lying on the number
Examine the existence of the limit of each function line. In the light of this explanation, we are able to
defined as given below: provide the following useful rules:
1. f (x) = x2 + x + 2, when x < 1 (a1) [x] = x provided x = an integer +ve, –ve or zero
f (x) = x4 + 3, when x > 1 [Ans: Exists at x = 1] i.e., 0, ± 1, ± 2, …, e.g.:
2. f (x) = x3, when x < –1 (i) [0] = 0
f (x) = x5, when x > –1 (ii) [5] = 5
f (x) = –1, when x = –1 [Ans: Exists at x = –1] (iii) [–3] = –3
3. f (x) = x2 – 2x + 3, when x < 1 (a2) [x] = an integer immediately to the left of x
= x + 1, when x > 1 [Ans: Exists at x = 1] provided x is positive or negative fraction (i.e., x is

a f RST5x −− x3 ,, when
4. f x =
when x < 4
x≥4
[Ans. Exists at x = 4]
not an integer), e.g.:
(i) [5/2] = 2
(ii) [–5/2] = –3
(iii) [–0.1] = –1
Exercise 4.29.4 (iv) [(–0.75)] = –1
(v) [–6.35] = –7
Problems on redefined functions
Examine the existence of the limit of each function
defined by y = f (x) at the indicated point x = a , a ∈R
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 257

h is sufficiently small positive real number > 0 then

we have
–5/2 –2 –3/2 –1 –1/2 0 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2
n ± h / n ± m h = integral part of the improper
fraction
(a3) [x] = 0 for all positive real values of x just less
= the whole number before the decimal
than unity (0 < x < 1), e.g.:
e.g.:
1 LM OP
1 (i) [1.5 – h] = 1
(i) x =
2
⇒ x =
NQ
2
=0
(ii) [1.5 + h] = 1

L3O
(iii) [2.4 + h] = 2
⇒ x =M P=0
3 (iv) [2.4 – h] = 2
(ii) x =
12 N12 Q (v) [2.000001 – h] = 2

L2 O
(iii) x = ⇒ x = M P = 0
2
(a8) If n = a negative improper fraction and m be any

3 N 3Q real number, then for 0 < h < 1 and 0 < m h < 1, where
h is sufficiently small positive number > 0, then we
(a4) [x] = 1 for all positive real values of x just greater have [n – h]/[n – m h] = integral part of the proper
than unity (1 < x < 2), e.g.: fraction –1

LM OP
= the whole number before the decimal –1
3 3
NQ
(i) x = ⇒ x = =1 e.g.:
2 2 (i) [–2.3 – h] = –2 – 1 = –3
(ii) [–5.0006 – h] = –5 – 1 = –6
(ii) x = 1 ⋅ 1 ⇒ x = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1
(iii) [–7.00001 – 12 h] = –7 – 1 = –8
(a5) [x] = –1 for all negative values of x whose absolute (iv) [–1.1234 – 2.3 h] = –1 – 1 = –2
value is first greater than unity (–1 < x < 0), e.g.: Some important facts about the function y = [x].
(i) [–0.1] = –1 (i) x = x ⇔ x ∈I
(ii) [–0.0001] = –1
(iii) [–0.0009] = –1 (ii) x < x ⇔ x ∉I
(iv) [–0.23.49] = –1
(v) [–0.9999] = –1
(iii) a f
x = k k ∈I ⇔ k ≤ x < k + 1 , i.e. x = k ⇔

(a6) If n be any integer and m be any real number, then a f a f

for 0 < h < 1 (i.e. [h] does not exceed zero) and
0 < m h < 1 (i.e. [m h] does not exceed zero) where h is
sufficiently small positive number greater than zero,
we have
(i) [n + h] = n
(ii) [n + m h] = n as [8 + 12 h] = 8
(iii) [n – 1 + h] = n – 1
(iv) [n – 1 + m h] = n – 1
(v) [0 + h] = 0
(vi) [n – h] = n – 1
(vii) [n – m h] = n – 1 as [8 – 12 h] = 7
(viii) [n – 1 – h] = n – 1 – 1 = n – 2
(ix) [0 – h] = 0 – 1= –1
(a7) If n = an improper positive fraction and m be any
real number, then for 0 < h < 1, and 0 < m h < 1, where
k < x < k + 1, k ∈ N and x = − k + I ⇔ − k + 1 ≤
x < –k, k ∈ N
2. To calculate arithmetically n ± h / n ± m h
where n and m are any two arbitrary numbers and h
lies between 0 and 1 (i.e.; 0 < h < 1), we may adopt the
following working rule, in the problems on limits.
(i) Put h = any one of the numbers 0.1, 0.01, 0.001,
0.0001, 0.00001, …, etc. whose number of zeros =
number of digits after decimal in the given value of n
provided we calculate [x] = n ± h where x = n ± h .
(ii) Put h = any one of the numbers 0.1, 0.01, 0.0001,
0.001, 0.00001, …, etc. whose number of zeros = the
sum of number of digits in the integral part and decimal
part of m provided we calculate [x] = n ± mh where
x = n ± mh .
258 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
(iii) Calculate ( n ± mh ) arithmetically when n and m
are known particular numbers.
(iv) Use the fact: the integer on the number line which
a fa f
is to the left side of n ± m h / n ± h will represent
n ± mh / n ± h .
Examples
(i) [1 + h] = [1 + 0.1] = [1.1] = 1
(ii) [1 – h] = [1 – 0.1] = [0.9] = 0
(iii) [1.5 + h] = [1.5 + 0.01] = [1.51] = 1
(iv) [1.5 – h] = [1.5 – 0.01] = [1.49] = 1
(v) [2.000001 – h] = [2.000001 – 0.0000001] = [2.000009]
=2
(vi) [–2.201 – h] = [–2.201 – 0.0001] = [–2.2009] = –3
(vii) [–2 – h] = [–2 – 0.1] = [–2.1] = –3
(viii) [8 – 12 h] = [8 – 12 × 0.001] = [8 – 0.012] = [7.988]
=7
(ix) [8 + 12 h] = [8 + 12 × 0.001] = [8 + 0.012] = [8.012]
=8
(x) [0 – h] = [0 – 0.1] = [–0.1] = –1
(xi) [0 + h] = [0 + 0.1] = [0.1] = 0
(xii) [1 + h/2] = [1 + 0.5 h] = [1 + 0.5 × 0.01] = [1 + 0.005]
= [1.005] = 1
(xiii) [2.3 – 233.6 h] = [2.3 – 233.6 × 0.00001] = [2.3 –
0.002336] = [2.2977] = 2
Precaution
1. While calculating [ n ± h ] arithmetically, ‘h’ should
be chosen so small that it does not increase or
decrease [n] by unity, n is not integer.
e.g.: If we choose h = 0.1 to calculate [2.000001 – h],
we get [2.000001 – 0.1] = [1.900001] = 1 as a greatest
integer contained in [2.000001 – h] = which is false
because [2.000001 – h] = 2.
2. While calculating [ n ± mh ], h should be chosen
so small that ‘m h’ must be slightly greater than zero.
e.g.: If we choose h = 0.1 to calculate [2.3 – 299 h], we
get [2.3 – 299 h] = [2.3 – 299 × 0.1] = [2.3 – 29.1] = [–
26.8] = –27 which is false because [2.3 – 299 h] = 2.
Similarly, [2.3 + 299 h] = [2.3 + 299 × 0.1] = [2.3 +
29.1] = [31.4] = 31 which is false because [2.3 + 299 h]
= 2.
3. The above working rule is valid to find the limit of
n ± m h / n ± h as h → 0 .
Limit method to examine the existence of greatest
integer function
To evaluate (or, to find or to examine the existence of
af
lim f x = lim (greatest integer/bracket
x→n x→n
function), where n = any real number, we adopt the
following working rules.
Working rule 1
1. Find the left hand limit using the following scheme:
(a) put x = n – 1 + h (where 0 < h < 1) in f (x)
(b) find the greatest integer in f (n – 1 + h) where
0 < h < 1 and remove the symbol of square bracket
from [f (n – 1 + h)]
(c) use lim (greatest integer) = greatest integer
h→0
2. Find the right hand limit using the following
scheme:
(a) put x = n + h' (where 0 < h' < 1) in f (x)
(b) find the greatest integer in f ( n + h') where
0 < h' < 1 and the symbol of square bracket be removed
from [f (n + h')]
(c) use lim (greatest integer) = greatest integer
h→0
Working rule 2
1. Find the left hand limit using the following scheme:
(a) Put x = n – h in f (x) where 0 < h < 1
(b) Find the greatest integer in f (n – h) and
remove the symbol of square bracket from
[f (n – h)]
(c) Use lim (greatest integer) = greatest integer.
h→0
2. Find the right hand limit using the following
scheme:
(a) Put x = n + h in f (x) where 0 < h < 1
(b) Find the greatest integer in f (n + h) and the
symbol of square bracket be removed from
[f (n + h)]
(c) Use lim (greatest integer) = greatest integer.
h→0
Note:
1. If we are asked to examine the existence of
af
lim f x , we have to examine l.h.l and r.h.l. If they
h→ n
af
are equal, it is declared that lim f x exists and of
h→ n
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 259

they are not equal, it is declared that lim f x

h→ n
af 3 [n + h'] = n for 0 < h < 1 and n = an integer
does not exist.
∴ l . h. l ≠ r . h .l ⇒ lim x does not exist
2. We recall that x →1
(i) [n – 1 + h] = n – 1, provided 0 < h < 1 and n is Method 2
an integer.
(ii) [n + h] = n, provided 0 < h < 1 and n is an l.h.l = lim x
x → 1−

a f
integer
(iii) [n – h] = (n – 1), provided 0 < h < 1 and n is = lim 1 − h = lim 1 − 1 = lim 0 = 0
h→ 0 h→0 h→ 0
an integer
Examples 3 [n – h] = n – 1 provided 0 < h < 1 and n = an
(i) [2 – 1 + h] = 2 – 1 = 1 integer
(ii) [2 + h] = 2
(iii) [2 – h] = 2 – 1 = 1 r.h.l = lim+ x = lim 1 + h = lim 1 = 1
x →1 h →0 h→0
Note: Existence of a function in limit ⇔ Existence of
3 [n + h] = n provided 0 < h < 1 and n = an
a function in the sense of limiting value ⇔ Existence
integer
of limit of a function for the limit of an independent
variable. ∴ l . h. l ≠ r . h .l ⇒ lim x does not exist
x →1
3. Method (1) is applicable only when we have
greatest integer function [f (x)] only whose limit is 2. lim x
required whereas method (2) is applicable in every x→2

case and particularly when the given function is the Solution: Method 1
combination (sum, difference, product and /quotient)
of f1 (x) and [f2 (x)]. x→2 h→ 0 h→ 0
a f
l.h.l = lim− x = lim 2 − 1 + h = lim 2 − 1 = 1
Type 1: To evaluate (or, to find or, to examine the
existence of) 3 [n – 1 + h] = n – 1 for any integer n

h→ n
af
lim f x , where ‘n’ = an integer
r.h.l = lim+ x = lim 2 + h ′ = lim 2 = 2
x→2 h ′→ 0 h ′→ 0
Examples worked out:
Examine the existence of the following limits 3 [n + h'] = n for any integer n
1. lim x
x →1
∴ l . h. l ≠ r .h . l ⇒ lim x does not exist.
Solution: Method 1 x→2
Method 2
l.h.l = lim x
x →1 l.h.l = lim− x = hlim
→0
2 − h = lim 1 = 1
h →0
x→2
= lim 1 − 1 + h = lim h = lim 1 − 1 = lim 0 = 0
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0 [n – h] = n – 1 for any integer n

3 [n – 1 + h] = n – 1 for 0 < h < 1 and n = an r.h.l = lim+ x = hlim

→0
2 + h = lim 2 = 2
h→ 0
integer x→2

3 [n + h] = n for any integer ‘n’

r.h.l = lim− x = lim 1 + h ′ = lim 1 = 1
x →1 h ′→ 0 h ′→ 0
bg ∴ l . h. l ≠ r .h . l ⇒ lim x does not exist.
x→2
260 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. lim x for any integer ‘n’.

x→n h→0
a f
= lim 1 − 1 + h = lim −h = lim −1 = − 1 3 − h = − 1
h→ 0 h→ 0
a f b g
a f
l.h.l = lim− x = lim n − 1 + h = lim n − 1 = n − 1
h→0 h→0
Thus, we observe, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l which means
x→n lim 1 − x doe not exist.
x →1
3 [n – 1 + h] = n – 1 for 0 < n < 1 and n being
an integer 5. lim x − 1
x →1

r.h.l = lim x = lim n + h ′ = lim n = n Solution: l.h.l = lim x − 1

x→ n= h ′→ 0 h ′→ 0 x → 1−

3 [n + h'] = n for 0 < h' < 1 and n being an h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0

a f
= lim 1 − h − 1 = lim − h = lim −1 = − 1 3 − h = − 1 b g
integer
r.h.l = lim x − 1
x → 1+
Thus, we observe that lim x ≠ lim x ⇔

l.h.l ≠ r.h.l.
x→ n− x →n+
= lim 1 + h − 1 = lim h = lim 0 = 0 3 h = 0
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0
c h
∴ lim x does not exist for any integer ‘n’. x − 1 does not
x→n ∴ l.h.l ≠ r.h.l which means xlim
→1
Method 2 exist.
l.h.l = lim x 3
x → n− 6. lim x
a f
x → 2−
= lim n − h = lim n − 1 = n − 1
h→ 0 h→0 3
Solution: lim x
x → 2−
3 [n – h] = n – 1 for 0 < h < 1 and n being an
integer
= lim 2 − h
h→0
a f 3
= lim 8 − 12h + 6h − h
h→ 0
2 3

r.h.l = xlim x = lim n + h = lim n = n

→ n+ h→ 0 h→ 0 = lim 8 − 12 h
h→ 0
[n + h] = n for 0 < h < 1 and n being an
integer a
= lim 7 3 7 < 8 − 12h < 8
h→0
f
Thus, we observe, lim x ≠ lim x ⇔ l.h.l =7
x→ n− x →n+ Type 2: To evaluate (or, to find or to examine the
≠ r.h.l. existence of) xlim
→n
af
f x when n ≠ an integer (i.e.,
∴ lim x does not exist. n = a fraction +ve or –ve), we adopt the working rules
x→n
mentioned earlier in type 1.
4. lim 1 − x Examples worked out:
x →1
Evaluate if the following limit exists.
Solution: l.h.l = lim 1 − x
x → 1− 1. lim x

h→ 0
a f
lim 1 − 1 − h = lim h = lim 0 = 0 3 h = 0
h→ 0 h→ 0
b g
x → 1⋅5

Solution: l.h.l = lim x

x → 1⋅5−
r.h.l = lim 1 − x
x → 1+ = lim 1 ⋅ 5 − h = lim 1 = 1 3 1 < 1 ⋅ 5 − h < 2
h→0 h→0
a f
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 261

r.h.l = lim x LM F 1 + hI + F 1 + hI OP 2

MN H 2 K H 2 K PQ
x → 1⋅5+
= lim 1 +
= lim 1⋅ 5 + h = lim 1 = 1 3 1 < 1 ⋅ 5 + h < 2 a f h→ 0

L 1 O
h→ 0 h→0

= lim M1 + + h + + ⋅ 2 ⋅ h + h P
1 1
Thus, we observe, l.h.l = r.h.l ⇒ limit exists and 2

lim x = 1.
h→ 0 N 2 4 2 Q
x → 1⋅5
L3 1 O L7 O
= lim M + + 2h + h P = lim M + 2hP = lim 1
2
2. lim
x → 2⋅4
x h→ 0 N2 4 Q N4 Q h→ 0 h→ 0

F3 1 < 7 + 2h < 2I
H 4 K
Solution: l.h.l = lim x
x → 2⋅4 −

= lim 2 ⋅ 4 − h = lim 2 = 2 3 2 < 2 ⋅ 4 − h < 3

h→ 0 h→0
a f 2
6. lim x
x→ 2
r.h.l = lim x
x → 2⋅4 + Solution: Method 1
= lim 2 ⋅ 4 + h = lim 2 = 2 3 2 < 2 ⋅ 4 + h < 3
h→ 0 h→ 0
a f Let f (x) = x2 = z
3 x → 2 ⇒ x2 → 2 ⇒ z → 2
∴ l.h.l = r.h.l ⇒ limit exists and lim x = 2.
x → 2⋅4
∴ lim z = lim x2
Z →2 x→ 2
3. lim x , where n < x0 < n + 1 for some integer n.
x → x0 Now, let h > 0,
Solution: l.h.l = lim x = lim x0 − h = n l.h.l = lim− z
x → x0 − 0 h→ 0 Z →2

r.h.l = lim x = lim x0 + h = n = lim 2 − h = 1 ( 3 1 < 2 – h < 2 for sufficiently

x → x0 + 0 h→ 0 h→ 0

( 3 for sufficiently small h n < x0 – h < n + 1 and n small h > 0)

< x0 + h < n + 1)
r.h.l. = lim+ z
∴ lim x exists and = n. Z →2
x → x0
= lim 2 + h = 2 (3 2 < 2 + h < 3 for sufficiently
4. lim1 2 x h→0
x→ 2 −
small h > 0)
Solution: lim 2 x Thus, we observe, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l ⇒ lim z
x → 21 −
Z→2

LM F 1 − hI OP = lim
N H 2 KQ
= lim 2 1 − 2h = lim 0 = 0 = lim x 2 does not exist.
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0 Z→ 2

a3 0 < 1 − 2h < 1f Method 2

2
l.h.l = lim − x
2 x→ 2
lim 1 + x + x
LMe j OQP = lim
5.
x → 21 + 2

N
2
= lim 2 −h 2 + h − 2 2h
2 h→ 0 h →0
Solution: lim 1 + x + x
x → 21 +
= lim 2 − 2 2 h
h→ 0
262 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

( 3 2 + h 2 − 2 2 h ≡ 2 − 2 2 h for sufficiently = lim 0

h→ 0
small h > 0) =0
af
= lim 1 ( 3 for sufficiently small h > 0,
h→ 0
LMsin F π + hI OP = 0, as 0 < h ⇒ 0 < π + h
2 − 2 2h = 1 ) N H 2 KQ 2

=1 F π + hI ⇒ 0 < sin F π + hI
2
⇒ sin 0 < sin
H2 K H2 K
r.h.l = lim + x
x→ 2
LMe F π + hI < 1
j OQP = lim H2 K
2 ⇒ 0 < sin
N
2
= lim 2 +h 2 + h + 2 2h
h→0 h→ 0

= lim 2 + 2 2h ∴ limπ sin x = 0

h→ 0 x→ 2
2
( 3 2 + h + 2 2 h ≡ 2 + 2 2h neglecting
8. lim sin x
x → π4 −
higher powers of h for h being sufficiently small > 0)
= lim 2 ( 3 for small h > 0, 2 + 2 2 h = 2 ) Solution: lim sin x
h→ 0 x → π4 −

=2
LM F π − hI OP
∴ l.h.l ≠ r.h.l which means lim
x→ 2
x
2
does not
= lim sin
h→ 0 N H 4 KQ
= lim 0
exist. h→ 0

7. limπ sin x =0
x→ 2

LM F π − hI OP LM F π − hI OP = 0 , as 0 < π − h < π
Solution: l.h.l = limπ sin x = lim sin
x→ 2 − h→ 0 N H 2 KQ N H 4 KQ
3 sin
4 4

F π − hI < sin π
= lim 0
h→ 0
⇒ sin 0 < sin
H4 K 4
=0
F π − hI < 1 < 1
LM F π − hI OP = 0 as h → 0 and h > 0 ⇒ –h < 0 ⇒ 0 < sin
H4 K 2
3 sin
N H 2 KQ
Note: The real number π is approximately equal to
π π
⇒0< −h< 3.14.
2 2
Type 3: To evaluate (or, to find or to examine the
F π − hI < 1
H2 K
existence of) the function which is the combination
⇒ 0 < sin
(i.e.; sum, difference, product or quotient) or
composition (i.e. a function of a function) of f1 (x)
LM FG π + hIJ OP and [f2 (x)] (i.e.; a function and greatest integer
r.h.l = limπ sin x = lim sin
x→ 2 + h→ 0 N H 2 KQ function) as x → a a real number.
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 263

Examples worked out:

= lim h − 0
h→ 0
a f b3 h =0 g
Question 1: Prove that (i) lim (x – [x]) does not
x → x0
= lim h = 0
exist when x0 is an integer (ii) lim x − x exists b g h→ 0

b g does not exist.

x → x0
when x0 is not an integer. ∴ r.h.l ≠ l.h.l ∴ lim x − x
Solution: Let f (x) = x – [x] x→0

(i) If x0 = n (an integer), then for h > 0 (h being

sufficiently small) f (x0 – h) = f (n – h) = n – h – [n – h]
b
(ii) lim x − x
x→2
g
= n – h – (n – 1) = 1 – h
Solution: l.h.l = lim− x − x b g
a
∴ lim f x0 − h = lim 1 − h = 1 f a f x→ 2

b g
h →0 h→ 0

and f (x0 + h) = f (n + h) = n + h – [n + h] = n + h – n = h = lim 2 − h − 2 − h

h→0
a
∴ lim f x0 + h = lim h = 0
h→0
f h→0
= lim a2 − h − 1f ( 3 [n – h] = n – 1 when n is an
h→ 0

∴ r.h.l. ≠ l.h.l. integer)

∴ lim (x – [x]) does not exist
x → x0 h→ 0
fa
= lim 1 − h = 1

r.h.l = lim b x − x g = lim b2 + h − 2 + h g

(ii) If n < x0 < n + 1 for some integer n, then for
+ h→ 0
some sufficiently small h > 0, f (x0 – h) = x0 – h – [x0 – x→2

= lim a2 + h − 2 f ( 3 [n + h] = n when n is an
h] = x0 – h – n → x0 – n as h → 0 and f (x0 + h) = x0
+ h – [x0 + h] = x0 + h – n → x0 – n as h → 0 h→ 0
∴ r.h.l = l.h.l = x0 – [x0] integer)
∴ the lim (x – [x] ) exists and = x0 – [x0] = lim h = 0
x → x0 h→ 0
Now we will solve such problems which are all
particular cases of Q. no. (1) for the beginners ∴ l.h.l ≠ r.h.l which means xlim x − x
→2
b g does
independently.
not exist.
b g
2. Evaluate (if it exists) the following
c
(i) lim x − x
x →0
h (iii) lim x − x
x→ 2
3

FG 3 − h − L 3 − hOIJ
Solution: Let h > 0
l.h.l = lim− x − x b g
Solution: l.h.l = lim
H2
h→ 0 MN 2 PQK
x →0
F 3 − h − 1I
b g b
= lim 0 − h − 0 − h = lim − h − − h g = lim
h→ 0 H2 K
h→ 0 h→0
L3 O
( 3 for sufficiently small h > 0, M − hP = 1 )
= lim b− h − a−1fg b3 − h = − 1g N2 Q
F 1 − hI = 1
h→ 0

= lim a − h f + lim 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 = lim

h→ 0 H2 K 2
h→ 0 h →0

r.h.l = lim b x − − x g
+ r.h.l = lim b x − x g
x →0 x → 23 +

c h c h F 3 L 3 OI
lim G + h − M + hPJ
= lim 0 + h − 0 + h = lim h − h
h→0 h→0 h→ 0 H2 N 2 QK
264 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 3 + h − 1I ( 3 for sufficiently small (3 for sufficiently small h > 0, [3 – h] = 2)

= lim
H2
h→ 0 K r.h.l = lim
x
L O
h > 0, M + hP = 1 )
3 x → 3+ x
N2 Q 3+h 3+h
F 1 + hI = 1 = lim
h→ 0 3+h
= lim
h→ 0 3
( 3 for small h > 0,
= lim
H2 K 2
h→ 0 [3 + h] = 3)
1
∴ l.h.l = r.h.l = 3
2 = =1
3
∴ lim3 x − x
x→ 2
b g exists and = 12 . Thus, we observe, l.h.l ≠ r.h.l ⇒ lim
x
does
x→3 x
3. lim
x → 2 ⋅3
bx + x g not exist.
5. Evaluate each of the following one sided limits
Solution: l.h.l = lim − x + x b g LM x OP
N2 Q
x → 2⋅3 (i) lim
b g
x →2 + 0
lim 2 ⋅ 3 − h + 2 ⋅ 3 − h
h→ 0
x
a f
(ii) lim
= lim 2 ⋅ 3 − h + 2 ( 3 for sufficiently small x → 0−0 x
h→ 0

h > 0, [2.3 – h] = 2) x−1

(iii)
a f
lim
= lim 4 ⋅ 3 − h = 4.3
x →1 + 0 x−1

bx − 2 + x + 2 g
h→ 0

r.h.l = lim + x + x b g (iv) lim

x→2− 0
x → 2⋅3
F x − 1 + 2IJ
(v) lim G x +
b
= lim 2 ⋅ 3 + h + 2 ⋅ 3 + h
h→0
g H x −1 K
x →1+ 0

= lim a2 ⋅ 3 + h + 2 f ( 3 for sufficiently small h

(vi) lim x L O
MN x PQ
1
h→ 0
x → 13 +
> 0, [2.3 + h] = 2)
a f 1 L1O
x MN x PQ
= lim 4 ⋅ 3 + h = 4 ⋅ 3 (vii) lim
h→ 0 x → − 13 −

Thus, we observe, l.r.l = r.h.l = 4.3 ⇒ lim (x +

x → 2⋅3 F 1 L 1 OI
lim G x + − M x + PJ , where K is an
[x]) exists and = 4.3.
(viii)
H 4 N 4 QK
x → k + 43 − 0

x integer and [t] denotes the greatest integer less than

4. lim or equal to t.
x →3 x
LM x OP
Solution: l.h.l = lim−
x→3
x
x
Solutions: (i)
N2Q lim
x →2 + 0

L 2 + h OP = lim LM1 + h OP , h > 0

= lim M
= lim
h→0
3−h
3−h
= lim
h→ 0
3−h 3
2
=
2
N 2 Q
h→ 0 N 2Q h→ 0
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 265

= lim 1 =0+2=2
h→ 0
3 [3 – h] = 2 as [n – h] = n – 1 when n = an
=1
integer

31 +
h h
< 2 ⇒ 1 < 1 + < 2 from the FG x + x − 1 + 2IJ
2 2
definition of greatest integer function
(v) lim
x →1+ 0H x −1 K
F
= lim G 1 + h +
1+ h −1 IJ
(ii) lim
x H
h→ 0 1+ h −1 K
+ 2 ,h>0
x→ 0− 0
F h + 2IJ
x
= lim G1 +
= lim
h→ 0
0−h
0−h
= lim
−h
h → 0 −h
,h>0 H h K
h→ 0

3 [1 + h] = 1 as [n + h] = n when n = an
F −1 I
H −h K
integer
= lim
h→ 0

F 1I F h + 2I 3 | h | = h as h > 0 and
= lim
h→ 0H hK H h K
= lim 1 +
h→ 0 h→ 0

=∞ = lim a1 + 1 + 2f
h→ 0

3 [–h] = –1 as [n – h] = n – 1 when n is an integer = lim 4 = 4

h→ 0

LM 1 OP
(iii) lim
x →1 + 0
x−1
x−1
(vi) lim1 x
x→ 3 + NxQ
LM OP
1+ h−1 h
F I
= lim = lim
H 3 + hK ⋅ MM 1 + h PP , h > 0
,h>0 1 1
h→0 1+ h−1 h→ 0 h = lim
h→0

0 N3 Q
= lim
h→ 0 h F 1 + hI LM 3 OP
= lim 0 = 0
h→ 0
= lim
H 3 K N1 + 3h Q
h→ 0

F 1 + hI ⋅ lim LM 3 OP
3 h = 0 as h → 0 and h > 0 ⇒ 0 < h < 1 = lim
H 3 K N1 + 3h Q
h→ 0 h→0

(iv) lim
x→2−0
bx − 2 + x + 1 g =
1
× lim 2
3 h→0
af
= lim b2 − h − 2 + 2 − h + 1 g , h > 0 1
h→0 = ×2
= lim b− h + 3 − h g = lim a− hf + lim a3 − h f
3
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0 2
=
= 0 + lim 2 3
h→ 0
266 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

L 3 OP = 2 as h →0 and h > 0 ⇒ 1 + 3h > 1

=1
3M
N1+ 3h Q 3 [k + 1 – h] = k as [n – h] = n – 1 when n = an
integer
1 3
⇒ < 1⇒ <3
1 + 3h 1 + 3h
6. Evaluate each of the following if it exists.

1 1 LM OP (i) lim cos x

x→0
(vii) lim1
x→ − 3− x x NQ x
(ii) lim e
R| LM OU x → 0+

1 P|
= lim S
|T − 13 − h MMN − 13 − h PPQV|W , h > 0
1 (iii) lim cos x
x → π4 +
h→0

Solutions: (i) r.h.l = lim+ cos x

x→0
RF −3 IJ LM −3 OPUV
= lim SG
TH 1 + 3h K N1 + 3h QW
h→ 0
= lim cos 0 + h = lim cos h
h→0
= lim cos 0
h→0

F −3 IJ ⋅ lim LM −3 OP
= lim G
h→ 0

H 1 + 3h K N1 + 3h Q
h→ 0 h→ 0 = lim 1
h→ 0

F −3 IJ ⋅ lim a−3f
= lim G
=1
H 1 + 3h K
h→ 0 h→ 0
3 [h] = 0 as [n + h] = n when n = an
integer
= (–3) × (–3)
=9 l.h.l = lim cos x
x → 0−

3
LM −3 OP = − 3, as h → 0 and h > 0 ⇒ 1+ 3h > 1 = lim cos 0 − h = lim cos − h
N1+1 3h Q −3
h→ 0 h→ 0

⇒ < 1⇒ > − 3,
= lim cos −1
h→0
a f
1 + 3h 1 + 3h
= lim cos1
−3 h→0
∴− 3 < <−2
1 + 3h = cos 1 3 [–h] = –1 as [n – h] = n – 1 when n

RSx + 1 − Lx + 1 OUV
= an integer
(viii)
T 4 MN 4 PQW
lim3
x→ k + 4 −0 ∴ r .h.l ≠ l. h. l and so the limit does not exist.

RF 3 I 1 LF 3 I 1 OU
lim S k + − h + − M k + − h + P V,
x

TH 4 K 4 NH 4 K 4 QW
(ii) lim+ e
h→ 0 x→0
0+ h h
h>0 = lim e = lim e
k p
h→ 0 h→ 0
= lim k − h + 1 − k
h→ 0 0
= lim e
= lim k− h + 1p
h→0
h→ 0
= lim 1 = 1
h→ 0
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 267

LM π + hOP and lastly put x = a in each different forms of the

(iii) limπ cos x = lim cos
x→ 4 + h →0 N4 Q expression free from greatest integer function.
Examples worked out:
= lim cos 0
h→0 sin x
, x ≠0
LM π + hOP = 0 as 0 < π + h < 1
1. If f (x) =
= lim 1 x
h→ 0 3
N4 Q 4 = 0, [x] = 0

af
=1
Note: In those problems which are the combination then lim f x =
x→0
or composition of functions whose one function is
the greatest integer function, we should consider two (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) –1 (d) none of them.
Solution: On redefining f, it is as under
necessary facts while finding their limits as h → 0
(i) find the greatest integer contained in [the function
of h] before putting h = 0
af
f x =
sin x
x
, −1 ≤ x < 0

(ii) cancel the highest common power of h from the

= 0, 0 ≤ x < 1
numerator and denominator in the quotient of two
functions of h before putting h = 0 Again on using the definition for [x],
[x] = –1 when –1 < x < 0
How to find the limit of a piecewise functions [x] = 0 when 0 < x < 1
containing greatest integer function the function ‘f ’ becomes
When the limit of a piecewise function containing at
af a f
sin −1
any integral point x = a is sought, it must be redefined
in adjacent intervals whose left and right end points
f x =
a f
−1
, when –1 < x < 0, i.e.

af
are the same namely the integral point x = a. − sin 1
f x = = sin 1 for –1 < x < 0 and f (x) = 0,
How to find the adjacent intervals containing the −1
integral point x = a when 0 < x < 1
Step 1: Start towards left from the integral point x = a
and stop at the first integer you arrive at (say b), i.e., x→0
bg
Hence, lim− f x = lim− sin 1 = sin 1
x →0

bg
obtain b < x < a where b = the integer just on the left
of the integral point x = a. and lim+ f x = lim+ 0 = 0
x→0 x→0
Step 2: Start towards right from the integral point
x = a and stop at the first integer you arrive at (say c),
x→0
af
Since lim− f x ≠ lim+ f x
x →0
af
i.e. obtain a < x < c, where c = the integer just on the
right of the integral point x = a. ⇒ the limit of f (x) at x = 0 does not exist
Hence, (d) is true.
2. Examine the existence of limit of a function defined
x=a x=c 2
x=b −1
af
x 2
Rule: To find the limit of a piecewise function by f x = 2
, for x ≠ 1 = 0, for x2 = 1; at
containing greatest integer function and redefined in x −1
adjacent intervals [b, a) ∪ [a, c) is determined by x = 1.
removing the symbol [ ] with the help of the definition. Solution: It is given
[f (x)] = n, when n < f (x) < n + 1 2
−1
af
[f (x)] = n – 1, when n – 1 < f (x) < n where n ∈ I x 2
f x = 2
, for x ≠ 1
x −1
268 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

= 0, for x2 = 1
On redefining the given function f, f e z j = z −−11 , for 0 ≤ z < 1
2
−1
af
x
1−1
f x = , when 0 < x2 < 1 = = 0 , for 1 < z < 2
x −1
2
z −1
= 0, for z = 1
2
−1
e z j = lim 0 = 0
x
= , when 1 < x 2 < 2 Now, lim+ f
x −12
z →1 z → 1+

but lim f e z j = lim G

F −1 I = − ∞
H z − 1JK
= 0, when x2 = 1
Again on using the definition for [x2], z →1− z → 1−
[x2] = 0 for 0 < x2 < 1
[x2] = 1 for 1 < x2 < 2 ⇒ lim f e z j does not exist
z → 1−
the function ‘f ’becomes
⇒ lim f e z j does not exist
af
f x =
−1
2 , for 0 < x2 < 1
z →1

⇒ lim f a x f does not exist

x −1
x →1
= 0, for x2 = 1 Type 4: Problems based on finding the value of a
1−1 constant whenever the limit of a given function is
= 2 = 0, for 1 < x2 < 2 finite value/a finite number.
x −1
Examples worked out:
Now, lim+ f x = lim+ 0 = 0 af 1. Find the value of k if
b g
x →1 x →1
lim kx − 5 = 3

bg F −1 I = ∞ x→2
and lim− f x = lim−
x →1 x →1
GH x − 1JK
2 Solution: lim (kx – 5) = k × 2 – 5 = 2k – 5
x →2
… (i)

af
i.e. lim− f x does not exist
x →1
and lim (kx – 5) = 3
x →2
…(ii)

⇒ lim f a x f does not exist.

Equating (i) and (ii), we have, 2k – 5 = 3
x →1 8
⇒ 2k = 8 ⇒ k = =4
alternative method 2
x 2 = z ⇒ x 2 = z ⇒ x = z ⇒ x = z for x ≥ 0 2. Find the value of K if lim (3x – 2) = 7
x→k
Also, x → 1 ⇒ z → 1
Hence the given function becomes
b
Solution: lim 3x − 2 = 3k − 2
x→ k
g … (i)

f e zj = z −1
, for z ≠ 1 x→k
b
and lim 3 x − 2 = 7 g … (ii)
z −1
(1) and (2) ⇒ 3k – 2 = 7 ⇒ 3k = 7 + 2 = 9 ⇒ k =
= 0 for z = 1 9/3 = 3
Which can be redefined as under:
 Practical Methods of Finding the Limits 269

Problems based on existence of the limits of greatest

2. (i) exists and lim f (x) = –1 (ii) does not exist since
integer function/combination of a function and the x →1
greatest integer function 1
l.h.l = –1 and r.h.l = 0 (iii) exists and lim f (x) = (iv)
x →1 2
Exercise 4.30.1 does not exist since l.h.l = 1 and r.h.l = 0.
5. As l.h.l ≠ r.h.l, so the given limit does not exist.
1. Examine the existence of the limits of the following Hint: l.h.l = sin 1 and r.h.l = 0
functions as x → 0 Problems based on finding the value of a constant
(i) f (x) = [x] + [1 – x], ∀ real x
Exercise 4.30.2
(ii) f (x) = x + [x], ∀ real x
(iii) f (x) = [x] + [–x], when x ≠ 0
Find the value of k if Answers
f (0) = 1
(iv) f (x) = x [x] b
1. lim kx − 5 = 3
x→2
g (4)
2. Examine the existence of the limits of the following
functions at the indicated points. x2 − k 2
(i) f (x) = [1 – x] + [x – 1] at x = 1 2. lim = −4 (–6)
x→2 x − k
(ii) f (x) = [x + 2] – | 2 + x | at x = 2

LM 1 + x OP − 1
2 e
3. lim kx 2 + 5x − 3 = 4 j (2)

(iii) f (x) =
N 2 Q 2 at x = 1
2
x →1

sin kx
x 4. lim =3 (3)
x →0 x
LM x + 1 OP
(iv) f (x) = N
2Q 1 kx 2 + 4 x − 8
=3
at x = − 5. lim (6)
x 2 x→∞ 2 x 2 − 3x + 5

3. Show that the function f defined by

x→ 2
b g
6. limπ k + 2 cos x = 5 (5)
f (x) = [x – 1] + | x – 1 | for x ≠ 1
f (1) = 0 has no limit at x = 1. 7. lim a3 x − 2 f = 7 (3)
4. Show that the function f defined by f (x) = [x – 3] + x→k

af
[3 – x], where [t] denotes the largest integer < t exists sin 3 x tan b x
at x = 3 and is equal to 0. 8. If f x = , when x < 0 = , when
x x
af
5. If f x =
sin x
x
, x ≠ 0 ; = 0, [x] = 0 then find if af
x > 0 and lim f x exists, find the value of b.
x→0

lim f (x) exists where [x] denotes the greatest integer sin 3x
x →0 Solution: lim
x→0 x
less than or equal to x.
Answers: sin 3 x
×3=3
af
l.h.l = lim … (i)
x→0
1. (i) exists and lim f x = 0 (ii) does not exist since 3x
x →0
tan b x tan b x
l.h.l = –1 and r.h.l = 0 (iii) exists and lim f (x) = –1
x →0
lim = lim × b = b = r.h.l … (ii)
x→0 x x → 0 bx
(iv) exists and lim f (x) = 0
x →0
270 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x→0
af
lim f x exists ⇔ l . h. l = r . h .l ⇔ b = 3 Ans. 2
3x − 5
(vi) The value of lim is …
x→∞ x
Objective problems
(A) 0 (B) ∞ (C) 3 (D) –5 [Ans. B]
Exercise 4.30.3 (b) State whether the following statements are true
or false
(a) Choose the correct answer.
2
(i) lim x = 0 [Ans. T]
2x x→0
(i) The value of lim is …
x → 0 5 + 3x

2 2 x→ π
a
(ii) lim 1 + cos x = 0 f [Ans. T]
(A) (B) (C) 0 (D) 2 [Ans. C]
lim a1 − sin x f = 0
3 5
(iii) [Ans. T]
sin x x → π2
(ii) The value of limπ is …
x → 2 1 + cos x
2
2 x − 3x
1 (iv) lim =1 [Ans. F]
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) (D) ∞ [Ans. B] x→0 3x
2
x
(iii) The value of lim
sin 5x
is … (v) lim =1 [Ans. T]
x →0 tan x
x →0 x
1 2
(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) (D) 5 [Ans. D] x −4
5 (vi) lim =4 [Ans. F]
x → −2 x+2
sin 5 x − sin 3x
(iv) The value of lim is … 2
x→0 x x −x 1
(vii) lim = [Ans. F]
2 x →∞ 2x 2
(A) 2 (B) 0 (C) 1 (D) − [Ans. A]
15 2
2 x + 5x
(v) The value of lim
2x
is …
(viii) lim
x→∞ a
x x+1 f
=2 [Ans. T]
x→0 sin x
1
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) (D) not possible [Ans. B]
2

5
Practical Methods on
Continuity Test
A little more on how to test the continuity of a
function at x = a. To test whether f (x) is continuous at
x = the following procedure may be adopted:
1. Find f (a). If f (a) is undefined, the function f (x) is
discontinuous at x = a.
2. If the value of the function represented by f (a) at
x = a has a finite value, find the l.h.l and r.h.l
af
represented by lim− f x = lim f a − h
x→a
a f and
h→ 0
lim+ f a x f = lim f aa + hf respectively where
x→a h→ 0
h → 0 through positive values (i.e; h > 0 and –h < 0).
3. If both l.h.l and r.h.l are equal to f (a), f (x) is
continuous at x = a.
4. If either of the l.h.l and r.h.l is different from f (a),
f (x) is discontinuous at x = a.
Explanation
1. ⇒ Replace x by a f (x) and in the given expression
in x and find the value of the given function f (x) at
x = a. Now if the value of the function f (x) at x = a is
undefined the given function is declared to be
discontinuous.
2. ⇒ If the value of the function f (x) at x = a is a
finite value, we are required to find l.h.l and r.h.l
respectively by the method already explained.
3. ⇒ If all the three (a) value of the function at x = a,
i.e; f (a) (b) l.h.l and (c) r.h.l of the given function
obtained are equal, then f (x) is continuous at x = a
Practical Methods on Continuity test 271
which means f (a) = l.h.l = r.h.l ⇒ f (x) is continuous
at x = a.
af
4. ⇒ If f a ≠ l .h.l ≠ r .h.l or l .h.l ≠ r .h.l =
f (a) or r .h.l ≠ l .h.l = f (a), we declare that the given
function f (x) whose test of continuity is required is
discontinuous at the given point x = a.
N.B.: The above method of testing a given function
to be continuous at x = a is applied when the given
function is defined by different equations on imposing
the conditions on the independent variables x by < or
< or > or > or = etc.
Aid to Memory
af
1. f a = lim [the function f1 (x) opposite to which
x→a
x < a / x < a / c < x < a /]
= lim [the function f2 (x) opposite to which
x→a
x > a / x > a / c > x > a / c > x > a]
⇔ f (x) is continuous at x = a.
2. f (x) = f3 (x), when x = a means we should consider
the function f3 (x) (i.e; an expression in x) to find out
the value of the function x = a.
3. f (x) = a constant, when x = a means we are
provided the value of the function which is the given
constant for the independent variable x = a and thus
further we are not required to find out the value of the
function f (x) at x = a.
272 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

4. f (x) = f1 (x), when (or, if or, provided) x ≥ a or
c > x ≥ a means we should consider f1 (x) for finding
r.h.l and the value of the function at x = a.
5. f (x) = f2 (x), when x ≤ a or c < x ≤ a means we
should consider f2 (x) for finding l.h.l and the value of
the function at x = a.
6. f (x) = f1 (x) when x < a or c < x < a ⇒ we should
consider f1 (x) only for finding the l.h.l and not for the
value of the function f (x) at x = a as the sign of
equality does not appear in the given restrictions
against the given function f (x) = f1 (x).
7. f (x) = f2 (x) when x > a or c > x > a means we should
consider f2 (x) only for finding r.h.l and not for the
value of the function f (x) at x = a as the sign of
equality does not appear in the given restriction
against the given function f (x) = f2 (x).
8. f (x) = f4 (x), when x ≠ a means the same function
f4 (x) should be considered for finding the l.h.l and
r.h.l.
Note:
1. In the light of above explanation, we may declare
that the sign of equality ‘=’ with the sign of
inequalities “> or <” retains the possibility to consider
the same function for the l.h.l as well as the value of
the function both or r.h.l as well as the value of the
function both whereas only the sign of inequality >
or < excludes the possibility to consider the same
function for the value of the given function opposite
to which > or < is written.
2. f (x) = f4 (x), when x ≠ a means there is no need to
find out l.h.l and r.h.l separately but only to find out
the limit of f4 (x) at x = a and use the definition limit =
value of the function at the given point x = a to test
4. All the points at which the function is continuous
are called points of continuities and all those points
at which the function is discontinuous are called
points of discontinuities (or, simply discontinuities
only).
5. f (x) is continuous at x = a ⇔ x = a is the point of
continuity of f (x) ⇔ f (x) has a point of continuity
namely x = a.
6. f (x) is discontinuous at x = a ⇔ x = a is the point
of discontinuity of f (x) ⇔ f (x) has a point of
discontinuity namely x = a.
A Highlight on Removal Discontinuity
Question: When a function is not defined for x = a, is
it possible to give the function such a value for x = a
as to satisfy the condition of continuity?
Answer: When a function is not defined for the
independent variable x = a as to satisfy the condition
of continuity if we arbitrarily suppose that value of
the function which must be the limit of the given
function ⇒ If the value of the function at a point =
limit of the function at the same point is supposed,
then the given function becomes continuous at that
point.
2
x −9
Example: y = is not defined at x = 3 but for
x−3
any other value of x,
a x + 3f a x − 3f = (x + 3)
y=
a x − 3f
and lim a x + 3f = 6
x→3

F x − 9I = 6
the continuity (or, to find the l.h.l and r.h.l by putting
2
∴ lim G
H x − 3 JK
x = a ± h as h → 0 through positive values in the
given function f (x) = f4 (x) and then use the definition x→3
l.h.l = r.h.l = value of the function (which is given at x
= a by imposing the condition x = a against the given Now, if we suppose f (3) = 6, i.e; the value of the
function f (x) as f (x) = a constant, when x = a) ⇔ function to be 6 for x = 3, the function becomes
continuity of the given function at x = a. continuous.
3. A function f (x) defined in an interval is called a
piecewise continuous function when the interval can Removal Discontinuity
be divided into a finite number of non-overlapping
open sub intervals over each of which the function is If
x→a+
bg x →a
bg bg
lim f x = lim− f x ≠ f a , then the
continuous. function f (x) as said to have removal discontinuity at
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 273

x = a because the discontinuity can be removed by

x2 − 9 b
x−3 x+3 gb g
∴y = =
b g
making the value of the function f (x) at x = a equal to
, x≠3
lim f x .
x→a
af x−3 x−3
= (x + 3)
There are two types of discontinuities which can
be removed by assuming the value of the function
af
Thus, we see that f 3 ≠ lim f x ⇒ f x is
x→3
af af
f (x) at a point (or, number) x = a = limit of the function discontinuous at x = a.
f (x) at a point (or, number) x = a.
2
1. If the function is not defined at x = a, then the x −9
N.B.: But y = is continuous at x = 2
function is discontinuous at x = a. x−3
af
2. If lim f x exists finitely but the value of the F x − 9 I = 5 and f (2) = 5
2
x→a

function f aa f ≠ lim f a x f , then the function f (x) is

Since lim
x→2
GH x − 3 JK
x→a

∴ f a2f = lim f a x f = 5 .
discontinuous at x = a. Thus, there are two types of
discontinuities which can be removed by assuming x→2

lim b5x g
value = limit for the given point x = a.
Remember:
2. lim
F 5x I
GH 6 − 2 x JK lim b6 − 2 xg = ∞
=
x→3
(A) A function is discontinuous at x = a if x→3
x→3
1. f (x) is not defined at x = a ⇔ f (x) = meaningless

at x = a ⇔ f a = af 0 ∞
/ / 0 × ∞ ... etc.
0 ∞
bg
⇒ f x =
5x
6 − 2x
is discontinuous at x = 3.

2. When lim f x = ∞
x →a
af Now, we consider the continuity of the following
functions at the point x = a.
3. When lim f a x f ≠ f aa f 1. Continuity of rational functions.
x→a
2. Continuity of absolute value functions.
4. When l .h.l ≠ r .h.l = f (a) 3. Continuity of exponential functions.
5. When l .h. l = r . h. l ≠ f a af 4. Continuity of logarithmic functions.
6. When r . h. l ≠ l . h. l ≠ f a af 5. Continuity of trigonometric functions.
7. Limit ≠ value of the function at the given point. Type 1: When no condition is imposed on the
independent variable against the defined function,
(B) A function f (x) is said not to exist at a point x = a
if f x af x=a
= ∞ /meaningless/imaginary.
i.e; when given function is not piecewise.

Examples: Highlight on the Working Rule

2 Limit of the given function as x → a = value of the
x −9
1. Show that y = is discontinuous at x = a. given function at x = a, in the examples to follow.
x−3

Solution: lim y = lim x + 3 = 6

x→3 x→3
a f ...(1)
Solved Examples
Test the continuity of the following functions at the
indicated points.
bg x −9 0
2
3y= f x = = at x = 3 (undefined) 1. y = x2 + 3x at x = 2
x−3 0 Solution: y = x2 + 3
... (2)
274 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

e j
2 If l1 = l2 = c then f (x) is said to be continuous at
⇒ lim y = lim x + 3x x = a.
x→2 x→2

= 22 + 3 × 2 = 4 + 6 = 10 Solved Examples
f (2) = 10 when f (x) = x2 + 3x
af
∴ f 2 = lim f x
x→2
af 1. If f (x) = 5x – 4, when 0 < x ≤ 1 = 4x3 – 3x, when
1 < x < 2 Show that f (x) is continuous at x = 1
Hence, f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

x −9
2 af
Solution: lim+ f x = lim 4 x − 3 x
x →1 x →1
e 3
j
2. y = for x = 2
x−3 =4–3=1

x −9
2
x → 1−
af
lim f x = lim 5x − 4
x →1
a f
Solution: y =
x−3 =5–4=1
f (1) = 5 – 4 for f (x) = 5x – 4 when 0 < x ≤ 1
2
x −9 a
x+3 x−3 fa f af af
Hence, f 1 = lim f x = lim f x ⇒ f x is af af
⇒ lim y = lim
x→2 x→2 x−3
= lim
x→2 x−3 a f x → 1+ x → 1−

a f
continuous at x = 1.
= lim x + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
af
x→2 2
x
2. If f x = , when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 = 2 x 2 − 3x + 3 ,
a f 42 −− 93 = −−51 = 5
f 2 =
2 2
when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 test the continuity of f (x) at the

∴ f a2f = lim f a x f
point x = 1.
x→2

af
2
x 1
Hence, f (x) is continuous at x = 2 Solution: lim f x = lim =
x →1− 0 x →1 2 2

a f FH I
Type 2: In case, f (x) = f1 (x), when x < a
3
K
2
= f2 (x), when x > a lim f x = lim 2 x − 3x +
= c, when x = a x →1+ 0 x →1 2
i.e; when different functions are provided with 3 3 1
different restrictions imposed on the independent = 2 − 3 + = −1 + =
2 2 2
variable x as x > a / x < a / x = a / x ≥ a / x ≤ a / … etc

af af
2
.against each function or in otherwords, when the x
given function is a piecewise function, i.e. the given f x = for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⇒ f 1 = 2
2
af af af af
function is defined adjacent intervals.
Hence, f 1 = lim f x = lim f x ⇒ f x
x → 1+ 0 x → 1− 0
Highlight on the Working Rule
is continuous at x = 1.

x→a
bg x→a
bg
lim+ f x = lim f 1 x = l1 , where f1 (x) is a form
af
Note: If f x =
x
2
, when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
of the given function defined in an interval whose 2
right end point is ‘a’. 2 3
= 2 x − 3x + , when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
bg bg
lim f x = lim f 2 x = l2 , where f2 (x) is a
x→a+ x→a
2
then to find the value of the function f (x) at x = 1, we
form of the given function defined in an interval whose may consider any one of the two pieces. Hence, in
left and point is also, ‘a’. the above example if we consider
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 275

af 2
f x = 2 x − 3x +
3
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , then f (1) =
(1), (2) and (3) ⇒ lim f x = lim f x =
x→ a+
af x→ a−
af
3
2 − 3 + = −1 + =
2
3 −2 + 3 1 so, in general,
=
af af
f a ⇒ f x is continuous at x = a
2 2 2 2 5. Show that the function for f (x) defined by
when the condition (or, restriction) imposed on an 1 1
f (x) = x + , when 0 < x <
independent variable x contains x ≥ a / x ≤ a / 2 2
c > x ≥ a / c < x ≤ a , then we may consider any one 1 1
= , when x =
of both functions to find the value of the function at 2 2
x = a because both functions provided us the same
F 1I
H K
1
value. = x− , when < x < 1 is discontinuous
2 2
3. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 2
f (x) = 2x + 1 for x ≤ 2 1
at x =
= x2 – 1 for x > 2 2

a2 x + 1f = 5 F 1I = 1
Solution: l .h .l = lim
x→2−0
Solution: f H 2K 2 …(1)

ex j F 1I
f a x f = lim x −
H 2K
2
r . h. l = lim −1 = 4 −1= 3 lim
x →2 + 0 1 1
x→ + x→

af
∴ l .h . l ≠ l . h. l ⇒ lim f x does not exist ⇒
2 2

x→2
F 1 − 1I = 0
f (x) is discontinuous at x = 2. H 2 2K
= …(2)
4. Show that the function defined as
F 1I
lim f a x f = lim x +
af H 2K
2
x
f x = − a,0<x<a 1
x→ − x→
1
a 2 2
= 0, x = a 1 1
3
= + =1 …(3)
a 2 2
=a−
x
2
, x > a is continuous at x = a.
(1), (2) and (3) ⇒ lim f x = lim f x ≠
1
af 1
af
x→ + x→ −
Solution: f (a) = 0 [ 3 f (x) = 0 when x = a is given in 2 2
the problem] …(1)
F 1 I ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 1 .
af F 3
I f
H 2K
GH JK
a 2
lim+ f x = lim a − 2
x→a x→a N.B.: In fact, the in-equality of any two of (1), (2) and
x
(3) ensures discontinuity of the given function at
3
a 1
=a− 2
=a−a=0 …(2) x= .
a 2

af Fx 2
I
lim f x = lim
x→ a− x→a
GH a −a JK 6. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 2

af
2
x −4
f x = , when 0 < x < 2
a
2 x−2
= −a=a−a=0 …(3)
a f (x) = x + 2, when 2 ≤ x ≤ 5
276 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x+2
af
2
x − 4 = , when 1 < x ≤ 2
Solution: l . h . l = lim− f x = lim x
x→ 2 x→ 2x − 2

= lim a x + 2 f = 2 + 2 = 4
x→2
Solution: l .h. l = lim− f x = lim
x →1
af x →1
9x
x+2

r . h. l = lim+ f a x f = lim a x + 2f = 2 + 2 = 4 9 9
x→2 x→2 = = =3 …(1)
1+ 2 3
f (2) = (x + 2)x = 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
Hence, l.h.l = r.h.l = f (2) ⇒ f (x) is continuous at
x = 2. x →1
bg
r . h. l = lim+ f x = lim
x →1
x + 2 1+ 2
x
=
1
=3 …(2)

F 9 x IJ
7. Test the continuity of the given function at x = 1
f a1f = G
f (x) = 2x + 3, when x ≤ 1 9×1 9
H x + 2K
…(1) = = =3 …(3)
= 8 – 3x, when 1 < x < 2 …(2) x =1
1+ 2 3
Solution: f (1) = 2 × 1 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5 …(1) (1), (2) and (3) ⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (1) ⇒ f (x) is
x → 1+
af a f
lim f x = lim 8 − 3 x = 8 − 3 = 5
x →1
…(2) continuous at x = 1.
10. Test the continuity of the given function f (x) at
lim f a x f = lim a2 x + 3f = 2 + 3 = 5 …(3) x = 1 and x = 3 f (x) = x + 2, when x < 1
x → 1− x →1
= 4x – 1, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
(1), (2) and (3) ⇒ f (x) is continuous at x = 1.
= x2 + 5, when x > 3
8. Test the continuity of the given function f (x) at
Solution: f (x) = [f (x)]x = 1 = (4x – 1)x = 1
x=2
=4×1–1=3 …(1)

af
f x =
2
x −4
,
af
lim f x = lim 4 x − 1
x → 1+ x →1
a f
x − 2 when 0 < x < 2
=4×1–1=3 …(2)
f (x) = x + 1, when 2 ≤ x ≤ 5
af
lim f x = lim x + 2
x → 1− x →1
a f
af
2
x −4 =1+2=3 …(3)
Solution: l .h . l = lim f x = lim
x →2 − x→2 x−2 (1), (2) and (3) ⇒ f (x) is continuous at x = 1
Now, we test the continuity at x = 3

x→2
a f
= lim x + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 …(1)
f (3) = [f (x)]x = 3 = (4x – 1)x = 3
= 4 × 3 – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11 …(1)

r . h. l = lim f a x f = lim a x + 1f
a
l .h .l = lim 4 x − 1
x → 3−
f
x→2+ x →2
= 4 × 3 – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11 …(2)
=2+1=3 …(2)
(1) and (2) ⇒ l . h. l ≠ r . h. l ⇒ lim f (x) does not
x →2
r . h. l = lim
x → 3+
ex 2
+5 j
exist ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 2. = 32 + 5 = 9 + 5 = 14 …(3)
9. Test the continuity of the given function f (x) at (2) and (3) ⇒ r .h.l ≠ l. h.l ⇒ f (x) is discontinu-
x = 1. ous at x = 3.
af
f x =
9x
x + 2 when 0 < x ≤ 1
,
11. Test the continuity of the given function f (x) at
x = 0, 1 defined as f (x) = 2, when x ≤ 0 .
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 277

= 3x + 2, when 0 < x ≤ 1 Or, in the notational form,

x
af af
If at x = a, lim f x = lim f x ≠ f a , then
x→ a+ x→a −
af
= ,
x − 1 when x > 1 f (x) is said to have (or, to contain) a point of removable
Solution: (a) Continuity test at x = 0 discontinuity (or, simply a removable discontinuity)

bg b g
r . h. l = lim f x = lim 3 x + 2 = 2
x → 0+ x→0
…(1)
namely x = a (or, at x = a), e.g:

af
2
x + x
f b x g = lim b2g = 2
(i) f x = for x ≠ 0
l .h . l = lim …(2) x
x → 0− x →0
= undefined, for x = 0
f (0) = [f (x)]x = 0 = 2 …(3)
(ii) f (x) = | x |
(1), (2) and (3)
af af af
f (0) = 3 are the functions having removable
⇒ f 0 = lim f x = lim f x discontinuity at x = 0.
x → 0+ x → 0−
2. A function having removable discontinuity at a
∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 1 point x = a can be made continuous by giving the
(b) Test of continuity at x = 1 function a new value ‘c’ equal to the limit of the
lim
x →1+ 0
afh→ 0
a
f x = lim f 1 + h , h > 0 f function at the point x = a.
3. A discontinuity is called a removable discontinuity
1+ h 1+h because it can be removed from the function and the
= lim = lim = +∞
h→ 0 1 + h − 1 h→ 0 h function becomes continuous whereas a non-
a f
∴ f 1+ 0 = +∞
removable discontinuity is any discontinuity which
is not removable.
∴ lim f a x f does not exist 4. A function f (x) having (or, containing) removable
x →1
discontinuity is also said to be redefined at x = a if the
Hence, f (x) is not continuous at x = 1 function f (x) is made continuous by assuming (or,
∴ f (x) has a discontinuity of second kind at x = 1. setting) the value of the function f (x) at x = a to be
Type 3: When a function is defined as equal to the limit of the function at x = a.
f (x) = f1 (x), when x ≠ a 5. Jump discontinuity: A function f (x) is said to have
a jump discontinuity at x = a if the left hand limit and
= a constant ‘c’ (say), when x ≠ a right hand limit of the function f (x) at x = a exist and
Remember: are finite but are not equal.
1. A point of removable discontinuity/removable Or, in the notational form,
discontinuity: If the limits of a function from the right
and left exists and are equal but is not equal to the
If
x →a −
af
lim f x = L1 and af
lim f x = L2 but
x→a+
value of the function at a point, then the function is L1 ≠ L2 , then we say that the function f (x) has a
said to have (or, contain) a point of removable jump discontinuity namely x = a or we say that f (x)
discontinuity (or, simply a removable discontinuity) has a jump discontinuity at x = a or a discontinuity of
at the considered point. the first kind (or, a point of jump discontinuity or, a
Or, more explicitly, point of discontinuity of the first kind) at x = a. e.g:,
A point of discontinuity (or, simply a discontinuity)
namely x = a is called removable discontinuity if the (i) f (x) = 1, when x > 0
limit of the function exists but the function either is = –1, when x < 0
not defined at x = a or has a value different from the is a function having a jump discontinuity (or,

af af
limit x = a (i.e; lim f x ≠ f a )
x→a
discontinuity of the first kind) at x = 0 or we can say
x = 0 is a point of jump discontinuity or a point of
discontinuity of the first kind of f (x).
278 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

6. A function f (x) is said to have a discontinuity of

the second kind at a point x = a if at least one of one
af af
(i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ l . h.l = r . h. l ≠ f 1 ⇒ f x is
discontinuous at x = 1.
sided limit fails to exist at the considered point x = a.
2. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 1
Or, in the notational form,
af af
defined by
If at least one of the limits lim f x / lim f x
x→a− x→ a+
af
2
x − 4x + 3
does not exist, we say that the function f (x) has a f x = 2
,x ≠1
discontinuity of the second kind at x = a. e.g., x −1

af F 1I , x ≠ 0 = 2, x = 1
(i) f x = sin
H xK Solution: (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 1)
F x − 4 x + 3I
2
f (0) = 0
is the function having a discontinuity of the second
= lim GH x − 1 JK
x →1 2
kind at x = 0 or we can say x = 0 is a point of
discontinuity of the second king of f (x).
e x − 3x − x + 3j
2

Highlight on the Working Rule

= lim
x →1 ax + 1f ax − 1f
(l.h.l = r.h.l at x = a) = lim [the function opposite x a x − 3f − a x − 3f
x→a

which x ≠ a is written] and see whether l.h.l = r.h.l =

= lim
x →1 a x + 1f a x − 1f
lim [the function written before x ≠ a ] a x − 3f a x − 1f
x →a = lim
a x + 1f a x − 1f
x →1
af af
= lim f 1 x = f a = given value = c a x − 3f
a x + 1f
x→a = lim
x →1
N.B.:
1. f (a + 0) and f (a – 0) are the notations used for l.h.l 1 − 3 −2
and r.h.l at x = a. = = = −1
1+1 2
2. x ≠ a ⇔ either x > a or x < a ⇔ x → a
f (1) = 2 (given)
Solved Examples af
Hence, (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 1) ≠ f 1 ⇒ f x is af
discontinuous at x = 1.
1. Show that the function f (x) is discontinuous at

af
x=1 2
x − 3x + 2
f (x) = x2, when x ≠ 1 3. If f x = 2
,x ≠1
x − 4x + 3
= 2, when x = 1
Solution: (l.h.l at x = 1) = 2, x = 1 show that given function is discontinuous
at x = 1.
x → 1−
af
= lim f x = lim x = 1
x →1
2
…(i) Solution: (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 1)
Fx 2 I
(r.h.l at x = 1)
= lim GH x − 3x + 2
J
− 4 x + 3K
af
= lim f x = lim x = 1
x → 1+ x →1
2
…(ii)
x →1 2

= lim G
Fx 2 I
J
f (1) = 2 (given) …(iii) − x − 2x + 2
Hx
x →1 2
− x − 3x + 3 K
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 279

a x − 1f a x − 2f 5. Test the continuity of the given function at x = 1

= lim
a x − 1f a x − 3f
x →1
af
f x =
x+3−2
,x ≠1
a x − 2f
3
x −1
= lim
a x − 3f
x →1 =2, x = 1
Solution: f (1 – 0) = f (1 + 0)
1 − 2 −1 1
= = = x+3−2
1 − 3 −2 2 = lim
x →1 3
f (1) = 2 (given) x −1
Hence, (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 1) ≠ f 1 ⇒ f x is af af F I
discontinuous at x = 1. = lim
x →1
GH x+3−2
x −1
3
×
x+3 +2
J
x + 3 + 2K
bg
4. If f x =
x
4+ x − 4−x
bg 1
, x ≠ 0 and f 0 = ,
2 x + 3− 4
= lim
test the continuity at x = 0. x →1
a x − 1f e x 2
+ x +1 je x+3+2 j
Solution: l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 0
4+x − 4−x x−1
= lim
= lim
x→0 x x →1
ax − 1f e x 2
+ x +1 je x+3+2 j
F 4+ x− 4− x 4+ x+ 4− x I
= lim GH × J
4 − xK = lim
1
x→0 x 4+ x+ x →1
ex 2
+ x +1 je x+3+2 j
= lim
a4 + x − 4 + x f
e j
1
x→0 4+ x + 4− x =
e1 je j
x 2
+1+1 1+ 3 + 2
2x
= lim
x→0 x e 4+ x + 4− x j =
a
1
32+2
=
1
12 f
2 f (1) = 2 (given)
= lim
x→0
e 4+x + 4−x j af
Thus, l.h.l = r.h.l ≠ f 1 ⇒ discontinuity of the
function at x = 1.
2 2 1
= = = 6. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 1
4+0 + 4−0 2+2 2

af
2
x +1− 2
af1
f 0 = (given)
2
f x =
x−1
,x≠1

1 1
Thus, l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) = ⇒ continuity of the = ,x=1
2 2
function f (x) at x = 0. Solution: f (1 – 0) = f (1 + 0)
280 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F x+3− x+3+ I
GH J
2 3 3
x +1− 2 = lim ×
= lim
x →1 a
x −1 f x→0 x x+3+ 3K

F I x +3−3
= lim G JJ
2 2
= lim
GH
x +1− 2
×
x +1+ 2 x→0 x e x+3+ 3 j
2K
x →1 x−1 2
x +1+
x
= lim
2
x +1− 2
x→0 x e x+3+ 3 j
ax − 1f FGH IJ
= lim
x →1
K
2
x +1+ 2 1
= lim
x→0
e x+3+ 3 j
2
x −1

ax − 1f FGH x + 1 + 2 IJK
= lim 1 1
x →1
= =
2
3+ 3 2 3
(b) The discontinuity is removable if we define the
ax + 1f function as follows
= lim
FG x + 1 + 2 IJ
x →1
af x+3− 3
H K
2
f x = ,x≠0
x
1
1+1 = ,x=0
= 2 3
2 + 2
8. A function is defined as under
2 1
= =
af
2
2 2 2 x − x−6
f x = 2
, at x ≠ 3
x − 2x − 3
af
f 1 =
1
2
(given)
5
=
af af
, at x = 3
Hence, f (1 – 0) = f (1 + 0) = f 1 ⇒ f x is 3
show that f (x) is discontinuous at x = 3
af af
continuous at x = 1
7. Show that the function f defined as Solution: lim f x = lim f x
x → 3+ x → 3− 0

af
f x =
x+3− 3
is discontinuous at x = 0, and F x − x−6I
= lim G
2

H x − 2 x − 3JK
x
x→3 2
then determine if the discontinuity is removable.

a x − 3f a x + 2f
Solution: (a) (i) f or f (x) is not defined at x = 0 as

bg
f x
x =0
0
0
= (undefined)
= lim
x→3a x − 3f a x + 1f
∴ f (x) has discontinuity at x = 0. x +2 3+2 5
= lim = =
af F x+3− I x→3 x +1 3+1 4
GH JK
3
(ii) lim f x = lim
x→0 x →0 x
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 281

af
f 3 =
5
3
(given) 3. x =
2
x = x , when x ≥ 0

bg bg bg
∴ lim f x ≠ f 3 ⇒ f x has discontinuity
x →3
= –x, when x < 0
2
at x = 3. 4. x = x
Type 4: Problems based on continuity of an absolute
value function (or, modulus function)
5. x−a = ax − af 2

Firstly, we recall the definition of absolute value 6. | x | = | –x | = x, when x is positive

function. 7. lim x = c , for any real c lim f x
x→c x→c
bg =
Definition: An absolute value function is a function

bg
defined on the domain of all real numbers such that
with any number x in the domain, the function lim f x
x→c
associates algebraically the non-negative number
2
x , which is designated by writing two vertical 8. af
f x = b f a xfg 2

lines around x as | x |. Therefore the value of the 9. x ≠ 0 ⇒ x > 0 and x < 0

function at x is
10. | ( | f (x) | ) | = mod of a mod function f (x) = | f (x)| =
2
x = x = x , when x ≥ 0 2
= x = x .
2
2
mod of f (x) since x
x = x = − x , when x < 0
Method to test the continuity of an absolute value
which means an absolute value function (or, modulus
function
function or, simply mod function) maps every positive
To test the continuity of an absolute value function,
real number onto its positive number, zero onto zero
we may adopt the following working rule.
and every negative real number onto its negative,
(Note: (i) | x | is read as modulus of x / mod of x/simply
kp
which is the corresponding positive number. Thus | x
| is never negative. Hence, an absolute value function mod. x. (ii) R + ∪ 0 means a set of all positive real
represented by the symbol ‘| |’ designated by writing numbers including zero).
two vertical lines is like an electric current rectifier
Working rule:
that converts either positive or negative current into
1. Convert the given mod problem in f (x) and –f (x)
positive. Further we should note that the domain of
on imposing the condition (or, restriction) which
an absolute value function is the set of all real numbers
becomes the problem for finding the l.h.l and r.h.l by
and the range is the set of all positive real number
including zero which can be written in the following using the mod function definition ⇒ when we are
notational form. required to find l.h.l, we should put | f (x) | = – f (x)
which involves no mod symbol as well as we should
Function Image Domain Range put | f (x) | = +f (x) which involves no mod symbol | |.
2. Find the l.h.l and r.h.l.
|| |x| R
+
R ∪ 0 kp 3. See whether l.h.l and r.h.l are equal or not.
4. If l.h.l = r.h.l, then we declare the existance of limits
Remember: for the given mod function at the given point x = a.
1. | f (x) | = f (x), when f x ≥ 0af 5. Find the value of the function at the given point
x = a.
= –f (x), when f (x) < 0
6. If l.h.l = r.h.l = value of the given function at a
2. | x – a | = (x – a), when (x – a) ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ a ;
given point x = a then we declare that continuity of
= a – x, when (x – a) < 0 ⇒ x < a the given mod function | f (x) | holds at the given point
282 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x = a and if l .h.l ≠ r . h. l , we declare that x 0

= lim e = e = 1
discontinuity of the given mod function | f (x) | holds x→0
at the given point x = a.
−x
r . h. l = lim e
x→0
Solved Examples
−0 0
1. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 8 =e =e =1

af
f x =
x−8 af
f 0 =e
−0
=1
x−8 .
af
∴ l .h . l = r . h. l = f 0 ⇒ given function has a
a
− x−8 f a f continuity at the origin (x = 0).
Solution: l .h . l = lim
x →8 ax−8 x →8 f
= lim −1 = − 1 4. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0.

r . h. l = lim
a x − 8f = lim 1 = 1 af
(i) f x =
x
x
x →8 x−8 x→8

Thus, l .h.l ≠ r .h.l ⇒ given function is af

(ii) f x =
x
x
discontinuity at x = 8 or, alternatively, the function

af
f x =
x−8
is not defined at x = 8 and so Solution: (i) The function f x = af x
x
is not de-
x−8
discontinuity at x = 8. fined at x = 0 and so it is discontinuous at x = 0.
2. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0
af
af a f
x
x x+1 (ii) The function f x = is not defined at x = 0
f x = for x ≠ 0 and f (0) = –1. x
x and so it is discontinuous at x = 0.

Solution: l .h.l = lim

a
x x +1 f
( 3 | x | = –x when
5. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at

x < 0)
x→0 −x af
x = –2 f x = x +
x+2
x+2
.

x→0
la fq a f
= lim − x + 1 = − 0 + 1 = − 1
Solution: The function f x = x + af x+2
is not
x+2
x b x + 1g
r . h. l = lim ( 3 | x | = x when x > 0) defined at x = –2 and so discontinuous at x = –2.
x→0 x
6. Show that f (x) = | x | is continuous at the origin.
a
= lim x + 1 = 1 f Solution: f (x) = | x |
x→0

∴ l . h. l ≠ r . h.l ⇒ given function is disconti-

a f
l .h. l = lim − x = 0
x→0

nuous at x = 0. r .h.l = lim a x f = 0

3. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0 x→0

f a0f = 0 = 0
af
f x =e
− x .
∴ l .h . l = r . h. l = f a0f ⇒ given function f (x) is
Solution: l .h. l = lim e
− −xa f
x→0
continuous at x = 0.
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 283

7. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 8 2. A function is defined as

f (x) = | x | + | x – 1 | + | x – 2 |
b g b xx −− 88g
3
f x = , x ≠ 8 ; and f (8) = –1. Solution: Since we know that | x |, | x – 1 | and | x – 2 |
3
are continuous everywhere ⇒ x + | x – 1 | + | x – 2 |
is continuous everywhere

b g b xx −− 88g , x ≠ 8
3
⇒ x + | x – 1 | + | x – 2 | is continuous at x = 0, 1
Solution: f x = 3
Examples on redefined functions which is the

− b x − 8g
combination of f (x) and | f (x) |
3
1. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 2
∴ l .h .l = lim
x→8
b x − 8g 3
3

af
x
= lim a−1f = − 1
f x = , when x ≠ 0 = 0, when x = 0.
x →8
x

F x − 8IJ F − x I = lim − x = 0
3

GH x JK e j
3
r . h. l = lim G
2
Solution: l .h . l = lim
x →8 H x − 8K x →0 x →0

= lim 1 = 1 F x I = lim x = 0
3
x→8 r . h. l = lim
x→0
GH x JK e j
x →0
2

Hence, l .h.l ≠ r .h.l ⇒ given function is discon-

tinuous at x = 8. f (0) = 0
Note af af
∴ l . h. l = r .h . l = f 0 = 0 ⇒ f x is continu-
1. Any polynomial function, ex, sin x, cos x, | x | are ous at x = 0.
functions which are continuous everywhere. 2. Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0
2. Log x is continuous everywhere except x ≤ 0
where it is not defined. af
f x =
x
, when x ≠ 0 = 0, when x = 0.
af x

F −x I = −1
p x
3. Ratio of two polynomials
q x af
is continuous
Solution: l . h. l = lim
x→0 HxK
everywhere except at those points (or, those values
of x) which make q (x) = 0.
F xI = 1
4. | f (x) | is continuous everywhere provided f (x) is
continuous everywhere.
r . h. l = lim
x→0 H xK
∴ l .h.l ≠ r .h.l ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0.
Problems on | f (x) |
3. If f (x) = | x | + 1, x ≠ 0 = 1, at x = 0 test the continuity
1. Discuss the continuity of | x | + | x – 1 | at x = 0, 1. of f (x) at x = 0.
Solution: Since x is continuous everywhere ⇒ x Solution: f (x) = | x | + 1
is continuous everywhere similarly, (x – 1) being a
polynomial is continuous everywhere ⇒ x − 1 is
a f a f
l .h . l = lim − x + 1 = −0 + 1 = 1
x→0

r . h. l = lim a x + 1f = a0 + 1f = 1
continuous everywhere.
Hence, | x | + | x – 1 | is continuous everywhere x→0
⇒ x + | x – 1 | is continuous at x = 0, 1 f (0) = | 0 | + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
284 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
∴ l . h. l = r . h.l = f 0 ⇒ given function f (x) is FG sin 3x × 3x × 1 IJ
H 3x 2x K
= lim
continuous at x = 0. x→0

F sin 3x × 3IJ
4. Discuss the continuity of f (x) at x = 0
= lim G
af
f x =
x− x
x
, when x ≠ 0 = 2, when x = 0. H 3x 2 K
x→0

FG x − a− xf IJ = = × lim G
3 F sin 3x IJ = 3 × 1
Solution: l .h . l = lim
x→0 H x K 2 H 3x K 2
x→0

3
2x =
= lim =2 2
x→0 x

F x − x IJ = 0
r . h. l = lim G
bg
f 0 =
2
(given)
H x K
x→0
3
af
∴ l .h . l = r . h. l ≠ f 0 ⇒ the given function f (x)
∴ l .h.l ≠ r.h.l ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0. is discontinuous at x = 0
Examples on trigonometrical and inverse trigono- 2. Test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0, if

af
metrical functions redefined sin x
f x = ,x≠0
Remember: x
−1 = 1, x = 0
sin x
1. lim
x→0 x
=1
a f
sin − x
−1
Solution: l .h. l = lim
a f
x→0 −x

F −sin x IJ = 1
tan x
=1
= lim G
2. lim
x→0 x
H −x K
x→0

3. lim
sin x
=1 F sin x IJ = 1
r .h. l = lim G
x→0 x
H x K
x→0
tan x f (0) = 1
4. lim =1
x→0 x af
Hence, l .h. l = r . h. l = f 0 ⇒ f (x) is continuous
5. lim cos x = 1 at x = 0.
x →0
Now we come to the problems. 3. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0
1. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0 defined as under
R
a f |Ssin x cos x , when x ≠ 0
where −1 1
af
f x =
sin 3 x
2x
,x≠0
f x =
|T0 , when x = 0
=
2
, x=0 R|sin x ⋅ cos 1 , when x > 0
−1

Solution: f a x f = S
3 x
FG sin 3x IJ |T−sin x ⋅ cos 1x , when x < 0
−1
Solution: l .h. l = r . h. l = lim
x→0 H 2x K
e3 sin a− xf = − sin xj
−1 −1
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 285

F −1 1 I Examples on redefined exponential function of x or

l .h. l = lim −sin
x→0 H x ⋅ cos
x K defined function of x
1. Test the continuity at x = 0 of the following function
LM −1 OP 1

af
1 −
N
= 0 3 lim sin
x→0
x = 0 and cos
x
≤ 1 for x ≠ 0
Q f x =e x
, x ≠ 0 f (0) = 0.

F −1 1I Solution: For h > 0,

a f a f af
r . h. l = lim sin
x→0 H x ⋅ cos
xK=0 f 0 + 0 = lim f 0 + h = lim f h = lim
h→ 0 h→ 0 h→ 0
f (0) = 0 (given) 1
−
Thus, l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) ⇒ given function is
e h
=0
continuous at x = 0.
4. Examine whether the following function is a f a
f 0 − 0 = lim f 0 − h = lim f − h = lim
h→ 0
f h→0
a f h→ 0
continuous at x = 0
1

af
4 3 2
x + x + 2x eh = +∞
f x = −1
, x ≠ 0 and f (0) = 0.
tan x ∴ f (x) has infinite discontinuity at x = 0.
− x
4
x + x + 2x
3 2
2. Test the continuity of y = e at the origin (i.e.
Solution: l.h.l = r.h.l = lim
x→0 −1 x = 0).
tan x
Solution: l .h. l = lim e
a f=
− −x x
lim e = e = 1
0
4 3 2
tan θ + tan θ + 2 tan θ x →0 x →0
= lim
θ→ 0 θ −x 1 1 1
r . h. l = lim e = lim = = =1
[on putting x = tan θ x → 0 , θ → 0 ] x→0 x →0
e
x
e
0
1

F tan θ I + lim F tan θ I + lim 2 tan θ

4 3
af 1 1
= lim
θ→ 0
GH θ JK GH θ JK e θ→0
j θ→ 0
2 f 0 =
e
0
=
1
=1

Thus, l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) ⇒ given function f (x) is

tan θ 3 tan θ 2 continuous at x = 0 (or, origin).
= lim × lim tan θ + lim × lim tan θ
θ→ 0 θ θ→ 0 θ→ 0 θ θ→ 0 Problems based on greatest integer function/

a f
tan θ combination of two greatest integer function/
+ lim × lim 2 tan θ combination of a function and a greatest integer
θ→0 θ θ→ 0
function defined or redefined
=1×0+1×0+1×0=0 1. Discuss the continuity of the following functions
f (0) = 0 (given) at x = 0.
af
Hence, lim f x = f 0 ⇒ the given function
x→0
af (i) f (x) = [x] + [1 – x] for all real x
(ii) f (x) = x + [x] for all real x
f (x) is continuous at x = 0. (Note: (i) If lim f x = 0 af
x→a
(iii) f (x) = [x] + [–x] if x ≠ 0 , f (0) = –1

af
(iv) f (x) = x [x]
and g x ≤ m , , then lim f bxg ⋅ g bxg = 0 . where [t] denotes the largest integer less than or equal
x→a
to t.
x→a
af
(ii) If lim f x = 0 , then f (x) is said to be an Solution: (i) f (x) = [x] + [1 – x] for all real x
infinitesimal (or, infinitely small)).
286 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

l .h . l = lim
x →0− 0
af b x + 1+ x g
f x = lim
x→ 0− 0
f (0) = (0 + [0] ) = 0
∴ l.h.l ≠ r .h.l which means f (x) is discontinuous
= lim c 0 − h + 1 − a0 − hf h at x = 0
h→0 (iii) f (x) = [x] + [–x] if x = 0
= lim b − h + 1 + h g 3 1 > h > 0 ⇒
f (0) = –1
h→0
l .h . l = lim bx g
+ −x
= lim a −1 + 1f = 0
1<1+h<2 x→ 0−0

= lim c 0 − h + −a0 − hf h , h > 0

h→ 0 and –1 < –h < 0
∴ [–h] = –1 h→0

= lim b 0 − h + −0 + h g
[1 + h] = 1 and [1 – h] = 0

r . h. l = lim af
f x = lim bx + 1− x g h→0

= lim b − h + h g
x→ 0+0 x→0 +0

= lim b 0 + h + 1− 0 − h g h→ 0

= lim a−1 + 0f = − 1
h→0

= lim b h + 1 − h g h→ 0
h→0
3 [–h] = –1 and [h] = 0
= lim a0 + 0f = 0
h→0
r .h . l = lim bx + −x g
∴ lim f a x f = 0 and f (0) = [0] + [1 – 0] = 0 + 1 = 1
x→ 0+0
x →0

Hence, lim f a x f = 0 ≠ f a0f = 1 f (0) = 1 which

c a
= lim 0 + h + − 0 + h
h→0
fh
= lim b h + − h g
x→0

means f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0. h→ 0

= lim a0 − 1f = − 1
(ii) f (x) = x + [x] for all real x
l .h. l = lim
x→0 − 0
af
f x h→ 0

f (0) = –1 (given)
= lim
x→0 − 0
bx + x g af
∴ l . h. l = r . h.l = f 0 = − 1 ⇒ f (x) is continu-

b
= lim 0 − h + 0 − h
h→ 0
g ous at x = 0
(iv) f (x) = x [x]

= lim b0 − h − 1g = 0 − 1 = − 1
r . h. l = lim
x→ 0+0
bx x g
h→0

r . h. l = lim f a x f = lim ah f h , h > 0

h→ 0
x→ 0+ 0

= lim b x + x g = lim lahf ⋅ 0q b3 h =0 g

h→0
x→0 + 0

= lim b0 + h + 0 + h g = lim 0 = 0
h→ 0
h→ 0

= lim bh + h g b g
l .h. l = lim− x x
x→0
h→ 0

= lim ah + 0f = 0 = lim la0 − h f 0 − h q , h > 0

h→0 h→ 0
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 287

= lim la− hf − h q
h→ 0
b a fg
= lim 0 + −1
h→ 0

= lim la− h fa −1fq b3 − h = −1g = lim a−1f

h→ 0 h→ 0

= –1
= lim h = 0
h→ 0 f (1) = [1 – 1] + [1 – 1] = [0] + [0] = 0
f (0) = 0 [0] = 0 af
∴ l . h. l = r . h. l ≠ f 1 ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous
∴ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) = 0 which means the function at x = 1
f (x) is continuous at x = 0. (ii) f (x) = [x + 2] + [2 – x]
2. Discuss the continuity of the following functions
at the indicated points. l . h. l = lim
x→2−0
b x+2 + 2− x g
(i) f (x) = [1 – x] + [x – 1] at x = 1
(ii) f (x) = [x + 2] + [2 – x] at x = 2 = lim m2 − h + 2 + 2 − a2 − hf r , h > 0
h→0
LM 1 + x OP − 1 2
= lim m 4 − h + h r
f axf = N Q 2
(iii) 2 at x = 1 h→0
2
x =3+0=3
LM x + 1 OP r . h. l = lim b x+2 g,h>0
+ 2− x
f a xf = N
2 Q at x = − 1 x→2+0

= lim m 2 + h + 2 + 2 − a2 + hf r
(iv)
x 2
h→0
Solution: f (x) = [1 – x] + [x – 1]
l .h. l = lim f x af = lim m 4 + h + − h r
x → 1− 0 h→0

= lim
x →1 − 0
b 1− x + x−1 g = 4 + (–1) = 3
f (2) = [2 + 2] + [2 – 2] = [4] + [0] = 4 + 0 = 4

= lim b 1 − 1 + h + 1 − h − 1 g, h > 0 bg
Hence, l .h. l = r . h. l ≠ f 2 ⇒ f x is discon- bg
h→ 0
tinuous at x = 2
= lim b h + − h g LM 1 + x OP − 1
2

f axf = N Q 2
h→0

= lim b0 + a−1fg
2
(iii) 2
h→ 0 x
= lim a−1f LM 1 + x OP − 1
N2 Q 2
h→ 0 2

= –1
0 < h < 1 and -1 < –h < 0 ⇒ [h] = 0 r . h. l = lim
x → 1+ 0 x2
LM 1 + a1 + hf OP − 1
and [–h] = –1

b 1− x g N2 Q 2 ,h>0
2
r . h. l = lim + x −1
= lim
x → 1+ 0
h→0 a1 + hf 2

= lim c 1 − 1 − h + 1 + h − 1 h, h > 0
h→0
LM 1 + 1 + h + 2hOP − 1
2

= lim c −h + h h
h→0 = lim
N2 Q 2
2
h→ 0
1 + h + 2h
288 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM 1 + 1 + 2hOP − 1 LM 1 + 1OP − 1
= lim N Q 2 f a1f = N Q 2 =1− 1 = 1
2 2
h→0 1 + 2h 1 2 2
∴ l . h. l = r . h.l = f a1f ⇒ f a x f is continuous at
LM 3 + 2hOP − 1
= lim N Q 2 x =1.
2
h→ 0 1 + 2h LM x + 1 OP
f a xf = N
2Q
1−
1 LM 3 + 2hOP = 1 (iv)
x
= lim 2
∴
N2 Q as
h → 0 1 + 2h LM x + 1 OP
1
3
2
1<
+ 2h < 2 for
l .h . l = lim N 2Q
1
x→− −0 x
= lim 2 = 1 h being sufficinetly 2
h → 0 1 + 2h 2 small > 0
LM− 1 − h + 1 OP
= lim N
2 2Q
LM 1 + x OP − 1 h→ 0 LM− − hOP , h > 0
1
N2 Q 2 N 2 Q
2

l .h. l = lim
x → 1− 0 x2 −h

LM 1 + a1 − hf OP − 1
= lim
h→0 LM 1 OP
N − −h
Q
= lim N Q 2 ,h>0
2
2
2
h→0 a1 − hf 2
= lim
h→0
−1
−1
LM 3 − 2hOP − 1 = lim 1
= lim N Q 2 [on neglecting higher h→ 0
2
h→ 0 a1 − 2hf =1

power of h]. LM 1 OP
1
3 −
N 2 Q
− h = − 1 and [–h] = –1 as 0 < h < 1 ⇒
1−
= lim 2 1
h → 0 1 − 2h –1 < –h < 0 ⇒ − 1 < − −h<0
2

1 LM− 1 + h + 1 OP
r . h. l = lim N
= lim 2 = 1 2 2Q
h → 0 1 − 2h 2 h→0 LM− 1 + hOP , h > 0
LM 3 − 2hOP = 1 as 1 < 3 − 2h < 2 for h N 2 Q
3
N2 Q 2 h
being suffuciently small > 0
= lim
h→0 LM 1 OP
N − +h
2 Q
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 289

= lim
0 = lim
x→3+ 0
b x−3 + 3− x g
h→0 −1
= lim 0 = 0
x→
= lim
h→0
c 3+h− 3 + 3− 3− h h
= lim = c h + −h h
LM 1 OP h→0
3 −
N 2 Q
+ h = − 1 and [h] = 0 as 0 < h < 1 ⇒
= lim a−1 + 0f = − 1
h→ 0
1
–1 < –h < 0 ⇒ − 1 < − + h < 0
2 3 h = 0 and [–h] = –1 as 0 < h < 1 ⇒

LM− 1 + 1 OP –1 < –h < 0

F I N 2 2Q = 0
1
H K L− 1 O L− 1 O
f − = f (3) = [3 – 3] + [3 – 3] = [0] + [0] 0 + 0 = 0
af
2
MN 2 PQ MN 2 PQ ∴ l . h. l = r . h .l ≠ f 3 ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous
at x = 3
=
0
=0 LM− 1 OP = − 1 as −1 < − 1 < 0 af
Further, l .h . l = r . h. l ≠ f 3 ⇒ f (x) has a re-
−1 N 2Q 2 moval discontinuity at x = 3. This is why to remove
the discontinuity at x = 3, are must modify the defini-
∴ l .h. l ≠ r . h. l = f a0f ⇒ f (x) is discontinuous tion of f as follows.
f (x) = [x – 3] + [3 – x], when x ≠ 3
1
at x = − . = –1, when x = 3
2
3. Show that the function f defined by f (x) = [x – 3] + 4. Show that the function f defined by f (x) = [x – 1] +
[3 – x], where [t] denotes the largest integer < t, is | x – 1| for x ≠ 1 , and f (1) = 0 is discontinuous at
discontinuous at x = 3. Modify the definition of f so x = 1. Can the definition of f at x = 1 be modified so as
as to make it continuous there. to make it continuous there?
Solution: f (x) = [x – 3] + [3 – x] Solution: f (x) = [x – 1] + | x – 1| for x ≠ 1
l .h. l = lim af
f x f (1) = 0 (given)
x →3− 0
l . h. l = lim af
b x−3 + g
f x
= lim 3− x x →1− 0
x →3− 0
= lim lx−1 + x−1 q
= lim b 3−h−3 + 3−3+h g,h>0 x → 1− 0
h→ 0

= lim b − h + h g
= lim
h→ 0
l 1 − h − 1 + 1 − h − 1 q ,h>0
= lim l − h + − h q
h →0

= lim a−1 + 0f = − 1 h→0

= lim a −1 + hf
h→0

h→ 0
3 h = 0 and [–h] = –1 as 0 < h < 1 ⇒
–1 < –h < 0 = –1 + 0 = –1

r . h. l = lim
x → 3+ 0
af
f x 3 | –h | = | h | = h as h > 0 and 0 < h < 1
⇒ –1 < –h < 0 ⇒ [–h] = –1
290 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

r . h. l = lim
x → 1+ 0
af
f x ∴ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (–5)
But f (–5) = k
… (i)
… (ii)
= lim
x → 1+ 0
lx−1 + x−1 q (i) and (ii) ⇒ − 10 = k ⇒ k = − 10 Ans.

l1+ h − 1 + q af
3 2
x + x − 16 x + 20
= lim 1 + h − 1 ,h>0 2. If f x = ,x≠2
h→ 0
a x − 2f 2

= lim l h + h q = k, when x = 2 and f (x) is continuous at x = 2, find the

h→ 0
value of K.
= lim a0 + hf 3 2
h→ 0 x + x − 16 x + 20
Solution: l .h. l = r . h. l = lim
=0+0=0 3 [h] = 0 as 0 < h < 1
a x − 2f
x→2 2
,

af
∴ l .h .l ≠ r .h .l = f 1 = 0 ⇒ f (x) is discontinu-

ous at x = 1. Further, l .h . l ≠ r . h. l ⇒ lim f x does af a x − 2f e x + 3x − 10j

2

not exist which ⇒ we can not modify the definition

x →1 = lim
x→2 a x − 2f a x − 2f
of f at x = 1 in any way to make it continuous at x = 1.
a x − 2f a x + 5f
Type 5: Problems based on finding the value of a
constant ‘k’ if the given function it continuous at a
= lim
x→2 a x − 2f
given point x = a. = lim a x + 5f = 2 + 5 = 7
x→2
Working rule: To find the value of a constant ‘k’ if
the given function is continuous at a given point Now, since f (x) is continuous at x = 2 (given in the
x = a, we adopt the following procedure. problem)
1. Find the l.h.l and r.h.l ∴ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (2) … (i)
2. Equate l.h.l = r.h.l = f (a) = a constant given in the But f (2) = k (given in the problem) … (ii)
question and solve the equation for k. Hence, (i) and (ii) ⇒ 7 = k , i.e; k = 7 Ans.
3. Find the value of k if the following function is
Solved Examples continuous at x = 0
1. A function f is defined as
bg
f x =
1 − cos kx
x sin x
, x ≠ 0 and f (0) = 2.
af
2
x − 25
f x = , x ≠ − 5 and f (–5) = k, x = –5 if f (x)
x+5 1 − cos kx
Solution: l .h. l = r . h. l = lim
is continuous at x = –5, find K. x →0 x sin x
F x − 25I
2
FG kx IJ
Solution: l .h . l = r . h. l = lim
x → −5
GH x + 5 JK 2 sin 2
H2K
= lim
x→0
a x + 5f a x + 5f
x sin x
= lim
x → −5 a x + 5f LM F kx I OP
sin G J
a x − 5f = a−5 − 5f = − 10 M H 2K ⋅k x P
2
= lim 2
= lim M
sin x P
MM FG k x IJ 4
x → −5 ⋅ ⋅2
x→0 2 2
PP
NH 4 K
Now, since, f (x) is continuous at x = –5 (given in
the problem) Q
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 291

Find the values of a, b, c if f (x) is continuous at

=2× 1 bg 2
×
k2
4
x=0
Solution:

=
k2
af
l .h . l = lim f x = lim
LM sin aa + 1f x + sin x OP
2 x →0 N
x →0 x Q
Now, that given function f (x) is continuous at
x = 0 ⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) L sin aa + 1f x + sin x OP
= lim M
N x x Q
...(i)
But f (0) = 2 (given) …(ii) x→0

(i) and (ii) ⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0)

L
= lim Maa + 1f
sin aa + 1f x sin x O
P
x aa + 1f
+
⇒
k2
2
=2 x→0 N x Q

sin aa + 1f x
= lim aa + 1f
sin x
⇒ k2 = 4
⇒ k= ±2
x→0 aa + 1f x + lim x x→0

= (a + 1) · 1 + 1 = a + 1 + 1 = a + 2 ...(1)
4. Find the value of k if the following function f (x) is

af
continuous at x = 0 x + bx −
2
x
r . h. l = lim f x = lim
bg
f x =
sin kx
x
,x≠0
x→0 x →0 bx x
,x>0

L x + bx − x x + bx + OP
= lim M
f (x) = 4 + x, x = 0 2 2
x
FG sin kx IJ MN bx x × x + bx + xQ
P
H x K
x→0
Solution: l .h. l = r . h. l = lim 2
x→0

FG sin kx ⋅ k IJ LM OP
= lim
H kx K = lim M
MM bx x FG x + bx + x IJ PPP
2
x→0 x + bx − x
x→0

N H KQ
2
sin kx
= lim ⋅k
x→0 kx
=k×1=k LM OP
= lim M
MM bx x FG x + bx + x IJ PPP
Also, f (0) = 4 + 0 = 4 2
bx
Now, f (x) is continuous at x = 0 ⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l =
x→0

N H KQ
2
f (0) …(i)
But f (0) = 4 … (ii)
(i) and (ii) ⇒ k = 4 Ans. LM OP
= lim M
MM x G x + bx + x IJ PPP
5. A function f (x) is defined as follows x

af a f
sin a + 1 x + sin x x→0 F
N H KQ
2
f x = , for x < 0
x
= c, for x = 0
LM OP
= lim M
MM x FG x + bx + x IJ PPP
2
x + bx − x x ⋅ x
= , for x > 0
x→0

N H KQ
bx x 2
292 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM OP LM 1 ⋅ log a1+ axf + b ⋅ 1 ⋅ log a1− bxfOP

= lim M
N ax
= lim a ⋅
Q
MM FG x + bx + x IJ PPP
x x→0 −bx
x→0

NH
2
KQ L
= lim Ma ⋅ log a1 + ax f + b log a1 − bx f P
1 O −
1

x→0 N ax
Q bx

= lim M
L 1 OP = 1 = a lim log a1 + ax f + b lim log a1 − bx f
1
−
1

x→0 MN 1 + bx + 1PQ 2 ...(2) x→0

ax
x→0
bx

= a (1) + b (1) = a + b
f (0) = c (given)
Now, for f (x) to be continuous at x = 0,
f (x) is continuous at x = 0 ⇔ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0)
1 x→0
af af
lim f x = f 0
⇔a+2= =c
2 ⇒ f (0) = a + b
1 3 1 Thus, the correct answer is (b).
⇔a= − 2 = − and c =
2 4 2 Note: Problem (6) is a problem of a point of removable
discontinuity of the function f (x) which tells x = a is
3
Thus, we get a = − a point of removable discontinuity of the function

1
2
af
f (x) if there is a limit lim f x = b but either f (x) is
x→a
c= not defined at the point x = a or (f (x) at x = a) ≠ b and
2
if we set f (a) = b, then the function f (x) becomes
Again, no restriction is imposed on b ⇒ it can continuous at the point x = a, i.e; the discontinuity is
have any non-zero finite value ( 3 b = 0 makes f (x) removed.
undefined)
bg b g
1
Thus, we conclude
7. If f x = 1 + x , when x ≠ 0 = k, when x = 0
x

R|a = − 3 find the value of k if f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

|c = 1 2 a f (where y = f (x))
1

S| 2 Solution: y = 1 + x x

||b = any non - zero finite value ⇒ log y = log a1 + x f

1

T
x

⇒ log y = log a1 + x f
1
6. The function
x
af a f
log 1 + ax − log 1 − bx a f is not do find at
f x =
x ⇒ lim log y = lim
x→0 x→0
1
x
a f
⋅ log 1 + x = 1
x = 0.
1
Find the value which should be assigned to f at ⇒ lim y = e = e
x→0
x = 0 so that it is continuous at x = 0 is
(a) a – b (b) a + b (c) log a + log b (d) none of Now, l . h. l = r .h . l = lim y = e … (i)
these. x→0

Solution: (3 x ≠ 0 ⇒ x > 0 and x < 0)

af 1 LM 1
a f a fOPQ
lim f x = lim
x→0 x→0 x N
log 1 + ax − log 1 − bx
x
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 293

Now, f (x) is given to be continuous at x = 0 3 2

⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l = f (0) a − 7a + 3a − 1
= 2
… (i)
⇒ e = k, i.e; k = e. Ans. a − 3a

Continuity in an Interval
1. A function f or f (x) defined in the open interval
Similarly, xlim
→a
f x = bg a 3 − 7a 2 + 3a − 1
a 2 − 3a
…(ii)
x<a
(a, b) is said to be continuous in the open interval
(a, b) ⇔ f (x) is continuous at any arbitrary point 3 2
a − 7a + 3a − 1
x = c where a < c < b. Hence, to test the continuity in and f (a) = … (iii)
2
an open interval (or, for all x), we simply consider an a − 3a
arbitrary point x = c s.t a < c < b = (a, b) and we show Hence, (i), (ii) and (iii)
af
that lim f x = f c
h →0
af af
⇒ lim f x = lim f x = f a ⇒ the given
x→a x →a
af af
a f
or, lim f c + h = lim f (c – h) = f (c), where h → 0
h →0 h→ 0
x >a x <a

function f (x) is continuous at x = a but ‘a’ is any

through +ve values arbitrary point in (0,3), so the given function f (x) is

af
or , lim f x = lim f x = f c
x→c x →c
af af continuous in 0 < x < 3.
Or, alternatively,
x <c x >c

af
3 2
a − 7 a − 3a − 1
Note: We must remember that it is not possible to f a = 2
test the continuity of the function at every point of a − 3a
an interval, however small it may be. This is why to
af
3 2
a − 7a − 3a − 1
test the continuity of a function f (x) in an interval lim f x = 2
x→a
(a, b), we always consider an arbitrary point a − 3a
x = c s.t a < c < b and we show that lim f x = f c .
x→c
af af af
Hence, f (a) = lim f x ⇒ continuity of f (x) at
x→a
This rule is applicable when the given function is not any arbitrary point x = a ⇒ continuity of f (x) in the
a piecewise function or when the given function is given interval (0, 3).
not redefined. 2. Some-times taking some points in the given interval
Explanation (open or closed), we test the continuity of the function
1. Test the continuity of the function at each such point separately belonging to the given
interval (open or closed). This is the case when the
af
3
x − 7 x + 3x − 1 given function is a piecewise function, i.e; if a function
f x = 2 in the interval
x − 3x is defined by different formulas for different ranges
of values of x, then there is a possibility of
a f
0 < x < 3, i.e; x ∈ 0 , 3 discontinuity at the values where the two ranges of x
Solution: Let x = a be any arbitrary point in (0, 3) s.t meet. Thus if we have one expression f1 (x) for x > a
0<a<3 and another expression f2 (x) for x < a, then the
Now, probable point of discontinuity of the function given

a a + h f − 7 a a + h f + 3 a a + hf − 1
to us is x = a. Similarly, if we have one expression f3 (x)
af
3
for x ≤ a' and another expression f4 (x) for x > a' ,
lim f x = lim
x→a
x >a
h→ 0 aa + h f − 3 aa + h f
2 then the probable point of the discontinuity of the
function f (x) given to us is x = a'.
(putting x = a + h)
294 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Explanation Solved Examples

1. Consider the function f (x) defined as under
1. At what points of the interval, shown against each
f (x) = 0 for all values of x > 1
function are the following functions discontinuous?
f (x) = 1 for all values of x < 1
(i) f (x) = x if x ≠ 0
af
f x =
1
2
for x = 1 f (0) =1, in the interval [–1, 1]
where, we can see that only probable point of the (ii) f (x) = 4x + 7 for x ≠ 2
function f (x) at which it may be discontinuous is f (2) = 3, in the interval [–4, 4]
x = a since f (x) (or, the value of the function ‘f ’)
af
2
changes its expression in the neighbourhood of x = 1. 9 x − 16 4
(iii) f x = 3 , when x ≠
2. Consider the function f (x) defined as under 27 x − 64 3
f (x) = (2x – 1), when x < 0
f (x) = 2x, when x ≥ 0 F 4 I = 2 , in the interval [–1, 3]
where by inspecting the behaviour of the given
f
H 3K 3
function f (x), we can see that only probable point of Solutions: (i) By inspecting the behaviour of the
f (x) at which it may be discontinuous is x = 0 since given function, we can see that the only probable
the function f (x) (or, the value of the function ‘f ’) point of the interval [–1, 1] at which the given function
changes its expression in the neighbourhood of x = 0. may be discontinuous is x = 0 because the function
3. The functions which we face in elementary f (x) changes its expression in the neighbourhood of

LMi.e; when x ≠ 0, the value of OP

applications of the calculus are usually either
continuous for values of x or have discontinuities
only for a number of values which makes the function
MM bg
x = 0 the function f x = x and PP
undefined/imaginary/infinite.
N b g
f 0 =1 Q
Thus, l .h. l = r . h.l = lim f a x f = lim x = 0
Explanation
1 x→0 x→0
(i) y = ⇒ this function is discontinuous at x = 0.
x f (0) = 1 (given)
(ii) y = tan x ⇒ this function is discontinuous at af
(i) and (ii) ⇒ l . h. l = r . h. l ≠ f 0 ⇒ f (or, f (x)) is
π discontinuous at x = 0.
x= .
2 (ii) we can see that only probable point of the interval
[–4, 4] at which the function may be discontinuous is
x x = 2 since the value of the function f (or, f (x)) changes
(iii) y = ⇒ this function is discontinuous
e 2
x −4 j its expression in the neighbourhood of x = 2

at x = ± 2 .
[3 f x af x≠2 b a fg = 3 ]
= 4 x + 3 and f x x =2

Thus, l .h . l = r . h. l = lim a4 x + 7 f = 8 + 7 = 15
4. If the continuity fails to exist for some value of x x→2
between a and b in case the interval is open, we say [f (x)]x = 2 = f (2) = 3
that the function is discontinuous in (a, b).
5. If the continuity fails to exist for some value of x
af
∴ l .h .l = r . h. l ≠ f 2 ⇒ f (or, f (x)) is
discontinuous at x = 2.
between a and b (including a and b) in case the interval
(iii) The only probable point of discontinuity of the
is closed, we say that the function is discontinuous
in [a, b]. 4
function is x = since the function f or f (x) changes
3
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 295

4 f (1) = 2 + 1 = 3
its expression in the neighbourhood of x = , i.e. ∴ f (x) is discontinuous at x = 1.
3
Therefore, f (x) is discontinuous in the given closed
bg
f x
x≠
4
3
=
9 x 2 − 16
27 x 3 − 64
interval [0, 2].
3. Show that the function

R2 x + 3 , when − 3 < x < − 2

af a f |S x − 1, when − 2 ≤ x < 0
2
f x 4 =
x= f x =
3 3
|T x + 2 , when 0 < x < 1
9 x 2 − 16
Thus l .h . l = r . h. l = lim is discontinuous in the open interval (–3, 1).
27 x 3 − 64
a f
4
x→
3 Solution: l .h. l = lim 2 x + 3 = 2 × (–2) + 3
a3x − 4f a3x + 4f
x → −2
x < −2
= lim
4
a3x − 4f e9 x + 12 x + 16j
2 = – 4 + 3 = –1
ax − 1f = –2 – 1 = –3
x→
3
r . h. l = lim
x → −2
3x + 4 x > −2
= lim
x→
4 2
9 x + 12 x + 16 Thus, ( l .h.l ≠ r .h.l at x = –2) ⇒ f (x) is
3
discontinuous is [–3, 1]
F 4I + 4
H 3K
Note: There is no need to test the continuity at x = 0
3
8 1 where
= = =
F 4 I + 12 F 4 I + 16 48 6
2
af
l .h. l = lim f x = lim x − 1 = − 1 a f
9
H 3K H 3K x →0
x <0
x→0

But f F I =
4 2 af a
r . h. l = lim f x = lim x + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2 f
H 3K 3 x →0
x >0
x →0

F 4I Hence, l .h. l ≠ r . h.l at x = 0 which means f (x) is

Hence, l . h. l = r .h. l ≠ f
H 3K discontinuous at x = 0 and so discontinuous in the
given open interval (–3, 1).

⇒ lim f a x f ≠ f
F 4I
x→
4
3
H 3K Continuity at the End
Points of a Closed Interval

4 Definition: Set a function f (x) be defined on (or, over

⇒ f (or, f (x)) is not continuous at x = or, in) the closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b = a , b where
3
2. Discuss the continuity of f in [0, 2] if a = left end point and b = right end point.
f (x) = x + 1, 0 ≤ x < 1 1. The function f (x) is said to be continuous at the
left end point ‘a’ of a closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b iff
= 2x + 1, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

af a f
Solution: l .h . l = lim f x = lim x + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
x → 1− x →1
af
r.h.l of f (x) at x = a is = f (a) , i.e.; lim f x = f a
x→a
af
af af
x >a

r . h. l = lim f a x f = lim a2 x + 1f = 2 × 1 + 1 / lim+ f x = f a , where f (a) = value of the

x→a
x → 1+ x →1

=2+1=3 function at x = a.
296 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f RST ff aaxxff,, when

2. The function f (x) is said to be continuous at the
a≤ x<b
right end point ‘b’ of a closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b iff 4. f x =
1
when b ≤ x < c
af af
2

l.h.l of f (x) at x = b is f (b), i.e; lim f x = f b / and the interval is [a, c)

x→a

af af x <a In all above types of problems ‘b’ may be regarded

lim− f x = f b , where f (b) = value of the
x →b
function at x = b.
Note:
1. Continuity at the left end point of closed interval
is required only when a given function is not defined
for x < a, where a = left end point ⇒ If we are not
af
provided f (x) = φ x for x < a and we are provided
af af
f x = φ1 x for x ≥ a ⇒ we are required to test
the continuity at x = a = l.e.p for which only r.h.l is
required to find out.
2. Continuity at the right end point of a closed interval
is required only when a given function is not defined
for x > b, where b = right end point ⇒ if we are not
af
provided f (x) = φ x for x > b and we are provided
af af
f x = φ1 x for x ≤ b ⇒ we are required to test
the continuity at x = b = r.e.p for which only l.h.l is
required to find out. This is why we do not need to
find out the right hand limit of the given function.
Aid to memory
r . e. p needs
→ l . h. l
l . e. p  
→ r . h. l
Now, we come to the model of the questions which
are provided to us. Generally the model of the
question is the following:
as the common point where the two ranges of values
of the independent variable x meet when a given
function f (x) is defined by various formulas for
different ranges of x as well as a and c may be regarded
as the end point of a closed interval or semi (or, half)
open and semi closed or semi closed and semi open
interval as (a, c] or [a, c).
Now, a question arises how to test the continuity
at x = a, b, c when the given function is a piecewise
function.
Question: How to test the continuity at x = b =
common point where the two ranges of x meet?
Answer: Continuity at the common point where the
two ranges of x meet requires to find out l.h.l, r.h.l
and the value of the function at x = b for which we
should consider both given functions f1 (x) and f2 (x)
against which the restriction.
x > b and x ≤ b
or, x ≥ b and ≤ b
or, x > b, x < b and x = b
or, x ≥ b and x < b is imposed.
Question 2: How to test the continuity at x = l.e.p of
[a, c] = a ≤ x ≤ c ?
Answer: Continuity at x = l.e.p of [a, c] or, [a, c)
requires to find the r.h.l of the function f (x) = f1 (x)
against which x ≥ a is written and the value of the
function f (x) at x = a and the other function f (x)

a f RST ff aaxxff,, when

= f2 (x) against which the restriction x < a is imposed
a≤ x≤b is not defined (or, given). This is why l.h.l of f (x) = f2
1. f x =
1
when b ≤ x ≤ c (x) as x → a is not required which means that
af
2

and the interval is [a, c] lim− f 2 x is not required to find out. While testing

a f RST ff aaxxff,, when

x→a
a<x<b
2. f x =
1 the continuity at l.e.p of the closed interval [a, c] or
2 when b ≤ x ≤ c semi closed and semi open interval [a, c).
and the interval is (a, c] Question 3: How to test the continuity at x = r.e.p of

a f RST ff aaxxff,, when

3. f x =
1

2
a≤ x<b
when b ≤ x ≤ c
[a, c] = a ≤ x ≤ c ?
Answer: Continuity at x = r.e.p of [a, c] or, (a, c]
requires to find out l.h.l of the function f (x) = f2 (x)
and the interval is [a, c]
against which x < c is written and the value of the
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 297

function f (x) = f2 (x) at x = c and the other function f

(x) = f1 (x) against which x > c is imposed is not defined
Also lim
x →1− 0
af
f x = lim
x →1 + 0
af
f x = f 1 af
(or, given). This is why r.h.l of f (x) = f1 (x) as x → c ∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
is not required which means lim+ f 1 x
x→c
af is not
Hence f (x) is continuous in [0, 2]
3. A function f (x) is defined by
required to find out while testing the continuity at f (x) = (x + 2), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
r.e.p of the closed interval [a, c] or semi open and
semi closed (a, c] interval. = 8x , 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
test the continuity at x = 0, 2, 4
Solved Examples Solution: (1) At x = 2
1. A function f (x) is defined as follows l .h. l = lim (x + 2) = 4 …(i)
x→2
f (x) = 0, when x = 0
= 3x – 1, when 0 < x < 1
= 2x, when x = 1
af
f x x=2
= x+2 a f x =2
= 8x
x =2
= 4 …(ii)
Test the continuity at x = 0 and x = 1.
Solution: At x = 0 r . h. l = lim 8x = 8 × 2 = 4 …(iii)
x→2

x→0
a f
r . h. l = lim 3 x − 1 = 3 · 0 – 1 = –1 …(i) (i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ l.h.l = r.h.l = value of the function
at x = 2.
[f (x)]x = 0 = f (0) = 0 …(ii) (2) At x = 0 = left end point of the closed interval
(i) and (ii) ⇒ r .h. l ≠ value of the function at x = 0 [0, 4]
⇒ discontinuity of the given function at the left end
point of the closed interval [0, 1] at x = 1
a
r . h. l = lim x + 2 = 2
x→0
f …(i)

x →1
a f
l . h. l = lim 3 x − 1 = 2 …(i) af
f x x =0
= x+2 x=0
=2 …(ii)

[f (x)]x = 1 = f (1) = [2x]x = 1 = 2 × 1 = 2 …(ii) (i) and (ii) ⇒ the function f (x) is continuous at
(i) and (ii) ⇒ l.h.l = value of the function ⇒ x = 0 = left end point of the closed interval [0, 4].
continuity of the given function f (x) at the right end (3) At x = 4 = right end point of the closed interval
point of the closed interval [0, 1] = 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . [0, 4]
2. Test the continuity of f (x) at x = 2, when l .h. l = lim
x→4
e 8x j = 8×4 =4 2
f (x) = x2 + x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
= x2 + 2, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 af
f x x =4
= 8x
x=4
= 8 × 4 = 32 = 4 2
Solution: Here f (x) is defined on the closed interval
(1) and (2) ⇒ continuity at x = 4 since l.h.l = value
[0, 2] = 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 Hence, to test the continuity of
of the function at x = 4
f (x) at x = 2 only l.h.l is required since x = 2 is a right
end point of the closed interval [0. 2]. 4. A function f is defined in the following way:
f (x) = 0, when x = 0
e 3
j
l .h. l = lim x + 2 = 8 + 2 = 10
x→2
…(i) = 2x – 1, when 0 < x < 1
= 2 – x, when x ≥ 1
[f (x)]x = 2 = (x3 + 2) = 8 + 2 = 10 …(ii)
(i) and (ii) ⇒ l.h.l = f (2) ⇒ continuity of the is f (x) continuous at x = 0 and x = 1?
Solution: At x = 0
given function at the right end point of the closed
We inspect that f (x) is not defined for x < 0 since
interval [0, 2].
Note: f (x) is continuous at x = 0 as r.h.l at x = 0 is
af
f (x) = φ x = an expression in x when x < 0 is not
provided.
= f (0).
298 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
r.h.l = f (0 + 0) = lim f x = lim 2 x − 1 = − 1
x→0 x→0
a f Or, alternatively,
The function y = f (x) is continuous in an open
af
f x x =0
a
= 0 given = f 0f af af
interval (a, b) provided lim f x = f c where
x→c
af
(i) and (ii) ⇒ f (x) is not continuous at x = 0 = left x = c is an arbitrary point (or, number) s.t.
end point (l.e.p) of the closed interval [0, 1] at x = 1 4. Criterion of continuity in a closed interval: The
a f a f
l .h . l = f 1 − 0 = lim 2 x − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1
x →1
function y = f (x) is continuous in a closed interval [a,
b] ⇔ (i) f (x) is continuous at each point of (a, b)
r . h. l = f a1 + 0f = lim a2 − x f = 2 − 1 = 1
x →1
af
(ii) lim+ f x = f a
x→a
af af
(iii) lim− f x = b hold
x →b

f a xf x =1
= a2 − x f = 2 −1=1
x =1
good .
Or, alternatively,
Hence, f (1 –0) = f (1 + 0) = f (1) ⇒ continuity at If the domain of a real valued function (or, real
x = 1. function) f or f (x) is a closed interval [a, b], then f or
f (x) is continuous in (or, over/on/) closed interval ⇔
Facts to Know
We end this chapter by mentioning some facts about
af af
(i) lim f x = f c where x = c is any arbitrary
x→c

continuity which the students must remember.

1. Criterion of continuity at a real number: The
af
point s.t a < c < b (ii) lim f x = r . h .l at the l.e.p =
x→a
x >a
function y = f (x) is continuous at the point x = a
provided (i) it is defined at this point (ii) there is a limit f (a) = value of the function at the l.e.p (i.e; left end
af
namely lim f x = L (iii) this limit is equal to the
x →a x→a
af
point) (iii) lim f x = l.h.l at the r.e.p = f (b) = value
x <b
value of the function at the point (or, real number) of the function y = f (x) at r.e.p (i.e; right end point)
x = a. 5. Criterion at the left end point of a closed interval
Or, alternatively, [a, b]: f1 (x) is continuous at x = a = left end point of
A function y = f (x) is continuous at the real number the closed interval
x = a / x = a is a point of continuity of f (x) ⇔ (i) f (a)
af
exists (ii) lim f x exists (iii) lim f x = f a af af af
a , b ⇔ lim+ f 1 x = lim f 1 x = f a ⇔
x→a x→a
af af
x→a x→a x >a
If one or more of these three conditions fail to hold (r.h.l at x = a) = value of the function at x = a.
good at x = a, we say that f (x) is discontinuous at 6. Criterion at the right end point of a closed interval
x = a or x = a is a point of discontinuity of the function [a, b]: f1 (x) is continuous at x = b = right end point of
y = f (x). the closed interval
2. Criterion of continuity in an interval: The
function which has continuity at every point of an af
a , b ⇔ lim− f 1 x = lim f 1 x = f b ⇔
x →b x→b
af af
interval is continuous throughout that interval. x <b

3. Criterion of continuity in an open interval: The (l.h.l at x = b) = value of the function at x = b.

function y = f (x) is continuous in an open interval (a, N.B.: (i) To test the continuity at right end point of a
b) provided f (x) is continuous at each point of (a, b)
and the function y = f (x) is discontinuous in (a, b) if af
closed interval, l.h.l = lim f 2 x is not required
x→a
f (x) is discontinuous atleast at one point of (a, b). x <a

since the function f2 (x) is not given (or, defined) for

x < a where y = f (x) is a piecewise function defined in
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 299

a closed interval which is divided into a finite number x = a, we consider another function defined in an
of non-overlapping sub intervals over each of which interval (or sub interval) containing all those values
different functions are defined. of x which are greater than (or, greater than or equal
(ii) To test the continuity at the left end point of a to) a.

x→b
af
closed interval, r . h. l = lim f 2 x is not required to
Problems
x >b

find out since the function f2 (x) is not given (or, Type1: When the function is defined.
defined) for x > b where y = f (x) is a piecewise function
defined in a closed interval which is divided into a Exercise 5.1
finite number of non-overlapping sub intervals over
each of which different functions are defined. Examine each function for the continuity defined by
(iii) If the interval is closed one, the limit at the left
af
2
end will mean right hand limit and the limit at the right x −9
1. f x = , when x ≠ 3
end will mean the left hand limit. x−3
6. If functions f1 (x) and f2 (x) are continuous in an f (x) = 6, when x = 3 [Ans: cont. at x = 3]
interval (a, b) or [a, b], then the function
af
2
(i) c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) x + 2x − 9
2. f x = , when x ≠ 1
(ii) f1 (x) × f2 (x) x−1
af
f1 x f (x) = 4, when x = 1 [Ans: discont. at x = 0]
(iii)
af
f2 x
, provided f2 (x) ≠ 0 for any value of x
3. f (x) = 4x + 3, when x ≠ 4
belonging to the interval (open or closed), are also f (x) = 3x + 7, when x = 4 [Ans: cont. at x = 4]

bg b g
continuous in the open interval (a, b) or in the closed 1
interval [a, b]. 4. f x = 1 + x x , when x ≠ 0
7. The continuity of the function can be used to f (x) = e, when x = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0]

af
calculate its limits which means if the function y = f (x) cos ax − cos bx
is continuous at the point x = a, then, in order to find 5. f x = , when x ≠ 0
af
2
x
out its limit lim f x , it is sufficient to calculate the
x→a

af
2 2
b −a
value of the function at x = a because f x = when x = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0]
af af
lim f x = f a when y = f (x) is continuous at
x→a
2
3

af
x = a. x
8. While testing the continuity of a redefined function 6. f x = , when x ≠ 0
x
x→a
af
we use (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = a) = lim f 1 x , where f (x) f (x) = 0, when x = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0]

af F 1 I , when x ≠ 0
= f1 (x) for x ≠ a provided f1 (x) is not a mod function
H xK
2
7. f x = x sin
(or a combination or composition of mod function) or
a greatest integer function. f (0) = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0]

af
9. When a given function is a piecewise function, 1 − cos x
then to find the l.h.l at a point x = a, we consider a 8. f x = 2 , when x ≠ 0
function defined in an interval (or, sub interval) x
containg all those values of x which are less than (or,
less than or equal to) a and to find the r.h.l at a point af
f x =
1
2
when x = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0]
300 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R|1 − cos mx , when x ≠ 0 19. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) at

f a xf = S
| 1 − cos nx t =
π

||
9. 2 2
m
, when x = 0
T n
2
af
f t =
cos t
,t ≠
π
π 2
[Ans: cont. at x = 0] −t
R| sin
2
−1

f axf = S x af
x π π
, when x ≠ 0 f t = 1, t = [Ans: continuous at = ]
|T
10.
1 , when x = 0 2 2
20. Discuss the continuity of the function

U|
[Ans: cont. at x = 0]
R|x sin F 1 I , when x ≠ 0 af
f x =
tan 7 x
, for x ≠ 0
f axf = S HK sin 4 x
V|
at x = 0
|T x 0 , when x = 0
11.
|W
7
= , for x = 0
4
[Ans: cont. at x = 0]
[Ans: cont. at x = 0]
R| tan x − sin x , when x ≠ 0 Type 2: Problems on piecewise function:
f axf = S
3
x
||T
12.
1 Exercise 5.2.1
, when x = 0
2
[Ans: cont. at x = 0] Examine the continuity of the function f (x) defined
by
13. f x = af sin 3x − 3 sin x
a x − πf 3
, when x ≠ π
1. f (x) = 2x – 1, when x < 2
f (x) = x2 – 4x + 5, when x ≥ 2
f (x) = 4, when x = π [Ans: cont. at x = π ] [Ans: discont. at x = 2]
2. f (x) = x – 3. when x < 4
14. f x = af x tan x
1 − cos x
, when x ≠ 0 f (x) = 5 – x, when x ≥ 4
[Ans: cont. at x = 4]
f (x) = 2, when x = 0 [Ans: cont. at x = 0] 3. f (x) = 3 – 2x, when x ≤ 2
f (x) = x – 1, when x > 2
af
2 2
1+ x − 1− x
15. f x = 2 when x ≠ 0 [Ans: discont. at x = 2]
x
af
3
x
f (x) = 2, when x = 0 [Ans: discont. at x = 0] 4. f x = , when x < 4
16. Show that f (x) = | x – 5 | is continuous at x = 5. 16
17. Show that f (x) = 1 – 2x – x2, when x ≥ 4
R x−a
a f |S x − a , x ≠ a
[Ans: discont. at x = 4]
f x = 5. f (x) = x2 – 2x + 3, when x ≤ 1
|T 1 , x = a f (x) = x + 1, when x > 1 [Ans: cont. at x = 1]
6. f (x) = x2, when 0 < x < 1
is discontinuous at x = 1.
18. Examine the continuity of f (x) = | x – b | at x = b. f (x) = x, when 1 ≤ x < 2
[Ans: cont. at x = b]
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 301

f (x) = –6 + x3, when 2 ≤ x < 3

af
2
x +1
[Ans: cont. at x = 1, 2] f x = , when 5 < x ≤ 7
x −1
7. f (x) = 1, when x < 0
f (x) = 0, when x = 0 then test the continuity of f (x) at x = 5.
f (x) = –1, when x > 0 [Ans: discont. at x = 0] [Ans: discont. at x = 5]
3. If f (x) = x3 + 1, when 0 ≤ x < 1
af
2
x
8. f x = , when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 f (x) = 3x2 – 1, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
2
then test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0, 1 and 2.
af 2
f x = 2 x − 3x +
3
2
, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 [Ans: cont. at x = 0, 1, 2]
4. The function f (x) is defined as under

9. f (x) = 5x – 4, when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
[Ans: cont. at x = 1]
R|− x , for x ≤ 0
if f a x f = S x , for 0 < x < 1
f (x) = 4x3 – 3x, when 1 < x ≤ 2 |T2 − x , for x ≥ 1
[Ans: cont. at x = 1]
is the function f (x) continuous at x = 0 and x = 1
1
10. f (x) = x, when 0 ≤ x < [Ans: cont. at x = 0 and x = 1]
2 5. Examine the continuity of f (x) at x = 0 and x = 1 if

f (x) = 1 – x, when
1
≤ x <1 R|1, when x = 0
f a x f = S x − 1 , when 0 < x < 1
2

[Ans: cont. at x =
1
]
|T0 , when x = 1
2
[Ans: discont. at x = 0 and cont. at x = 1]
11. f (x) = x3 + 1, when 0 ≤ x < 1 6. Examine the continuity of f (x) at x = 1 and x = 2 if
f (x) = 3x2 – 1, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
R|x , when 0 ≤ x < 1
2

f b x g = S2 x − 1 , when 1 ≤ x < 2
[Ans: cont. at x = 1]

Exercise 5.2.2 |Tx + 1, when 2 ≤ x

[Ans: cont. at x = 1 and x = 2]
1. If f (x) = 0, when x = 0
7. The function f is defined in the following way
bg
f x = 1 − x , when 0 < x <
1
2 R|3 + 2 x , when − 3 ≤ x < 0
f a x f = , when x = |
1 1 2
f a x f = S3 − 2 x , when 0 ≤ x <
2 2 3

then test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0 and x =

1 || 2

|T−3 − 2 x , when x ≥ 2
. 3
2
1
[Ans. cont. at x = 0 and x = ] Prove that f (x) is continuous at x = 0 and
2
3
discontinuous at x =
af
2 .
x − 4x + 3
2. If f x = , when 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 2
x−4
302 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f a1π −− sin2 xfx , x ≠ π2 is continuous at

Problems on greatest integer function
3. f x = 2
Exercise 5.2.3
π F πI .
1. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at
x = . Find f
2 H 2 K [Ans: 1 ]
8
4. f a x f =
2 sin x − 1 π
x= if f (x) = [x], where [x] is the greatest integer 2
,x ≠ is continuous at
3 cos x 2
function. π F πI . [Ans: − 1 ]
2. If f (x) = (x – [x]), where [x] is the greatest integer x = . Find f
2 H 2 K 2
5. f a x f =
3 3 3
function, test the continuity of f (x) at x = x −a
2
.
2
, x ≠ a is continuous at x = a.
2
x −a
3. Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 4
Find f (a). [Ans: 3a ]
af
f x =
x
x−2. 6. A function f (x) is defined by
2

4. Show that f (x) = x – [x] is discontinuous at x = –1.

5. Test for continuity of f (x) = [x] at x = 2.5.
af
f x =
1 − cos x
2
, when x ≠ 0
x
Answers: f (x) = A, when x = 0
2 Find A so that f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
1. Cont. at x =
3 1
[Ans: A =
FG IJ
]
3 2
HK
1
2. Limit = , find f and examine whether limit 7. If f (x) is continuous at x = 3 and is defined as
2 2

F 3I af
2
x −9
= value G cont. at J .
f x = + a , when x < 3
H 2K
2
x − 4x + 3
= 2, when x = 3
3
3. l.h.l = 2 and r.h.l = ; (discont. at x = 4) 2
2 x − 3x
5. (l.h.l = r.h.l at x = 2.5) = 2; find f (2.5) and examine = 2
+ b , when x > 3
x − 2x − 3
whether limit = value. 5
Find a and b [Ans: a = 1 and b = ]
Type 3: Problems based on finding the value of a 4
π
function at a point where the function is continuous. 8. f (x) is continuous at x = and is defined as
4
Exercise 5.3
af
f x =
cos x − sin x
π
+ a , when 0 < x < π
x− 4
bg
1. f x = 3
x−a
x − 3
a
,x≠a is continuous at
4
π
2
= 2, when x =
x = a. Find f (a). [Ans: 3a ]
3 4

af
2. f x =
x tan x
1 − cos x
, x ≠ 0 is continuous at x = 0. = x2 + b, when x >
π
4
Find f (0). [Ans: 2]
 Practical Methods on Continuity test 303

Find a and b. f (1) = k

2 If f (x) is continuous at x = 1, find k.
π
[Ans: a = 2 + 2 and b = 2 − ] [Ans: k = 5]
16 5. A function f (x) is defined as under
9. f (x) is continuous at x = 0, where
f (x) = x2 + A, when x ≥ 0
bg
f x =
sin kx
x
, for x ≠ 0 f (x) = –x2 – A, when x < 0
what should be A so that f (x) is continuous at
= 4 + x, for x = 0 x = 0. [Ans: A = 0]
Find the value of k. [Ans: k = 4]
Type 5: Problems based on test for continuity at one/
Type 4: Problems based on finding the value of a both end points (l.e.p / r.e.p / l.e.p and r.e.p both) of a
constant when the given function is continuous at a closed interval [a, b] or semi open-semi closed (a, b]
point. or semi closed and semi open [a, b).

Exercise 5.4 Exercise 5.5

1. Find the value of k for which the functions defined 1. If f (x) = 0, when x = 0
below is continuous at x = 1.
1 1
= − x , when 0 < x <
af
2
x −1 2 2
(a) f x = , for x ≠ 1
x −1 1 1
= , when x =
f (1) = k [Ans: k = 2] 2 2
(b) f (x) = 5x – 3k, if x ≤ 1 1
then test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0 and x = .
= 3x2 – kx, if x > 1 [Ans: k = 1] 2
(c) f (x) = 3x – 4k, when x ≥ 1 1
[Ans: discont. at x = 0 and x = ]
= 2kx2 – 3, when x < 1 [Ans: k = 1] 2
2. If f (x) = x2 + 1, when 0 ≤ x < 1
af
2
x − 3x + 2
2. If f x = , when x ≠ 2
= 3x2 – 1, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
x−2
= p, when x = 2 then test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0, 1 and 2
and f (x) is continuous at x = 2, find the value of p. [Ans: cont. at x = 0, 1 and 2]
[Ans: p = 1] 3. A function f (x) is defined as follows
f (x) = 0, when x = 0
af
3. If f x =
a sin 2 x
x
, when x > 0 = 3x – 1, when 0 < x < 1
= 2x, when x = 1
= 2, when x = 0 Is f (x) continuous at x = 0 and x = 1?

=
2b e j , when x < 0
1+ x −1
[Ans: discont. at x = 0 and cont. at x = 1]
4. Test the continuity of f (x) at x = 0, 1, 2 where
x (i) f (x) = 1 + x, when 0 ≤ x < 1
and f (x) is continuous at x = 0, find the values of a = 2 – x, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
and b. [Ans: a = 1 and b = 2]
[Ans: cont. at x = 0 and 2;

af
2
3x − x − 2 discont. at x = 1]
4. f x = , for x ≠ 1
x −1
304 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(ii) f (x) = x2, when 0 ≤ x < 1 1 1

= , when x =
= 2x – 1, when 1 ≤ x < 2 2 2
= x + 3, when x ≥ 2 3 1
= − x , when < x < 1
[Ans: cont. at x = 0 and x = 1 2 2
and discont. at x = 2] = 1, when x = 1, discuss the continuity of the
5. A function f (x) is defined as follows: 1
f (x) = 0, when x = 0 function for x = 0, and 1.
2
1 1 1
= − x, when 0 < x < [Ans: discont. at all points x = 0, , 1]
2 2 2
 Derivative of a Function 305

6
Derivative of a Function

Question: What is differential Calculus? Notes:

Answer: Differential Calculus provides us rules and 1. The derivative f ′ of a function f is also termed as:
methods for computing the limit: (i) slope function (ii) derived function (iii) differential

lim
∆y
= lim
a f af
f x + ∆x − f x
coefficient of the function f.
2. Instead of saying that there is a derivative f ′ of
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆ x → 0 ∆x , for a large
a f af
the function f at a point x = a in the domain of the
class of functions where, ∆y = f x + ∆x − f x is function f which is also a limit point in the domain of
the function f ′ it is common to say that there is a
af
the increment in the value of the function
y = f x (or in dependent variable y), derivative f ′ of the function f at a point x = a in the
a f
∆x = x + ∆x − x is the increment in independent domain of the function f defined by the equation
(or in the valueof independent) variable and y = f (x).
∆y
= increment (or incremental) ratio The Domain of a Derivative
∆x

=
a
increment in functional value dependent variable f
increment in independent variable
Question: What is the derivative of a function?
Answer: The derivative of a function f is that function,
denoted by f ′ , whose function (functional) value at
The domain of a derivative is defined with respect to
different aspects:
Definition 1. (In terms of limit points):
f : D → R is a function defined by y = f (x), where D
is a subset of reals ⇒ domain of the derivative f ′
of the function f = D ∩ D ′ ⊆ D , where D ′ is the set

af
any limit point x of the domain of the function f which of all limit points of the domain D of the function f.
is in the domain of the function f, denoted by f ′ x , Definition 2. (In terms of existance of the limit of
incremental ratio):
a f l a f af q
is given by the limit of the incremental ratio as the
D f ′ = x ∈ D f : f ′ x exists , i.e. the domain
af
increment in the independent variable tends to zero.
That is in notation, of a derived function y = f ′ x is a subset of the

af
f ′ x = lim
a f af
f x+∆ x − f x
= lim
∆y
,
domain of the function f because it (domain of f ′ )
contains all points x in the domain of the function f
∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆ x
∆y
provided that this limit exists at each limit point x of where lim exists but does not contain those
the domain of the function f which is in the domain of ∆x→ 0 ∆x
the function f defined by the equation y = f (x). ∆y
exceptional points where lim does not exist.
∆x→ 0 ∆x
306 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

The Range of a Derivative symbol D. (ii) the independent variable with respect
to which differentiation is to be carried out is written
The range of a derivative is the set of all values of the
at the bottom and on the right side of the symbol D.
derivative f ′ (of a function f ) at values of x in the
Thus Dx y, Dx f, Dx f (x) or Dx (f (x)) if f (x) is the
domain of the function.
b a fg l a f a fq .
expression containing more than one term or f (x) is
Thus, range of f ′ = f ′ D f = f ′ x : x ∈D f the sum of a finite number of function.
Notes: Note: The phrase “with respect to x” is shortly written
1. Derivatives at isolated points are not defined. as “w.r.t x”.
2. A function is always continuous at an isolated d
point of the domain of the function. An other notation is also in frequent use when
dx
3. In fact, if the domain of a function has an isolated
point, then the function would be continuous there either it is mentioned or obvious in the problem that x
without being differentiable. is the independent variable of the function y = f (x).
4. If the limit point of the domain D of the function f d
lying in D at which derivative is sought is not When the symbol is used to indicate the
dx
mentioned, it is understood that it is required at any derivative of a function having x as its independent
limit point x of the domain of the function f which is in variable, the function or the functional value is written
the domain of f. d
5. Instead of saying to determine the functional value on the right side of the symbol . Thus:
dx
f ′ (x) of the derivative f ′ of a function f at
af
x ∈ D f , it is common to say to determine the
d f d
af dy d
b a fg
af
, f x, or f x if f (x) is the
derivative y ′ = f ′ x of the function y = f (x) dx dx dx dx
expression containing more than on term or f (x) is the
Question: What is differentiation of a function? sum of a finite number of function.
Answer: It is the process of finding the derivative Hence in the light of above explanation, Dx and

af
f ′ x = lim
∆x → 0
∆y
∆x .
d
are the most common notations for indicating
dx
the operation of obtaining the derivative of a function
Question: How is the derivative of a function
with respect to x. These are notations which are
generally determined?
prefixed to the functional letter or functional value as:
Answer: The derivative of a function of the
independent variable x, say f (x), is determined by the
general process indicated in the limit of increment
af
(i) Dx y , Dx y ,
dy
dx
and
d
dx
y af
ratio as the increment in the independent variable
tends to zero, i.e. indicated in:
af
(ii) Dx f , Dx f x ,
d f
and
d
af
f x Lastly, the
dy
= lim
∆y
or
d
af
f x = lim
a
f x + ∆x − f xf.
af dx dx
dx ∆ x → 0 ∆x dx ∆ x → 0 ∆x third notation employed for indicating the operation
of obtaining the derivative is to put a dash or prime at
Question: What are the symbols to express the
af
the top and on the right of the functional letter as
derivative of a function with respect to an independent
f ′ x , f ′ or y ′ , but it is noteable that the notation
variable?
f ′ or y ′ has the disadvantage of not indicating the
Answer: D is the most common notation for
af af
indicating the operation of obtaining the derivative variable with respect to which the differentiation is to
of a function with respect to an independent variable be carried out. This is why f ′ x or y ′ x is also
with the attentions: (i). Functional letter or functional written if the independent variable is x.
value of the function is written on the right side of the
 Derivative of a Function 307

Notation Read as
Remark:
d
dx
af
, Dx ( ) or D ( ) is termed as operator
y′ y prime or y dash
which tells what operation should be carried on with
the function put in the bracket to get an other function
f′ x af f prime of x or f dash of eKs.
named as derivative but D ( ) alone is ambiguous Dx f dee - eKs of f
when the expression in x representing the functional
Dx f (x) dee - eKs of f of eKs
value contains constant as well as an independent
variable both put after the operator “D” as D (x2 + x + d f
K) which has a possibility or ambiguity of being which dx dee - dee - eKs of f or d f over dx
one of the letters namely x and K is constant. This is
why D (f (x)) is also sometimes used instead of Dx
(f (x)) when there is no ambiguity of the letter used as
d
dx
f x af dee–dee–eKs of f of x or dee– f of
an independent variable.
eKs over dee - eKs
d
Note: , Dx or simply D is also called differential dy
dx dee - y over dee - eKs
dx
operatir.

bg
Therefore, there are following identical symbols
frequently used: Note: The notation f ′ x x = a or (f (x)) x = a or

af af b a fg af
f ′ a signifies the value of the derivative f ′ of the
af
dy d d d
(i) y ′ = = y = f x = f x =
function f at x = a ∈ D f .
dx dx dx dx
af af
Dx f x = f ′ x , when y = f (x) or
Question: What do you mean by ab-initio
differentiation?
d f Answer: Differentiation ab-initio (or ab-initio
(ii) f ′ = to denote the derivative as an other differentiation), differentiation from the first principle
dx
or differentiation from the delta method means that
function f ′ of a function f. the theorems on differentiation or the results on
differentiation of standard forms of the function are
The Nomenclature of the Symbols
not to be applied for obtaining the derivatives of given
Notation Read as functions.
Or, alternatively, finding the derivative of a function
lim
x→a
af limit as eKs tends to a, of ( ) of an independent variable using the definition in
terms of limit, theorems on limits and standard results
or limit of ( ) as eKs tends to a. on limits is called differentiation from the definition.
lim
∆x→0
af limit as delta-eKs tends to zero,
This process has no practical utility but a knowledge
of it is required.
of ( ) or limit of ( ) as delta-eKs Now there is illustration of ab-initio differentiation
tends to zero. consisting of five steps before working out problems
Dx af x-derivative of ( ) or derivative
on different typed of functions.
Question: Explain the general method of finding
or
d
dx
af of ( ) with respect to x. differential coefficient of a function.
Answer: The general method of finding the
differential coefficient of a function is indicated in
f′ f prime or f dash
(Contd.)
308 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d
af
f x = lim
f x+∆ x − f x a
, ∀ x ∈D f
f af af
∆y
3. x being regarded as fixed, the ratio ∆ x will be a
dx ∆x→ 0 ∆x
function of ∆ x .
d
af
or, d x y = ∆ lim
∆y
x→0 ∆x
which means Question: How to simplify the last step in delta
method?
Step 1: To put y = f (x) = given function Answer: (a) In case of algebraic power, logarithmic
Step 2: To add ∆ y to y and ∆ x to x wherever it is or exponential function, we go on simplifying till ∆ x,
present in the given function, i.e., to obtain some power of ∆ x and/a term containing ∆ x comes
a
y + ∆y = f x + ∆x . f as a common factor if we use expansion method.
Step 3: To find ∆ y by subtracting the first value (y) (b) On using binomial expansion for any index for a
a f
from the second value y + ∆ y , i.e., to obtain
a fa f
a f
2
n n +1 ∆ x
a y + ∆ yf − y = f a x + ∆ x f − f a x f power function 1 + ∆ x
n
= 1+ n ∆ +
2 N
⇒ ∆ y = f a x + ∆ xf − f a xf + ... , we consider only two terms of the series viz
Step 4: To divide ∆ y = f a x + ∆ x f − f a x f by ∆ x, “ 1 + n ∆ x ” that will serve our purpose while finding

f a x + ∆ xf − f a xf
limit.
∆y
i.e., to obtain = N.B.: (i) The common factor being ∆ x, some power
∆x ∆x
of ∆ x and/a term containing ∆ x must be separated
Step 5: To take the limit as ∆ x → 0 on both sides of out of the bracket provided we use expansion method
∆y
=
a
f x + ∆x − f x fd af
to find d x y , i.e., to af
to find the limit .
(ii) If we do not use expansion method to find the
∆x ∆x limit of power (algebraic) logarithmic and/exponential

obtain lim
∆y
= lim
a
f x+∆x − f x
=
df y
af af
function, there is no need of taking ∆ x , some power
of ∆ x and/the terms containing ∆ x as a common
∆x → 0 ∆ x ∆x → 0 ∆x dx
factor.
respectively.
Remember: 1. The above method (or, process) to (iii) b f a xfg = b f a x + ∆ xfg
n n
when ∆ x → 0
find the derivative of a function is what the delta– (Note: If y be a function of x (i.e. y = f (x)) and the
method says to one to find the derivative of a function. value of x changes, then the value of y will also
∆y ∆y change.)
2. lim means that the ratio tends to a
∆x→ 0 ∆ x ∆x (c) In case of trigonometric functions, we go on
definite value which is unique as ∆ x → 0 and hence ∆x
it is to be carefully noticed that on the above definition, simplifying till we get 2 sin except for tan x and
2
∆y cot x where we get sin ∆ x and then we divide both
we speak of limiting value of a certain ratio and sides of the equation defining ∆ y by ∆ x and lastly
∆x
not of the ratio of the limiting values of ∆ y and ∆ x we take the limit as ∆ x → 0 on both sides of the
which is indeterminate put in the form ∆y
F 0 I ( i.e. lim ∆ y = 0 equation defining
∆x
.

H 0 K lim ∆ x 0 since ∆ y → 0 as ∆ x → 0 (d) In case of inverse circular functions, we find ∆ x

instead of ∆ y , i.e. in case of inverse circular functions,
means lim ∆ y → 0 when lim ∆ x = 0 )
first of all we remove inverse operators (or, notations)
(Note: The differential coefficient is shortly written
and we proceed as in case of trigonometrical functions
as d.c.)
 Derivative of a Function 309

and lastly we take limit as ∆ y → 0 (instead of limit

a f
tan n ∆ x n tan n ∆ x a f
as ∆ x → 0 in case of direct functions or
trigonometrical functions) on both sides of the
lim
∆x→ 0 ∆x
= lim
∆x→0 n∆ x a f
∆y a f
tan n ∆ x
equation defining
∆x
since ∆ x → 0 ⇔ ∆ y → 0 . = n lim
∆x → 0 a f
n∆ x
=n

N.B.: (i) we use afe ′ ∆ x and ∆ y are increments in x and y and they
sin r θ are regarded as single quantity like x, y, z, ... etc. This
(a) lim = r and is why they may be added, subtracted, multiplied and
θ→0 θ
divided like the numbers. e.g.,
tan r θ ∆x
(b) lim = r which mean limit of sin (or, tan) = ∆x ÷ ∆y = ∆x
1
θ→0 θ (i)
∆y ∆y
of any constant multiple of an angle over the same
angle when that angel tends to zero, is the same ∆x ∆ y
(ii) ⋅ =1
constant which is the multiple of the angle or, we use ∆y ∆x
sin θ tan θ
(a1) lim = 1 (b1) lim = 1 which mean ∆x 1
θ→0 θ θ → 0 θ (iii)
∆y
=
FG IJ
∆y
limit of sin (or, tan) of any angle over the same angle
when that angle tends to zero, is unity. e.g., H K
∆x

F ∆ xI F ∆ xI
2 sin
H2K= sin
H 2 K =1 Derivatives of Elementary Functions
aa ′f lim
∆x → 0 ∆x
lim
∆x → 0 ∆x Algebraic Functions
2 1. Find the derivative of a constant function y = c by

F ∆ xI F ∆ xI ∆ – method. (or by first principles)

a b ′f
sin
H 2 K = 1 or sin
H2K Solution: Let y = f (x) = c …(i)
lim
∆x→0 ∆x 2
lim
∆x → 0 ∆x a
∴y + ∆y = f x + ∆x = c f …(ii)
Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒ ∆ y = c − c = 0
F ∆ xI F ∆ xI
sin
H 2 K 1
sin
H 2 K = 1 ⋅1 = 1 ⇒
∆y
=0
= lim
∆x → 0 F ∆ xI 2= lim
F ∆ xI 2 2
∆x → 0 ∆x
2
H2K H2K F I
⇒
d
af
y = lim
∆y
H
= lim 0 = 0 3 lim c = c
K
ac′f lim sin a3 ∆ xf = 3 or, lim sin a3 ∆ xf
dx ∆x → 0 ∆ x ∆x→ 0 x→a

∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x ⇒ derivative of a constant is zero.

a f
3sin 3 ∆ x a f
sin 3 ∆ x ⇒ af af
d
y =
d
c = 0 , provided y = c = any
= lim
∆x → 0 a f
3∆ x
= 3 lim
∆x→0 a f
3∆ x
= 3 ⋅1 = 3 dx dx
constant, D a f ′ f = R .

ad ′f lim tan a∆nx∆ x f = n, n ∈ R , or

∆x → 0
2. Find the derivative of an independent variable w.r.t
itself by delta method (or ab-initio).
Solution: Let y = f (x) = x …(i)
310 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a
∴ y + ∆y = f x + ∆x = x + ∆x f ...(ii)
a f a3 ∆ x = x + ∆ x − xf
n n
∆y x + ∆x − x
a
Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒ ∆ y = x + ∆ x − x = ∆ x f ⇒
∆x
=
x + ∆x − x a f
∆y
⇒
∆x
=1 d
af ∆y x + ∆x − x a f n n
⇒ y = lim
∆ → ∆
= lim
∆ → x + ∆x − x a f
F I
dx x 0 x x 0

⇒
d
dx
af
y = lim
∆y
∆x→ 0 ∆ x
= lim 1 = 1 3 lim c = c
∆x → 0 x→a H K Now substituting z = x + ∆ x , we have z → x as
⇒ derivative of an independent variable w.r.t itself d
af
x + ∆x − x a f n n

is unity ⇒
d
bg
x = 1, provided y = x = identity
∆x → 0 and
dx
y = lim
∆x → 0 x + ∆x − x a f
dx
a f
function, D f ′ = R .
= lim
n
z − x
n
= nx
n −1
(By limit theorem)
3. Find the derivative of a constant multiple of an z→x z− x
independent variable w.r.t the same independent
⇒ derivative of a power function w.r.t its base is
variable.
the power function whose index is decreased by unity
Solution: Let y = f (x) = ax …(i)
a f a f
times the original (given) index of the given base
∴y + ∆y = f x + ∆x = a x + ∆x …(ii)
Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒
d
af
y =
d n n −1
e j
x = n x , provided y = x n ,
a f
dx dx
⇒ ∆ y = a x+∆ x − ax = a x + a∆ x − a x = a∆ x
n ∈Q .
∆y
⇒ =a Method 2
∆x Let y = xn, (n is any rational number) …(i)
d
af ∆y F I ∴y + ∆y = x + ∆x a f n
…(ii)
⇒
dx
y = lim
∆x → 0 ∆ x
= lim a = a 3 lim c = c
∆x → 0 x→a H K Hence, (i) – (ii)
⇒ derivative of a constant mulitple of the
a f R|SFG1 + ∆ xIJ n
U|V
T|H x K
n n n

W|
independent variable w.r.t the same independent ⇒ ∆ y = x + ∆x − x = x − 1 …(iii)
variable is constant times d.c. of the independent
Now on using binomial theorem because
variable w.r.t itself ⇒
d
y =
d
afax a f ∆x
dx dx < 1 and n is a +ve or –ve integer or fractions,
x
=a
d
dx
af
x = a ⋅ 1 = a , provided y = a x, where a is we have
any constant and x is the independent variable, LMF ∆ x n bn − 1g F ∆ x I I OP
a f MNGH1 + n ⋅ x + N2 ⋅ GH x JK
2

D f′ = R. (iii) = ∆ y = x n + ... − 1 JK PQ
4. Find the derivative of a power function w.r.t its
base. ∆y n n a f FG IJ
n n −1 LM
∆x
Solution: Method 1
which ⇒
∆x
=x
x
+
N H K
2
⋅
xN2
+ terms

Let y = xn, n ∈ Q …(i)

O
having higher powers of ∆ x P
∴y + ∆y = x + ∆x a f n
…(ii) Q
Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒ ∆ y = x + ∆ x a f n
− x
n
⇒
d
af
y = lim
∆y
dx ∆x→ 0 ∆ x
 Derivative of a Function 311

LM n + n an − 1f FG ∆ x IJ + ...OP FG3 lim a1 + xf 1 IJ

H = e and log e = log e e = 1
K
n
= lim x
N x N2 H x K Q
x
∆x → 0 2 x→0

LM1 + an − 1f ⋅ FG ∆ x IJ + ...OP
n −1
1
= which ⇒ derivative of logarithm of an
= lim
∆x → 0
nx
N N2 H x K Q x
independent variable w.r.t the same independent
= n xn − 1 , n ∈ Q variable, the independent variable being positive, is
reciprocal of the independent variable, the
Remark:
d n
dx
e j
x = nx n −1 for x > 0, n ∈R also holds
independent variable being positive ⇒
d
bg
y =
true noting that for x < 0, xn may not be real as dx

b−3g 1
2
= −3 ∉ R . d
b g 1
log x = , x > 0 provided y = log x, x > 0 ,
x x
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
D a f ′f = R
1. Find the derivative of logarithm of an independent +
.
variable w.r.t the same independent variable, the
Remember:
independent variable being positive (d.c. of
(i) n log m = log mn
logarithmic function) by delta method.
Solution: Method 1. ∆x
(ii) ∆ x → 0 ⇒ →0
Let y = log x, x > 0 …(i) x
∴ y + ∆ y = log x + ∆ x a f …(ii)
(iii) xlim lim
→ 0 log f (x) = log x → 0 f (x)
Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒ ∆ y = log x + ∆ x − log x a f
F x + ∆ x IJ = log FG x + ∆ x IJ = log FG1+ ∆ x IJ FG1 + ∆ x IJ
x

= log G
∆x

H x K Hx x K H x K (iv) lim
∆x
x
→0
H xK =e

∆y 1 ∆x 1FG 1 IJ
∆x FG IJ (v) log e = log e e = 1, where e lies between 2 and 3.
⇒
∆x
=
∆x
log 1 +
x x H
= ⋅x⋅
∆x
log 1 +
xK H K These are facts which have been used to find the
d.c. of y = log x, x > 0, w.r.t x.
FG IJ
x
1 ∆x ∆x
Method 2
= log 1 +
H K Let y = log x , x > 0 …(i)
a f
x x
L 1 F ∆ xI OP ∴ y + ∆ y = log x + ∆ x …(ii)

y f = lim M log G1 +
x

⇒
d
a MMN x H x JK
∆x→ 0
∆x
PPQ Hence, (i) – (ii) ⇒ ∆ y = log x + ∆ x − log x a f
FG x + ∆ x IJ = log FG1 + ∆ x IJ
dx

F 1 I ⋅ lim log FG1 + ∆ x IJ

x
∆x
= log
H x K H xK
= lim
H xK H xK ∆ x 1 F ∆ xI
J + 13 FGH ∆xx IJK − ...
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

− G
2 3

2H x K
⇒ ∆y =
F 1 I log FG1 + ∆ x IJ
x
∆x x
= lim
∆x → 0 H xK lim
∆x → 0 H xK (on using
∆ y 1 1 F ∆ xI
= − G J
x 2 H x K + terms having higher
composit function rule on limits) ⇒
∆x 2

1 1 1
= log e = ⋅ log e e = ⋅ 1 powers of ∆ x .
x x x
312 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d
af ∆y 1 1 ∆x LM FG IJ OP ⇒ ∆y =
1
a
log x + ∆ x f 2
− log x
2
⇒
dx
y = lim
∆x → 0 ∆ x
= lim
∆x → 0 x
−
2 x2
+ ...
N H K Q 2

FG x + ∆x IJ 2

af
1
⇒
d
dx
y = lim
∆y 1
∆x→ 0 ∆ x
=
x
=
2 H
log
x K
d
afd
a f
1 FG3 log f a xf = log f a xf − log g axfIJ
⇒
dx
y =
dx
log x = , x > 0
x H g axf K
Cor: Derivative of log a x (a > 0, ≠ 1), x > 0
∆y 1 1
⋅ log G
F x + ∆ x IJ 2

Using log a x =
log x
, we have
d
log a x a f
∴ = ⋅
∆x 2 ∆x H x K
log a dx

FG log x IJ = 1 1 x 1
⋅ ⋅ log G
F x + ∆ x IJ 2

=
d
dx H log a K log a
d
dx
a f
log x =
1
⋅
log a x
1 = ⋅
2 ∆x x H x K
R|F x + ∆ x I U| x 2

= ⋅ ⋅ log SG J
1
=
x log a
, (x > 0) ( 3 log a is a constant) 1 1
2 x H
|T x K
∆x
V
|W and lim
∆y
∆x ∆x → 0

af log f xaf
Notes: 1. log a f x = where as
LM 1 1 R| x + ∆ x U| OP
F IJ V P
2
log a x

= lim M ⋅ ⋅ log SG
∆x

MN 2 x |T x K |W PQ
H
log10 f (x) = log10 e ⋅ loge f (x) and log10 e = 0.4344
∆x → 0
2. If the base of the logarithm of a function is e, then
the logarithm of the function is called natural
logarithmic function and is denoted as ‘lnx’ without
F I R|F x + ∆ x I x U| 2

S|GH x JK V|
the base ‘e’. Hence, loge x = lnx. 1 1 ∆x
3. Meaning of e : ex means the infinite series (or,
2 3
= ⋅ lim
H K
⋅ lim log
2 ∆x → 0 x ∆x → 0
T W
x x x
infinite power series) 1 +
N N N
+
1 2
+ + ... ∞ where
3
R|F x + ∆ x I U| x 2

= ⋅ ⋅ log lim SG J
|TH x K V|W
1 1 ∆x
1 1 1
e =1+
N N N
1
+
2
+
3
+ ... ∞ and x is a real number; 2 x ∆x → 0

F 1 I n
R| F x + ∆ x I U|
H K
2
e is also defined as lim 1 + . x

= ⋅ ⋅ log S lim G J
|T H x K V|W
n→∞ n 1 1 ∆x

Remark: e is a transcendental irrational number. 2 x ∆x→0

2 < e < 3 and e = 2.718 nearly.

2. Find the derivative of the function y = log |x|, R| F ∆ x I U| x 2

= ⋅ ⋅ log S lim G1 + J
|T H x K V|W
(x ≠ 0) w.r.t x ab–initio. 1 1 ∆x

2 x ∆x→ 0
2 1 2
Solution: y = log x = log x = log x
2

a f 1 1 F
= ⋅ ⋅ log aef G3 lim a1 + x f = eJ
I 1

H K
1 2
⇒ y + ∆y = log x + ∆ x
2 x
2 2 x x→0
 Derivative of a Function 313

=
1 1 2 1 1 1 1
⋅ log e = ⋅ 2 log e = ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
2 x 2 x 2 x
=
1
x log a
a fa
, x ≠ 0 3 log a is a constant f
=
1
x
a f
, x ≠ 0, D f ′ = R − 0 kp 2. Find the derivative of an exponential function w.r.t
the index, the index being an independent variable
(d.c. of exponential function) by delta method.
Notes: A. Solution: (a) Method 1
(i) log f x bg = log f 2
b xg =
1
2
2
log f xaf Let y = ex
x + ∆x
…(i)
∴y + ∆y = e …(ii)
12 2 Hence, (i) – (ii)
(ii) log x = log x =
log x
ee j
2 x + ∆x x x ∆x x x ∆x
⇒ ∆y = e −e =e ⋅e −e =e −1
B.: (i) The logarithm of the product of positive
numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the
F ∆x I
factors:
loga (mn) = loga m + loga n
⇒
∆y
∆x
=e
x e
GH
−1
∆x
JK
(ii) The logarithm of the quotient of two positive
numbers is equal to the logarithm of the dividend
af F ∆x I
minus the logarithm of the divisor: ⇒
d
y = lim
∆y
= lim e
x e −1
GH JK
F mI = log m - log n dx ∆x → 0 ∆ x ∆x → 0 ∆x
loga H nK a a
I F ∆x
(iii) The logarithm of the power of a positive number ⇒
d
dx
af x
y = lim e ⋅ lim
∆x → 0 ∆x→0
e −1
∆x
JK GH
is equal to the exponent times the logarithm of the

F3 lim F e − 1I = log e = 1I
base:
loga mn = n loga m, n ∈R
GH JK
x

(iv) The logarithm of a root of a positive number is

= ex ⋅ 1 GH x JK
x→0

equal to the logarithm of the number divided by the

index of the root: = ex which ⇒ derivative of an exponential function
with base e w.r.t the index, the index being an
1
log a n m = log a m . independent variable, is itself the exponential function
n without any change in the given form
Remark: log x2 ≠ 2 log x for all x ≠ 0, because x ≠ 0
⇒ either x > 0 or x < 0 whereas log x2 = 2 log x only ⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
x x
e j
= e = e , provided y = ex .
when x > 0 as (B) (iii) Says. This is why log e2 = 2 log
e since e>0. Notes to Remember: One must remember that terms
Cor: Derivative of loga |x|, (a > 0, ≠ 1), x ≠ 0 on using having no ∆ x must be regarded as constants when
∆ x → 0 . This is why we write
log a x =
log x
log a
, we have
d
dx
log a x b g lim ex = ex
(i) ∆x→0

dFG log x IJ lim xn-1 = xn-1, etc

=
H log a K
(ii) ∆x → 0
dx
Method 2

=
1
⋅
log a d x
d
b log x g =
1
⋅
log a x
1 Let y = ex …(i)
314 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x + ∆x independent variable, is the exponential function with

∴y + ∆y = e …(ii)
d
Hence, (i) – (ii) the same base a > 0 times “ell – en a” ⇒ d x (y) =

⇒ ∆y = e
x + ∆x x
−e = e ⋅ e jx ∆x x
−e = e
x
ee ∆x
−1 d
d x (a ) = a ln a, provided y = a , x ∈ R , a > 0 and
x x x

e F a∆ xf + a∆ xf + ...− 1IJ
x 2 3 Remember: (i) The function f (x) = ax, where a is any
∆y
⇒
∆x
= G
∆x H
1+ ∆x +
N2 N3 K
positive real number and x is any real number (i.e.
a > 0, x ∈ R ) is called the general exponential function

F a f + a∆ xf I
with base a.
x 2 3
∆y ∆x (ii) The function f (x) = ex for all x ∈ R is called
⇒
∆x
=
e
∆x
∆x +
2
GH N N3 + ... JK natural exponential function or simply exponential
function.
∆y (iii) f (x) = ln x is called ell – en (,y – ,u) function or
⇒ natural logarithmic function which is alternation to
∆x
log x.
FG1 + ∆ x + terms having higher powers of ∆ x.IJ (iv) We should note that d.c. of
H N2 K
x
=e
(a constant) independent variable

a yf = lim ∆∆ yx = lim e FGH1+ ∆N2x + ...IJK = e

= (the constant) the independent variable
d x x
⇒ times log (the constant), where ‘constant’ stands for
dx ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 any positive real number (i.e.; e or a)
(b) Let y = ax, x ∈ R , a > 0 …(i) d
Hence, d x (ex) = ex loge e = ex log e = ex ⋅ 1 = ex and
x + ∆x
∴y + ∆y = a …(ii)
Hence, (i) – (ii) d
x x x
d x (a ) = a loge a = a log a
⇒ ∆y = a
x + ∆x x
−a = a ⋅ a
x ∆x
−a =a
x x
ea ∆x
−1 j (Note: In calculus, when no base of logarithmic
F a − 1I
∆x function is mentioned, it is always understood to be
⇒
∆y
∆x
=a
x
GH ∆ x JK "e". Hence, loge x = log x = lnx)

af F ∆x I Trigonometrical Functions
⇒
d
dx
y = lim
∆y
∆x → 0 ∆ x
= lim a
∆x → 0
x a −1
∆x
GH JK 1. Find the derivatives of all elementary trigonometri-
cal functions w.r.t their independent variables by delta

F a − 1I
∆x
method.
= lim a ⋅ lim
∆x → 0
x
∆x → 0
GH ∆ x JK Solution: 1. Differential coefficient of sin x w.r.t x
Let y = sin x …(i)
a
∴ y + ∆ y = sin x + ∆ x f …(ii)
x
= a log e
F
a G3
x
a −1
= log e
I
aJ a f
Hence, (i) –(ii) ⇒ ∆ y = sin x + ∆ x − sin x
H K
lim
FG x + ∆ x + x IJ ⋅ sin FG x + ∆ x + x IJ
x→0 x

b
= a l n a 3 log e a = l n a
x
g
= 2 cos
H 2 K H 2 K
Which ⇒ derivative of an exponential function F ∆ x IJ ⋅ sin FG ∆ x IJ
⇒ ∆ y = 2 cos G x +
with base a > 0 w.r.t the index, the index being an H 2K H2K
 Derivative of a Function 315

∆y FG
∆x ∆x 1 IJ (ii) Differential coefficient of cos x w.r.t x
⇒
∆x
= 2 cos x +
H ⋅ sin ⋅
2 ∆x K Let y = cos x …(i)
2
a
∴ y + ∆ y = cos x + ∆ x f …(ii)
F ∆ xI a f
F ∆ xI
sin
H2K Hence, (i) –(ii), ⇒ ∆ y = cos x + ∆ x − cos x

H 2 JK ⋅ ∆ x
= cos G x +
FG x + ∆ x + x IJ sin FG x − x − ∆ x IJ
2
= 2 sin
H 2 K H 2 K
af F ∆ x IJ ⋅ sin FG − ∆ x IJ
⇒ ∆ y = 2 sin G x +
H 2K H 2K
d
⇒ y
dx

F ∆ xI F ∆ x IJ sin FG ∆ x IJ
= − 2 sin G x +
∆y ∆x FG IJ sin
H2K H 2K H2K
= lim
∆x → 0
= lim cos x +
∆ x ∆x → 0 2
⋅
H K ∆x
F ∆ xI
2 ∆y F
= − 2 sin G x +
∆ x IJ ⋅ H 2 K
sin

F ∆ xI
⇒
∆x H 2 K ∆x
FG ∆xIJ sin
H2K F ∆ xI
= lim cos x +
∆x → 0 H 2 K
⋅ lim
∆x → 0 ∆x
F ∆ x IJ H 2 K
sin
= − sin G x +
2
H 2 K F ∆ xI
= cos x ⋅ 1 = cos x which ⇒ derivative of sine of H2K
an angle w.r.t the same angle is cosine of the same

angle ⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
a f
sin x = cos x . ⇒
d
dx
af
y = lim
∆y
∆x→0 ∆ x

Notes to Remember: 1. While finding the d.c. of

F ∆ xI
trigonometrical functions using delta method, one
FG ∆x IJ sin
H2K
H K
must remember that trigonometrical function which ⇒ − lim sin x + ⋅ lim
becomes zero on putting ∆ x = 0 is modified by ∆x→ 0 2 ∆x → 0 ∆x
writing 2
sin θ tan θ
(i) sin θ = ⋅ θ (ii) tan θ = ⋅ θ so that F F ∆ xI I
θ θ
GG3 sin
H 2 K = 1JJ
F ∆ xI J
standard formulas of limits of trigonometrical = − sin x × 1 = − sin x
GH
lim
∆x → 0
functions.
tan θ
H2K K
(a) lim = sin θ = 1 (b) lim = = 1 may be which ⇒ derivative of cosine of an angle w.r.t the
θ→0 θ θ → 0 θ same angle is negative of sine of the same angle
used
F C + D IJ ⋅ cos FG C − D IJ ⇒
d
bg
y =
d
b g
cos x = − sin x .
sin C – sin D = 2 cos G
2.
H 2 K H 2 K is dx dx
Notes: One must remember that
used to find ∆ y in simplified form while finding d.c.
FG C − DIJ ⋅ sin FG C + DIJ
H 2 K H 2 K
of trigonometrical functions (particularly sin of an
(i) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin
angle and co sine of an angle).
316 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
(ii) sin − θ = − sin θ are used to find ∆ y in Notes to Remember: One must remember that (i) sin
simplified form while finding d.c. of cos x w.r.t x. (A – B) = sin A . cos B – cos A sin B is used to find ∆ y
(iii) Differential coefficient of tan x w.r.t x in simplified form while finding d.c. of tan x w.r.t. x
π (iv) Differential coefficient of cot x w.r.t. x
Let y = tan x , x ≠ n π + …(i) Let y = cot x, x ≠ n π …(i)
2
a
∴ ∆ y = tan x + ∆ x f …(ii) ∴ y + ∆ y = cot x + ∆ x a f …(ii)
Hence, (i) – (ii) Hence, (i) – (ii)
a
⇒ ∆ y = tan x + ∆ x − tan x f a
⇒ ∆ y = cot x + ∆ x − cot x f
a
sin x + ∆ x sin x f a
cos x + ∆ x cos x f
=
a
cos x + ∆ x
−
cos x f =
a
sin x + ∆ x
−
sin x f
a f
cos x sin x + ∆ x − sin x cos x + ∆ x a f a f
cos x + ∆ x sin x − sin x + ∆ x cos x a f
⇒ ∆y =
cos x + ∆ x cos x a f ⇒ ∆y =
sin x + ∆ x sin xa f
a
sin x + ∆ x − x f a
sin x − x − ∆ x f
=
a
cos x + ∆ x cos x f =
a
sin x + ∆ x sin x f
sin ∆ x a f
sin − ∆ x sin ∆ x
⇒ ∆y =
a
cos x + ∆ x cos x f ⇒ ∆y =
a f
sin x + ∆ x sin x
=−
sin x + ∆ x sin x a f
∆y sin ∆ x ∆y sin ∆ x
⇒ =
∆ x ∆ x cos x + ∆ x cos xa f ⇒
∆x
=−
∆ x sin x + ∆ x sin x a f
⇒
d
dx
af
y = lim
∆y
∆x → 0 ∆ x
⇒
d
dx ∆
af
y = lim
x → 0
∆y
∆x

LM sin ∆ x ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 OP LM sin ∆ x ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 OP
a f
N ∆ x sin x sin a x + ∆ xf Q
= −1
N ∆ x cos x cos a x + ∆ xf Q
= lim lim
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

= lim G
F sin ∆ x IJ ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ = a− 1f lim G
F sin ∆ x IJ ⋅ lim FG 1 IJ ⋅ lim
H ∆ x K H cos x K H cosa x + ∆ xfK
∆x → 0 ∆x →0 ∆x → 0 H ∆x K H sin x K
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

1 F I FG 1 IJ
= 1⋅
1
⋅ G
H3 lim
sin θ
= 1J
K
cos x cos x θ H sin a x + ∆ xf K
θ→0

=
1 2
= sec x which ⇒ derivative of
= a− 1f ⋅ a− 1f ⋅ G
F 1 IJ ⋅ FG 1 IJ
cos x
2
H sin x K H sin x K
a f FG 1 IJ = − cosec
tangent of an angle w.r.t the same angle is square of

bg b g
2
= −1
H sin x K
d d x
secant of the same angle ⇒ y = tan x = , 2
dx dx
sec 2 x provided y = tan x
 Derivative of a Function 317

which ⇒ derivative of cotangent of an angle w.r.t

F sin ∆ x I F sin F x + ∆ x I I
the same angle is minus one times square of
GG 2 JJ ⋅ FG 1 IJ ⋅ GG H 2 K JJ
cosecant of the same angle ⇒
d
y =
d
afcot x a f
= lim
∆ x→0
GH ∆2x JK
lim
∆ x→0 H cos x K lim
∆ x→0
GH cosa x + ∆ xf JK
dx dx

a f FGH cos1 x IJK ⋅ FGH cos

sin x I
= –cosec2 x, provided y = cot x.
Remember: (i) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin
= 1 ⋅
xK
J = sec x ⋅ tan x which
B is used to find ∆ y in simplified form while finding
⇒ derivative of secant of an angle w.r.t the same
d.c. of cot x w.r.t. x.
angle is secant of the same angle times tangent of the
(v) Differential coefficient of sec x w.r.t. x

Let y = sec x, x ≠ n π +
π
…(i)
same angle ⇒
d
dx
y af =
d
dx
a f
sec x sec x tan x,
2 provided y = sec x.
a
∴ y + ∆ y = sec x + ∆ x f …(ii)
FG D − C IJ ⋅ sin
Hence, (i) – (ii) Remember: 1. cos C – cos D = 2 sin
H 2 K
a f
⇒ ∆ y = sec x + ∆ x − sec x
FG C + D IJ is used to find ∆ y in simplified form while
1 1 H 2 K
=
a f
cos x + ∆ x
−
cos x finding d.c. of sec x w.r.t x.

cos x − cos a x + ∆ x f
(vi) Differential coefficient of cosec x w.r.t. x
Let y = cosec x, x ≠ n π …(i)
cos a x + ∆ x f cos x
⇒ ∆y =
∴ y + ∆ y = cosec x + ∆ x a f …(ii)
F ∆ x I ⋅ sin F x + ∆ x − x I Hence, (i) –(ii)
H 2K H 2 K
2 sin x +
a
⇒ ∆ y = cosec x + ∆ x − cosec x f
cos a x + ∆ x f cos x
=
1 1
F ∆ x I ⋅ sin F ∆ x I
=
a f
sin x + ∆ x
−
sin x
∆y H 2K H2K
2 sin x +
sin x − sin a x + ∆ x f
∆ x ⋅ cos a x + ∆ x f cos x
⇒ =
sin a x + ∆ x f sin x
∆x ⇒ ∆y =

F ∆ x I sin F ∆ x I F ∆ x I ⋅ sin F x − x − ∆ x I
H 2K H2K
2 sin x +
H 2K H 2 K
2 cos x +
=
cos a x + ∆ x f cos x ⋅
F ∆ xI ⋅ 2 ⇒ ∆y =
sin a x + ∆ x f sin x
H2K
F ∆ x I ⋅ F − sin ∆ x I
F sin F ∆ x I I F sin F x + ∆ x I I H 2K H
2 cos x +
2 K
∆y G
=G
H 2 K JJ ⋅ GG H 2 K JJ ⇒ ∆y =
sin a x + ∆ x f sin x
∆ x G F ∆ x I J G cos a x + ∆ x f cos x J
⇒
H H2K K H K F ∆ x I sin F ∆ x I
∆y H 2K H2K
− 2 cos x +

⇒
d
af
y = lim
∆y ⇒
∆x
=
sin a x + ∆ x f sin x
F ∆ xI ⋅ 2
dx ∆x → 0 ∆ x H2K
318 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F ∆ x I ⋅ sin F ∆ x I for finding their derivatives have been recapitulated

∆y H 2K H2K
cos x + in the chapter “Chain rule for the derivatives”. This is

F ∆ xI
⇒ = why it is advised to consult those chapters.
sin a x + ∆ x f sin x
∆x
H2K Remarks: 1. In particular, if x = a is a point in the
domain of a function defined by a single formula

⇒
d
y af y = f (x), then lim
f a+h − f a a f
, h is a small
af
dx h→0 h

F sin ∆ x I
positive number, is called the differential coefficient

GG 2 JJ ⋅ FG 1 IJ ⋅ of f (x) at x = a provided this limit exists and is denoted

= − lim
∆x → 0
GH ∆2x JK
lim
∆x → 0 H sin x K lim
∆x → 0 af
by f ′ a . Hence, if f x = af 1
3 af
, then f ′ 2
2x

F cos F x + ∆ x I I F 1 1 I
GG H 2 K JJ f a 2 + hf − f a 2 f G 2 a2 + hf
= lim G
3
−
16 JJ
GH sin a x + ∆ xf JK
= lim
h→ 0 h GG h h →0 JJ
H K
a f a f FGH sin1 x IJK ⋅ FGH cos
= −1 ⋅ −1 ⋅
xI
J
sin x K = lim
8 − a2 + hf
3

16 a2 + hf ⋅ h
h→0 3
= − cosec x ⋅ cot x which ⇒ derivative of
cosecant of an angle w.r.t the same angle is minus one 2 3
times cosecant of the same angle times cotangent of 8 − 8 + 12 h + 6 h + h
= lim
the same angle ⇒
d
y =af d
a
cosec x f =
h→0 16 ⋅ h ⋅ 2 + h a f 3

dx dx
– cosec x · cot x, provided y = cosec x.
= lim
e
− h 12 + 6 h + h
2
j
Recapitulation: The derivative of every co-function
(i.e., cos, cot, cosec) can be obtained from the
h→0 a
16 h 2 + h f 3

derivative of the corresponding function (i.e., sin, tan,

cos) by (i) introducing a minus sing, and (ii) Replacing
= lim
e
− 12 + 6 h + h
3
j =
− 12
=
−3
each function by its co-function. Hence applying this
d d
h→0 a
16 2 + h f 3 16 × 8 32
rule to = (sec x) = sec x tan x, we get = 2. In the case of functions defined by a single formula
dx dx
(cosec x) = –cosec x · cot x, and so on. (rule or expression in x) in a neighbourhood of a point
belonging to their domains, there is no need to
Inverse Circular Functions calculate left hand derivative (symbolised as L f ′ a af
af
or f ′ a ) and right hand derivative (symbolised as
af
Question: Find the derivatives of inverse circular −
functions with respect to their independent variables. af
R f ′ a or f + ′ a ) separately about which, there
Answer: The derivatives of inverse circular functions is discussion in the chapter “differentiability at a point
with respect to their independent variables have been in the domain of the function”. Further, in the case of
derived and discussed in the chapter “Derivatives of piecewise functions defined in adjacent intervals
Inverse Circular Functions” in detail and the formulas (Intervals whose left end point and right end point
 Derivative of a Function 319

are same), it is necessary to calculate both the left 1

hand and the right hand derivatives at the common 12.
point of the adjacent intervals. x x
af
3. The domain of f ′ x is a subset of points in the Answers: 1. (i) 2, (ii) 2 x, (iii) 15 x2,

domain of f (x) where the = lim

a f
f x+h − f x af , (iv)
2
1
x
, (x > 0) (v) – 3 x –2, (x > 0)
h→0 h
( h > 0 ) exists excluding all those points where this 3
1 −2 3 − 52
limit fails to exist, i.e. excluding all those points where (vi) − x , (x > 0) (vii) − x , (x > 0)
f ' (x) is undefined. 2 2
2. 21 x2 – 10 x + 4 3. 12 x –5
Exercise 6.1 −1
4.
x2 − 2 x − 1
b x − 1g 2 b g
, x ≠ 1 5.
a x + 1f , b x ≠ − 1g
2
Problems on algebraic functions
Differentiate by ∆ – method (read as delta method) −1 FG 1 IJ 7. − 8 , b x ≠ 3g
b2 x − 1g H 2 K b x − 3g
the following functions w.r.t their independent 6. 1
, x> 2
2
variables.
3 1 F 3I
, G x > J 9.
a F −b IJ
, Gx >
2x−3 H 2K 2 a x+b H a K
1. (i) 2 x (ii) x2 (iii) 5 x3 (iv) x (v) x 8.

1 −3
(vi) (vii) x 2 x
x
2. 7 x3 – 5 x2 + 4 x +13 10. 2
x +a
2 11. −
1
2
ba+x g − 32
for x + a > 0
3. ( 2 x + 3 ) ( 3 x – 7 )

4.
x +1
2
12. −
2x 2
3
5 b x > 0g
x −1
1 Exercise 6.2
5. x + 1
1 Problems on trigonometric functions
6. 2 x −1 Find the derivatives of the following functions w.r.t x
x+5 ab - initio.
7. x − 3
x FG IJ
8. 2x−3
1. sin x 2. cos x 3. sin 2x 4. sin 2
H K
5. sin x 6. cos x 7. cos2 x 8. sin2 x
9. a x+b
FG x IJ
9. sin x2 10. cos
H2 K
2 2 11. tan x 12. tan 2 x
10. x +a
1 FG x IJ
11. x+a 13. cot
H2 K 14. sec x 15. cosec2 x

16. tan 4x 17. cosec 3x 18. cot 2x 19. tan ax

320 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

20. sec (2x + 5) 21. sin (x2 + 1) 22. cos (ax2 +bx +c)
FG π IJ
23. x2 cos x 24. tan2 ax
Answers:
H
20. a sec (2x + 5) tan (2x + 5); 2 x + 5 ≠ nπ +
2 K
21. 2x cos (x2 + 1)
1. cos x 2. – sin x 3. 2 cos 2x 22. –(2ax + b) · sin (ax2 + bx + c)
1 F I
x 23. 2x cos x – x2 sin x
4.
2
cos
H K
2 FG π IJ
24. 2a tan ax sec2 ax; ax ≠ nπ +
H 2 K
5.
cos x
2 sin x
c2n π < x < b2n + 1g πh
Exercise 6.3
– sin x FG 2nπ − π < x < 2nπ + π IJ
cos x H 2K
6. Problems on logarithmic functions
2 2
Find from the first principle the derivatives w.r.t x of:
7. – sin 2x
8. sin 2x b
1. log (3x + 2) 2. loga x a > 0 , a ≠ 1 g
9. 2x cos x2 3. log (ax + b) 4. loga (5x + 3)
−1 x FG IJ Answers:
10.
2
sin
2 HK 3 FG
−2 IJ
FG π IJ
1.
3x+2
x>
H
3 K
11. sec2 x x ≠ nπ +
H 2 K 1

FG IJ
2. x log a (x > 0)
nπ π
12. sec2 2 x x ≠
H 2
+
4 K a FG
−b IJ
1 FG x IJ for x ≠ 2nπ
3.
a x+b
x>
H
a K
13. −
2 H 2K
cosec 2
1 FG
−3 IJ
1 F π πI
⋅ sec x ⋅ tan x G 2nπ − < x < 2nπ + J
4.
b g
5 x + 3 log a
x>
H
5 K
14.
2 H 2 2K
15. –2 cosec x ⋅ cot x, b x ≠ nπ g
2
Exercise 6.4

F nπ + π IJ
16. sec 4 x ; G x ≠
Problems on exponential functions
H 4 8K
2
Find from the definition the derivatives of the

F nπ IJ
17. –3 cosec 3x ⋅ cot 3x; G x ≠
following:

H 3K 1. e2x 2. emx 3. e–x 4. e x 5. e4x 6. a5 x (a > 0)

7. asin x 8. atan x (a > 0) 9. esin2x
F nπ IJ
18. –2 cosec 2x; G x ≠
Answers: 1. 2e2x 2. m em x 3. –e–x
H 2K
2

e x
F
19. a sec ax; G ax ≠ nπ + J
πI
4.
2 x
, (x > 0) 5. 4 e4x 6. 5a5x log a
H2
2K 7. a sin x cos x ⋅ log a 8. a tan x sec2 x log a
9. 2esin2x · cos 2x.

7
Differentiability at a Point
To clear the concepts of differentiability of a function
at a limit point in the domain of a function. The
definitions of some other concepts connected with it
are required to be provided.
1. Difference function f : D on to
→ R defined by
y = f (x) is a function and there is an attention on a δ –
neighourhood of a limit point x = a ∈ D such that
for each value of x in δ – neighbourhood of the limit
point x = a ∈ D ⇒ there is a number f (x) – f (a)
which is called the value of the difference function
for the given function f and a given limit point namely
a, in the domain of the function f. The difference f (x)
– f (a) is the algebraic increment in f (a) for the
increment (x – a) in the value of x at the limit point
x = a. It is customary to denote the difference function
a
by the symbol ∆ f = f + ∆ f − f . f
Further, domain of the difference function ∆ f is
the same as the domain of the function f, i.e.
af
D f = D ∆f .a f
2. Difference quotient (or increment – ratio) function:
f : D on to
→ R defined by y = f (x) and there is
an attention on a δ – neighbourhood of a limit point
x = a ∈ D such that for each x in δ – deleted
neighbourhood of the limit point x = a ∈ D ⇒ there
af af
is a number
f x − f a
x−a
which is called the value
of a difference – quotient function or the value of an
increment ratio function for a given function f.
Moreover, the domain of increment ratio function is
of course the domain D of the function f with the
Differentiability at a Point 321
exception of the limit point x = a at which the
increment – ratio function is not defined. Now, it can
be readily guessed that if f (x) is continuous at the
limit point x = a, then limit of the difference function
at the limit point x = a is the number zero whereas the
increment ratio function is not defined at the limit
point x = a. We are to find out whether the left-hand
and the right-hand limits of the increment-ratio
function at the limit point x = a exist or not.
The concept of the derivative of a function at a
limit point x = a in the domain of a function is defined
in various ways:
Definition 1: (In terms of neighbourhood): we say
af
that a fixed number f ′ a is the derivative of the
function y = f (x) at a limit point x = a in the domain
of the function f ⇔ There is a fixed number f ′ a af
such that if we choose any ∈ - neighbourhood of the
af b a fg
fixed number f ′ a denoted by N ε f ′ a , it is
possible to find out a δ -neighbourhood of the limit
point ‘a’ in the domain of the function f denoted by
af
N δ a such that the values of the increment-ratio
function g (x) =
af
f x − f a af b a fg
lies in N δ f ′ a
x−a
for every value of x which lies in the δ -deleted
neighbourhood of the limit point a in the domain of f
af
denoted by N δ′ a = 0 < x − a < δ .
af
That is a number denoted by f ′ a is called the
derivative of a function f at a limit point x = a in the
domain of the function f ⇔ There is a number
af
f ′ a such that for every ε - neighbourhood N of
af b a fg
a number f ′ a denoted by N ε f ′ a , ∃ a δ -
neighbourhood of the limit point a in the domain of
322 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
the function f denoted by N δ a such that g (x)
bg bg bg
=
af af
f x − f a
∈ Nδ f ′ a b a fg for every
0< x−a <δ⇒
f x − f a
x−a
f′ a <ε
x−a
af a f a
x ∈ N δ′ a = 0 < x − a < δ = a − δ , a ∪ a , a + δ f On one Sided Derivatives
= δ -deleted neighbour-N of the limit point a in the
There are two types of derivatives namely (i) right
domain of the function f.
hand derivative and (ii) left hand derivative.
Notes: 1. The definition of the derivative of a 1. Right hand derivative:
function can be redefined in short in terms of δ - Definition (a): In terms of neighbourhood: A function
deleted neighbourhood N of a limit point ‘a’ in the f is said to have the right hand derivative at a point
domain of the function f. af
x = a ∈ D f , which is also the right hand limit point
Definition 2: (In terms of deleted neighbourhood): af
of D (f), denoted by f +′ a ⇔ ∀ ε -neighbourhood
af
A number denoted by f ′ a is called the derivative N of af b a fg
f +′ a denoted by N ∈ f +′ a , ∃ a δ -
af
of function f at a limit point x = a ∈ D f ⇔ ∀ ε - neighbourhood N of the right hand limit point ‘a’ of
af
neighbourhood N of a number f ′ a denoted by the domain of the function which is in the domain of
b a fg
N ε f ′ a , ∃ a δ − deleted neighbourhood N ′ of af
the function f denoted by N δ a such that the
af
the limit point x = a ∈ D f denoted by N δ′ a af af af af
f x − f a
a f a
= a − δ, a ∪ a, a + δ f such that g x af functional values g x =
x−a
=
f a x f − f aa f
∈ N b f ′ aa fg , ∀ x ∈ N ′ aa f .
b a fg
∈ N ε f +′ a , ∀ x which lies in a right deleted
x−a
ε δ neighbourhood N ′ of the right hand limit point ‘a’
of the domain of the function f denoted by
2. One should keep in mind that the definitions of
af
N δ′ a = 0 < x − a < δ = a < x < a + δ
a f
the limit of a function y = f (x) at a limit point
af
x = a ∈ D f and the derivative of function y = f Definition (b): (In terms of ε − δ definition):
af
(x) at a limit point x = a ∈ D f are similar in the af
f +′ a is called right hand derivative of function f at
following sense. the right hand limit point x = a of the domain of the
(a) The derivative of a function f at a limit point x =
bg
function f which is in the domain of the function
a ∈ D f is the limit of the increment ratio function f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ δ > 0 ( δ depends on ε ) such that
f a x f − f aa f af af
g a xf = at a limit point x = a ∈D a f f . 0< x−a<δ⇒
f x − f a
− f +′ a < ε af
x−a x−a
(b) In the definition of the limit of a function f at a limit
af
point x = a ∈ D f , the functional values lies in af
f x − f a af af
af af
N ε L , ∀ x ∈ N δ′ a whereas in the definition of
i.e. a < x < a + δ ⇒
x−a
− f +′ a < ε

the derivative of a function f at a limit point f ′ aa f is a

af
x = a ∈ D f , the values of an increment ratio
Note: One should keep in mind that
notation for a finite number.
+

function af
g x =
af af
f x − f a
b a fg
∈ Nε f ′ a , (ii) Left hand derivative:
x−a Definition (a): In terms of neighbourhood: A function
∀ x ∈ N δ′ aaf f is said to have the left hand derivative at a point
Definition 3: ( ε − δ definition): A number f ′ a is af af
x = a ∈ D f which is also the left hand limit point
af
D (f) denoted by f ′ a ⇔ ∀ ε - neighbourhood N
b a fg
the derivative of the function f at a limit point
af
x = a ∈ D f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ δ > 0 ( δ depends on of af
f −′ a denoted by N ε f −′ a , ∃ a δ -
ε ) such that for all points x, neighbourhood N of the left hand limit point ‘a’ of
 Differentiability at a Point 323

the domain of function f which is in the domain of the

af
function f denoted by N δ a , such that the bg
f −′ a = lim
b g
f a−h − f a b g , a h > 0f .
f a x f − f aa f
h →0 −h
functional values g a x f = 3. Derivative of a function at a limit point in its domain:
x−a
N b f ′ aa fg , ∀ x which lies in a left deleted
If a function f is defined at a limit point x = a, then the
ε −
neighbourhood N ′ of the left hand limit point ‘a’ of
af
derivative of f at x = a, denoted by f ′ a , is defined

the domain of the function f denoted by af

by f ′ a = lim
af af
f x − f a
af
N ∂′ a = 0 < a − x < ∂ = a − ∂ < x < a . x →a x−a
or equivalently if x =

Definition (b): In terms of ε − ∂ definition: A fixed

af
number f −′ a is called left hand derivative of a bg
a + h , then f ′ a = lim
b g b g . Hence, to
f a+h − f a
h→ 0 h
function f at the left hand limit point x = a of the
domain of the function f which is in the domain of the find the derivative of f at x = a, one should first of all
function f ⇔ ∀ ε > 0 , ∃ a ∂ > 0 ( ∂ depends on
find the difference quotient
a f
f a+h − f a af and
ε ) such that h

0< x−a<∂⇒
af
f x − f a af af
− f −′ a < ε
a f a f ,(h > 0) and then proceed to find
f a−h − f a
x−a −h
its limit as h → 0 . In finding out this limit, one can
af
f x − f aaf af make use of all the theorems on limits.
i.e. a − ∂ < x < a ⇒
x−a
− f −′ a < ε
af
Note: The symbols L f ′ a for f −′ a and R af
On other forms: To find the derivative of a function f at
af af
f ′ a for f +′ a are also in use.
Question: When is a function y = f (x) is said to be
a limit point x = a in its domain, one should avoid making
use of neighbourhood definition or ( ε − ∂ ) definition differentiable at a limit point x = a ∈ D f ? af
Answer: The function y = f (x) is differentiable at a
af
for the reason that these definitions have no practical
utility. This is why other forms are used in terms of limit point x = a ∈ D f ⇔ ‘a’ lies in the domain
which the derivative of a function f at a limit point x = af af
of the derived function f ′ x , i.e. f ′ a exists, i.e.
f aa + hf − f aa f
a in its domain is defined in the following ways.
1. Right hand derivative: If the function f is defined
at a right hand limit point x = a, then the right hand
af
f +′ a = lim
h →0 h
, (h > 0) = f ' (a); and

derivative of the function f at x = a, denoted by

af a
f a−h − f a f afa f af
af af
f +′ a , is defined by f +′ a = lim+
af
f x − f a af f −′ a = lim
h →0 h
, h>0 = f′ a
x →a x−a = a finite number.
or equivalently if x = a + h , then Question: When is a function differentiable in an

bg
f +′ a = lim
b g
f a +h − f a b g , bh > 0g interval?
Answer: A function y = f (x) is said to be differentiable
h →0 h
in an open interval (finite or infinite) ⇔ The function
2. Left hand derivative: If the function f is defined
y = f (x) has a derivative at each limit point in between
at a left hand limit point x = a, then the left
the left and right end points of the open interval.
hand derivative of the function f at x = a, denoted by
Also, a function y = f (x) is said to be differentiable

af bg
f −′ a , is defined by f −′ a = lim−
bg
f x − f a bg in a closed interval ⇔ The function y = f (x) is
x →a x−a differentiable at and in between the left and right end
or equivalently if x=a–h, then
324 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

limit points of the closed interval, i.e. a function f (x) is
differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] ⇔ it is
differentiable on the interior (a,b) and if the limits
Note: If one is asked to test the differentiability of a
function f at a limit point x = a in its domain with the
use of the definition of the derivative of a function f at
bg

af
f +′ a = lim
a
f a+h − f a f afa
, h > 0 = right f
a limit point a ∈ D f the above method should
not be adopted.
h →0 h
Non-differentiability of a function at a point
hand derivative at the left end point of the closed

af
interval, f −′ b = lim
f b−h − f b a
, h>0 =
f af a f
Question: When a function f (x) is said to be non-
differentiable at a limit point x = a ∈ D f ? af
h →0 −h Answer: A function f (x) is said to be non-differentiable
left hand derivative at the right end point of the closed af
at a limit point x = a ∈ D f ⇔ f ' a does not bg
interval, exist. exist. For instance,
Lastly, a function is said to be differentiable if it is af af
1. f +′ a ≠ f −′ a or
f ′ ba g = f ′ ba g = ∞ or
differentiable at each limit point of its domain.*
2. + −

f ′ aa f = f ′ aa f = − ∞ or
Notes: 1. If a function y = f (x) is defined on a closed
interval [a, b], then the value of its left hand derivative 3. + −

f ′ aa f = + ∞ and f ′ aa f = − ∞ or
on the right end point and the value of its right hand
4. + −

f ′ aa f = ∞ or
derivative on the left end point are taken, respectively,
as the values of its derivatives at the end points of 5. +

f ′ aa f = − ∞ or
the closed interval.
6. −
2. A function which has a continuous derivative is
called continuously differentiable. 7. f (a) is undefined or imaginary.
That is, in words, a function f (x) is non-
How to test differentiability of a function at a point? differentiable (not differentiable) at a limit point
A simple rule to test the differentiability of a function af
x = a ∈ D f ⇔ 'a' does not lie in the domain of
f at a point x = a in its domain is to find its derived af af
f ′ x , i.e. f ′ a does not exist, i.e.,
af
function f ′ x of the function f (x) using the 1. Either left hand derivative or right hand derivative
definition of the derivative f ′ of a function f at any or both left hand derivative and right hand derivative
limit point x in the domain of the function, i.e. do not exist at the limit point x = a ∈ D f . af
af
f ′ x = lim
a
f x+∆ x − f x f af and then to
2. right hand derivative and left hand derivative exist
but are unequal at the limit point x = a ∈ D f . af
∆ x →0 ∆ x
bg
3. f (x) is undefined or imaginary at the limit point
af
check whether f ′ x is defined (continuous) or x ∉D f .
4. In most cases a modulus function y = | f (x) | or a
undefined (discontinuous) at the given limit point x =
af
a, i.e. (i) f ′ x is defined at limit x = a ⇒ f x is af axf is non-differentiable
af
m
radical function y = n
f
differentiable at limit point x = a (ii) f ′ x is
undefined at limit point x = a ⇒ f x may or mayaf af
at a point x = a ∈ D f ⇔ x = a makes f (x) zero,
not be differentiable at x = a for which one must make
use the definition of the left hand and right hand b a fg
i.e. f x x=a
a f f axf is non-
= 0 ⇔ f x or n m

derivative at the given point x = a whose equal finite differentiable at x = a ∈ D a f f , am , n ∈ R f .

value confirms the differentiability of f (x) at the limit
point x = a and whose unequal finite (or, infinite)
value confirms the non-differentiability of f (x) at the
af
limit point x = a ∈ D f .
Notes: 1. Points of discontinuity of a function f (x)
are also points of non-differentiability of the function.
2. Points at which f (x) is non-differentiable are called
points of non-differentiability of f (x).

* All standard functions are differentiable in their domains.

 Differentiability at a Point 325

3. The function y = f (x) defined for real x, by

LM f aa − hf − f aaf OP
af F 1I , x ≠ 0 Step 3. Simplify the function
N −h Q
H xK
p
f x =x sin
and cancel out the common factor h (if any).
f (0) = 0
has the following properties: LM f aa − hf − f aaf OP which is the
af
(i) f ′ 0 does not exist if p = 1 Step 4. Find hlim
→0 N −h Q
(ii) f ′ a0f exists but f ′ a x f is not continuous at required left side derivative at the right end point of
x = 0, if p = 2 the adjacent intervals where a given function f (x) is
(iii) f ′ a x f is continuous at x = 0 if p > 2. defined.
4. The set of all those points where f (x) is differen- How to find right hand ( or right side) derivative of a
tiable is called domain of differentiability. piecewise function f (x)at a common point x = a in the
5. Derivatives at isolated points are not defined whereas adjacent intervals.
a function is always continuous at an isolated point. Step 1. Find f (a) from a form ( expression in x) of the
Question: Explain the cases where to use the concepts function f (x) in a semiclosed or closed interval whose
of left and right hand derivative to test the left or right end point is ‘a’ or from a form of the
differentiability of a function at a point on its domain? function f (x) with a restriction x = a.
Answer: There are mainly four cases where the Step 2. Replace x by (a + h ) in the given form of a
concepts of one sided derivative (left hand derivative function f (x) and also in an interval whose left end
and right hand derivative ) are used. point is ‘a’. This is f (a + h), for h > 0.
1. When a function is defined as under: LM f aa + hf − f aaf OP
b g RS f cb x, g , N Q
Step 3. Simplify the function
x≠a h
f x = 1

T x=a and cancel out the common factor h ( if any).

2. When a function f (x) is a piecewise function, i.e. LM f aa + hf − f aaf OP which is the
when a function f (x) is defined by more than two
formulas (different expression in x) in adjacent
Step 4. Find hlim
→0 N h Q
intervals. required right side derivative at the left end point of
3. When a function contains modulus, radical or the adjacent intervals where a given function f (x) is
greatest integer function. defined.
4. When the question says to examine the Notes: 1. In the case of functions containing modulus
differentiability of a function f (x) at a point x = a in its or greatest integer function, the above method of
af
domain or to examine whether f ′ a exists. procedure is applicable since indeed, it is these
functions which are piecewise functions.
On methods of finding one sided derivatives 2. When a function f (x) is redefined, one should put
Method 1: x = a ± h in the same expression and in a restriction
How to find left hand (or left side) derivative of x ≠ a to find f ( a + h ) and f ( a – h ) and then it
piecewise function f (x) at a common point x = a in the remains to find f (a) from the expression with a
adjacent intervals. af af
restriction x = a and lastly f +′ a and f −′ a are
R f a xf , when x ≠ a
Step 1. Find f (a) from a form (expression in x) of the
f axf = S
function f (x) defined in a semiclosed or closed interval
T f a xf , when x = a
1
whose left or right end point is 'a' or from a form of the determined, i.e.
2
function f (x) with a restriction x = a.
should be changed into the form:
Step 2. Replace x by (a – h) in a given form of the
function f (x) and also in an interval whose right end
point is ‘a’. This is f (a – h), for – h < 0.
326 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
f RST ff aahhff ,, when
replacing f (a + h) in the definition of L f ′ a i.e.;
a
f a±h = 1 h≠0
put f (a + h) = proper one of f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), or f3
2 when h = 0 and finally it af
(a + h) which is an expression in h for h < 0 in L f ′ 0 .
requires the use of the definitions: (ii) Put f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), or f3 (a + h), which is an
f aa + hf − f aa f
f ′ aa f = lim , ah > 0f
expression in h for h > 0 (already determined) by
+
h→0 h af
replacing f (a + h) in the definition or R f ′ a i.e.;
f aa − h f − f aa f
f ′ aa f = lim , ah > 0f .
put f (a + h) = proper one of f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), f3 (a
− + h) or f4 (a + h) etc. already determined which is an
Method 2:
h→0 −h
expression for h > 0 on R f ′ 0 . af
(iii) Put f (a) already determined in the definition of
1. Find f (a) by putting x = a in one of the given
function f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) or f4 (x) against which the af
L f ′ 0 and R f ′ 0 . af
sign of equality with the sign of inequality in the
given restrictions in the form of different intervals (iv) Simplify
a f a f for h < 0
f a +h − f a
and h > 0
h
a f af
whose union provides us the domain of the given
function f (x). i.e; f a+h − f a
(v) Find the limit of for h < 0 and
Find f (a) by putting x = a in that function (one of h
f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) or f4 (x) … etc) against which any one
of the restrictions x ≥ a , x ≤ a , x = a , a ≤ x < c , h > 0 as h → 0 after simplifying
a f
f a+h − f a af
h
c < x ≤ a , ... etc is imposed. for h < 0 and h > 0
2. Find f (a + h) by putting x = a + h in the different
Note: 1. Method 2 (or, the second method) is
given functions f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x), … etc. and in the
applicable when we can obtain various functions
different intervals ( i.e.; x ≥ a , x ≤ a , x = a ,
f1 (h), f2 (h), f3 (h) … etc. (i.e. functions or expressions
a ≤ x < c , c < x ≤ a , ... etc.) as the restrictions ( or,
the conditions) imposed against each different in h) against which h > 0 and h < 0 are imposed as the
functions f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) … etc i.e; restrictions if we put x = a + h in various functions
Put x = a + h in all the different functions f1 (x), f2 f1 (x), f 2 (x), f3 (x), … etc. and in the intervals
(x), f3 (x) … etc. and in all different given intervals x ≥ a , x ≤ a , x .> a , x < a , a ≤ x < b , … etc.
which are imposed as a restriction against each which ⇒ if f (a + h) = f1 (h), h ≥ 0
different function f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) … etc as well as in = f2 (h) , h < 0
f (x) to find f (a + h). are obtained by putting x = a + h in the given functions
3. Solve the restrictions only to have a function and in the given intervals.
[f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), f3 (a + h), … etc] for h > 0 and
a function [f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), f3 (a + h), ... etc for 2. Inequalities x > a ≡ a , ∞ b g
h < 0. b
x < a ≡ −∞, a g
4. Use the definition: x ≥ a ≡ a,∞

bg bg
L f ′ a = f −′ a = lim−
b g
f a+h − f a bg ,
x ≤ a ≡ −∞, a
h→0 h N.B.: (i) An inequality in x only means an interval
for h < 0 (ii) We put x = (a + h) every where in the given

bg bg
R f ′ a = f +′ a = lim+
b g
f a+h − f a b g, function i.e., in
(a) f (x)
h→0 h
(b) f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x), … etc.
for h > 0 which ⇒
(c) The restrictions x > a , x ≥ a , x < a , x ≤ a ,
(i) Put f1 (a + h), f2 (a + h), or f3 (a + h), which is an
c < x < a , c ≤ x < a , c < x ≤ a , c ≤ x ≤ a , ... etc.
expression in h for h < 0 (already determined) by
Whenever we follow the method 2.
 Differentiability at a Point 327

A Theorem We claim that f (x) is continuous at the origin (i.e.;

Theorem: If a function possesses a finite derivative x = 0) but not differentiable at the origin.
at a point, then it is continuous at that point. Now, because,
Or, if a function f (x) is derivable ( or, differentiable) f (0) = | 0 | = 0,
at x = a, then f (x) is continuous at x = a. a f a
f 0 − 0 = lim f 0 − h = lim f − h
h→0
f h→0
a f
b a fg
Or, the function f (x) is continuous at x = a if its
af
derivative f ′ x at x = a i.e.; f ′ a is finite. = lim − h = lim h = 0 , af ...(i)
af
Or, f ′ a is finite ⇒ f (x) is continuous at x = a .
h→0 h→0

bg bg a f a
f 0 + 0 = lim f 0 + h = lim f f a hf
Proof: Hypothesis is lim
f x −f a
= f′ aaf h→0 h→ 0

x→a x−a = lim h = lim h = 0

h→0 h→0
af ...(ii)
which is finite [from the definition] …(i) Now,

af af af
f x − f a af Thus, from (i) and (ii), we get
a f a f
f x − f a =
x −a a
× x−a f lim f 0 − h = lim f 0 + h = 0 which ⇒
h→0 h→ 0

Now, taking the limit as x → a , we get f (x) is continuous at x = 0

RS f axf − f aaf × ax − afUV

Now, test of differentiability:
af af af a
f 0−h − f 0f af
T ax − af
lim f x − f a = lim
x →a x →a
W L f ′ 0 = lim
h→0 −h

⇒ lim f a x f − f aa f = S lim
R f a xf − f aaf UV a f aff −h − f 0
x→a
T x→a ax − af W = lim
h→0 a f −h

R U
× S lim a x − a fV ⇒ L f ′ a0f = lim
a− hf − 0 = lim FG h IJ = − 1
T x→a W h→0−h H − hK h→0

⇒ lim f a x f − f aa f = f ′ aa f × 0 L3 lim a x − a f
MN
...(iii)
x→a x→a
af
R f ′ 0 = lim
af af
f h − f 0
f a x f − f aa f O h →0
= 0 and from (1) , f ′ aa f = lim
h
PQ ahf − 0 = lim
x→a x−a
af
⇒ R f ′ 0 = lim
h
= lim
h
⇒ lim f a x f − f aa f = 0
h →0 h h →0 h h→0 h
x→a
=1
⇒ lim f a x f − lim f aa f = 0
...(iv)
Thus, from (iii) and (iv), we get, L f ' (0) = –1
x→a x→a

⇒ lim f a x f = lim f aa f = f aa f
af af
≠ 1 = R f ′ 0 which ⇒ f ′ 0 does not exist.
x→a x→a Conclusion:
⇒ f a x f is continuous at x = a
1. Differentiability at a point ⇒ continuity at the
same point.
Hence, the theorem is proved.
2. Continuity at a point ⇒ / differentiability at the
Remark: But the converse of the theorem is not true. same point.
We cite the following example. Note: 1. We say that f (x) is differentiable at the left
Let f (x) = | x | end point ‘a’ of an interval [a, b] or [a, b), we mean
af
that f +′ a exists.
328 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Similarly, we say that f (x) is differentiable at the

tan x − tan y 2 d tan x
right end point ‘b’ of an interval (a, b] or [a, b] we (b) lim = sec x =
af
mean that f −′ b exists.
y→x x− y dx
a
2. By a closed interval [a,b] or a ≤ x ≤ b , we mean f af
f x − f y af
that the end points a and b of the interval are also to 3. If y = ,
x −y
be considered while by an open interval (a,b) (or, ] a,
b [ or, a < x < b) we mean that end points a and b are
not to be considered in any problem. then lim
f xaf − f y af
= f′ y af
x→y x− y
Important deductions based on the definition of
derivative of a function f (x) at a point x = a tan x − tan y 2 d tan y
= sec y =
af af
e.g.: (a) lim
xf a −af x x→y x− y dy
(i) If y = ,
x −a sin x − sin y d sin y
= cos y =
af af
(b) lim
x− y
af af
x→y
xf a −af x dy
then lim
x→a x −a
= f a −a f ′ a
N.B.: (i) Remember that when x → y we get f ′ y af
= value of f (x) at x = a – a times d.c of f (x) at x = a. af
and when y → x , we get f ′ x as in (2) and (3) i.e.;
after f ′ , converging point is written.
Proof: lim
af
xf a −af x af (ii) On the left side of the symbol " →" independent
x→a x −a variable of he function is mentioned and the right

= lim
af af
xf a −af a −a f x − f a af af side of the symbol " →" the constant quantity (i.e.;
the limit of independent variable) is mentioned. i.e.;
x→a x −a
[adding and subtracting a f (a) in Nr]
bg
lim f a , a = independent variable, b = lim a
a →b

a fa f
f a x−a f x − f a af af Types of the problem
= lim
a f x −a
− a lim
x− a Type A
af
x→a x → a
1. To find l.h.d and r.h.d or f ′ a by using the
= f aa f − a f ′ aa f definition of d.c
= value of f (x) at x = a – a times d.c. of f (x) at x = a af
2. Existence and non-existence of f ′ x at a point

= f x af −a
LM d y OP x=a.
x=a
Nd x Q x=a
3. To show whether a given function is differentiable
or not at a given point.
4. Examination of differentiability at a given point or,
af
e.g: a lim
x→α
x sin α − α sin x
x−α
= sin α − α cos α discussion of differentiability at a given point.
All above types of problems have the following

a f a f FG or, = f a yf − f a xf IJ ,
f x − f y
working rule.

H K
y= 1. Find L.H.D or R.H.D
2. If
x −y y− x 2. Observe whether L.H.D and R.H.D are equal or

f a xf − f a yf
not.
then = lim = f ′ a x f e.g., af
3. Conclude f ′ x at a point to be differentiable or
y→ x x− y not according to the observation.

sin x − sin y d sin x Type B

(a) lim = cos x = 1. To find the value of constants.
y→x −
x y dx
Type 1: Problems based on piecewise function.
 Differentiability at a Point 329

Examples worked out: Now,

1. If f (x) = 3x – 4, x ≤ 2 a
f 2+h f − f 2af
f (x) = 2 (2 x – 3 ), x > 2 examine f ′ 2 . af L. H.D = lim
h→0 h
for h < 0

Solution: Method 1
2 + 3h − 2 3h
f (x) = (3 x – 4), for x < 2 = lim = lim =3 …(4)
h→0 h h→0 h
⇒ f (2 – h) = 3 (2 – h) – 4, for h > 0 [3 2 – h < 2]
=6–3h–4=2–3h
∴ f (2) = 3 × 2 – 4 = 6 – 4 = 2
…(1)
…(2) R.H. D = lim
a
f 2+h f − f 2a f , for h>0
h→0 h
∴ (1) – (2) = f (2 –h) – f (2) = 2 – 3 h – 2 = – 3 h
…(3) 2 + 4h − 2 4h
Again, f (x) = 4 x – 6 for x > 2 = lim = lim =4 …(5)
h→0 h h→0 h
⇒ f (2 + h) = 4 (2 + h ) – 6 = 8 + 4 h – 6 = 2 + 4 h
Hence, from (4) and (5), we see that l.h.d. ≠ r.h.d
[2 + h > 2]
…(4)
af
which ⇒ f ′ 2 does not exist.
∴ (4) – (2) ⇒ f (2 + h) – f (2) = 2 + 4 h –2 = 4 h 2. Test the differentiability of the function

a f RST2 xx− 1
… (5) , 0≤ x≤1

Now, R.H.D = lim

a
f 2+h f a f ,h>0
− f 2
f x =
, 1< x
at x = 1.

h→0 h Solution: By using method (2),

4h from the definition of the function f (x),

f RST2 a11++hhf −, 1 ,
= lim =4 …(6)
h→0 h
a
f 1+ h =
when h < 0

L. H.D = lim
a f
f 2−h − f 2
,h>0
af when h > 0
f (1) = 1 (considering f (x) = x for the value of the
h→0 −h
function f (x) at x = 1)

= lim
−3 h
=3 …(7) af
L f ′ 1 = lim
a
f 1+ h f − f 1a f ,h<0
h→0 −h h→0 h
af
From (6) and (7), we see that f −′ 2 ≠ f +′ 2 af 1+h − 1
af
⇒ f ′ 2 does not exist. = lim
h→0 h
= 1 and
Method 2: Given is
f (x) = 3x – 4, x ≤ 2 af
R f ′ 1 = lim
a f
f 1+ h − f 1
,h>0
af
h→0 h
f (x) = 2 (2 x – 4), x > 2
By definition of function f (x), 2h + 1 − 1
= lim =2
f (2 + h) = [3 (2 + h) – 4], 2 + h ≤ 2 h→0 h
= 2 [2 (2 + h) – 3], 2 + h > 2
⇒ f (2 + h) = [ 6 + 3 h – 4], h ≤ 0
af af af
thus, L f ′ 1 ≠ R f ′ 1 ⇒ f ′ 1 does not exist ⇒
= 2 [4 + 2h – 3], h > 0 f (x) is not differentiable at x = 1
3. A function f (or, f (x)) is defined by f (x) = x + 2,
⇒ f (2 + h) = 2 + 4h when h > 0 …(1)
when 0 ≤ x < 2
= 2 + 3 h when h ≤ 0 …(2)
and f (2) = 2 …(3) = 8 x , when 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 ,
find the left hand derivative and right hand derivative
of f at x = 2.
330 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution:
8 8 8
af
l.h.d = f −′ 2 = lim
f 2−h − f 2
,h>0
a f af =
e 16 + 0 + 4 j
= = =1
4+4 8 …(4)
2 − h −2
af af af
h→0
thus, (3) and (4) ⇒ f −′ 2 = f +′ 2 = 1 ⇒ f ′ 2
= lim
a
f 2−h − f 2 f af …(A)
exists and = 1.
h→0 −h
R| −x , x<0
f axf = S
Now, f (x) = x + 2 for x < 2 2
0≤ x ≤1
|Tx
4. If x ,
⇒ f (2 – h) = 2 – h + 2 = 4 – h …(1) 3
− x +1, x >1
32 − h < 2
test the differentiability at x = 0 and x = 1
bg
f 2 = 8x
x =2
= 16 = 4×4 =4 …(2) Solution: At x = 0
f (x) = x2 …(1)
Putting (1) and (2) in (A), we get ⇒ f (0) = 0 when x > 0,
af
f −′ 2 = lim
h→0
4 − h −4
−h
= lim
−h
h→ 0 −h
=1 …(3)
f (x) = x2 when x < 0,
f (x) = – x
…(2)
…(3)
∴ f (0 + h) = (0 + h)2 = h2, h > 0
Again, f (0 – h) = – (0 – h) = h

af a
f 2+h − f 2 f af a f af
r. h.d = f +′ 2 = lim
h→0 2 + h −2 ,h>0 af
Now, f −′ 0 = hlim
→0
f 0−h − f 0
−h
,h>0

= lim
a
f 2+h − f 2 f af a f
f −h − f 0 h−0af
h→0 h
…(B) = lim = lim = − 1 …(4)
h→0 −h h → 0 −h

af
and f x = 8 x for x > 2
a f af
⇒ f a2 + hf = 8 a2 + h f = 16 + 8 h ... (4)
af
f +′ 0 = lim
h→0
f 0+h − f 0
h
,h>0

32 + h > 2
= lim
af af
f h − f 0
Putting (2) and (4) in (B), h→0 h

af
f +′ 2 = lim
h→0
16 + 8 h − 4
h = lim
h −0
2
= lim
h
= lim h = 0
2

h→0 h h→0 h h→0

= lim
e 16 + 8 h − 4 × j e 16 + 8 h + 4 j af af
Thus, f −′ 0 ≠ f +′ 0 ⇒ f ′ 0 does not exist af
h→0 h e 16 + 8 h + 4 j af
⇒ f x is not differentiable at x = 0
16 + 8 h − 16 Similarly, we can test the differentiability at x = 1
= lim
h→0 h e 16 + 8 h + 4 j a f RST216x −+ x7 ,,
5. If f x =
when x ≤ 3
when x ≥ 3
test the differ-
8 h/
= lim
h→0 h/ e 16 + 8 h + 4 j entiability at x = 3.
Solution: Let h > 0.

= lim
8 af
R.H. D = f +′ 3 = lim
a f af
f 3+h − f 3

e j
,h>0
h→0 h
h→0 16 + 8 h + 4
 Differentiability at a Point 331

a
16 − 3 + h − 13 f −h LM OP then we may consider any one of f1 (x) and f2 (x) for
= lim
h→0 h
= lim
h → 0 h N Q considering the value of f (x) at x = a because both
give the same value.
= lim − 1 = − 1
h→0 …(1) af
6. If f x =
sin x
x
when x > 0

bg
L. H.D = f −′ 3 = lim
b g b g ,h>0
f 3−h − f 3 = 1 – x cos x , when x ≤ 0 ,
h→0 −h show that the function f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

= lim
a
7 + 2 3 − h − 13f= lim
−2h LM OP af
Solution: f +′ 0 = lim
a f af
f 0+h − f 0
N Q
,h>0
−h h→0
h→0 h→0 −h h

= lim 2 = 2 sin h
h→0 …(2)
= lim h
−1
= lim
sin h − h LMform is = 0 OP
Thus, (1) and (2) ⇒ L.H.D ≠ R.H.D ⇒ f (x) is not h→0 h h → 0 h2 N 0Q

LMh − h + h ...OP − h
differentiable at x = 3
3 5
Second method:
f (3) = [2x + 7]x = 3 = 2 × 3 + 7 = 13
Now, using the definition of the function,
…(1)
= lim
MN N3 N5 PQ
h→0 2
f (3 + h) = [2 (3 + h) + 7], 3 + h ≤ 3 h
⇒ f (3 + h) = 6 + 2 h + 7, h ≤ 0
f (3 + h) = [16 – (3 + h)], 3 + h ≥ 3
…(2)
LM h + h + ...OP = 03

⇒ f (3 + h) = 13 – h, h ≥ 0 ... (3)
= lim −
h→0MN N3 N5 PQ ...(1)
Now, using the definition,
a f af Again, f ′ a0f = lim
a1 + h cos hf − 1
af
L f′ 3 = L
h→0
f a+h − f a
h
, h<0 −
−h
h→0

13 + 2 h − 13 2h = lim − cos h = − 1 …(2)

= L = L h→0
h→0 h h→0 h
af
Thus, we see that f +′ 0 ≠ f −′ 0 ⇒ f ′ 0 doesaf af
= L 2=2
h→0 …(4) af
not exist ⇒ f x is not differentiable at x = 0.
Type 2: Problems based on the function which are

af
R f′ 3 = L
a f af
f a+h − f a
, h>0
redefined.
h→0 h Examples worked out:

= L
13 − h − 13
= L
−h
1. If af
f x = 2
x −1
, when x ≠ 1 and
h→0 h h→ 0 h 2x − 7x + 5
= L
h→0
a− 1f = − 1 …(5)
1
= − , when x = 1 find f ′ 1 . af
af af af
3
Thus, (4) and (5) ⇒ f −′ 3 ≠ f +′ 3 ⇒ f ′ 3
af
does not exist ⇒ f x is not differentiable at x = 3 Solution: f x =af 2
x −1
Remember: If f (x) = f1 (x), when x ≤ a 2x − 7x + 5
f (x) = f2 (x), when x ≥ a ,
af
∴ f ′ 1 = lim
a
f 1+ h − f 1 f af
h→0 h
332 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a1 + hf − 1 F 1I LM a2 + hf − 2 O
− 1P
2 a1 + hf − 7 a1 + hf + 5 H 3K
− −
2

= lim M
a2 + hf − 3a2 + hf + 2 P
2
= lim
h→0 h h→0 MM h PP
h
+
1 MN PQ
2
2 h − 3h 3
= lim h − b2 + hg + 3 b2 + hg − 2
2
h→0 h = lim
h→0
h {b2 + − hg − 3 b2 + hg + 2}
2
1 1
+
2h − 3 3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim
e
h − 4 + h + 4 h + 6 + 3h − 2
2
j
3 + 2h − 3
h→0
e 2
h 4 + h + 4 h − 6 − 3h + 2 j
= lim
h→0 a
3h 2 h − 3 f
2 2 e
h − 4 + h + 4 h + 6 + 3h − 2
2
j
= lim
a
h → 0 3 2h − 3
=−
9 f = lim
h→0
e 2
h 4 + h + 4 h − 6 − 3h + 2 j
Note: Problems where f (x) = f1 (x), when x ≠ a =
constant, when x = a are provided and we are required
af
to find f ′ a , we use the definition,
= lim
e
h − 4 + h + 4 h + 6 + 3h − 2
2
j
f aa + hf − f aa f e j
f ′ aa f = lim
h→0 2
h 6+h +h−6
which ⇒ we are
h→0 h
not required to find l.h.d. and r.h.d. separately but 2

when we have to examine f ′ a or to test the af = lim

h − 4 − h − 4 h + 6 + 3h − 2

differentiability of the given function f (x) at x = a

h→0
e
h h +h
2
j
which is redefined, it is a must to find l.h.d and r.h.d.
2
for the same function f (x) = f1 (x), when x ≠ by h−6−h −h+6
= lim
putting (a + h) and (a – h) separately since x ≠ a
means x > a and x < a which ⇒ we have to consider
h→0
e
h h +h
2
j
the same function f (x) whose independent variable is 2
−h
replaced by (a – h) while finding l.h.d. and the = lim
independent variable x in f (x) is replaced by (a + h) h→0
h
2
ah + 1f
while finding r.h.d.
−1
af
2. If f x = 2
x−2
, x ≠ 2 and = 1, x = 2
= lim
h→0 ah + 1f = − 1
x − 3x + 2
f a2 − hf − f a2 f
examine the differentiability at x = 2. f ′ a2 f = lim
−

af f 2+h − f 2 a f af h→0 −h
Solution: f +′ 2 = lim
h→0 h a2 − h f − 2 − 1
= lim
a2 − hf − 3a2 − hf + 2
2

h→0 −h
 Differentiability at a Point 333

a2 − hf − 2 − a2 − hf + 3a2 − hf − 2 2 ∴ (2) – (1)

= lim
h→0 − h {a2 − hf − 3a2 − hf + 2}
2 b g bg
⇒ f 0+h − f 0 =
1+ e
h
1
h
−0 =
h
1+ e h
1 …(3)

= lim
e
2 − h − 2 − 4 + h − 4 h + 6 − 3h − 2
2
j bg
Again, 3 f x (when x < 0) =
x
1
h→0
e
−h 6 + h − h − 6
2
j 1+ ex

2
− h − 4 − h + 4 h + 6 − 3h − 2
a
∴f 0−h = f 0−h
1
=
−h
1
= lim − …(4)
e j
0−h
h→0
−h 6 + h − h − 6
2
1+ e 1+ e h

Now, using the definition,

= lim
− 4h − 6 − h + 4h + 6
2
af
f +′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0 f af
e j
2 ; h>0
h→0 h→0 h
−h h − h
h
2
−h 1 1 1
= lim
h→0
−h
2
a h−1
= lim
f
h→0 h − 1
=
0 −1 a
= −1
f = lim
1+ e h
= lim
1
=
1
=0
af af
…(5)
h→0 h h→0 1
∞
∴ f +′1 2 = f −′ 2 = − 1 which ⇒ gives function 1+ e h
f (x) is differentiable at x = 2.

R| x af a
f 0−h − f 0 f af
f a x f = S1 + e
, x≠0 f −′ 0 = lim ,h>0
1x h→0 −h
|T 0 ,
3. If test the differen-

tiability at x = 0.
x=0
a− h f
1
−

af 1+ e h
x
Solution: Given that f x =
1+ e
1x
, when x > 0 = lim
h→0 −h a f
1
= lim
af
f x =
x
1x
, when x < 0 h→0
1+e
−
1
h
1+ e
f (x) = 0 , when x = 0 1
= =1
af
Now, 3 f x = 0 when x = 0 1+0 …(6)

⇒ f (0) = 0 af
Thus, we see that f +′ 0 ≠ f −′ 0 ⇒ f ′ 0 does af af
af
…(1)
not exist ⇒ f ′ x is not differentiable at x = 0
bg
f x =
x
1 + e1 x
, when x > 0
1
−
−∞
∴ For h > 0, Remember: For h > 0 (i) lim e h
=e =0
h→0

a
f 0+h = f 0+h
1
=
h
1
1
∞
0+ h …(2) (ii) lim e = e h
=∞
1+ e 1+ e h
h→0
334 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R F 1I = 0
a f |Sx
1
H hK
2
sin , when x ≠ 0 = lim h sin …(5)
f x =
|T
4. Show that x h→0
0, when x = 0
f a0 − h f − f a0f
is differentiable at x = 0. af
f −′ 0 = lim
h→0 −h
,h>0
1
Solution: Given that f (x) = x2 sin , when x > 0
x F 1I − 0
H hK
2
h sin −
a3 x ≠ 0 ⇒ x > 0 and x<0 f = lim
h→0 −h
1
FG 1 IJ
f (x) = x2 sin , when x < 0
x
f (x) = 0 , when x = 0
Now, f (x) = 0, when x = 0 = lim
− h 2 sin
H hK
h→0 −h
⇒ f (0) = 0 …(1)
1 F 1I = 0
f (x) (when x > 0) = x2 sin
x
= lim h sin
h→0 H hK …(6)

FG 1 IJ ∴ (5) and (6) ⇒ f ′ a0f = f ′ a0f = 0 which means

a
∴ For h > 0, f 0 + h = 0 + h f a f 2
⋅ sin
H 0 + hK that f ′ a0f exists. i.e.; f ′ a x f exists at x = 0 ⇒ f (x) is
+ −

differentiable at x = 0.
F 1I F 1 I , when x ≠ 0 = 0 , when x = 0.
H hK
2
= h sin …(2) 5. If f (x) = x sin H xK
F 1I
∴ b2g − b1g ⇒ f b0 + hg − f b0g = h sin G J − 0
Show that the function f (x) does not have the
H hK
2
derivative at the point x = 0.

F 1I 1 FI
H hK HK
2
= h sin …(3) Solution: 3 f (x) = x sin , when x ≠ 0
x
f (0) = 0
a f af
1
Again, f (x) (when x < 0) =x2 sin

∴ For h > 0
x af
∴ f ′ 0 = lim
h→0
f 0+h − f 0
h

b
f 0−h = 0−h g b g ⋅ sin FGH 0 −1 h IJK
2
a0 + hf sin FGH 0 +1 h IJK − 0
= lim
F 1I h→0 h
H hK
2
=h sin − …(4)
F 1I
Now, using the definition, h sin
H hK
af
f +′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0 f af
,h>0
= lim
h→0 h
h→0 h
F 1 I which has no finite value
F 1I h→0 H hK
= lim sin

H hK
2

which means that f ′ a x f does not exist at x = 0.

h sin
= lim
h→0 h
 Differentiability at a Point 335

6. If f (x) = x2, when x ≥ 1 , and f (x) = – x, when
x < 1, show that the function f (x) does not have
derivative x = 1.
Solution: f (x) = x2, when x > 1
⇒ f (1 + h) = (1 + h)2, when 1 + h > 1, i.e. h > 0
= (1 + h)2, when h > 0 and f (x) = – x, when x < 1
⇒ f (1 + h) = – (1 + h), when 1 + h < 1, i.e.; h < 0
= – (1 + h), when h < 0, f (1) = 1
Note: 1. Generally, we are asked to test the
differentiability of a mod function | f (x) | at a point
x = a at which f (x) = 0.
2. In most cases of | f (x) |, point x = a at which
f (x) = 0, we have l.h.d ≠ r.h.d which ⇒ in most cases,
the mod function | f (x) | is not differentiable at a point
x = a at which f (x) = 0.
3. To find the derivative or existence of a derivative

a f af
of a mod function at a point x = a where x = a is a point
af
∴ f +′ 1 = lim
h→0
f 1+ h − f 1
h
,h>0
at which f (x) = 0, we are required to find the l.h.d and
r.h.d separately,
4. If x = a be a point at which f (x) ≠ 0 in | f (x) |, then
= lim
a1 + hf 2
−1
= lim
2
1 + 2h + h − 1 we use the following formula to find the value of the
h→0 h h→0 h derivative of | f (x) | at x = a.

h h+2a f LM d f axf OP LM f axf × f ′ a xfOP

N f a xf
2
2h + h =
= lim
h→0 h
= lim
h→0 h Nd x Q x=a Q x=a

a f
= lim h + 2 = lim h + lim 2
h→0 h→0 h→0
5. | h | = | – h | = h and |
Examples worked out:
h2 | = h2 = | h |2

=0+2=2 …(1) 1. If f (x) = | x |, show that the function f (x) does not

af
f −′ 1 = lim
f 1+ h − f 1 a
,h<0
f af have derivative at x = 0
h→0 h Solution: 3 f (x) = | x |

a
− 1+ h −1 f
−1 − h − 1 af
R f ′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0
,h>0
f af
= lim = lim h→0 h
h→0 h h→0 h

−2 − h 2 h F I FI = lim
0+h − 0
= lim
h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim −
h → 0 h
− lim
h → 0 h H K HK h→0 h h→0 h

h
= −∞ − 1 = −∞ …(2) = lim = lim 1 = 1
af af af h→0
…(i)
h h→0
∴ (1) and (2) ⇒ f +′ 1 ≠ f −′ 1 which ⇒ f ′ 1
does not exist which means that f (x) has no finite
af
L f ′ 0 = lim
a
f 0−h − f 0 f af
derivative at x = 1. h→0 −h
Type 3: Problems based on a mod function | f (x) |.
0−h − 0 −h
Whenever we want to test the differentiability of a = lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 −h
mod function | f (x) | at a point x = a at which f (x) = 0 or
f (x) ≠ 0, we are required to find the l.h.d. and r.h.d at
a given point x = a because a mod function | f (x) | can = lim
h→0
h
a f
= lim − 1 = − 1
−h h→0 ...(ii)

(i) and (ii) ⇒ R f ′ a0f ≠ L f ′ a0f which ⇒ f ′ a0f

be expressed as a piecewise function in the following
way.
does not exist i.e.; f (x) has no finite derivative at x = 0.
| f (x) | = f (x), when f (x) ≥ 0
2. Examine the differentiability of f (x) at the indicated
= – f (x) , when f (x) < 0
points.
This is why a mod function | f (x) | also is called the
piecewise function.
336 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

π 3
(i) f (x) = | cos x | at x = h h
3
h
3
2 = lim = lim = lim
(ii) f (x) = | x3 | at x = 0 h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

Solution: (i) f (x) = | cos x | 2

= lim h = 0
Fπ I
cos G + hJ
π h→0
…(i)

FG π IJ = lim H2 K − cos
2 ,h>0
a0 − hf
H 2K
3
− 0
∴R f ′
h→0 h af
L f ′ 0 = lim
h→0 −h
,h>0

− sin h − 0 − 1 sin h − 0
= lim = lim 3 3
h→0 h h→0 h −h −0 −1 h
= lim = lim
sin h h→0 −h h→ 0 −h
= lim =1 …(i)
h→0 h
a f
3 3
h h
F π − hI π
= lim
−h
= − 1 lim
H2 K
h→0 h→0 h
F π I = lim cos − cos
2 ,h>0
L f′
H 2K h→0 −h a f h→0
2
= − 1 ⋅ lim h = − 1 × 0 = 0 …(ii) a f
F π − hI Thus from (i) and (ii), we see that

= lim
cos
H2 K − 0
af af
R f ′ 0 = L f ′ 0 which ⇒ f ′ 0 exists. af
h→0 h ∴ f (x) is differentiable at x = 0.

sin h − 0 sin h af
3. If f (x) = | log x | , find f +′ 1 and f −′ 1 . af
= lim = lim Solution: 3 f (x) = | log x |
h→0 −h h → 0 −h

bg bg b g
f 1+ h − f 1 b g ,h>0
a f
= − 1 lim
h→0
sin h
h
∴ R f ′ 1 = f +′ 1 = lim
h→ 0 h

= a− 1f × a1f = − 1 …(ii) = lim

a
log 1 + h − log 1 f
F πI ≠ L f ′F πI
h→0 h
From (i) and (ii), we see that R f ′
H 2K H 2K = lim
a
log 1 + h − 0 f
F π I does not exist which ⇒ f axf is not h→0 h
∴ f′
H 2K a
log 1 + h − 0 f
= lim
π h→0 h
differentiable at x = .
(ii) f (x) = | x3 |
2
= lim
log 1 + ha=1
f
a0 + hf
h→0 h
3
− 0
af
∴ R f ′ 0 = lim
h→0 h
,h>0
af af
L f ′ 1 = f −′ 1 = lim
a
f 1− h − f 1
,h>0
f af
h→0 −h

a f
3
h −0
log 1 − h − log 1
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 −h
 Differentiability at a Point 337

log 1 − h − 0a f 5. f (x) = 1 + | sin x |. Examine differentiability at x = 0.

= lim
h→0 h
bg
R f ′ 0 = lim
b g m
1 + sin 0 + h − 1 + sin 0 r,
= lim
a
log 1 − h − 0 f h>0
h→0 h

−h
l q
h→0
1 + sin h − 1 + 0

= lim
log 1 − ha f = lim
log 1 − h a f = lim
h→0 h
h→0 −h h→0 −h
1 + sin h − 1 sin h
= lim = lim
a f
= − 1 lim
a
log 1 − h f = a− 1f × a1f = –1 h→0 h h→0 h
h→0 h sin h
= lim =1 …(i)
af
4. If f x = 1 + 3
a x − 2f 2
af
, find f +′ 2 and f −′ 2 . af h→0 h

af a f l
1 + sin 0 − h − 1 + sin 0 q,
Solution: 3 f x = 1 + af a x − 2f 3 2 L f ′ 0 = lim
h →0 −h

f b2 + h g − f b2 g
h>0
∴ R f ′ b2g = f ′ b2g = lim
+
h→ 0
,h>0
h
= lim
a f l
1 + sin − h − 1 + 0 q
h→0 −h
= lim
1+ 3
a2 + h − 2 f 2
−1
h→0
1 + − 1 sin h − 1 sin h
h = lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 −h
F 2 − 1I
H3 K
3 2 2
3

a f
h h
= lim = lim = lim h = lim
sin h
= − 1 ⋅ lim
sin h
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
h→0 −h h→0 h

FG 2 − 3IJ F − 1I a f af
= lim h
H 3 K = lim h
H 3K = lim
1
=∞
= −1 × 1 = −1 …(ii)
Thus, from (i) and (ii), we see that
af af af
h→0 h→0 h→0 3 h
R f ′ 0 ≠ L f ′ 0 which ⇒ f ′ 0 does not exist.
af
L f ′ 2 = f −′ 2 = lim af
f 2−h − f 2
,h>0
a f af ∴ f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.
h→0 −h
6. f (x) = | x – 2 |. Examine differentiability at x = 2.
1+ 3
a 2−h−2 f 2
−1
= lim
h→0 −h bg
R f ′ 0 = lim
h→0
2+h−2 − 0
h
,h>0

= lim
3
a − hf 2
= lim
h3
2

= lim
h
= lim
h
= lim 1 = 1 …(i)
h→0 −h h→0 −h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

FG 2 − 3IJ
H 3 K
1
af
L f ′ 0 = lim
2−h−2 − 0
a f a f
− ,h>0
= − 1 lim h = − 1 lim h 3 h→0 −h
h→0 h→0
−h − 0 −1 h
a f
= − 1 × lim
h→0 3
1
h
a f
= −1 ⋅ ∞ = − ∞
= lim
h→0 −h
= lim
h→0 −h
338 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

= lim
h
a f
= lim − 1 = − 1 …(ii) af
L. H.D f −′ 0 = lim
a
f 0−h − f 0 f
, (h > 0)
af
h→0 −h h→0 h→0 −h

a f a f
Thus, from (i) and (ii) we see that f (x) is not
af
differentiable at x = 2 caused by R f ′ 2 ≠ L f ′ 2 . af = lim
30−h
2
+5 0−h −0
Type 4: To find the values of the constants so that a h→0 −h
given function f (x) becomes differentiable at a given
a f
2
point x = a. 3h − 5 h
= lim = lim − 3 h + 5 = 5 …(B)
To find the values of the constants so that a given h→0 −h h→ 0

a f af
function f (x) becomes differentiable at a given point
x = a, the following two conditions must be satisfied.
1. f (x)should be continuous at a given point x = a for
af
R.H. D f +′ 0 = lim
h→0
f 0+h − f 0
h
, (h > 0)

a f
which we must have L.H.L = R.H.L at athe same point
x = a = value of the function at x = a = f (a). a 0+h +b−0 ah + b − 0
= lim = lim
L.H.D at x = a = R.H.D at x = a h→0 h h→0 h
Hence, we adopt the following working rule to find
the values of the constants so that a given function
f (x) becomes differentiable at a given point x = a
= lim
h→0
ah
h
a3 b = 0 from (A)f
Working rule: = lim a = a
af af af h→0 …(C)
1. Find L f x = L f x = f a from the
x→a
+
x→a
− Now equating (B) and (C), we get a = 5
definition of continuity of a function at a point x = a (3 differentiability at x = a ⇔ L.H.D = R.H.D) and
2. Find left hand derivative and right hand derivative b = 0 (from (A))
at the same point x = a by definition and then put a=5 UV
L.H.D = R.H.D since differentiability at a point means
af
f +′ a = f −′ a .af W
Thus, b = 0 is the required answer.

2. For what values of a and b is the function

a f LMM2 a xx + b
Remember: Differentiability at a point x = a ⇒ 2
when x ≤ 1
continuity at the same point x = a which is used to f x =
find the values of the constants so that a given N when x > 1
differentiable at
function f (x) becomes differentiable at a given point x = 1.
x = a. Solution: For continuity of f (x) at x = 1
Examples worked out: f (1) = 12 = 1 ( 3 f (x) = x2 when x = 1)
1. If f (x) = 3 x2 + 5 x, when x ≤ 0 and f (x) = a x + b,
when x > 0 find a and b so that f (x) becomes
L. H.L = lim− f x = lim x = 1
x→1
af x →1
2

f a x f = lim a2 a x + bf = 2 a + b
differentiable at x = 0.
Solution: For continuity of f (x) at x = 0 R.H.L = lim+
x →1
af af af
x →1
Lim+ f x = Lim− f x = f 0 Now, since f (x) should be continuous at x = 1
x→0 x→0
∴ L.H.L = R.H.L = f (1)
e j
∴ Lim 3 x 2 + 5 x = Lim a x + b b g ∴ 2 a + b = 1 which ⇒ 2 a + b = 1 …(A)
x→0

⇒0=b⇒b=0
x→0

…(A) L. H.D = lim

a
f 1−h − f 1 f af
, (h > 0)
h→0 −h
 Differentiability at a Point 339

= lim
a1 − hf 2
−1
= lim
2
h − 2h
Note: 1. Whenever we want to find the limit of a
mod function | f (x) | at a point x = a, we are required to
h→0 −h h→0 −h find the l.h.l and r.h.l at the same given point x = a

b g
because a mod function is also a piecewise function.
= lim 2 − h = 2 …(B) 2. To examine the continuity and differentiability in
h→ 0
an interval, we are required to check the given

R.H.D = lim
a
f 1+ h − f 1 f af
, (h > 0)
function at the following points.
h→0 h (a) The point on both sides of which two different

a f
functions f1 (x) and f2 (x) are defined in two different
2 a 1 + h + b −1 subinterval (or, part of the domain of the given
= lim function). These points are termed as turning points
h→0 h

a f
of the definition or interior points of the interval if the
2 a h + 2 a + b −1 given function f (x)is a piecewise function.
= lim
h→0 h (b) Points (including the end points of the closed
interval) at which the given function becomes infinite,
2 a h + 1 −1 imaginary, or indeterminate.
= lim (3 2a + b = 1 from (A))
h→0 h (c) The end points of the closed interval where it has
one sided limiting values or derivatives. i.e.;
= lim
h→0 h
2ah
= lim 2 a = 2 a
h→0
…(C) (i)
x→a
af af
lim + f x = f a and
x→b
af af
lim − f x = f b
Now, equating (B) and (C), we get where a and b are the end points of the closed interval
2a = 2 ( 3 differentiability at x = 1 ⇔ L.H.D = [ a, b]
R.H.D at the same point x = a)
⇒ a=1 (ii) lim +
af
f x − f aaf
=a finite value and
Now, putting this value of a = 1 in (A), we have x→a x −a
b = 1 − 2 ⋅ 1 = − 1 ( 3 2a + b = 1) af
f x − f b af
= a finite value. Where a and b
UV
lim −
a =1 x→b x −b
⇒ f (x) would be differentiable
W
Hence,
b = −1 are the end points of the closed interval [a, b].
at x = 1 only if a = 1 and b = – 1. working rule to test the continuity and differentiability
of the given function at the same point x = a.
On continuity and differentiability of a function at a
To test the continuity and differentiability of the
point x = a.
given function at the same point x = a, we should test
Question: Explain the cases where l.h.l at a point the continuity at the point x = a and differentiability
x = a = r.h.l at the same point x = a is used to test the at the same point x = a separately. i.e.;
continuity of a given function f (x) at a given point (i) To test the continuity at x = a, we are required to
x = a. show that l.h.l of the given function at the point x = a
Answer: There are following cases where the concept = r.h.l of the given function at the point x = a = value
of l.h.l at a point x = a = r.h.l at the same point x = a is of the function at x = a.
used to test the continuity of a given function f (x) at (ii) To test the differentiability at x = a, we are required
a given point x = a. to show that l.h.d of the given function at a point
(i) When a function f (x) is redefined. x = a = r.h.d of the given function at a point x = a.
(ii) When a function f (x) is a piecewise function.
Remember: Whenever a function is redefined in an
(iii) When a function f (x) is a mod function.
interval (open or closed) i.e.;
340 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

bg bg
f x = f1 x , x ≠ c UV in the interval (a,b) or Worked out examples on continuity and
differentiability at a given point x = a.
= d, x = c W Type 1: Problems based on piecewise functions:
[a, b] where a, b, c are constants. Questions: 1. A function f is defined as follows:
Then only probable point of the interval (a, b) or
[a, b], at which the given redefined function may be f (x) = – x for x ≤ 0
discontinuous or non-differentiable is x = c. For this f (x) = x for x ≥ 0 .
reason, we test the continuity and differentiability at Test the continuity and differentiability of the
x = c, e.g., given function at x = 0.
(i) f (x) = x if x ≠ 0 Solution: (i) Continuity test at x = 0.
f (0) = 1 in the interval [– 1, 1]
The only probable point of the interval [– 1, 1], at
l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x
x→0
af
a f a f
which the function may be discontinuous or non-
differentiable is x = 0. = lim − x = − 1 × lim x = 0 × − 1
x→0 x→0
(ii) f (x) = 4 x + 7 if x ≠ 2
=0 …(a1)
af af
f (2) = 3 in the interval at [ – 4, 4]
The only probable point of the interval [ – 4, 4], at r.h.l at x = 0 = lim+ f x = lim x
x→0 x→0
which the function may be discontinuous or non-
differentiable is x = 2. =0 …(a2)
f (0) = 0 …(a3)
af
2
9 x − 16 4 (a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 0 = r.h.l at x = 0 =
(iii) f x = 3
for x ≠
27 x − 64 3 value of the function at x = 0 = 0.
∴ f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
F 4 I = 2 in the interval [ – 1, 3] (ii) Differentiability test at x = 0.
f
H 3K 3 b g
The only probable point of the interval [ – 1, 3], at bg
l.h.d at x = 0 = L f ′ 0 = lim
h→0
− 0−h −0
−h
which the redefined function may be discontinuous
4 FG − h IJ = lim 1 = − 1 …(b )
or non-differentiable is x =
3
. = lim
h→0 H − hK h→0 1

(iv) f x = af 1 − sin x
for x ≠
π
r. h.d at x = 0 = R f ′ a0f = lim
a0 + h f − 0
F π − xI 2
2 h→0
H2 K
h
h
= lim =1
F π I = 1 in the interval LM0 , 3 π OP . h→0 h
…(b2)
f
H 2K 2 N 2Q bg
(b1) and (b2) ⇒ L f ′ 0 ≠ R f ′ 0 bg
LM 3πOP ∴ f (x) is not differentiable at x = 1.
The only probable point of the interval 0 ,
N 2 Q
, 2. Examine the following function for continuity and
at which the redefined function may be discontinuous differentiability:
f (x) = x2 for x ≤ 0
π f (x) = 1 for 0 < x ≤ 1
or non-differentiable is x = .
2
1
f (x) = for x > 1
x
 Differentiability at a Point 341

Solution: Considerable points at which we are

1
required to test the continuity and differentiability −1
1+h 1/ − 1/ − h
= lim = lim
b g
are x = 0 and x = 1.
(i) Continuity and differentiability test at x = 0 h→0 h h→0 h 1 + h

F I
f (0) = 0 …(a1)
l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x
x→0
bg = lim
h→0 a f a f GH JK
−h
h 1+ h
= − 1 ⋅ lim
1
h→0 1 + h

2
= lim x = 0 F 1 IJ = – 1
= a− 1f × G
H 1 + 0K
x→0
…(a2)
...(b ) 2

r. h.l at x = 0 = lim + f x
x→0
bg (b ) and (b ) ⇒ L f ′ a1f ≠ R f ′ a1f which
1 2
⇒ given piecewise function is non-differentiable at
x→0
af
= lim 1 = 1 …(a3) x = 1.
(a2) and (a3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 0 ≠ r.h.l at x = 0 which 3. Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the
following function:
⇒ given piecewise function is discontinuous at
f (x) = x2 for x < – 2
x = 0. Caused by this, given piecewise function is
non-differentiable at x = 0. f (x) = 4 for − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
(ii) Continuity and differentiability test at x = 1 f (x) = x2 for x > 2
Now, f (1) = 1 …(b1) Solution: Considerable points at which we are
l.h.l at x = 1 = lim− f x
x→1
bg required to test the continuity and differentiability of
the given piecewise function f (x) are x = – 2 and 2.

bg
(i) Continuity and differentiability test at x = – 2
= lim 1 = 1 …(b2) f (– 2) = 4 …(a1)
af
x →1
l.h.l at x = − 2 =
r.h.l at x = 1 = lim+ f x
x→1
bg lim − f x
x → −2

F 1I = 1 = lim ex j = 4
2
…(a2)
= lim
H xK …(b3) x → −2

af
x→1
r. h.l at x = − 2 = lim + f x
(b1), (b2) and (b3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 1 = r.h.l at x = 1 = x → −2
value of the function at x = 1 which ⇒ f (x) is
= lim 4 = 4 …(a3)
continuous at x = 1 x → −2
Again, (a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = – 2 = r.h.l at x = – 2

af
l.h.d at x = 1 = L f ′ 1 = lim
a f af
f 1− h − f 1
,
= value of the function at x = – 2 which ⇒ f (x) is
h→0 −h continuous at x = – 2
Again,
h>0
1−1 a f
L f ′ − 2 = lim
a
f −2 − h − f −2f a f
, (h > 0)
= lim =0 …(b1) h→0 −h
h→0 −h

a f af a− 2 − hf 2
−4 4 + 4h + h − 4
2

af
r.h.d at x = 1 = R f ′ 1 = lim
h→0
f 1+ h − f 1
h
,
= lim
h→0 −h
= lim
h→0 −h

h>0
h→0
a
= lim − 4 − h = − 4 f …(b1)
342 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
R f ′ − 2 = lim
h→0
4−4
h
= lim
h → 0
0
h
=0 …(b2) f (x) = 1 + sin x in 0 ≤ x <
π
2
a f
(b1) and (b2) ⇒ L f ′ − 2 ≠ R f ′ − 2 . a f af F π I π
2

Caused by this, the given function is non-

f x =2+ x−
H 2
in
K 2
≤ x<∞

differentiable at x = – 2. Note: In this question we are required to examine the

(ii) Continuity and differentiability test at x = 2 continuity and differentiability in an interval
l.h.l at x = 2 = lim − f x
x→2
af −∞ < x < ∞.
Hence, we adopt the rule to examine the continuity
and differentiability in an interval.
= lim − 4 = lim 4 = 4
x→2 x→2 …(c1) Solution: Considerable points at which it is required

af
to test the continuity and differentiability of the given
r. h.l at x = 2 = lim + f x π
x→2 piecewise function f (x) are x = 0, .
2
= lim x 2 = 4e j (i) Continuity and differentiability at x = 0.
af
x→2
…(c2)
l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x = lim 1 = 1 ...(a1)
f (2) = 4 …(c3) x→0 x→0

r. h.l at x = 0 = lim f a x f
(c1), (c2) and (c3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 2 = r.h.l at x = 2
= f (2) which ⇒ given piecewise function is x→0
+

= lim l 1 + sin a0 + h fq = 1
continuous at x = 2.
Again, …(a2)
h→0

af
L f ′ 2 = lim
a f
f 2−h − f 2 af f (0) = 1 + sin 0 = 1 …(a3)
h→0 −h
, (h > 0)
(a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒
af
lim − f x = lim + f x af
FG IJ
x→0 x→0

= lim
h→0
4/ − 4/
−h
= lim
h → H K
0
0
− h = 0 …(d1)
af
= f 0 which ⇒ given piecewise function f (x) is
continuous at x = 0 ...(A)
f a2 + hf − f a2f a f af
af
R f ′ 2 = lim
h→0 h
, (h > 0) af
Again, L f ′ 0 = lim
h→0
f 0−h − f 0
−h
, (h > 0)

= lim
b2 + hg 2
−4
= lim
4/ + 4 h + h 2 − 4/
= lim
1−1
= lim
0
=0 ...(b1)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 −h h→ 0 −h

= lim
a
h 4+h f
= lim 4 + h a f af
R f ′ 0 = lim
a
f 0 + h − f 0 ,h>0f af
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h

h→0 h→ 0
af
= lim 4 + lim h = 4 + 0 = 4 …(d2)
= lim
a
1 + sin 0 + h − 1 f
af
(d1) and (d2) ⇒ R f ′ 2 ≠ L f ′ 2 which ⇒ af h→0 h

f (x) is not differentiable at x = 2. sin h

= lim =1 ...(b2)
h→0 h
af af
4. Examine the continuity and differentiability of the
following function in the interval − ∞ < x < ∞ . (b1) and (b2) ⇒ L f ′ 0 ≠ R f ′ 0 which ⇒
given piecewise function f (x) is not differentiable
f (x) = 1 in − ∞ < x < 0
at x = 0. ...(B)
 Differentiability at a Point 343

π
(ii) Continuity and differentiability test at x =
2 = lim
2+ e π
2
+h− 2j
π 2
−2

F πI = 2 + F π − πI
h→0 h
2
f
H 2K H 2 2K =2 …(c1)
= lim
h
2
= lim h = 0 …(d2)
h→0 h→0
af a f
π h
l.h.l at x = = lim − f x = lim 1 + sin x
2 x→ π x→
π
2 2
(d 1 ) and (d 2 ) ⇒ L f ′ e j = R f ′e j
π
2
π
2
which
⇒ the given piecewise function f (x) is differentiable
π
= 1 + sin = 1+1=2 …(c2) π
2 at x = ...(D)
2
r. h.l at x =
π
= lim f x af In the light of the results (A), (B), (C) and (D), we
observe and declare that f (x) is continuous in the
2 x → π+
a f
interval − ∞ , ∞ but it is not differentiable in
a f
2
− ∞,∞ .
R| F IJ U| = 2
S| GH V|
2
π
= lim 2 + x −
K f axf =
2
...(c3)
T W
x
x→
π 2 5. If , 0 ≤ x < 1,
2 2
(c1), (c2) and (c3) 3

af af F πI = 2 x2 − 3 x +
2
, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 discuss the continuity
⇒ lim − f x = lim + f x = f
x→
π
x→
π H 2K of f, f ′ , and f ′′ on [0, 2].
2 2
Solution: (i) Given is
af
which ⇒ f x is continuous at x =
π
…(C)
af
2
2 x
Again, f x = , 0≤ x <1 ...(a1)
2

L f′ e j = lim
π
f e π
2
−h − f j e j , (h > 0)
π
2
= 2 x − 3x +
3
, 1≤ x ≤ 2 ...(a2)
2 h→0 −h 2
af
∴ f ′ x = x, 0 ≤ x < 1 ...(a3)

= lim
1 + sin e π
2
−h −2 j = lim
1 − cos h = 4 x − 3, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 ...(a4)
h→0 −h h→ 0 h
af
f ′′ x = 1 , 0 ≤ x < 1 ...(a5)
F hI F hI = 4, 1 < x ≤ 2 ...(a6)
H 2 K = lim sin H 2 K ⋅ sin F h I
2
2 sin

F hI H 2 K
(ii) Continuity test at x = 1 for f (x),
= lim
a f LMN OP
h→0 h→ 0
H 2K
h 2 3
f 1 = 2 x − 3x +
2 Q x =1
=1× 0= 0 …(d1)
3 3 1
= 2 ×1− 3×1+ = −1 + =
e j e j , (h > 0)
π π
...(b1)
f +h − f 2 2 2
R f′ e j = lim
π
2 h→0
2
h
2
l.h.l at x = 1 = lim− f x af
x →1
344 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Fx I = 1 2 = lim x = 1
GH 2 JK 2 x →1 …(a2)
= lim
x →1 ...(b2)
r. h.l at x = 1 = lim+ f x af
r. h.l at x = 1 = lim f a x f
x→1

x →1
+
a
= lim 2 − x = 1
x →1
f …(a3)
F 3I 3 1
H K
2 (a1), (a2) and (a3)
= lim 2 x − 3 x + = 2 − 3 + = ...(b )
x →1 2 2 2 3
af
⇒ lim− f x = lim+ f x = f 1
x →1 x →1
a f af which ⇒
(b1), (b2) and (b3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 1 = r.h.l at x = 1 =
value of the function f (x) at x = 1 which ⇒ f (x) is given piecewise function is continuous at x = 1
continuous at x = 1 for f ′ x , af (ii) Differentiability test at x = 1

af
f ′ 1 = 4x − 3 a f af
x =1

= 4 ×1− 3= 4 − 3=1 ...(c1)

af
L f ′ 1 = lim
h→0
f 1− h − f 1
−h
, (h > 0)

x→1
af
l.h.l at x = 1 = lim− f ′ x = lim x = 1
x →1
a f ...(c )
2 = lim
a1 − hf − 1 = lim −h
h→0 −h h→0 −h
r. h.l at x = 1 = lim+ f ′ a x f = lim a4 x − 3f
x→1 x →1 = lim 1 = 1 …(b1)
h→0

a f af
= (4 – 3) = 1 ...(c3)
af
(c1), (c2) and (c3) ⇒ f ′ x is continuous at x = 1 af
R f ′ 1 = lim
f 1+ h − f 1
, (h > 0)
af
for f ′′ x
h→0 h

af
l.h.l at x = 1 = lim− f ′′ x = lim 1 = 1 …(d1) = lim
a
2 − 1+ h −1 f = lim
−h
x →1 x →1 h→0 h h→ 0 h
r. h.l at x = 1 = lim f ′′ a x f = lim 4 = 4 …(d )
+ 2
a f
= lim − 1 = − 1 …(b2)
x →1 x →1 h→0

∴ (d ) and (d ) ⇒ f ′′ a x f is discontinuous at
1 2
af
(b1) and (b2) ⇒ L f ′ 1 ≠ R f ′ 1 which ⇒ af
x = 1. given piecewise function is not differentiable at x = 1
Hence, in the light of above observation and the Type 2: Problems based on redefined functions:
results, we declare that the function f and f ′′ are
continuous in [0, 2] but f ′′ is discontinuous in [0, 2]
since f ′′ is discontinuous at x = 1 ∈ 0 , 2 .
Questions: (i) If f x = af x
1
, x ≠ 0 f (x) = 0 ,

Note: f ′′ (x) does not exist at x = 1. 1+ e x

6. A function f is defined as follows: x = 0 show that f is continuous at x = 0 but f ′ 0 af

f (x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and f (x) = 2 – x for x ≥ 1 . does not exist.
Solution: (i) Continuity test at x = 0
af
Test the character of the function at x = 1 as regards
its continuity and differentiability. r.h.l at x = 0 = lim + f x
x→0
Solution: (i) Continuity test at x = 1
f (1) = 1 …(a1)
b0 + hg
l.h.l at x = 1 = lim− f x af = lim
h→ 0 e j
1
, h > 0 = lim
h→ 0
h
1+ e h
1
=0 …(a1)
x →1 1+ e 0+ h
 Differentiability at a Point 345

l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x
x→0
af Solution: 1. Continuity test at x = 0
f (0 ) = 0 …(a1)

b0 − hg , h > 0 = lim −h bg b g
sin 0 + h
2

= lim
h→ 0
1+ e
e j 1
0−h
h→ 0
1 + ed
− 1
h i = 0 …(a2) r.h.l at x = 0 = lim+ f x = lim
x→0 h→0 b0 + h g , h>0

2
f (0) = 0 …(a3) sin h
= lim ⋅h=1× 0= 0 …(a2)
(a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 0 = r.h.l at x = 0 = h→ 0
h
2

value of the function at x = 0 which ⇒ given redefined

function f (x) is continuous at x = 0.
bg b g
sin 0 − h
2

(ii) Differentiability test at x = 0

l.h.l at x = 0 = lim− f x = lim
x→0 x→0 b0 − h g , h>0

af
R f ′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0 f af R| sin h ⋅ a− hfU|
2
h→0 h
,h>0
= lim S| h V|
h
−0
h→ 0
T 2
W
1
F sin h 2 I × lim a− hf = 1 × 0 = 0
1+ e h
h = lim GH h JK …(a3)
= lim = lim
F I h→ 0 2 h→ 0
h→0 h→0 1

h G1 + e JJ
h
GH
h
(a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒ f (x) is continuous at x = 0
K (ii) Differentiability test at x = 0

= lim
1
R| FG sin a0 + hf − 0IJ U|
| H a0 + hf K |V , h > 0
h→0 1
1+ eh R f ′ a0f = lim S
=0 …(b1) || a0 + hf ||
h→0

a f af T W
af
L f ′ 0 = lim
h→0
f 0−h − f 0
−h
,h>0
2
sin h
= lim =1
−h h→0 2 …(b1)
1
−0 h
−
1+ e −h
R| F sin b0 − hg I U|
h
= lim = lim
F I
2
h→0 −h h→0
− h G1 + e
−
1

JJ || GGH b0 − hg −0 JJK |
GH
h

K L f ′ b0g = lim S
|V , h > 0
h→0
|| b− hg ||
= lim
h→0
1
−
1
=
1
1+ 0
=1
…(b2)
|T |W
1+ e h

af af
2
sin h
∴ (b1) and (b2) ⇒ R f ′ 0 ≠ L f ′ 0 which = lim =1 …(b2)
af h→0 2
h
⇒ f ′ 0 does not exist.
(b 1 ) and (b 2 ) ⇒ R f ′ 0 = L f ′ 0 which af af
f a x f = sin x
1 2
⇒ redefined function f (x) is differentiable at x = 0
, x ≠ 0 f (x) = 0 , x = 0 discuss
2. If
x af
and f ′ 0 = 1 .
the continuity and differentiability of f (x) at x = 0.
346 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 1I F 1I
H xK H hK
2
3. If f (x) = x2 sin for x ≠ 0 f (x) = 0 for x = 0 h sin −
= lim
show that h→0 −h

RSa− 1f ahf a− 1f sin F 1 I UV

(i) f (x) is continuous at x = 0
af
(ii) f ′ 0 = 0
af
(iii) f ′ x is discontinuous at x = 0
= lim
h→0 T H hK W
Solution: (i) Continuity test at x = 0
af
1
l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x = lim h sin =0 ...(b2)
h→0 h
x→0

F 1 IJ , h > 0 af
(b1) and (b2) ⇒ L f ′ 0 = R f ′ 0 = 0 which af
= lim a0 − h f ⋅ sin G af
H 0 − hK
2
h→0
⇒ f′ 0 =0

F 1 I = 0 …(a ) af
(iii) To show that f ′ x is discontinuous at x = 0.
= lim a− 1f ⋅ eh j ⋅ sin
H hK 3 f ′ a x f = 2 x sin F I − cos F I at
2
1 1
H xK H xK
h→0 1
x≠0
r. h.l at x = 0 = lim f a x f
f ′ a0f = 0 (already determined)
+
x→0 …(c1)
F 1 IJ , h > 0 Now, r.h.l at x = 0 = lim f ′ a x f
= lim a0 + h f ⋅ sin G
H 0 + hK
2 +
x→0
h→0

F 1I = 0 R| b g F 1 I − cos F 1 I U|
= lim eh j sin
h→0
2
H hK …(a ) 2 h→0
S|T
= lim 2 0 + h sin GH 0 + h JK GH 0 + h JK V|W , h > 0
f (0) = 0
(a ), (a ) and (a ) ⇒ lim f a x f = lim f a x f
…(a )
3 R F 1 I − cos F 1 I UV
= lim S2 h sin
1 2 3
x→0
−
x→0
+ h→0 T H hK H hKW
= f a0f which ⇒ redefined function f (x) is F 1 I − lim cos F 1 I
continuous at x = 0
= 2 lim h sin
h→0 H hK h→0 H hK
(ii) To find f ′ a0f : F 1I
F 1 I
= 0 − lim cos
h→0 H hK
b0 + hg ⋅ sin GH 0 + h JK − 0
2

F 1 I which does not exist ⇒ r.h.l at

R f ′ b0g = lim
h→0 h
,h>0 = − lim cos
h→0 H hK
F 1I = 0 x = 0 of the function f ′ a x f does not exist. …(c )
H hK
2
= lim h ⋅ sin
Again, l.h.l at x = 0 = lim f ′ a x f
h→0
...(b
1 )
−
x→0

b0 − hg ⋅ sin FGH 0 −1 h IJK − 0

2
R|
= lim S2 b0 − hg sin G
F 1 IJ − cos FG 1 IJ U|V
L f ′ b0g = lim H 0 − h K H 0 − h K W| , h > 0
h→ 0 −h
, h > 0 h→0
T|
R
= lim Sa − 2f ahf sin
F 1 I − cos F − 1 I UV
h→0 T H h K H hK W
 Differentiability at a Point 347

a f a f FH h1 IK − lim cos FH h1 IK
= lim − 2 h sin
h→0 h→0
= lim h 1 +
h→0
RS
T
UV
W
1
3
sin log h
2

b3 cos a−θf = cos θg R 1

= lim Sh + h sin log h V
U 2

F 1 I − lim cos F 1 I h→0T 3 W

= a− 2f lim ahf sin
h→0 H hK H hK
h→0
= lim h + lim
1 2
h sin log h = 0 + 0
F 1I
h→0 h→0 3
= a− 2f × 0 − lim cos
h→0 H hK =0 …(a3)
(a1), (a2) and (a3) ⇒ l.h.l at x = 0 = r.h.l. at x = 0
F 1 I which does not exist ⇒ l.h.l at = value of the function at x = 0 which ⇒ f (x) is
= − lim cos
h→0 H hK continuous at x = 0.
(ii) Differentiability test at x = 0
x = 0 of the derived function f ' (x) does not exist
…(c3)
a0 − hf RST1 + 13 sin log a0 − hf UVW − 0
2

Hence, (c2) or (c3) ⇒ the derived function f ′ x af af

L f ′ 0 = lim ,
is discontinuous at x = 0, (of second kind). h→0 −h

af RS 1
e 2
jUVW h>0 b3 f a0f = 0g
4. If f x = x 1 +
T 3
sin log x , x≠0
RS 1 2 UV
f (x) = 0 , x = 0. Test the continuity and differentiability
at x = 0
= lim 1 +
h→0 T 3
sin log h
W
Solution: (i) Continuity test at x = 0 1 2
= lim 1 + lim sin log h
f ( 0) = 0 …(a1) h→0 3 h→0
l.h.l at x = 0 = lim − f x
x→0
af =1+
1
lim sin log h
2

3 h → 0

h→0
a f RST1 + 13 sinloga0 - hf UVW , h > 0
= lim 0 − h
2

h→0
2
but lim sin log h oscillates between +1 and –1.

L 1
= lim M− h − ⋅ h sinlog h P
O 2 af
∴ L f ′ 0 does not exist. …(b1)
N 3 Q
a0 + hf RST1 + 13 sin loga0 + hf UVW − 0
h→0
2

= lim a− hf − lim h ⋅ sin log h

h→0
1
3 h→0
2
af
R f ′ 0 = lim
h→0 h
,

1 2 1 h>0
=0− lim h ⋅ sinlog h = 0 − ⋅ 0
3 h→0 3 RS 1 2 UV
( 3 Product of an infinitesimal and a bounded
= lim 1 +
h→0 T 3
sin log h
W
function = 0, in the limit)
1 2 2
=0–0=0 …(a2) = lim 1 + lim sin log h but lim sin log h
r.h.l at x = 0 = lim + f x
x→0
af h→0 3 h→0
oscillates between +1 and – 1.
h → 0

af
f RST1 + 13 sin loga0 + hf UVW , h > 0
∴ R f ′ 0 does not exist. …(b2)
a
= lim 0 + h
h→0
2
(b1) or (b2) ⇒ f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.
348 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

On Derivative of y = [x]
Let y = f (x) = [x], where D ( f ) = R, i.e.; x ∈ R a
f +′ N + h = lim f a f a f
f N + h + ∆x − f N + h
∆x →0 ∆x
∴ there are two cases:
Case 1. When x is an integer. N + h + ∆x − N + h
= lim
considering f (x) = [x] at x = N, it is seen that for ∆x → 0 ∆x
h>0
N + h + ∆x − N − h
lim N + h = lim N + lim h = lim
h→0 h→0 h→0 ∆x → 0 ∆x
b
= N + 0 = N 3 x + n = n + x ,n ∈I g = lim
N +0− N −0
lim N − h = lim N + lim − h ∆x → 0 ∆x
h→0 h→0 h→0

a f FG N − N IJ = 0
= lim N + -1 lim h − 1
h→0 h→0
= lim
H ∆x K
∆x → 0

b3 − x = − x − 1 if x ∉ Ig f a N + h − ∆ x f − f a N + hf
f ′ a N − hf = lim
a f
= N + − 1 ⋅ 0 − 1= N − 1
−
∆x →0 −∆ x
f (N) = N
N + h − ∆x − N + h
Hence, the function y = [x] is discontinuous at = lim
x = N; through it is right continuous at this point ⇒ ∆x → 0 −∆x
y = [x] can not have derivative at any integral value of x.
N + h − ∆x − N − h
Case 2: When x is non-integer (or, non-integral). = lim
∆x → 0 −∆x
Considering f (x) = [x] at x = N + h, where 0 < h < 1, it
is seen that for ∆ x > 0 N +0− N −0
= lim
∆x → 0 −∆ x
= lim N + h + ∆x
FG N − N IJ = 0
∆x → 0

= lim
∆x → 0
N + lim
∆x→ 0
h + ∆x = lim
H −∆x K
∆x → 0

= N + 0 = N ( 3 [x + n] = n + [x], n ∈ I ) …(i) ∴ f ′ a N + h f = f ′ a N − hf = 0 , ∀ x ∉ I
+ −

lim N + h − ∆x ⇒ y = [x] has the derivative zero at any non-

∆x → 0
integral point namely x = N + h, where N = an integer
= lim N + lim h − ∆x and h is small positive number such that 0 < h < 1.
∆x → 0 ∆x → 0

= N + 0 = N as h − ∆ x < 1 …(ii) On Differentiability

f (N + h) = [N + h] = N …(iii) Type 1. Problems based on piecewise functions.
Hence, (i), (ii) and (iii) ⇒ the function y = [x] is
continuous at a non-integer point x = N + h. Exercise 7.1
Again, we know that continuity of a function y =
f (x) at any point x = a ⇒ / differentiability of the 1. Test the differentiability of the following functions
function y = f (x) at the same point x = a. at the indicated points.
Hence, the derivative test of y = [x] at a non-integer
point namely x = N + h, (0 < h < 1), is required.
 Differentiability at a Point 349

R| a f RST2 xx−, 1 ,
(v) f x =
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
when x > 1
|| 1 , when x < 0
f a x f = S 1 + sin x ,
π at x = 1.
when 0 ≤ x <
|| F π I
(i) Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 1
2

a f RSax x− 1xf ,x ,
π
2

|T2 + H x − 2 K , when ≤x (vi) f x =

when 0 ≤ x < 2
2
T when 2 ≤ x < 3

π at x = 1 and x = 2. Where [x] is the greatest integer not

at x = and x = 0. greater than x.
2 Answer: Not differentiable at both points x = 1 and
π x = 2.
Answer: Differentiable at x = and non-
2 2. If the function f (x) is defined by
differentiable at x = 0.
R|3 + 2 x , when −
3
<x≤0
R| f axf = S 2

|| 1, when x < 0 |T3 − 2 x , when 0 < x <

3

f b x g = S 1 + sin x ,
π 2
when 0 ≤ x <
(ii)
|| F π I 2 show that D f (0) does not exist.

|T2 − GH x − 2 JK ,
π 3. If the function f (x) is defined by
when x ≥

a f |RS|xx ,,
2 2
when x ≥ 0
f x =
at x = 0 and x =
π
.
T when x < 0
2 then find left hand derivative and right hand derivative
at x = 0. Is f (x) differentiable at x = 0?
π
Answer: Non-differentiable at both points x = and Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 0
2 4. Does the differential coefficient of the following
x = 0. function exist at x = 0 and x = 1
R| x , when 0 < x < 1
R|1 − x , when x < 0
|
f bxg = S 2 − x ,
f b x g = S1 + x ,2
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(iii)
||x − 1 x ,
when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
|Tx − x + 2 ,
2
when x > 1
T 2 when x > 2
2

Answer: Non-differentiable at both points x = 0 and

at x = 1 and x = 2. x = 1.
Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 1 and differentiable Type 2: Problems based on redefined functions:
at x = 2
R| − x, when x < 0
Exercise 7.2

f axf = S
2
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
|Tx
(iv) x ,
R F 1I
a f |Sx sin H x K ,
2
− x + 1, when x > 1 when x ≠ 0
1. If f x =
T| 0 ,
test the
at x = 0 and x = 1. when x = 0
Answer: Non-differentiable at both point x = 0 and differentiability at x = 0.
x=1
Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 0
350 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R|x F 1I , Answer: Not differentiable at x = 0.

f a xf = S H xK
2
sin for x ≠ 0 10. Test the differentiability of the function
|T
2. Show that
0, for x = 0 F 1
I −1

f a x f = G1 − e JJ
−

GH for x ≠ 0
x
is differentiable at x = 0.
K
R FG 1 IJ ,
a f |Sax − 2f H x − 2K when x ≠ 2
2 f (0) = 0 at the point x = 0.
sin
3. If f x =
|T 0, when x = 2
Answer: Not differentiable at x = 0.
11. Examine the differentiability of the function
test the differentiability at x = 2.
Answer: Differentiable at x = 2.
a f a x −1 af cosec FGH x −1 a IJK ,
f x = x≠a

R F 1I ,
a f |Sx
f (a) = 0 at the point x = a.
H xK
43
cos when x ≠ 0 Answer: Find.
4. If f x =
|T 0, when x = 0
12. Test the function f x =
1
af
sin a x for x ≠ 0
test the differentiability at x = 0 x
Answer: Differentiable at x = 0. f (0) = 1 for differentiability at x = 0 where ‘a’ is a

R| x −1
, when x ≠ 1
positive constant such that a ≠ 1 .
Answer: Find.
f b xg = S 2 x − 7x + 5
2

||
5. If 13. Discuss the differentiability of the function
1
T − , when x = 1
F 1 I , when x ≠ 0 f (0) = 0 at
1
−
3
af
f x =e x
2
⋅ sin
H xK
test the differentiability at x = 1
Answer: Differentiable at x = 1. the point x = 0.

R|sin FG 1 IJ , Answer: Differentiable at x = 0

b g S H xK x≠0 14. The function f is defined as follows

6. If f x =
|T 0 ,
1

af
−
x=0 f x =e x
, x ≠ 0 f (0) = 0 test the differen-
test the differentiable at x = 0 tiability at x = 0
Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 0 Answer: Differentiable at x = 0.

af −1 FG 1 IJ , when x ≠ 1 ; f a1f = π Type 3: Problems based on mod functions:

7. If f x = tan
H x − 1K 2
Exercise 7.3
g a x f = a x − 1f ⋅ f a x f for all x, test the
2
and if
differentiability of g (x) at x = 1. 1. Is | x | differentiable at x = 0?
Answer: g (x) is differentiable at x = 1 Answer: Not differentiable at x = 0.
2. Test the differentiability of the function f (x) =
af
8. If f x =
1
x
2
sin x , when x ≠ 0 = 0, when x = 0 | x – 1 | at x = 0 and x = 1.
Answer: Differentiable at x = 0 and non-differentiable
test the differentiability at x = 0. at x = 1.
Answer: Differentiable at x = 0. 3. Show that f (x) = | x – 1 | + | x + 1 | is differentiable
9. Discuss the differentiability of the function at all points except x = 1 and x = – 1.

bg FG 1 IJ , for x ≠ 0 f (0) = 0 at the point x = 0.

f x = x cos
H xK
 Differentiability at a Point 351

af
4. Test the differentiability of the function f x =
x
x
af
(ii) f x =
1
x
, when x ≥ 1

at x = 1. = a x2 + b , when | x | < 1
Answer: Differentiable at x = 1.
1 3
5. Is | x – 1 | differentiable at x = 1? Answer: a = − and b = .
Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 1. 2 2

af
6. Is f x = e
−x
differentiable at x = 0?
(iii) f a xf = 2
1
a x − 1f , when x < 1
Answer: Non- differentiable at x = 0.
Type 4: To find the values of the constants so that a = a x2 + b x , when x ≥ 1 .
given function becomes differentiable at a given point Answer: a = b = 0.
x = a.
On Continuity and Differentiability
Exercise 7.4 Type 1: Problems based on piecewise functions:

1. For what choices of a, b, c if any does the function Exercise 7.5

R|x ,
2
x≤0
f b x g = Sa x + b ,
1. Test the differentiability of the function
0< x ≤ 1
|Tc , x >1 a f RST2 xx−, 1 ,
f x =
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
when 1 < x
becomes differentiable at x = 0 and x = 1. at x = 1. Is the function continuous at x = 1.
Answer: a = b = c = 0. Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 1 but continuous
2. For what choice of a, b, c if any does the function at x = 1.
R|a x − b x + c ,
2
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2. Prove that the function f (x) defined by

f b x g = Sb x − c , when 1< x ≤ 2 R|3 + 2 x , 3

|Tc , when x > 2 f a xf = S
when −
2
<x≤0

becomes differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.

|T3 − 2 x , when 0 < x <
3
2
Answer: a = b = c = 0. is continuous at x = 0 but D f (0) does not exist.
3. If f (x) = x2 + 2x, when x < 0, = a x + b, when x > Answer: Continuous but non-differentiable at
0 find a and b so as to make the function f (x) x = 0.
continuous and differentiable at x = 0.
Answer: a = 2 and b = 0. 3. If f (x) = 1 + x, when x ≤ 2
4. Find the constants a and b so as to make the = 5 – x, when x > 2
following function f (x) continuous and differentiable test the continuity and differentiability of the function
for all x where f (x) at x = 2.
Answer: f (x) is continuous every where and
(i) f (x) = x2 , when x ≤ K
differentiable every where except x = 2.
= a x + b , when x > K 4. Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the
Answer: a = 2K and b = – K2 function where f (x) = x2, when x < – 2
= 4, when − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
= x2, when x > 2.
352 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Answer: f (x) is continuous every where and Answer: Continuous but not differentiable at x = 0.
differentiable everywhere except x = 2 and x = – 2. 11. A function f (x) is defined as follows
5. A function f (x) is defined as follows f (x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , f (x) = 2 – x for x ≥ 1 . Test
f (x) = 1 for − ∞ < x < 0 the character of the function at x =1 regarding its
π continuity and differentiability.
= 1 + sin x for 0 ≤ x < Answer: Continuous but non-differentiable at
2
F I
x = 1.
π 2
π
H K
=2+ x− for ≤ x < ∞. 12. Show that the function f (x) defined by
2 2 f (x) = x2 – 1, when x ≥ 1 = 1 – x , when x < 1 is
Discuss the continuity and differentiability of f (x) continuous but not differentiable at x = 1.
π Type 2: Problems based on redefined functions:
at x = 0 and x = .
2
Exercise 7.6
Answer: Non-differentiable at x = 0 and differentiable
π
at x =
2
but it is continuous at both points x = 0 and bg
1. If f x =
1
x
sin x 2 , when x ≠ 0
π
x= . = 0 , when x = 0
2 discuss the continuity and differentiability of f (x) at
6. Prove that the function f defined by f (x) = 3 – 2x , x = 0.
when x < 2 = 3 x – 7, when x ≥ 2 is continuous but Answer: Continuity and differentiable at x = 0.
not differentiable at x = 2.
af −1 F 1 I , when x ≠ 0
7. A function f is defined by 2. If f x = x tan
H xK
a f RST35xx −− 42,,
f x = 2
when x ≤ 1
when x > 1
= 0 , when x = 0
examine the continuity and differentiability at
is the function f (x) continuous and differentiable at x = 0.
x = 1? Answers: Continuous but bot differentiable at

R| 0 ,
x = 0.

F 1 I , when x ≠ 0
1
when x < 0
|
−

f a x f = S sin x , when 0 ≤ x ≤
π af
3. If f x = e x
2
⋅ sin
H xK
||
8. If
4
π
|Tcos x ,
= 0 , when x = 0
when x > show that f (x) is differentiable at x = 0.
4
show that f (x) is continuous but not differentiable at
x = 0.
af
4. If f x =
x
1
, when x ≠ 0

9. A function f (x) is defined as follows: 1+ e x

f (x) = 1 + x, when x ≤ 2 , = 5 – x , when x > 2. Test f (0) = 0

the character of the function at x = 2 as regards its show that f (x) is continuous at x = 0 but f ′ 0 does af
continuity and differentiability. not exist.
F 1I ,
Answer: Continuous but non-differentiable at
x =2.
10. Examine whether f (x) is continuous and has a
af
5. Show that f x = x ⋅ sin
2
H xK for x ≠ 0

derivative at the origin when f (x) = 2 + x , when x ≥ 0 f (0) = 0 is differentiable at x = 0.

f (x) = 2 x , when x < 0.
 Differentiability at a Point 353

π
F
x Ge
1 1 I (i) f (x) = | cos x | at x =
JK
− 2
−e
H
x x
π
6. If f b x g =
Answer: Continuous at x = but non-differentiable
Fe1 1 I, x≠0 2
GH JK π
−
x +e x
at x = .
2
(ii) f (x) = | x3 | at x = 0
=0, x=0 Answer: Continuous at x = 0 and also differentiable
show that f (x) is continuous but not differentiable at at x = 0.
x = 0. (iii) f (x) = 1 + | sin x | at x = 0
Type 3: Problems based on mod functions: Answer: Continuous at x = 0 but non-differentiable
at x = 0.
Exercise 7.7 (iv) f (x) = | x – 2 | at x = 2
Answer: Continuous at x = 2 but non-differentiable
1. Let f (x) = | x – 2 |. Is the function continuous and at x = 2.
differentiable at x = 2?
2. Examine the continuity and differentiability of the
(v) f x =bg x
x
at x = 0
Answer: Discontinuous and non-differentiable at
following functions at the indicated points:
x = 0.
354 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

8
Rules of Differentiation

Before we gather the rules of differentiation, let us

recapitulate some phrases and concepts frequently af
f ′ a = lim
a f af
f a+h − f a
, where a is a
h→ 0 h
used in calculus.
1. Differentiation at any limit point (or, simply bg
particular finite value given for x ∈ D f and h → 0
differentiable): A function f is said to be differentiable through positive values or through negative values.
at any limit point x (or, simply differentiable), where x Remark:
is assumed to have any finite value in D(f) 1. The result obtained after the evaluation of the limit,

⇔ lim
a f af
f x+h − f x
is finite when lim
a
f x+h − f x f af , for the function f at the limit
h→0 h h→ 0 h
bg b g bg
x ∈ D f and x + h ∈ D f is the same whether point x is called derivative of f at any limit point x (or,
simply at x or at the point x) or derived function of f at
h → 0 through positive values or through negative
values. The value of this limit for every finite value of any limit point x because it is derived from the function
x is called derivative of the function f at x and is f at the limit point x and is symbolised as f ´(x) for
af
denoted as f ′ x , i.e.,
every finite value of x in its domain (whereas the
derivative or derived function is symbolised as f ´ for
f a x + hf − f a x f
the function f) while the function f at the limit point x
af
f ′ x = lim
h→ 0 h
where x is sup-
, is said to be derivable or differentiable at any point x
(or, simply, at x) provided the limit,
posed to have any finite value in D (f), whether h → 0
through positive values or through negative values. lim
a
f x+h − f x f af is finite for every finite value
h→ 0 h
2. Differentiability at a point: A function f is said to
be differentiable at a point x = a, a being a particular of x and is the same whether h → 0 through positive

finite value ∈ D f bg ⇔ lim

a
f a+h − f a f af is
values or through negative values.
2. Instead of saying that the function f is differentiable
h→0 h at any limit point x (or, at a point, or, at a particular
finite for the finite given value of x ∈ D (f) and is the point x = a), we also say that the function f has a
same whether h → 0 through positive values or derivative at any limit point x (or, at a point, or, at a
through negative values. The value of this limit is particular point x = a) in D (f).
called derivative of the function f at x = a and is 3. If the function f is written as y = f (x), then its
af
denoted as f ′ a , i.e.,
derived function is also symbolised as

y′ =
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
f x =
d
b a fg
dx
f x . af
 Rules of Differentiation 355

4. By an abuse of language, it has been customary to
call f (x) as function instead of f.
5. It is also said that a function y = f (x) is differentiable
at some point x (or, at a particular point x = a, or, at
any point x) instead of the function f is differentiable
at some point x (or, at a particular point x = a, or, at
any point x) or f (x) is a differentiable function of the
independent variable x.
Now we explain the general rules of differentiation
which are actually the fundamental theorems on
differentiation.
1. Show that the function which is a constant times a
differentiable function is differentiable and the
function, the constant (or, numerical factor) may be
taken out of the differentiation symbol
d
dx
. af
2. Show that the sum of two separate functions
differentiable on a common domain is differentiable
on the same common domain and the derivative of
the sum of two differentiable functions is the sum of
the derivatives of the separate functions.
Solution: let y = f (x) + g (x) be the sum of two
functions, say f (x) and g (x) differentiable on a
common domain (or, interval) I. It is required to show
that the sum function y = f (x) + g (x) is also
differentiable on the same common domain I and

a y f = f ′a x f + g ′a x f
derivative of a constant times a differentiable function d
is the constant times the derivative of the function.
dx
3 y = f a xf + g a xf
Solution: Let y = a f (x), where a is a constant and f
(x) is a differentiable function of the independent
⇒ y + ∆ y = f a x + ∆ xf + g a x + ∆ x f
variable x. It is required to show that y = a f (x) is

differentiable and
d
dx
af
y =af′ x . af ⇒ ∆ y = f a x + ∆ x f + g a x + ∆ x f − b f a x f + g a x fg

3y =af x af ∆ y f a x + ∆ x f + g a x + ∆ x f − b f a x f + g a x fg
⇒ =
⇒ y + ∆y = a f x + ∆x a f ∆x ∆x

a f af
⇒ ∆y = a f x + ∆x − a f x ⇒
d
bg
y = lim
∆y

∆ y a f a x + ∆ x f − a f a xf
dx ∆ x →0 ∆ x

f a x + ∆ x f + g a x + ∆ x f − b f a x f + g a x fg
⇒ =
∆x ∆x
lim
= ∆ x→0 ∆x
⇒
d
dx
af
y = lim
∆y
∆ x→0 ∆ x b
f x + ∆x g
g x + ∆x b g
= lim + lim

= lim
a f
a f x + ∆x − a f x af ∆ x→0 ∆x ∆ x→0 ∆x
∆ x→0 ∆x
− lim
b g−
f x
lim
bg
g x

= a lim
a f af
f x + ∆x − f x
∆ x→0 ∆x ∆ x→0 ∆x
∆ x→0 ∆x
= lim
b
f x + ∆x − f xg bg
+
⇒
d
af
y =af′ x af ∆ x→0 ∆x
dx
Hence, y = a f (x) is a differentiable function and lim
a
g x + ∆x − g x f af
= f ′ x + g′ x af af
∆ x→0 ∆x
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
b a fg af
a f x = a f ′ x which means while Hence, y = f (x) + g (x) is differentiable on the
differentiating a constant times a differentiable interval I and
356 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d
af
y =
d
b a f a fg = f ′axf + g ′ axf
f x +g x ⇒
d
bg
y = lim
LM b
f x+∆ x − f x g bg b
⋅g x+ ∆ x gOPP +
dx dx dx ∆ x→0 MN
∆x Q
LM g b x + ∆ xg − g b xg ⋅ f b xgOP
Cor: The sum of a finite number of functions
differentiable on a common domain is differentiable
on the same domain and the derivative of the sum of
a finite number of differentiable functions is the sum
lim
∆ x→0 MN ∆ x PQ
f b x + ∆ xg − f b xg
of their derivatives, i.e.
If f1, f2, f3, .. fn be differentiable functions at the = lim ⋅ lim g b x + ∆ x g +
same point x, then y = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + …+ fn (x) is also ∆ x→0 ∆x ∆ x→0

g a x + ∆ xf − g a xf
differentiable at the same point x and
⋅ lim f a x f
d
dx
af af af af
y = f 1′ x + f 2′ x + ... + f n′ x which is
lim
∆ x→0 ∆x ∆ x→0

known as extension rule (or, formula) for the derivative

of the sum of a finite number of a differentiable
bg bg bg bg bg bg
= f ′ x ⋅ g x + g′ x ⋅ f x = f x ⋅ g′ x +
functions. g a x f ⋅ f ′a x f
3. Show that the product of two functions Hence, y = f (x) · g (x) is differentiable on the
differentiable on a common domain is differentiable common interval I and
on the same common domain and the derivative of
the product of two differentiable functions is the first
d
dx
b g c b g b gh = f b xg ⋅ g ′b xg +
y =
d
dx
f x ⋅g x

function times the derivative of the second function
plus the second function times the derivative of the
first function.
Solution: Let y = f (x) · g (x), where f (x) and g (x) are
functions differentiable on a common interval I. It is
required to show that the product function y =
f (x) · g (x) is differentiable on the same common
interval I and
d
dx
b a f a fg a f a f a f a f
f x ⋅ g x = f x ⋅ g′ x + g x ⋅ f ′ x
3 y = f a x f ⋅ g a xf
g a x f ⋅ f ′a x f
Note: It is immaterial to consider any function of the
two given functions as the first function and the
second function, i.e., any one of the two given
functions may be considered as the first function and
the other one as the second function. This is why we
are at liberty to consider any one of the two given
functions as the first function and the other one as
the second function.
Cor: The product of a finite number of functions

⇒ y + ∆ y = f a x + ∆ xf ⋅ g a x + ∆ xf
differentiable on a common domain is differentiable
on the same domain and the derivative of the product
⇒ ∆ y = f a x + ∆ xf ⋅ g a x + ∆ x f − f a x f ⋅ g a x f of a finite number of differentiable functions is the
sum of the n terms obtained by multiplying the
∆ y f a x + ∆ xf ⋅ g a x + ∆ xf − f a xf g a xf derivative of each one of the factors by the other (n –
⇒ = 1) factors undifferentiated, i.e. if f1, f2, …, fn be separate
∆x ∆x
functions differentiable on a common interval I (or, at
af a
Now adding and subtracting f x ⋅ g x + ∆ x f any point x), then y = f1 · f2 · f3 … fn is also differentiable
in numerator, we have on the same common interval I (or, at the same point
x) and
∆y
=
∆x

a f a f af a f af a f af af
f x+ ∆ x g x+ ∆ x − f x g x+∆ x + f x g x+ ∆ x − f x ⋅g x
∆x
 Rules of Differentiation 357

d
af d
y = f 1 ⋅ f 2 ⋅ f 3 ... f n − 1
d
i a f
fn +
f x af af
dx dx
Solution: Let y =
g x af
, g x ≠ 0 , where f (x) and

df ⋅f f i d x i + ... + a f ⋅ f ... f f
d d g (x) are functions differentiable on a common domain
af af
1 2 ... f n −1 n n −1 2 3 n
dx dx f x
(f1), where each product within the bracket contains
(n – 1) factors undifferentiated. This is known as the
I. It is required to show that y =
g x af
, g x ≠ 0 is
differentiable on the same common domain I and
FG f a xf IJ = g a xf f ′axf − f axf g ′axf
extension rule for the derivative of the product of a
finite number of differentiable functions. d

Question: Find
d n
e j
x using the extension rule for
dx H g axf K b g a xfg
2

f a xf
dx
, g a xf ≠ 0
g a xf
the derivative of the product of a finite number of 3y =
differentiable functions, n being a positive integer.

f a x + ∆ xf
Solution: Let y = x be a differentiable function

∴
d
dx
y =af
d
dx
x = lim
∆x
af
∆ x→0 ∆ x
=1
⇒ y + ∆y =
g a x + ∆ xf

Now, x n = x · x · x ... x (upto ‘n’ factors) is f ax + ∆ xf f a xf

g a x + ∆ xf g a xf
⇒ ∆y = −
differentiable and using the extension rule for the

f a x + ∆ xf g a x f − g a x + ∆ xf f a xf
derivative of product of a finite number of
differentiable functions, we have
g a x + ∆ xf g a xf
=
d n
e j b g bg b g bg
x = x ⋅ x ... x
d
x + x ⋅ x ... x
d
x +
f a x + ∆ xf g a x f − g a x + ∆ x f f a xf
dx dx dx
∆y
∆ x g a x + ∆ x f g a xf
⇒ =
... + a x ⋅ x ... x f axf [each product within the
d ∆x
dx
Now adding and subtracting f (x) · g (x) in
bracket contains (n – 1) factors undifferentiated.] numerator, we have
=x
n −1 d
dx
af
x + ... + x
n −1 d

dx
af
x (upto n-times) ∆y
∆x
=

= x
n −1
(1 + 1 + … upto n-times) = n x
n −1 a f af af af af af
f x + ∆x g x − f x g x + f x g x − f x g x + ∆x af a f
a
∆xg x + ∆x g x f af
F3 d a xf = 1I
H dx K ⇒
d
dx
af
y = lim
∆y
∆x → 0 ∆ x
= lim
1
a
∆ x→0 g x + ∆ x g x f af
4. Show that the quotient of two functions
differentiable on a common domain is differentiable LM f a x + ∆ xf − f a xf ⋅ g a xf − g a x + ∆ xf − g a xf ⋅ f a xfOP
on the same common domain excepting the points (or
common domain) where the function in denominator N ∆x ∆x Q
⋅ b f ′a x f g a x f − g ′a x f f a x fg
is zero and the derivative of the quotient of two 1
g a xf ⋅ g a xf
differentiable functions is the function in denominator =
times the derivative of the function in denominator
minus the function in numerator times the derivative g a x f f ′a x f − f a x f g ′a x f
of the function in denominator, all divided by the
square of the function in denominator.
=
b g a xfg
2
358 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

f x af b a fg = dxd FGH g a1xfIJK = − b gga' axxfgf , gaxf ≠

af
Hence, the quotient function y = is
d
f x for
g x dx 2
differentiable at every point of the common domain I
excepting only those points (of common domain) at any x.
which the function in denominator is zero and
af
(ii) f x = log g x ⇒ af d
b a fg
f x =
d
b
log g x = a fg
d
af
y =
d
b a f a fg
f x ⋅g x
dx dx
dx dx
af
g′ x
bg
g a x f f ′a x f − f a x f g ′a x f af , but this is not valid when g x ≤ 0 for any
, g a xf ≠ 0
g x
=
b g a xfg 2 value of x because log g (x) is not defined when
af
g x ≤ 0 . So, it is proper to write
g ′a x f
b f a x fg = b log g a x fg = , g a xf > 0 .
Notes: d d
g axf
1. We should note that in the formula of the derivative
dx dx
of quotient of the two functions differentiable on a
common domain (or, at any point x), the derivative of
the function in denominator occuring in numerator is
bg
(iii) f x = tan x ⇒
d
dx
f x =c b gh
b g d
dx
tan x = sec 2 x ,
always with negative sign.
a f
but this is not valid when x = 2n + 1
π
FG 1 IJ = − f ′a xf
because
d 2
2.
dx H f a xfK b f a xfg 2
a f π
tan x is not defined for x = 2n + 1 . Hence, it is
2
f x af proper to write
d
a f a
2
tan x = sec x , x ≠ 2n + 1 .
π
f
3. The quotient y =
g x af
of two functions dx
6. Even if a function is defined at a point, its
2
differentiable at the point x = a, is a function which is
derivative need not exist at that point. e.g.
differentiable at the same point x = a, provided
af
g a ≠ 0. (i) f x = af x exists (i.e., it is defined) for x > 0 but

f x af its derivative
d
e j
x =
1
does not exists at
4. The quotient y =
g x af
of two functions dx 2 x
differentiable at every value of x is a function which d
x =
1
e j
, x > 0.
af
x = 0. So, it is proper to write
is differentiable at every value of x, provided g x ≠ 0 dx 2 x
at those values of x at which g (x) is differentiable. af −1
(ii) f x = sin x exists (i.e., it is defined) for

e j
5. One can differentiate a function at only those d −1 1
points at which it is defined. e.g. | x | < 1 but its derivative sin x =
dx 2
1− x
a f g a1xf ⇒ dxd b f a xfg = dxd FGH g 1axfIJK
(i) f x =
and does not exist for x = ± 1 . So, it is proper to write

g ′a x f
d
dx
e −1
sin x = j 1
1 − x2
, x < 1.

=−
b g a xfg but this is not valid when g (x) = 0 for
,2 7. One function can not have two different derivatives
at a point while two different functions can have the
1 same derivative. e.g.,
any value of x since
g x af
is undefined when g (x)
= 0 for any value of x. So it is better to write (i)
d
dx
e −1
sin x = j 1
2
and
d
dx
e −1
−cos x j
1− x
 Rules of Differentiation 359

=
1
, for | x | < 1. bg
(i) f x = cos x ⇒ f ′ x = −
2 x
bg
,0< x ≤1
sin x

af
2
1− x
which means domain of the derived function f ′ x
8. A function or its derived function (or, derivative)
may not exist at all points of an interval. e.g., in the set of all 0 < x < 1.

a f 1x does not exist at x = 0 in [–1, 1].

(i) f x = bg
11. f x = cos ax + bx + c ⇒ f ′ x
2
bg
(ii) f a x f = x has no derivative (or, derived b g
− 2ax + b sin ax 2 + bx + c
= , which means the
0+h − 0 2 ax 2 + bx + c
function) at x = 0 because lim
h→ 0 h
does
af
domain of the derived function f ′ x is the set of all
not exist at x = 0 in [–1, 2]. real numbers, for which 0 < ax2 + bx + c < 1.
9. When a function or its derived function (or,
derivative) does not exist atleast at one point Important Facts to Know
belonging to the interval being open or closed, we In connection with the function, differentiation of the
say that the function or its derived function does not function or integration of the function at any finite
exist over (or, in, or on) that interval open or closed. value of the independent variable, the following key
e.g., points must be kept in one’s mind.
af
(i) f x = 2
1
does not exist in [–1, 1] because 1. One must consider the restriction that the function
in denominator ≠ 0 for any finite value of the
x −1
f (x) does not exist at x = ± 1 ∈ −1 , 1 . independent variable against the fractional form of

e j
d the function, the derivative or integral even if this
(ii) x does not exist in [–1, 1] because restriction is not stated (or, written) explicitly because
dx
one must never divide by zero. e.g.,
0+h − 0 h h
lim
h→ 0 h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim
h→0 h
(3 | h | =
(i) f x = a f a x −x 2f means f a xf = a x −x 2f , x ≠ 2
f a x f = x ⇒ f ′a x f = means f ′ a x f
h for h > 0) x
(ii)
FG IJ
x
h h 1 x
= lim = lim
= lim = ∞ which
H K = ,x ≠ 0

z za
h→ 0 2 h→ 0 h ⋅ h h→0 h x
h
af
means f x = x has no derivative at the point (iii) sec x tan x dx = sec x means sec x tan x dx
a f
x = 0 ∈ −1 , 1 or [–1, 1].
= sec x , x ≠ 2n + 1
π
f
10. The domain of the derived function f ′ x is a af 2
subset (of the domain of f) which contains all elements 2. We say that a function, its derivative or its integral
x (in the domain of f (x)) at which the does not exist (or, we say that the function, its

lim
a
f x+h − f x f afexists, whether h → 0
derivative or its integral is discontinuous) at any finite
value of the independent variable when the function,
h→ 0 h its derivative or its integral assumes the form of a
through positive values or negative values, but does “fractional with a zero denominators” at any
not contain those exceptional points x where the considered finite value of the independent variable.
derivative (or, derived function) fails to exist or is e.g.,
undefined. e.g.,
360 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(i) f x =a f 1x , x ≠ 0 ⇒ 1x is discontinuous at x = 0. = lim

h→ 0
h
2
b3 h = h for h > 0 g
− h
f a x f = x , x ≥ 0 ⇒ f ′a x f =
1 1
, x ≠ 0⇒
FG IJ = − ∞ ...(ii)
(ii)
2 x 2 x h 1
H hK
z
is discontinuous at x = 0. = lim = lim −
h→ 0 − h⋅ h h→ 0
(iii) b
g π2 ⇒
sec 2 x dx = tan x , x ≠ 2n + 1 the
Hence, (i) and (ii) ⇒ non-differentiability of the

integral is discontinuous at x = a2n + 1f .

π function defined by f x = x , for x ≥ 0 , f x af af
2 a f
= − x , for x < 0, at the point x = 0.
3. By using the relations 4. When the denominator of a function, derived

bg
(i) f +′ a = lim
b g bg
f a+h − f a
, (h > 0)
function or the integral of a function does not vanish
for any real value of the independent variable, we
b g bg
h→0 h
bg f a−h − f a state (or, write) that the function, derived function
(ii) f −′ a = lim , (h > 0), (or, simply derivative) or integral of the function exists
h→ 0 h
One can show the non-differentiability of the for all real values of the independent variable. e.g.,
function y = f (x) at a finite value of the independent
variable x = a when its derivative assumes the form of (i) f x = af 2
1
, ∀x
a “fraction with a zero denominator” at the same 4x + 7x + 9
considered finite value ‘a’ of the independent variables ′
‘x’. e.g., (ii) tane −1
x j =
1
, ∀x
af
(i) Show that the function f x = x , for x ≥ 0 , 1+ x
2

af
f x = − x , for x < 0, is non-differentiable at x = 0.
Solution: For differentiability, we have
(iii) z ex 2
+1 j
−2
dx =
2
2
x +1
1
, ∀x

af
f +′ 0 = lim
a f af a
f 0+h − f 0
, h>0 f Recapitulation
h→ 0 h
(A) One must remember that power, exponential,
h −0 h logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric
= lim = lim functions are differentiable on any interval on which
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
they are defined and their derivatives can be found
from the formulas.
= lim
h
b3 h g
= h for h > 0
h→ 0
h
2 (i)
d
dx
af
c = 0 , c being any constant.

= lim
h→ 0
h
h⋅ h
= lim
h → 0
1
h
=∞ ...(i)
dx
e j
(ii) d x n = nx n −1 , n ∈ Q

af
f −′ 0 = lim
a f af a
f 0−h − f 0
, h>0 f (iii)
d x
dx
e jx
a = a log a , a > 0
h→ 0 −h

= lim
h −0
= lim −
h
(iv)
d x
dx
e j
e =e
x

h→0 −h h→0 h
(v) d
dx
alog xf = 1x , x > 0
 Rules of Differentiation 361

a f
Solved Examples
(vi) d sin x = cos x
dx Form 1: y = any constant

a f
(vii) d cos x = − sin x
dx
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
1. 1995

2. 3
dx
a f
(viii) d tan x = sec 2 x , x ≠ nπ +
π
2
7
3. a2, a being a constant.

dx
a f
(ix) d cot x = − cosec 2 x , x ≠ nπ
Solutions: (i) d 1995 = 0a f
dx
a f
(x) d sec x = sec x ⋅ tan x , x ≠ nπ + π FI
d 3
dx 2 (ii)
HK
dx 7
=0

a f
(xi) d cosec x = cosec x ⋅ cot x , x ≠ nπ
dx (iii) d
dx
ea j = 0
2

(B) The following rules of finding the derivatives are

valid for differentiable functions. Form 2: y = a f (x), where f (x) = an algebraic
expression in x and the value of the function sin, cos,
(i)
d
dx
b a fg
af x =a
d
dx
b a fg
f x , a being any constant. tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1,
cosec–1, log, e, | |, etc. at any point x.

dx
b a f a fg
(ii) d f x ± g x = d f x + d g x
dx dx
b a fg b a fg Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
3
1. 28 x 4
b a f a fg a f b a fg a f b a fg
(iii) d f x ⋅ g x = g x ⋅ d f x ± f x d g x
F I F I
H K H K
d 3
d 3
dx dx dx Solution: 28 x 4 = 28 x4
dx dx
FG a f IJ = g a xf dx b f axfg − f a xf ⋅ dx b g axfg , F I
d d 3 −1 −1
3 21
(iv) d f x
H a fK
= 28 × × x 4
H K
= 21x 4 = 1 ; x > 0
g a xf
2 4 x4
dx g x 2. 3x2

b g axf ≠ 0g Solution:
d
e j
2
3x = 3
d 2
e j
x = 3 × 2 x = 6x
dx dx
Notes: 3. 6 sin x

a f a f
1. If the question does not say to find the limits,
d d
derivatives and integrals by using their definitions, Solution: 6 sin x = 6 sin x = 6 cos x
one can use their formulas derived by using their dx dx
definitions. 4. a sin–1 x
2. If a constant appears as a constant multiple of the
differentiable function, the constant can be taken out Solution:
d
dx
e −1
a sin x = a
d
dx
−1
sin x j e j
of the symbol
d
dx
.af =a⋅
1
=
a
2 2 ;|x|<1
3. If a constant appears as an additive quantity in a 1− x 1− x
differentiable function, it vanishes while 5. m log x
differentiating that function since d.c. of a constant
is zero. Solution:
d
dx
am log x = m
d
dx
f m
a f
log x = ; x > 0.
x
362 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

6. x
2
d
af d FG IJ1
⇒
dx
y =
dx H xK
x +

F I= 1⋅ d x
m

d F 1 I
2
Solution:
d x
GH JK m dx e j 2
d
e xj + G J
dx H x K
dx m =
dx

F 1I F x I
1 2x
= ⋅ 2x = 1 − 21 − 32

af
m
Form 3: y = a f 1 x ± b f 2 x , where a and b are
m
af
= x + −
2 H 2K H K
constants and f1 (x) and f2 (x) are algebraic expressions F3 1 = e x j + F x I −1
I
GH x JK
−1 − 12
H K
1

in x or the values of the functions sin, cos, tan, cot,

2
+ x
sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1,
log, e, | |, etc. at the same point x. 1 − 21 1 −3
= x − x 2 ; for x > 0.
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x. 2 2
1. (lx2 + mx + c) 4. y = sec x + tan x

e j
d 2 Solution: y = sec x + tan x
Solution: lx + mx + c
dx
⇒
d
af
y =
d
a
sec x + tan x f
=
d
e j
2
lx +
d
mx +
d
c a f af dx dx
dx dx dx
=
d
a f
sec x +
d
tan x a f
=l
d 2
dx
e j
x +m
d
dx
x +0 af dx dx
= sec x · tan x + sec2 x
= l · 2x + m · 1 + 0 = 2lx + m π
= sec x (sec x + tan x); x ≠ nπ +
F5x I 2
H K
3
3
2. − 2x 2 5. y = x2 + 5 sin x + tan x
Solution: y = x2 + 5 sin x + tan x
F I
H K
d
af
3

e j
3
Solution: 5x − 2 x 2 d d 2
dx ⇒ y = x + 5sin x + tan x
dx dx

e j F I
H K a f a f
d d 3

e j
3
= 5x − 2x 2 d 2 d d
dx dx = x + 5 sin x + tan x
dx dx dx
= 5 ex j − 2 F x I
dx H K
d d 3 3
2
π
dx = 2x + 5 cos x + sec2 x; x ≠ nπ +
2

= 5 × 3x − 2 ×
2 3 c 3 −1h
×x 2 x b
2 6. y = +
a x
1
2
= 15 x − 3 x 2 Solution: y =
x b
+
a x
F I
FI F I
1
3. y = x +
x ⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d x b
+
dx a x H
=
d x
dx a
+
d b
dx xK
HK H K
1
Solution: y = x +
x =
1 d
a dx
a xf + b e x j
d
dx
−1
 Rules of Differentiation 363

a f
1 −2 1 2
= (x2 + 1) (3x2 + 0) + (x3 + 2) (2x + 0)
= + −b x = − b x ; for x ≠ 0 = 3x2 (x2 + 1) + (x3 + 2) · 2x
a a
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 4x
Form 4: y = f1 (x) × f2 (x), where f1 (x) and f2 (x) are = 5x4 + 3x2 + 4x
algebraic expressions in x or the values of the 3. y = (1 – x)2 (1 – 3x2 + 5x3)
functions sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, Solution: y = (1 – x)2 (1 – 3x2 + 5x3) = (x2 – 2x + 1)
tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, | | etc. at the same (5x3 – 3x2 + 1)
point x.
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x: ⇒
d
dx
bg e
y = x2 − 2x + 1
d
dx
j e
5x 3 − 3x 2 + 1 + j
1. y = (2x + 1) (x – 1)2
Solution: y = (2x + 1) (x – 1)2 = (2x + 1) (x2 – 2x + 1)
e5x 3 2
− 3x + 1 j dxd e x 2
− 2x + 1 j
d d
af LMa fe jOQP
N
2
⇒ y = 2x + 1 x − 2x + 1 = (x2 – 2x + 1) (15x2 – 6x) + (5x3– 3x2 + 1) (2x–2 + 0)
dx dx
= (x2 – 2x + 1) (15x2 – 6x ) + 2 (x – 1) (5x3 – 3x2 + 1)
a
= 2x + 1 f dxd ex 2
je
− 2 x +1 + x − 2x +1
2
j dxd a2x +1f = 3x (1 – x)2 (5x – 2) –2 (1 – x) (5x3 – 3x2 + 1)
= (1 – x) {3x (1 – x) (5x – 2) –2 (5x3 – 3x2 + 1)}
= (2x +1) (2x – 2)+ (x2 – 2x + 1) · 2 4. y = x4 log x
= 4x2 – 2x – 2 + 2x2 – 4x + 2 = 6x2 – 6x = 6x (x – 1) Solution: y = x4 log x

af
Note: On multiplying term by term, the product of
two or more than two algebraic polynomial functions ⇒
d
dx
y =
d 4
dx
x log x e j
of x’s can be always put in the form of the sum of a
finite number of terms, each term having the form xn
and / axn and then it can be differentiated using the
=x
4 d
dx
a log x f + log x
d
dx
ex j 4

F 1 I + log x ⋅ e4 x j
rule of the derivative of the sum of a finite number of

H xK
differentiable functions of x’s. Hence, applying this 4 3
=x ⋅
rule to the above given function, one can have its
differential coefficient given below: = x3 + 4x3 log x
y = (2x + 1) (x – 1)2 = (2x + 1) (x2 – 2x + 1) = 2x3 – = x3 (1 + 4 log x); for x > 0.
4x2 + 2x + x2 – 2x + 1 = 2x3 – 3x2 + 1
5. y = sin x · log x
⇒
d
y =
d
af 3 2
2 x − 3x + 1 e j Solution: y = sin x · log x

af a f
dx dx d d
⇒ y = sin x log x
=
d
e2x j −
3 d
e 3x j +
d
b1g = 2
d2
ex j − 3 dx dx
dx dx dx dx
= sin x
d
alog xf + log x dxd asin xf
3
d 2
dx
e j
x +0
dx
1
= sin x ⋅ + log x ⋅ cos x
= 2 × 3x2 – 3 × 2x = 6x2 – 6x = 6x (x – 1) x
2. y = (x2 + 1) (x3 +2) sin x
Solution: y = (x2 + 1) (x3 +2) = + cos x log x ; for x > 0
x
d
af d LMex jOQP je 6. y = cot x · cos–1 x
N
2 3
⇒ y = +1 x +2
dx dx Solution: y = cot x · cos–1 x

= e x + 1j
2 d
dx
e x + 2j + e x + 2j
3 d
dx
ex 3 2
+1 j ⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
e −1
cot x ⋅ cos x j
364 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

= cos x
−1 d
a f
cot x + cot x
d −1
cos x e j = sin x ⋅
1
+ log x ⋅ cos x
F I
dx dx x

= cos
−1
e 2
x ⋅ − cosec x + cot x ⋅ j GG −1
JJ =
sin x
+ cos x ⋅ log x ; x ≠ 0
H 1− x
2
K x

2 −1 cot x 11. y = cos x · cot x

= −cosec x ⋅ cos x− ; for 0 < | x | < 1 Solution: y = cos x · cot x
2
1− x
7. y = x3 tan x
Solution: y = x3 tan x
⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
a
cos x ⋅ cot x f
⇒
d
dx
bg
y =
d 3
dx
e
x tan x = x 3
d
dx
tan x + j b g = cos x ⋅
d
dx
a f
cot x + cot x ⋅
d
dx
a f
cos x

= cos x · ( – cosec2 x) + cot x (–sin x)

tan x
d 3
dx
e j
x = –cosec2 x · cos x – cot x sin x; x ≠ nπ
= x3 sec2 x + tan x · (3x2) = x3 sec2 x + 3x2 tan x 12. y = sin x · cos x
π Solution: y = sin x cos x
= x2 (3 tan x + x sec2 x); x ≠ nπ +
2 ⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d
dx
a
sin x ⋅ cos x f
8. y = ex sin x
Solution: y = ex sin x
= sin x
d
a f
cos x + cos x ⋅
d
a f
sin x
⇒
d
dx
y =af
d x
dx
e sin x e j dx dx
= sin x · (–sin x) + cos x · cos x
= –sin2 x + cos2 x
=e
x d
dx
asin xf + sin x dxd ee j x
= cos2 x – sin2 x = cos 2x
13. y = sin2 x
= ex · cos x + sin x · ex Solution: y = sin2 x = sin x · sin x
= ex (sin x + cos x)
9. y = ex log | x | ⇒
d
dx
af
y = sin x
d
dx
a f
sin x + sin x ⋅
d
dx
a f
sin x
Solution: y = ex log | x |
= sin x · (cos x) + sin x · (cos x)
⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d x
dx
e
e log x j = sin x cos x + sin x cos x = 2 sin x cos x
14. y = sec x · tan x
= log x
d x
e +e
x d
e j
log x b g Solution: y = sec x · tan x

af a f
dx dx
d d
x x 1 ⇒ y = sec x ⋅ tan x
= log x ⋅ e + e ⋅ dx dx
x
F 1 I = sec x ⋅
d
a f
tan x + tan x
d
a f
sec x
H K
x
= e log x + ; x≠0 dx dx
x
= sec x · (sec2 x) + tan x · (sec x · tan x)
10. y = sin x log | x |
= sec3 x + tan2 x · sec x
Solution: y = sin x log | x |
= sec x (sec2 x + tan2 x)

⇒
d
dx
af
y = sin x
d
dx
log x b g + log x dxd asin xf = sec x (1 + tan2 x + tan2 x)
 Rules of Differentiation 365

= sec x (1 + 2 tan2 x); x ≠ nπ +

π
e2 x − 5j cot x + 4 x ⋅ cot x log x − 2 x − 5 log x
2

2 =
x
e j 2

15. y = xn cot x
cosec2 x; for x ≠ nπ
Solution: y = xn cot x
2. y = ex log | x | sec x
⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d n
dx
x cot xe j Solution: y = ex log | x | sec x

⇒
d
bg
y = log x sec x
d x
e + sec x e x
d
log x e j c h+
=x
d n
a f
cot x + cot x
d
x e j
n dx dx dx
dx dx
= xn (–cosec2 x) + cot x ( n xn – 1) log x e
x d
dx
a f
sec x
= n xn – 1 cot x – xn cosec2 x = xn – 1 (n cot x –
x cosec2 x); x ≠ nπ x x 1
= log x sec x ⋅ e + sec x ⋅ e ⋅ + log x ⋅
x
Form 5: y = f1 (x) × f2 (x) × f3 (x), where f1 (x), f2 (x) and
x
f3 (x) are algebraic expressions in x or the values of e ⋅ sec x ⋅ tan x
the functions sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1,
F 1 I
H K
cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, | | etc. at the x
= e sec x log x + + log x tan x ; for
same point x. x

d d π
Refresh your memory: (1 × 2 × 3) = (2 × 3) (1) x ≠ 0 , nπ +
dx dx 2
d d 3. y = 2x3 sin x log x
+ (1 × 3) (2) + (1 × 2) (3) which means one Solution: y = 2x3 sin x log x
dx dx
should differentiate separately each function of x
marked as 1, 2, 3 (standing for the first, second and
⇒
d
dx
af
y = sin x log x
d
dx
3 3
2 x + 2 x ⋅ log x e j
third function considered at our liberty) and multiply
each differentiated function of x by two remaining
functions of x’s undifferentiated and lastly add each
d
dx
a f
sin x + 2 x
3
sin x
d
dx
alog xf
e j + 2x
product to get the differential coefficient of the product 2 1 3 3
of three differentiable functions of x’s. = sin x log x 6 x log x cos x + 2 x sin x ⋅
x
Find the differential coefficient if 2 3 2
= 6x sin x log x + 2x log x cos x + 2x sin x; for
1. y = (2x2 – 5) cot x · log | x | x>0
Solution: y = (2x2 – 5) cot x · log | x | x
4. y = x ⋅ e ⋅ tan x
⇒
d
bg e j
y = 2 x 2 − 5 cot x ⋅
d
log x c h+ x
dx dx Solution: y = x ⋅ e ⋅ tan x
cot x ⋅ log x
d
dx
e 2
j e
2x − 5 + 2x − 5
2
j ⇒
d
af
y = x ⋅e
x d x
tan x + e tan x
d
a f e xj+
dx dx dx
d
a f
e j
log | x | · cot x d x
dx x tan x e
F 1I
= e2 x − 5j cot x ⋅ G J + cot x ⋅ log x ⋅ b4 x g +
dx
H xK
2
x 2 x 1 x
= x ⋅ e sec x + e tan x ⋅ + x ⋅ tan x ⋅ e

e2 x − 5j log x e−cosec x j
2 2
2 x
366 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F I e j b g e j −2 d 2
e j
=e
x
GH 2
x sec x +
tan x
2 x
+ x ⋅ tan xJ ;
K for
= bx 5 + c × −1 × x 2 + a ×
dx
x +a +

ex j × e5b x j
2 −1 4
π +a
x > 0 and ≠ nπ +
2
f1 x af e
= − bx 5 + c × x 2 + a j e j × b2 xg + e x
−2 2
+a j −1
×
Form 6: y =
f2 x af
, where f (x) and f (x) are
1 2

algebraic expressions in x or the values of the e5 b x j 4

functions sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1,

ex e j
j e x + aj
−1 −2
tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, | | etc. at the same 4 2 5 2
= 5b x +a − 2 x bx + c
point x.
d 1 FG a f IJ
d −
ea f a f j 2 x ebx + cj
4
5
Refresh your memory: =
H a fK
1× 2 1
=
5b x
−
e x + a j e x + aj
dx 2 dx 2 2 2

a f af af a f
′
2 × 1 − 1× 2
′
=
af 2
′ which means one should
=
5 b x e x + a j − 2 x ebx + cj e x + a j
4 2 5 2

express the function in denominator in the form of a

ex + aj 2 2
power function with negative index before
differentiating the quotient of two differentiable
functions x’s by using the rule of the derivative of the
5b x 6 + 5ab x 4 − 2b x 6 − 2c x
product of two differentiable functions of x’s noting =
that (1) and (2) represent functions of x’s in Nr and Dr
respectively.
ex 2
+a j 2

eb g j b g b g cb gh
6 4
d −1
= −1 × 2 ×
−2 d 3b x + 5ab x − 2c x
Note: (i) 2 2 which =
dx dx
ex j
2 2
+a
has been explained in the chapter “chain rule for the
derivative”. Or, alternatively,
c b gh = df c g b xgh × d g b xg (proved later)
df g x Directly using the rule of the derivative of the quotient

dg b x g
(ii) of two differentiable functions of x’s , the d.c. of the
dx dx given function of x w.r.t. x is
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
5
d
y = af
bx + c
e
je j
5 2 −1 dx
1. y = 2 = bx + c x + a
x +a e 2
x +a
d
j e
5 5
bx + c − bx + c
d 2
x +a j e j e j
d F
e x + aj IK +
dx dx
⇒
d
dx
b y g = ebx + cj
dx H
5 2 −1

e x + aj 2 2

e x + aj dxd ebx + cj e x + a j e5b x + 0j − eb x j

2 −1 5 2 4 5
+ c ⋅ 2x
=
ex + aj 2 2
 Rules of Differentiation 367

6
5b x + 5ab x − 2b x − 2c x
4 6 sin x
= 4. y =
log x
ex j
2 2
+a
sin x
Solution: y =
6
3b x + 5ab x − 2c x
4 log x
=
ex j a f b g
2 2
+a d
sin x − sin x
d
af
log x log x
d dx dx
⇒ y =
x
n dx b g
log x
2

2. y =
log x 1
log x cos x − sin x ⋅
= x
n 2
x log x
Solution: y =
log x
x cos x log x − sin x
d n
x − x
n d
e j a f = 2
; for x ≠ 0 , and –1.
af
log x log x x log x
d dx dx
⇒ y =
dx log x
2
a f −1
sin x
n −1 n 1 5. y =
nx log x − x ⋅ sin x
= x
alog xf 2
sin x
−1

Solution: y =
sin x
n −1 n log x − 1
=x ⋅ ; for x > 0 and ≠ 1
log x
2
sin x ⋅
d −1
e
sin x − sin x
−1 d
j a f
af
sin x
d dx dx
⇒ y =
3. y =
sin x
3
dx sin x
2
a f
x
1 −1
sin x sin x ⋅ − sin x ⋅ cos x
Solution: y = 3 1− x
2
x = 2
sin x
3 d
a f
sin x − sin x
d 3
e j
af
x x
d dx dx
⇒ y = sin x − sin −1 x cos x ⋅ 1 − x 2
dx
ex j 3 2 =
1 − x 2 ⋅ sin 2 x
; for | x | < 1

3
a f
x cos x − sin x 3x e j 2 and x ≠ 0
= 6
x
e
x 6. y = 2
1+ x
x cos x − 3 sin x
= 4
; for x ≠ 0 . x
x e
Solution: y = 2
1+ x
368 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

e1 + x j dxd ee j − e ⋅ dxd e1 + x j
2 x x 2
FG IJ z1
dz
−z 1
dz
⇒
d
af
y = Step 3: Use the formula:
d z
=
H K
dx
a f
dx

e1 + x j
2
dx 2 2 dx z1 z1

dz dz
e1 + x j e − e ⋅ a2 xf
2 x x
Step 4: Put and 1 in (4)
dx dx
=
e1 + x j 2 2 Note: One should do the problems directly without
making substitutions z and z1 for the functions of x’s
(in Nr and Dr) put in the form of the sum, difference or

=
e
x
e1 + x − 2 xj
2 product function after practising the above working
rule.

e1 + x j 2 2 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

x
e + log x

=
e a1 − xf
x 2 1. y =
sin x − 5x
3

e1 + x j 2 2
x
e + log x
Solution: y = 3
z sin x − 5x
Form 7: y = , where
z1 Putting z = ex + log x, we have
z = f1 (x) = any single algebraic or transcendental
function of x
d
af
z =
d x
e
e + log x =
d x
e +
d
j
log x e j a f
af af
dx dx dx dx
or, z = f 1 x ± f 1 x = sum of two algebraic or
1 x
transcendental functions of x’s. =e + ; for x > 0 …(1)
x
or, z = f1 (x) · f2 (x) = product of two algebraic or
Again, putting z1 = sin x – 5x3, we have
transcendental functions of x’s.
similarly, z1 = g1 (x) = any single algebraic or
transcendental function of x.
d
dx
af
z1 =
d
dx
e 3
sin x − 5x =
d
dx
sin x − 5
dx
j
d 3
x a f e j
af af
or, z1 = g1 x ± g 2 x = sum of two algebraic or
= cos x − 15x
2
…(2)
transcendental function of x’s.
or, z1 = g1 (x) · g2 (x) = product of two algebraic or
FG IJ
dz dz
transcendental functions of x’s. z1 −z 1
d z
H K
= dx dx ,
Working rule: One can find the d.c. of the function
Now using the formula
dx z1 a f
z1
2

of x put in the form (7) using the rule which consists

we have
of following steps.
af af af af d
af d z FG IJ
Step 1: Put z = f 1 x ± f 1 x / f 1 x ⋅ f 2 x and y = =
H K
= g a xf ± g a xf / g a xf ⋅ g a x f
dx dx z1

esin x − 5x j FGH ex + 1x IJK − ecos x − 15x j ee

z1
j
1 2 1 2
3 2 x
+ log x
dz dz
Step 2: Find and 1 using the rules for the , for
dx dx
derivative of the sum, difference or product of two
esin x − 5x j 3 2

differentiable functions of x’s. x > 0 and 5x 3 ≠ sin x

 Rules of Differentiation 369

FG3 y = z IJ F I
af
x

H zK 1
⇒
d
dx
y =
d
GH
xe
dx 1 + log x
JK
x log x
2. y = x
e + sec x a1 + log xf dxd e x e j − x e x x d
dx
a
1 + log x f
=
x log x a1 + log xf 2

Solution: y = x
e + sec x
Putting z = x log x, we have
a1 + log xf a x + 1f e − x ⋅ e ⋅ 1x x x

=
d
af
z =
d
x log x a f a1 + log xf 2

e a1 + log x f a1 + x f − 1
dx dx x

=x
d
dx
a f
log x + log x
d
dx
1
x = x ⋅ + log x ⋅ 1
x
af =
a1 + log xf
, for x > 0.
2

= 1 + log x …(1) x
x+e
Again, putting z1 = ex + sec x, we have 4. y =
1 + log x
d
dx
a f
z1 =
d x
dx
e + sec x = e
d x
dx
e +
d
dx
sec x j e j a f x+e
x

Solution: y =
x
= e + sec x ⋅ tan x ...(2) 1 + log x

FG IJ
dz d
a f af F x I
d z
=
H K
z1
dx
−z
dx
z1
⇒
d
y =
d x+e
GH JK
Now, using the formula
dx z1 a f
z1
2
, dx dx 1 + log x
we have
FG IJ a1 + log xf dxd e x + e j − e x + e j dxd a1+ log xf
x x
d
af
y =
d z
H K =
dx dx z1 a1 + log x f 2

a1 + log xf ee x
je x
+ sec x − e + sec x tan x x log x j a1 + log x f e1+ e j − e x + e j ⋅ 1x
x x
= ,
=
ee j a1 + log xf
x 2
+ sec x 2

a1+ log xf e1+ e j − FG1 + ex IJ

π x
for x > 0 and ≠ nπ + x
2
=
H K
3. y =
xe
x
a1+ log xf 2

1 + log x
ex
x 1/ + log x + e x + e x log x − 1/ −
xe x
Solution: y = =
1 + log x b1 + log xg 2
370 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

=
b g
e x x + x log x − 1 + x log x
7. y =
1 − sin x

x b1 + log x g
2 ; for x > 0. 1 + cos x

1 − sin x
1 − cos x Solution: y =
5. y = 1 + cos x
1 + cos x
d
af FG
d 1 − sin x IJ
Solution: y =
1 − cos x
1 + cos x
⇒
dx
y =
H
dx 1 + cos x K
d
af
d 1 − cos xFG IJ a1+ cos xf dxd a1− sin xf − a1− sin xf dxd a1+ cos xf
⇒
dx
y =
dx 1 + cos xH K =
a1 + cos xf 2

a1+ cos xf dxd a1− cos xf − a1− cos xf dxd a1+ cos xf b1 + cos xg b− cos xg − b1 − sin xg b− sin xg
= =
a1+ cos xf 2
b1 + cos xg 2

=
a1 + cos xf ⋅ sin x + sin x a1 − cos xf 2
−cos x − cos x + sin x − sin x
2

a1 − cos xf 2 =
a1 + cos xf 2

sin x a1 + cos x + 1 − cos x f

=
a1 + cos x f asin x − cos xf − ecos x + sin xj 2 2

=
a1 + cos xf 2

b1 + cos xg b g .
2 sin x
= ; x ≠ 2n + 1 π
sin x − cos x − 1
b g
2
= ; x ≠ 2n + 1 π
2
b1 + cos xg 2

x
6. y =
1 + cos x x cos x
8. y = 2
1+ x
2
x
Solution: y = x cos x
1 + cos x
Solution: y = 2
1+ x
af F 2
I
⇒
d
y =
d x
GH JK F I
dx dx 1 + cos x
⇒
d
dx
af
y =
d x cos x
dx 1 + x 2
GH JK
a1 + cos xf dxd e x j − x dxd a1 + cos xf
2 2

e1+ x j
d 2
a x cos x f − a x cos x f
d
e1 + x j 2
=
a1 + cos xf 2 = dx dx
e1 + x j 2 2

x b2 + 2 cos x + x sin x g
=
b1 + cos xg 2
; x ≠ b2n + 1g π .
e1+ x j FH x dxd acos xf + cos x dxd axfIK − a x cos xf⋅ a2 xf
2

=
e1 + x j 2 2
 Rules of Differentiation 371

e1 + x j a− x sin x + cos xf − 2 x
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
2 2
cos x
1
= 1. y =
e1 + x j 2 2 4
x sec x

1
3 2 2 Solution: y =
− x sin x + cos x − x sin x + x cos x − 2 x cos x 4
x sec x
=
e1 + x j 2 2
Putting z = x4 sec x, we have
d
af
z =
d 4
x sec x e j
=
e1 − x j cos x − x e1 + x j sin x
2 2 dx dx

e1 + x j 2 2 =x ⋅
4 d
dx
a f
sec x + sec x
d 4
dx
x e j
Form 8: y = , a z ≠ 0f where z = a single function
4 3
1 = x sec x tan x + 4 x sec x
z
d
bg d 1 d FG IJ af
of x, sum, difference or product of two or more than
two differentiable functions of x ≠ 0 for any finite
∴
dx
y =
dx z
= −
dx
2
z
HK
value of the independent variable x. z
1
Working rule: To find the d.c. of y = , z ≠ 0 one
z
a f e 4
− x sec x tan x + 4 x sec x
3
j
can adopt the rule which consists of following steps, =
af
provided dz ≠ f 1 x = a single function of x. ex 4
sec x j
2

af af
Step 1: Put z = f 1 x ± f 2 x , or f 1 (x) · f2 (x)
whichever is given.
−x
3
a x sec x tan x + 4 sec xf
Step 2: Find
d
dx
z af =
x sec x
8 2

d
af a
− sec x x tan x + 4 f
d
af d 1 FI z = 5 2

HK
Step 3: Use y = =− 2 dx x sec x
dx dx z
Notes:
z
=
a
− x tan x + 4 f
5
1. When z = f1 (x) = a single function of x, one should x sec x
use directly the formula:
FG IJ = − f ′a xf which means the b
− x sin x + 4 cos x g , b x ≠ 0g
d 1 FI d 1 = and
HK H a f K f a xf
1 5
= 2 x
dx z dx f 1 x 1
π
d.c. of a reciprocal of a function of x is negative of the x ≠ nπ +
2
d.c. of the function of x in numerator divided by the
or, alternatively, it can be done in the following way:
square of the function in denominator.
2. One should do the problems without making a 1 cos x
y= =
substitution z for the given sum, difference and 4 4
x sec x x
product functions of x in denominator after practising
the above given working rule.
372 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af FG IJ F 1 − 1 I
GH sin x cos x JK
d d cos x
⇒
dx
y =
dx x 4 H K =− 2 2

x
4 d
dx
a f
cos x − cos x
d 4
dx
x e j π
= – (cosec2 x – sec2 x) = sec2 x – cosec2 x;

= x≠ .
ex j 4 2 2
1

=
4
− x sin x − 4 x cos x
3
3. y =
a x − af a x − bfa x − cf
8
x 1

−x
3
a x sin x + 4 cos xf
Solution: y =
a x − af a x − bfa x − cf
= 8
Putting z = (x – a) (x – b) (x – c), we have
x

a
− x sin x + 4 cos x f
d
dx
af
z = (x – b) (x – c)
d
dx
(x – a) + (x – a) (x – c)
= 5
x d d
(x – b) + (x – b) (x – a) (x – c)
1 dx dx
2. y =
sin x cos x = (x – b) (x – c) + (x – a) (x – c) + (x – b) ) (x – a)

1
d
FI af
af
z
Solution: y = d d 1
sin x cos x ∴
dx
y =
dx z HK
= − dx 2
z
d
afd 1 FG IJ a x − bfa x − cf + a x − a fa x − cf + a x − bfa x − af ;
⇒
dx
y =
dx sin x cos x H K =−
a x − a fa x − bfa x − cf 2

d
dx
a
sin x cos x f x ≠ a , b , c.
=−
a
sin x cos x f
2
4. y =
1
cos x
F sin x d acos xf + cos x d asin xfI
=−
H dx dx K Solution: y =
1
asin x cos xf 2 cos x

d
afd 1 FG IJ
=
e 2
− − sin x + cos x
2
j = −ecos 2
x − sin
2
j ⇒
dx
y =
dx cos x H K
2 2 2 2
sin x cos x sin x cos x d
a f
cos x
F cos x − sin x I
2 2 =− dx
a f
GH sin cos x sin x cos x JK
2
=− cos x
2 2 2 2

=−
a−sin xf
2
cos x
 Rules of Differentiation 373

sin x sin x 1 d
af
d FG
cos x IJ
H K
2
= 2
= ⋅ ⇒ y = x sin x +
cos x cos x cos x dx dx x

= tan x · sec x = sec x · tan x, x ≠ nπ +

π
. = sin x
d 2
dx
e j
2
x +x ⋅
d
dx
sin x +
dx
a f FGH IJK
d cos x
x
2
Form 9: y = sum of a finite number of terms such that 2 x a− sin x f − cos x
each term is the product and/quotient function, i.e. = 2 x sin x + x cos x + 2

af af af af af
y = f 1 x × f 2 x ± g1 x × g 2 x / f 1 x ×
x

g a xf
2 sin x cos x
= 2 x sin x + x cos x − − 2 ; x ≠ 0.
f a xf ±
g a x f or y = f a x f ± g a x f × g a x f /
1 x
2 x
1 1 2
2

g a xf
cot x
3. y = x +
f a xf ±
g axf
1 x
1
2
cot x
Working rule: To find the d.c. of the sum of a finite Solution: y = x +
x
number of terms such that each term is the product
d
af
d FG x + cot x IJ
H x K
and/quotient function, one may adopt the rule ⇒ y =
consisting of following steps: dx dx

e x j + dxd FGH cotx x IJK

Step 1: Use the rule for the derivative of the sum of a
d
finite number of differentiable functions of x’s =
regarding each product and/quotient function as a dx
single function of x.
Step 2: Find the d.c. of the product and quotient
function. =
1
+
e
x − cosec x − cot x
2
j
2
2 x x
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
1. y = x sin x + sin x cos 3x
Solution: y = x sin x + sin x cos 3x
=
1
−
e x cosec 2
x + cot x j ; x ≠ nπ .
af a f
2
d d 2 x x
⇒ y = x sin x + sin x cos3x
dx dx 4. y = sin x + x cos x

=
d
a f
x sin x +
d
a
sin x cos 3x f Solution: y = sin x + x cos x
dx dx
⇒
d
y =af
d
a
sin x + x cos x f
=x
d
b g
sin x + sin x
d
bg
x + sin x
d
cos 3x + b g dx dx
dx dx dx
=
d
a f
sin x +
d
x cos x a f
cos 3x
d
sin xa f dx dx

a f af
dx d d
= x cos x + sin x – 3 sin x · sin 3x + cos 3x · cos x. = cos x + x cos x + cos x x
dx dx
= cos x + x a − sin x f + cos x
2 cos x
2. y = x sin x +
x
= cos x – x sin x + cos x
2 cos x
Solution: y = x sin x + 5. y = 2x sec x – 2 tan x · sec x
x
Solution: y = 2x sec x – 2 tan x · sec x
374 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
d
dx
y =af
d
dx
a
2 x sec x − 2 tan x sec x f 5. y = x
3

−3
= 2 sec x
d
dx
bg
x + 2x
d
dx
b g
sec x − 2 sec x
d
b g
dx
tan x − 6. y = x

7 −2

tan x
d
dx
sec x a f 7. y = 6 x

8 a 2 b2
= 2 sec x + 2x sec x tan x – 2 sec x · sec2 x – tan x · 8. y =
sec x tan x 7 3 27 x
= sec x (2 + 2x tan x – 2 sec2 x – tan2 x)
F 7x I
y=G
−3
1

H 5x JK
2
Form 1: Problems on constant functions, i.e., y = c, c
9. 7
being a constant.

Exercise 8.1
x4
10. y = 3
7
Differentiate w.r.t. x if
Answers:
1. y = e
1. 9x8
2. y = π
−72
3. y = log e 2. ; x ≠ 0.
4. y = 1993 x 10
Note: Since ∆ -method is not mentioned by which 15
3. ; x > 0.
one has to do the problems which means one is free 2 x
to do them by any other method also (i.e. one can use
the method of applying directly the formulas obtained 14 − 52
4. − x ; x ≠ 0.
from ∆ -method. 3
Answers:
3
1. 0, 2. 0, 3. 0, 4. 0. 5. x ; x ≥ 0.
2
Form 2: Problems on power function and/a constant
multiple of power function, i.e., y = xn and y = cxn, c 3 − 52
6. − x ; x > 0.
being a constant. 2
−12 −9
Exercise 8.2 7. ⋅ x 7 ; x ≠ 0.
7
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x −8 a 2 b 2 −4

1. y = x9
8. ⋅ x 3 ; x ≠ 0.
63
8 9. − 35 x ⋅ x −7 , x ≠ 0 .
2. y = 9
x
1
4 3
x
10. .
3. y = 15 x
2
3 7
− 23 Form 3: Problems on a constant multiple of
4. y = 7 x
transcendental functions of x’s, i.e., y = c × any one of
the functions of x’s say sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x,
 Rules of Differentiation 375

cosec x, sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x, sec–1 x, 2 7 4

cosec–1 x, log x and ex, c being a constant. 17 x − 42 x + 14 x + 11
3. 3
5x
Exercise 8.3
3⋅1 4 ⋅8 13
4. 15x − 16 x
3
+ 87 −
Find the differential coefficients of the following 2x
functions w.r.t. x: 5. 4x3 + 3 sin x + 5 cos x – 2ex
1. 7 ex 6. 2 sin x – 5 cos x
8 5
x − +3
alog xf
4
2. −1 7.
sec x

3. 3 3
2 sin x x −a
8.
x−a
4. 3
sec x
2
FG 1 + x IJ 2

5.
tan x
−1 9.
H x K
4 10. 6log x − x −7
Answers:
1. 7 ex Answers:
1. 2ax + b
8
2. ; x > 0, ≠1 1 1
x 2. − 3 ;x>0
2 x 2x 2
3. 2 cos x
2 7 2
3 π −17 x − 168 x − 33 + 14 x
4. sec x tan x , x ≠ nπ + , n ∈Z 3. 4
;x ≠ 0
2 2 5x

F I 2 ⋅1 3⋅8 39
5.
1
GH 1
4 1 + x2
JK 4. 45⋅ 5x − 76 ⋅ 8 x
2x
− 4
;x ≠ 0

5. 12x + 3 cos x – 5 sin x – 2ex

2

Form 4: Problems on the sum of a finite number of 6. 2 cos x – 5 sin x

af af
differentiable functions of x’s, i.e., y = f 1 x ± f 2 x + 1 − 34 π
x + 5 sin x ; x ≠ nπ + and ≠ 0
af af af
7.
... ± f n x and/ a1 f 1 x ± a2 f 2 x ± ... ± an fn (x), 4 2
a1, a2, …, an being constants. 8. 2x + a ; x ≠ a
2
x −1
Exercise 8.4 9. 2
;x > 0
x
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x: 6 1
1. ax2 + bx + c 10. − ;x > 0
x 2 x
1
2. x +
x
376 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Form 5: Problems on the product of two differentiable

sin x
functions of x’s, i.e., y = f1 (x) × f2 (x). 8. + cos x log x ; x > 0
x
Exercise 8.5 9. 2 cos x – 2x sin x
10. 3ex + (3x + 1) ex
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x: cos x
11. − sin x log x ; x > 0
1. (x + 4) (5x – 6) x
F x + 1 I FG 1IJ π
2. H xK H x +
xK
12. 3x2 tan x + x3 sec2 x ; x ≠ nπ +
2
, n ∈Z

π
13. sin x · sec2 x + tan x · cos x ; x ≠ nπ + , n ∈Z
x
e log x
3. 2
7
x
14. Find
4. e log x 15. Find
5. 9 x log x Form 6, 7 and 8: Problems on quotient function such
6. 4x5 · ex that the function in the numerator and denominator is
x z
e either the sum or the product function, i.e., y = ,
7. 11 sin x ⋅ z1
9
8. sin x · log x af af af af af
where z = f 1 x / f 1 x ± f 2 x / f 1 x × f 2 x /
unity and z = g a x f / g a x f ± g a x f / g a x f × g a x f
9. 2x cos x
10. (3x + 1) ex 1 1 1 2 1 2

11. cos x log x

12. x3 tan x Exercise 8.6
13. sin x tan x
14. ex · tan–1 x
15. ex sin–1 x Find
d
dx
af
y if
Answers:
1. 10x + 14 ax + b
1. y =
cx + d
2.
b x − 1g e3x 2
+ 4x + 3 j; x > 0
2 x3 + 3
2x x 2. y =
x3 − 5
ex
FG 1 IJ
3.
7 H
⋅ log x +
x
;x>0
K 2
x + 9 x + 10
3. y = 2
ex x − 7 x + 12
4. + (log x ) e x ; x > 0
x
a + x
9 9 4. y = ; a > 0.
5. + log x ; x > 0 a − x
x 2 x
6. (4x5 + 20x4) ex log x
5. y =
11 sin x
7. (sin x + cos x) ex
9
 Rules of Differentiation 377

cos x 1 − cos x
6. y = 22. y =
log x 1 + cos x
1 − tan x
n 23. y =
7. y =
x 1 + tan x
log x 2
x + sec x
24. y =
cos x 1 + tan x
8. y =
x x cos x
25. y = 2
2 x +4
x sin x + cos x
9. y =
tan x 26. y =
sin x − cos x
2 log x
3x + 4 27. y =
10. y = x
sin x + cos x e
log x
5 + tan x 28. y =
cos x
11. y =
8x + 9
log x
29. y =
tan x + cot x x
12. y =
log x Answers:
ad − bc −d
;x≠
x
13. y =
e
1+ x
1.
bcx + d g 2
c

tan x −24 x 2
14. y = 2. ; x3 ≠ 5
ex j
x
x+e 2
x
3
−5
e + tan x
15. y = n −16 x 2 + 4 x + 178
cot x − x 3. ; x ≠ 3, 4
16. y =
1 ex 2
− 7 x + 12 j 2

sin x
a
1 4. ; x > 0, ≠ a
17. y = e j
2
log x x a − x
2 1
18. y =
x sin x − cos x log x
sin x 5. x ; x ≠ nπ , x > 0
sin 2 x
cot x
19. y = 1
x −sin x log x − cos x
1 6. x ;x>0
20. y = x log x
2
e ⋅ tan x
n −1 n −1
sec x + tan x nx log x − x
21. y = 7. ;x>0
sec x − tan x log x
2
378 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

− x sin x + cos x − x cosec 2 x − cot x

8. 2 ;x ≠0 19. ; x ≠ nπ
x x2

2 x tan x − x 2 sec 2 x nπ −e x tan x − sec 2 x ⋅ e x nπ

;x≠ , n ∈Z ;x≠
ee j
9. 2
20. x 2
2
tan x 2 tan x
a
6 x sin x + cos x − cos x − sin x 3x + 4 f a fe 2
j, 21.
22.
Find
Find
10.
asin x + cos xf 2 23.
24.
Find
Find
π 25. Find
x ≠ nπ − . 26. Find
4
1 − x log x
b8x + 9g sec x − 8 tan x − 40 ; x ≠ −9
2 27.
x ex
;x>0

b8x + 9g
11. 2
8
cos x + x sin x log x π
e sec x − cosec x j log x − atan x + cot x f
2 1 2 28. 2
; x > 0 , ≠ nπ +
x cos x 2
12. x ; 2 1 − log x
log x 29. ;x>0
x2
nπ
x > 0, x ≠
2 Form 9: Problems on the sum of a finite number of
terms such that term is the product and/quotient
x ex function, i.e.,
; x ≠ −1
13.
b1 + xg 2
af af af af af
y = f 1 x × f 2 x ± g1 x × g2 x / f 1 x ×
g a xf
sec x e x + e j − e1 + e j tan x f axf ±
g a x f or, y = f a x f ± g a x f × g a x f /
2 x x 1
π 2
14. ; x ≠ nπ + , − e x 1 1 2

ex + e j
2
2

g a xf f a xf g axf
x 2
f a xf ±
g a xf f a xf g a x f
1 / ±
1 1 1

15.
ee x 2
+ sec x cot x − x je n
j + ecosec x + n x jee
2 n −1 x
+ tan x j; 2 2 2

ecot x − x j n 2
Exercise 8.6

nπ Differentiate the following functions of x’s w.r.t. x:

x≠ and cot x ≠ x n
2 1. x sin x + sin x cos x
− cos x 2 cos x
16. 2
; x ≠ nπ 2. x sin x +
sin x x
−1
17. ;x>0 c+ 3
x
x log 2 x 3.
c− 3
x
2 x sin x − x cos x 2
; x ≠ nπ 3

e j x − 1 2x + 1
18. 2
sin 2 x 4. x + x +1 + +
x −1 2x − 1
 Rules of Differentiation 379

3 sec x + tan x
x −1 2 19. sec x − tan x
Hint: = x + x +1
x−1
1 − cos x
2x + 1 2 20. 1 + cos x
=1+
2x − 1 2x − 1 1 − tan x
21. 1 + tan x
sin x
2
5. 1 + cos x x + sec x
22.
1 + tan x
x x−2 a f x cos x
6.
a x+1 x +4 fa f 23. 2
x +4
x sin x + cos x
7. 2 + cos x 24. sin x − cos x

sin x x tan x
8. 2
− x ⋅e +5 25. x + sin x
1+ x
2
x
e sec x − tan x x + cosec x
26.
9.
1 + tan x 1 + cot x
2
x sin x x sin x
10. cos x − sin x 27.
1 + tan x
x tan x cot x
11. sec x + tan x 28. 2
x + sin x
x sin x sin x + cos x
12. sin x + cos x 29.
x
e
x
1 + sin x
13. 2 30. 1 − sin x
1+ x
1 x
1 + sin x
+ e sec x
14. 2
1+ x 31. 1 + cos x
2
2 x x
15. x sec x + log x − e
1 + sin x 32. 2
x
x log x
16. x x log x
e tan x 33. x
e tan x
x
e + sin x x
17. e
1 + log x 3
34. x tan x +
x 1 + cos x
e + log x
18. x Answers:
e − log x 1. sin x + x cos x + cos2 x – sin2 x
380 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LMtan x a1 + log xf − x log x etan x + sec jOPQ

N
sin x cos x x 2
2. 2 x sin x + x 2 cos x − − 2 ;x≠0 e x
x x 16. ,
2x 2
3. Find e tan x
π
4. a2 x + 1f + a2 x + 1f − a2 x 4− 1f 2
; x ≠ 1,
1
2
x ≠ nπ +
2
and x > 0.

a1 + log xf x ee + cos xj − e − sin x x x

5.
1
1 + cos x
; x ≠ 2n + 1 π b g 17.
x a1 + log x f
;x>0 2

2
7 x + 8x − 8 F 1 − log xI
Hx K ;x>0
x
; x ≠ − 1, − 4
6.
a x + 1f a x + 4f
2 2
18.
2e

ee − log xjx 2

2 + cos x + x sin x
7.
a2 + cos xf 2
2 sec x asec x + tan x f π
e1 + x j cos x − 2 x sin x − e b2 x + 1g
2 x
19.
asec x − tan x f ; x ≠ nπ + 2
8.
e1 + x j
a1 + cos xf ; x ≠ b2n + 1g π
2
2 x
2 2 sin x
20. 2
x
π
2
2e sec x tan x − sec x
, x ≠ nπ −
9.
1 + tan x a2 4 f −2 sec x
2
, x ≠ nπ −
π
a1 + tan xf
21.
2 4
x + sin x cos x − sin x a f , x ≠ nπ + π a1+ tan xfa2 x + sec x tan xf − e x 2
j
+ sec x sec x
2
10.
acos x − sin xf 2 2 22.
a1+ tan xf 2

x cos x + sin x a1 + sin x f π π π

, x ≠ nπ +
11.
a1 + sin xf 2 2 x ≠ nπ −
4
and x ≠ nπ +
2

x + sin x asin x + cos x f π e4 − x j cos x − x e x

2 2
j
+ 4 sin x

asin x + cos xf ; x ≠ nπ − 4 e x + 4j
12. 2
23. 2
2

e a1 − x f
x 2
−2 π
24. ; x ≠ nπ +
e1 + x j
13. 2 2 1 − sin 2 x 4

−2 x
+ e sec x a1 + tan x f , x ≠ nπ +
x π
2
x sec x + tan x sec x − 1 − sin x a f
14.
e1 + x j 2 2 2
25.
a x + sin xf 2 ; x≠0

2 x a1+ sin xf − x cos x a2 x − cosec x cot xfa1 + cot xf − cosec x e x j;

2 2 2
2 + cosec x
x sec x tan x + 2 x sec x +
15.
a1+ sin xf , 2
26.
a1+ cot xf 2

π
π x ≠ nπ and ≠ nπ −
x ≠ nπ + 4
2
 Rules of Differentiation 381

2
ecos x − sin x tan xj 2

a1 + cos xf ; x ≠ b2n + 1g π
2 x sin x x 1 + sin x + cos x
+
a1 + tan xf
27. ; 31. 2
1 + tan x 2

e a x − 2 f + 1 − 2 log x ; x > 0
x
π π 32.
x ≠ nπ + and ≠ nπ − 3
2 4 x

a f
x
a x
f 2
e tan x 1 + log x − e x log x sec x + tan x e j;
e 2
j
− cosec x x cosec + 1 − cot x 2 x + cos x 33.
ee j
x 2
28. ;
e j
2 2 tan x
x + sin x
π
π x > 0 , x ≠ nπ and x ≠ nπ +
x ≠ nπ + and x 2 ≠ − sin x 2
2

a2 x − 1f cos x − a2 x + 1f sin x , x > 0 2

e x sec 2
x + 3 tan x + j
x
a
e 1 + sin x + cos x f;
29.
2x x
34. x
a1+ cos xf 2

2 cos x π
x ≠ nπ +
π
2
and x ≠ 2n + 1 π b g
; x ≠ 2nπ +
30.
a1 − sin xf 2 2
382 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

9
Chain Rule for the Derivative

Firstly, we recall the basic ideas of composition of zn = f (x) is a differentiable function of x;

differentiable functions. then y = f1 f2 f3 … for f (x) is a differentiable function
1. Composition of two differentiable functions: of a differentiable function of a differentiable function
If y = f1 (z1) is a differentiable function of z1 and z1 … of a differentiable function of x (or, composite/
= f2 (x) is a differentiable function of x, then y = f1 f2 (x) composition of (n + 1) number of differentiable
is a differentiable function of a differentiable function functions f1, f2, … fn and f) whose composition in the
of x or composition (or, composite) of two arrow diagram is expressed as
differentiable functions f1 and f2 whose composition
in the arrow diagram can be expressed as
x
f
→ af
f x
fn

→ fn f xaf f n −1
 → af
f n −1 f x ...

x 
f 2→ f
 af f1 af
2 x  → f 1 f 2 x
f1
 → f1 af
f 2 ... f n f x . But if zn = x = identity function
In practice, a differentiable function of a being differentiable, we get the composition of n-
differentiable function of x is obtained by replacing number of differentiable functions f1, f2, f3, …, fn
the independent variable x in the differentiable represented by the notation:
function by another differentiable function of x. y = f1 f2 f3 … fn (x) whose arrow diagram of the
Explanation
(i) y = ex is a differentiable function of x replacing x by composition is x
fn

→ fn x af fn −1
 → f n −1
another differentiable function log x (x > 0), we have
(ii) y = e log x which is a composition of two af
fn x
f1
→ ...   → af
f 1 f 2 ... f n x .
differentiable functions e and log. In practice, if the process of replacing the
independent variable x in the preceeding differentiable
2. Composition of a finite number of differentiable
function by another differentiable function of x is
functions:
continued upto (n + 1) or n- number of times, we get
If y = f1 (z1) is a differentiable function of z1;
what is called the composition of (n + 1)or n-number
z1 = f2 (z2) is a differentiable function of z2;
of differentiable functions or composite of (n + 1) or
z2 = f3 (z3) is a differentiable function of z3;
n-number of differentiable functions of a differentiable
z3 = f4 (z4) is a differentiable function of z4;
function … of a differentiable function of x.
…
Explanation
…
1. y = sin x is a differentiable function of x, replacing
zn – 2 = fn – 1 (zn – 1) is a differentiable function of
x by a differentiable function of x, say ex, we get
zn – 1;
2. y = sin (ex) which is a differentiable function of x
zn – 1 = fn (zn) is a differentiable function of zn;
being the composition of two differentiable functions
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 383

namely sin and e. Replacing x by a differentiable This is known as the chain rule of differentiation
a
function x x > 0 , , we get f since the derivative with respect to x of y = F (f (x))
x involves the following chain of steps. Firstly
3. y = sin e which is a differentiable function of x
differentiation with respect to z of the whole differen-
being the composition of three differentiable functions tiable function y = F (f (x)). Secondly differentiation
namely sin, e and . Replacing x by a differentiable with respect to x of inner differentiable function z = f
function of x, say sec–1 x, we get dy
F −1
I (x) lastly, the product of these gives
dx
.

GH JK
sec x
4. y = sin e which is a differentiable 2. The chain rule for the derivative of a finite number
of differentiable functions:
function of x being the * or, alternatively, y = f1 (z1) is
The chain rule for the derivative of a finite number
a differentiable function of z 1; z 1 = f 2 (z 2) is a
of differentiable functions is the generalised form of
differentiable function of z2 and so on; zn–1 = fn (x) is
chain rule for the derivatives of the composite of two
a differentiable function of x ⇒ y = f1 f2 f3 ... fn (x) is differentiable functions. It states that
a differentiable function of x composition of four If y = f1 (z1) is a differentiable function of z1;
differentiable functions namely sin, e, and sec–1 z1 = f2 (z2) is a differentiable function of z2;
and this composition of four differentiable functions z2 = f3 (z3) is a differentiable function of z3;
can be expressed in the following way. …
−1
…
sec −1 e −1
x   → sec x 
→ −1
→ e sec x zn – 1 = fn (zn) is a differentiable function of zn and zn
sec x
= f (x) is a differentiable function of x, then, y = f1 f2 f3
… fn f (x) is a differentiable function of x, and
sec −1 x
sin
→ sin
dy dy dz1 dz2 dzn − 1 dzn
= ⋅ ⋅ ... ⋅ and if y = f1
Remember: Composition of two or more than two dx dz1 dz2 dz3 dzn dx
differentiable functions is a differentiable function. (z1) is a differentiable function of z1; z1 = f2 (z2) is a
Question: What is the chain rule for the derivatives? differentiable function of z2, and so on; zn – 1 = fn (x) is
Answer: It is a rule (or, a theorem) which is used to a differentiable function of x; then y = f1 f2 f3 … fn (x) is
find the derivatives of composite (or, composition) of dy dy
two or more than two differentiable functions. a differentiable function of x and dx = dz ⋅
1. Chain rule for the derivatives of composite of two 1

differentiable functions: dz1 dz2 dz3 dzn − 1

The chain rule for the derivatives of composite of ⋅ ... .
dz2 dz3 dz4 dx
af
two differentiable functions states that if y is a
differentiable function of z and z is a differentiable Theorem: Show that y = F (z) and z = f x ⇒ y ′ =
function of x, then the derivative of a differentiable af af
F ′ z ⋅ f ′ x provided F (z) and f (x) are
function y is the product of the derivative of y with differentiable functions.
respect to z and the derivative of z with respect to x.
Proof: y = F (z)
a f
Or, more explicitly,
If y = f (z) is a differentiable function of z and ⇒ y + ∆ y = F z + ∆z
z = f (x) is a differentiable function of x, then
y = F (f (x)) = G (x) (say) is a differentiable function of
a f af
⇒ ∆y = F z + ∆z − F z

dy dy dz ∆y F a z + ∆ zf − F a zf
x and = ⋅ . ⇒ =
dx dz dx ∆x ∆x
384 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
∆y
=
a
F z + ∆z − F z ∆z
⋅ 3
∆z
=1
f af y = F (f (x)), where F and f represent ( )n, e, log, sin,
cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1,
∆x ∆x ∆z ∆z sec–1, cosec–1, etc.
1. (c)' = 0, where c is any constant
a f af b a fg 2. f x
n
b a fg
=n⋅ f x
n −1
⋅ f′ x af
⇒
∆y
=
F z + ∆z − F z ∆z
⋅ b a fg ′
af af
3. sin f x = cos f x ⋅ f ′ x
∆x ∆z ∆x
b a fg ′
af af
4. cos f x = − sin f x ⋅ f ′ x
shifting the place of ∆ z and ∆ x b a fg ′ 2
af af
5. tan f x = sec f x ⋅ f ′ x
b a f g ′ 2
6. cot f x = − cosec f x ⋅ f ′ x af af
in the denominator
b a fg ′
af
7. sec f x = sec f x ⋅ cosec f x af
⇒ lim
∆y b a f g ′
a
8. cosec f x = − cosec f x ⋅ cot f x f af
∆ x→0 ∆x
′
F F az + ∆ zf − F a zf ∆ z I e a fj ⋅ f ′ a xf
−1 1
sin f x =
= lim G J 1 − f a xf
9.
H ⋅
∆ xK
2
∆ x→0 ∆z

= lim G
F F a z + ∆ zf − F a zf IJ ⋅ lim FG ∆ z IJ 10. ecos f a x fj =
−1 ′ 1
⋅ f ′ a xf
∆ x→0 H ∆z K H ∆ xK ∆ x→0
1 − f a xf
2

′
11. e tan f a x fj = ⋅ f ′ a xf
using the product rule of limits −1 1
d F a z f dz a f
b3 y = F a zfg
2
1 + f x
= ⋅
dz dx
′
= F ′ a zf ⋅ f ′ a x f 12. ecot f a x fj = ⋅ f ′ a xf
−1 −1
1 + f a xf
2

Remember:
′
e a f j ⋅ f ′ a xf
(A): The following rules of finding derivatives are −1 1
sec f x =
a f a f
valid for the differentiable functions. 13.
2

1. b f a x f + f a x fg = f ′ a x f + f ′ a x f
′ f x f x − 1
1 2 1 2
′
2. c k f b x gh = k f b x g , k being a constant 14. ecosec f a x fj = ⋅ f ′ a xf
′ ′ −1 1
1 1

3. b f a x fg ⋅ f a x f = f ′ a x f ⋅ f a x f + f ′ a x f ⋅ f a x f
′ f a x f f a
2
x f − 1

f ′ a xf
1 2 1 2 2 1

15. blog f a x fg = ; f a xf > 0

′
F
4. G
f a xf I
′
f a xf ⋅ f a x f − f a xf ⋅ f a x f
′ ′
f a xf
H f a xf JK =
1 1 2 2 1

f a xf
;
16. F e a f I = e a f ⋅ f ′ a x f
′
2

H K
2 2 f x f x

b f a xf ≠ 0g
2

5. b f f a x fg = f ′ a z f ⋅ f ′ a x f , where z = f (x)
′ (C): If y is a function of x then
1 2 1 2 2

(B): Power, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and dy n dy

inverse trigonometric functions are differentiable on 1. = n ⋅ y n −1 ⋅ , n ∈Q
dx dx
any interval on which they are defined and their
d y dy
derivatives with respect to the inner differentiable 2. e =ey ⋅
function f (x) are found from the following formulas dx dx
provided their composition is represented as
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 385

d 1 dy d
3. log y = ⋅ ,y>0 ⋅ (base), where the base must be a differentiable
dx y dx dx
d sin y dy function of x.
4. = cos y ⋅
dx dx d
2. (t-function having another function of x at
d cos y dy dx
5. = − sin y ⋅ the place of the angle)
dx dx

6.
d tan y
= sec y ⋅ tan y ⋅
dy FH
t - function having another function
d of x at the place of the angle
IK
=
FH IK
dx dx
d cot y dy d the function of the independent variable
7. = − cosec 2 y ⋅ x after removing t - operator
dx dx
d sec y dy d
8. = sec y ⋅ tan y ⋅ · (the function of the independent variable x after
dx dx dx
d cosec y dy removing t-operator) where t or t-operator, means all
9. = − cosec y ⋅ cot y ⋅ the sex trigonometric functions namely sin, cos, tan,
dx dx
cot, sec, and cosec.
d sin −1 y 1 dy d
10. = ⋅ 3. (t–1-function having another function as an
dx 1− y 2 dx dx
−1 inner function of x)
d cos y −1 dy
11. = ⋅
dx 1− y 2 dx
e - inner function of xj
d t
−1
d
d tan −1 y 1 dy
=
F inner function of x afterI
dG
· (inner

H removing t - operator JK
12. = ⋅ dx
dx 1+ y 2
dx –1

d cot −1 y −1 dy
13. = ⋅ function of the independent variable x after removing
dx 1+ y 2
dx t–1-opertor)

d sec −1 y 1 dy d
(ea function of x = index of the base ‘e’)
14. = ⋅ 4.
dx
dx y y − 1 dx
2
d
= e index without any change · (index given as a
d cosec −1 y −1 dy dx
15. = ⋅
dx y y − 1 dx
2 function of x)
Note: All the formulas for the derivatives of the d
differentiable power, exponential, logarithmic, 5. log (any function of x)
dx
trigonometric and inverse trigonometric of a
differentiable function f (x) can be expressed in words 1 d
= ⋅ (given function of x
in the following way. given function of x dx
d after removing log-operator)
1. (any function of x)n , n ∈ Q (Note: (any function of x)n is read as ‘n’ power of any
dx
function of x/any function of x to the power ‘n’/any
= index · (that function of x used as a base)n – 1 =
given index minus one function (or, any function of x) raised to the power
‘n’.)
386 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

On method of finding the derivative of composite (or,

composition) of two differentiable functions 9.
d
dx
e−1
sin x = j 1
2
A differentiable function f1 of a differentiable function 1− x

e j
f 2 of the independent variable x is symbolically d −1 1
represented as y = f1 f2 (x), where 10. cos x =
dx 2
f 1 = outer differentiable function (or, outside 1− x
differentiable function) which means sin, cos, tan,
cot, sec, cosec, sin –1, cos–1 , tan–1, cot–1, sec –1, 11.
d
dx
−1
e
tan x =
1+ x
2 j 1

cosec–1, ( )n, log, , or, e, etc.

f 2 = inner differentiable function (or, inside
differentiable function) which means also sin, cos,
12.
d
dx
−1
e
cot x =
−1
1+ x
2 j
tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1,
cosec–1, ( )n, log, , or, e, etc 13.
d
dx
−1
e
sec x = j 1
2
f 1 f 2 (x) = given function/whole function/ x x −1

e j −1
dependent variable f 2 (x) = inner differentiable d −1
function of x/insider differentiable function of x. 14. dx cosec x = 2
There are two methods of finding the derivative of x x −1
the composite of two differentiable functions.
(A): Method of substitution 15.
d
dx
a f
1
log x = , x > 0
x
(B): Method of making no substitution
(A): On method of substitution: This method 16.
d x
dx
e =e e jx

consists of following steps:

N.B: The formulas for the derivatives of inverse
Step 1: Put a new variable z for the function of x
trigonometric functions have been derived in the
whose differential coefficient can be found from the
chapter containing inverse circular functions but we
formulas.
have mentioned here their derivatives because their
1.
d
dx
af
c =0 application is required here.
Note: All these results remains valid even if x is
2.
d n
dx
e j
x = nx
n −1
replaced by any other variable z, u, v, w or t etc.
Explanation
3.
d
dx
a f
sinx = cos x
1. e j
d n n −1 d
z = nz ,
n
e j
n −1
u = nu ,

a f
dz du
d
cos x = − sin x
et j = n t
4. d n n −1
dx

a f
d 2
dt
tan x = sec x
asin zf = cos z , dud asin uf = cos u ,
5. d
dx
2.
6.
d
a f 2
cot x = cosec x
dz
dx d
asin t f = cos t
7.
d
a f
sec x = sec x ⋅ tan x
dt
dx d
acos zf = − sin z , dud acos uf = − sin u ,
a f
d 3.
cosec x = − cosec x ⋅ cot x dz
8.
dx d
dt
acos t f = − sin t
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 387

4.
d
dz
a f 2
tan z = sec z ,
d
du
a f 2
tan u = sec u , 12.
d
dz
−1
sec z = e j 1
2
,
d
du
e−1
sec u j
z z −1
d
atan t f = sec t 2

dt
=
1
,
d
e−1
sec t = j 1

5.
d
dz
acot zf = − cosec z , dud acot uf = − cosec u ,
2 2 u u −1
2 dt
t t −1
2

d
acot t f = − cosec t 2 13.
d
dz
e
−1
cosec z = j −1
2
,
d
du
e −1
cosec u j
dt z z −1

6.
d
dz
asec zf = sec z ⋅ tan z , dud asec uf = sec u ⋅ tan u , =
−1
,
d
e −1
cosec t = j −1
2 dt 2
d
asec t f = − sec t ⋅ tan t u u −1 t t −1

a f a f a f
dt
d 1 d 1
log z = , z > 0 , log u = , u > 0 ,
7.
d
dz
acosec zf = − cosec z ⋅ cot z , dud acosec uf 14.
dz z du u

= −cosec u ⋅ tan u , acosec t f = − cosec t ⋅ cot t

d
d
dt
a f 1
log t = , t > 0
t
a f
dt
15.
d z
e j
z d
e =e ,
u u d
e =e ,
t
e =e
t
e j e j
8.
d
dz
e −1
sin z = j 1
2
,
d
du
e −1
sin u =j 1
2
,
dz du dt
1− z 1− u Step 2: Put y = f1 (a new variable z) = f1 (z)
Step 3: Use the formula:
d
e−1
sin t = j 1
c b
dy d f 1 new variable z gh ⋅ d bnew variable zg
b g
dt 2
=
1− t
dx d new variable z dx
9.
d
dz
e
−1
cos z = j −1
2
,
d
du
−1
e
cos u = j −1
2
,
=
d f a z f dz
⋅ 1
1− z 1− u dz dx
d
dt
e−1
cos t = j −1
2
Step 4: Express the result in terms of x by using the
relation z = f2 (x) established in step (1).
1− t
Problems on Composition of Two Differentiable
10.
d
dz
e−1
tan z = j 1
2
,
d
du
e
−1
tan u = j 1
2
, Functions
1− z 1− u Solved Examples
d
dt
e−1
tan t = j 1
2
Method of substitution
1− t Find the derivative of the following
1. y = tan 3x2
11 .
d
dz
e−1
cot z = j −1
2
,
d
du
e
−1
cot u = j −1
2
, Solution: y = tan 3x2
1+ z 1+ u 2 multiply by 3 2 tan 2

B B
x   → 3x → tan 3 x
d
dt
e−1
cot t = j 1
2
= z1 =y
1+ t
388 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

∴
dy
=
dy dz1
⋅ , where z1 = 3x2
=
e
d sec
−1
x
2
j ⋅ d ex j 2

e j
dx dz1 dx 2 dx
e j ⋅ d e3x j = 6x sec
2 2
d x

a f
d tan 3x 2 1
= 3x = ⋅ 2x
d 3xe j 2 dx
x
2
ex j 2 2
−1
e j
1+ x

2. y = e
1− x

=
2x FH3 x 2
= x
2
=x
2 IK
e j 1+ x
1− x x
2
x
4
−1
Solution: y = e
2
a1 + xf divide by 1− x a f FG 1 + x IJ e j
1+ x
1− x
=
4

H1 − xK x −1
e
  → 
→ e x

B B (B) On method of making no substitution while

finding the derivative of composite (or, composition)
= z1 =y
dy dy dz1 F 1 + x IJ
=G
of two differentiable functions
∴ = ⋅
dx dz1 dx
, where z1
H1 − xK A composite (or, composition) of two differentiable
functions f1 and f2 is symbolically represented as
e j y = f1 f2 (x) and its derivative making no substitution
FG IJ
1+ x
1− x
d e d 1+ x is found using the following working rule.
=
FG
1+ x
⋅
IJ
dx 1 − x H K Working rule: The differential coefficient of the
d
H
1− x K differentiable function f1 of the differentiable function

a f a f a f
d d
e 11+− xx j 1 − x dx 1 + x − 1 + x ⋅ dx 1 − x a f f2 of the independent variable x is equal to the product
of the differential coefficient of the whole function y
=e ⋅
1− x
2
a f = f1 f2 (x) with respect to the inner differentiable
function f2 (x) and the differential coefficient of the

=e
e 1+ x
1− x j ⋅ b1 − xg ⋅ 1 − b1 + xgb−1g inner differentiable function f2 (x) with respect to the
b1− xg 2 independent variable x; i.e. if y = f1 f2 (x) , then
af af
e 1+ x
j F1 − x + 1 + xI
dy d f 1 f 2 x d f 2 x
= ⋅
af = f 1′ f 2 x ⋅ f 2 ′ x af af
⋅G
H a1 − x f JK
1− x dx d f2 x dx
=e 2
which tells us to apply the formulas as discussed in
(B) after the theorem for the chain rule.
2 e j
1+ x
1− x
= ⋅e
a1 − xf
Note:

3. y = sec–1 x2
2
af
1. y = f 1 f 2 x ⇒ (any differentiable function of
x)n, provided f2 (x) = any differentiable function of x
Solution: y = sec–1 x2
means algebraic function and/transcendental function
−1
square 2 sec −1 2
x  → x  → sec x of x and f 1 means to raise the base (being any
B
= z1
B
=y
differentiable function of x) to the n th power.
2. af b ′
y = f 1 f 2 x ⇒ f 1 f 2 x = a f 1′ ax + b , a fg a f
dy dy dz1 provided f2 (x) = a linear algebraic function of x. e.g.,
b a fg a f
2
∴ = ⋅ , where z1 = x ′
dx dz1 dx (i) sin ax + b = a cos ax + b

b a ′
fg
(ii) cos ax + b = − a sin ax + b a f
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 389

(iii) btan aax + bfg′ = a sec aax + bf 2 5. y = sec (log x)

Solution: y = sec (log x)
(iv) bcot aax + b fg = − a cosec a ax + b f
′
a f a f
2
dy d sec log x d sec log x d log x
(v) bsec a ax + bfg = a sec aax + b f ⋅ tan a ax + bf
′ ⇒
dx
=
dx
=
d log x a f
⋅
dx

(vi) bcosec a ax + bfg = − a cosec aax + b f ⋅ cot a ax + bf sec a log x f ⋅ tan a log x f
′
=
(vii) eaax + bf j = n a aax + bf
′ n n −1
and so on. x
6. y = tan (sin–1 x)
Problems on composition of two differentiable Solution: y = tan (sin–1 x)
functions
Solved Examples ⇒
dy
=
d FH
−1
tan ⋅ sin x e jIK
dx dx
Making no substitution
FH e xjIK d sin
d tan sin
−1
−1
x
Find the differential coefficient of the following. = ⋅
d esin x j
1. y = sin x3 dx −1

Solution: y = sin x3

j e j esin xj
d sin x 3 dx 3 −1
e
2
dy d sec
⇒ = sin x 3 = ⋅
dx dx dx 3 dx =
2
3 2 2 3
1− x
= cos x ⋅ 3x = 3x ⋅ cos x

2. y = tan x 7. y = sec tane −1

x j
Solution: y = tan x
Solution: y = sec tan e −1
x j
e j=d FH e jIK
dy d tan x tan x d tan x sec 2 x
⇒ =
b g ⋅ = −1
dx dx d tan x dx 2 tan x d sec tan x
dy
⇒ =
3. y = cos ex dx dx
Solution: y = cos ex FH e xjIK d etan xj
d sec tan
−1 −1

= ⋅
⇒
dy d cos e
=
e x
j = d ecos e j ⋅ de x
x
d e tan x j
−1 dx

d ee j F 1 I
dx dx dxx

= sec etan x j ⋅ FH tan e tan x jIK ⋅ G

H 1 + x JK
−1 −1
2

e
= − sin e
x
j x
⋅ e = − e ⋅ sin x
x

x sec e tan x j
−1

4. y = tan 4x = 2
FH3 tan etan xj = xIK −1

Solution: y = tan 4x 1+ x
dy d tan 4 x ad tan 4 x d 4 x f a f a f 8. y = tan–1 (sin x)
⇒
dx
=
dx
=
d 4x
⋅
dx a f Solution: y = tan–1 (sin x)

2
= sec x ⋅ 4 = 4 sec x
2 dy d tan sin xe −1
a fj
⇒ =
dx dx
390 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f a f
−1
d tan sin x d sin x cos x
e −1
j
=
d sin x
⋅
a f
dx
= 2
1 + sin x Note:
cos sin
2
x
may also simplified in the
9. y = sin (cos–1 x) 1− x
Solution: y = sin (cos–1 x) following way.
FH e jIK
−1 F π π I
H K
−1
d sin cos x 3 sin x = θ ⇔ x = sin θ , − ≤θ≤
dy 2 2
⇒ =
dx dx
FH e jIK d ecos xj
2 2
−1 −1 ∴ cos θ = cos θ = 1 − sin θ = 1 − x
d sin cos x
= ⋅
d ecos x j
−1
dx
Hence,
dy cos sin x
= =
e −1
j 1− x
2
=1
− cos ecos x j
−1 dx 2 2
1− x 1− x
= 12. y = sin–1 (sin x)
2
1− x Solution: y = sin–1 (sin x)

=
−x
; x ≠ x ± 1 3 cos cos FH e −1
j IK
x =x dy d sin sin x e −1
a fj
2
⇒ =
1− x dx dx

10. y = tan
−1 d sine −1
asin xfj d asin xf cos x
d a sin x f
x = ⋅ =
dx 2
−1 cos x
Solution: y = tan x

e j
−1 cos x
= ; cos x ≠ 0
dy d tan x cos x
⇒ =
dx dx 13. y = cosec (4 – 3x)
d tane −1
x j⋅d Solution: y = cosec (4 – 3x)
=
d x dx
x
⇒
b
dy d cosec 4 − 3x
=
a fg
1 1 1 dx dx
= ⋅ =
1+ e xj 2
2 x e
2 x 1+ x
2
j b
d cosec 4 − 3x a fg ⋅ d a4 − 3xf
11. y = sin sin–1 x
=
a
d 4 − 3x f dx
Solution: y = sin sin–1 x = –cosec (4 – 3x) · cot (4 – 3x) · (–3) = 3cosec (4 –
3x) cot (4 – 3x)

⇒
dy d sin sin
=
e −1
x j On method of substitution for the differential
dx dx coefficient of composition (or, composite) of a finite
number of differentiable functions

=
e
d sin sin
−1
x j ⋅ d esin xj = cos esin xj
−1 −1
A differentiable function f1 of a differentiable function

e j
−1
f2 of … of a differentiable function fn on a differentiable
dx 2
d sin x 1− x function f of the independent variable x (or,
composite/composition of a finite number of
differentiable functions namely f1, f2, … fn and f) is
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 391

symbolically represented as y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x), where Step 3: Express the result in terms of x using the
f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x) = given function/whole function/ relations
dependent variable. f2 f3 f4 … fn f (x) = z1,
f2 f3 … fn f (x) = inner differentiable function/ inside f3 f4 … fn f (x) = z2,
differentiable function/inner function/inside function/ f4 … fn f (x) = z3
independent variable. …
f1, f2, f3, …, fn or f, each = constituent differentiable fn f (x) = zn – 1
function/constituent function. f (x) = zn which are stablished in step (1)
f (x) = inner most differentiable function/inner most Note: Generally in practice, we put z1 for the inner
function. most function which is simply an identity function x
There are two methods of substitution for finding or a simple function of x, say f (x) having the standard
the derivatives of composition of a finite number of form xn, sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x, sin–1
differentiable functions. x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x, sec–1 x, cosec–1 x, log x, ex
Method 1: The first method of substitution for finding etc. starting from the right hand side which means we
the derivatives of composition of a finite number of may start introducing a new variable from the right
differentiable functions consists of the following hand side whenever a new function occurs linked in a
steps. chain unless we get the first function in the left hand
Step 1: Start from the left hand side introducing a side.
new variable whenever a new function occurs untill
we get a simple function of x (or, simply an identity Explanation
function x) whose derivatives can be found by using (A) If the given function y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x), then
the rules for the differential coefficient of power, z1 = f (x)
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, z2 = fn (z1)
exponential, sum, difference, product or quotient of z3 = fn – 1 (z2)
two (or, more than two) differentiable functions of x; …
i.e.; …
Separate the first function and put the rest function zn = f2 (zn – 1)
= z1 y = f1 (zn) = given function
Separate the second function and put the rest dy dy dzn dzn − 1 dz2 dz1
function = z2 = ⋅ ⋅ ... ⋅ , provided
dx dzn dzn − 1 dzn − 2 dz1 dx
…
… we start making substitutions from right hand side.
We continue the process of separating the function (B): If the given function y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x), then
and putting the rest = a new variable unless we get a z1 = f2 (z2) = f2 f3 f4 … fn f (x)
simple function of x having the standard form which z2 = f3 (z3) = f3 f4 … fn f (x)
can be differentiated by using the rules for the z3 = f4 (z4) = f4 … fn f (x)
derivatives of power, trigonometric, inverse …
trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, sum, …
difference, product or quotient of two (or, more than zn – 2 = fn – 1 (zn – 1)
two) differentiable functions of x. zn – 1 = fn (zn)
Step 2: Differentiate separately each function zn = f (x)
supposed as z1, z, z3, …, z n with respect to the
dy dy dz1 dzn −1 dzn
independent variable x of the given function and = ⋅ ... ⋅ , provided we start
multiply all these derivatives thus obtained to have dx dz1 dz2 dzn dx
dy dy dz2 dzn −1 dzn making substitutions from left hand side.
= ⋅ ... ⋅
dx dz1 dz3 dzn dx
392 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Remember: f1
af
B
 → f1 f 2 ... f n f x
1. Total number of function in y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x)
b g
= n + 1 n ∈ N , including f whereas total number of = a yf
substitutions made = n.
2. Total number of the derivatives of all the
Solved Examples
constituent differentiable functions f1, f2, f3 ,…, fn and
a
f = n + 1 n ∈n.f 1. Let y = [sin (log x)]2
Here, starting from x and reaching y in successive
3. We make no substitution for the given function
steps can be explained in the following way.
y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x), since it is already given equal to y.
4. We must make a substitution for the expression take log
x 
take sin
→ log x  
square
→ sin log x  → sin log a f 2

(or, the function) in x under the radical whenever we B B B B

have an expression in x .
= x af a f
= z1 = z2a f = a yf

5. The reader should mind that the method of Remark: We put the variables for the function of x
substitution becomes lengthy when the chain of the as last one = given composite differentiable function
intermediate variable is more than one. This is why = y before y = z2
the reader is advised to derive the differential before sin log x = z1
coefficient of the composition of a finite number of before log x = x
differentiable functions without making substitutions and in this way we reach x. Further we should note
since method of substitution is easy to handle only that total number of functions = 3, (log, sin, (…)2)
in elementary cases. whereas the substitution made = 2 in number.
Method 2: To make the substitution z1, z2, …, zn etc e −1
sin tan 2 x j
while finding the derivative of composite of a finite 2. Let y = e
number of differentiable functions, we may adopt the Here, again starting from x and reaching y in
following procedure also. successive steps can be explained as below

a2 xf
Step 1: Start with a function of x (or, simply x) which −1
−1
x ⋅ doulble take tan take sin

B B B
can be differentiated by using the rules for the → 2 x  → tan   →

differential coefficient of power, trigonometric, inverse

trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, sum, a f = az f
= x 1 = az f 2
difference, product or quotient of two (or, more than
sin e tan 2 x j
−1 take exponential
  → e
sin tan
−1
a2 xf
two) differentiable functions.
B B
= az f af
Step 2: Seek the way how to reach y = f1 f2 … fn f (x)
= the whole given function from x (or, the power, 3 = y
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, Remember: In each successive step while finding
exponential, sum, difference, product or quotient of the derivative of a differentiable function of a
two (or, more than two) two differentiable function differentiable function … of a differentiable function
(or, functions) of x. of x, we differentiate each constituent differentiable
Step 3: Name each of these steps as the variable z1, function regarding the rest as an inner differentiable
z2, z3 …, zn etc. and differentiate these all with respect function using the rule of composite of two
to x. differentiable functions; i.e.,

a fg = d df f fa xafxf ⋅ d fdxa xf ⋅ dxdx

Explanation:

af
x ⋅ → f x
f fn

→ f n af
f x
f n −1
  → af
f n − 1 f n x → ...
d
b
fm fn x m n n

B B B B
dx n

= a xf = a z f1 = az f2 a f
= z3
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 393

On method for the derivative of composition of a finite

F operand = the rest I
number of differentiable functions without making
any substitution
GG function up to x JJ
f G without any change J ... f ′ blast operand g ⋅
′
To find the derivative of the composition of a finite 3
GG excepting f , f andJJ n

number of differentiable functions namely f1, f2, f3, …,

fn represented as y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x), we have a rule
GH f
3
1 2
JK
known as the chain rule for the derivative of composite
(or, composition) of (n + 1) number of differentiable
functions.
blast operand g ′ .
Rule: The derivative of a differentiable function f1 of ′
Where f n (last operand) means the derivative of
a differentiable function f 2 … of a differentiable
the last function fn whose last operand is simply an
function f n of a differentiable function f of the
identity function x or a simple function of x being
independent variable x
differentiable whose derivative can be found by using
LMoperand = all the remaining successiveOP the rule for the derivatives of sum, difference, product

= ∏ f ′ M the preceeding differentiable PP

n differentiable functions excepting or quotient of two or more than two differentiable
MMfunction aor, functionsf which
i

PQ
functions.

Nhas a havef been differentiated.

i =1 Notes: 1. If the last operand = identity function = x,

= f ′ b f f ... f f a x fg ⋅ f ′ b f f ... f f a x fg ⋅
1 2 3 n 2 3 4 n
then
dx
dx
af′
= x = 1 which is generally ignored while

f ′ b f f ... f f a x fg ⋅ f ′ b f f ... f f a x fg ...

finding the derivative.
3 4 5 n 4 5 6 n

f ′ b f a x fg ⋅ f ′ a x f
n 2.
The above working rule may be expressed in the
following way.
1. Start from left to find the derivative of each
successive (following in order/coming one after
another) functions coming near and near to x with
respect to the remaining all other function (or,
d
may be thought as an operator which changes
dx
the form of only that function (or, operator like sin,
cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1,
sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, etc) before which it is put
excepting the exponential operator ‘e’ which does
not change its form before and after the differentiation.
e.g.,

e j af
functions) (excepting the differentiated function or d 1 ′
functions) till we arrive at x or an expression in x 1. ⋅⋅ = ⋅ ⋅⋅
being power, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
dx 2 ⋅⋅
logarithmic, exponential, sum, difference, product or
quotient of two (or, more than two) differentiable
2.
dx
d
a n
f af af
⋅⋅ = n ⋅⋅
n −1
⋅ ⋅⋅
′

function (or, functions).

2. Find the product by multiplying all the results being
3.
dx
d
b a fg a f a f
sin ⋅ ⋅ = cos ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
′

b a fg afaf
the derivative of each constituent differentiable d ′
function. We may express in words the facts in (1) 4. cos ⋅ ⋅ = − sin ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
and (2) in the following way. dx

F operand = the restI F operand = the restI 5.

d
b a fg afaf
2
tan ⋅ ⋅ = sec ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
′

GG function upto x JJ GG function up to x JJ

dx

f G without any ⋅ f ′ G without any

d
b a fg afaf 2
cot ⋅ ⋅ = − cosec ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
′

GG change exceptingJJ GG change exceptingJJJ

J
′ 6.
1 2 ⋅ dx

GH f JK GH f and f JK 7.
dx
d
b a fg a f a f a f ′
sec ⋅ ⋅ = sec ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ tan ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ '
1 1 2
394 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

8.
d
dx
b a fg af ′
cosec ⋅ ⋅ = − cosec ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ cot ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
′
af af (ii) y = f 1 f2 f3 ... f x af
d
e −1
a fj
sin ⋅ ⋅ =
1
⋅ ⋅⋅
′
af af
af (iii) y = f1 + f2 + f 3 + ... fn + x
9.
dx 1− ⋅⋅
2

d
e − 1
cos ⋅ ⋅ = a fj −1
⋅ ⋅⋅
′
af (iv) y = ... f x af
af
10.
dx
af af af af
2
1− ⋅⋅
(v) (a) y = f 1 x ⋅ f 2 x ± g1 x ⋅ g2 x
d −1
e
tan ⋅ ⋅ = a fj 1
⋅ ⋅⋅af ′
g a xf
af y = f a xf ⋅ f a xf ±
11.
g a xf
dx 1+ ⋅⋅
2
(b) 1
1 2

e a fj a f
2
−1 ′
y = f a xf ± g a xf ⋅ g a xf
d −1
cot ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅⋅
12.
dx 1+ ⋅⋅ af 2 (c) 1 1 2

g a xf
d
e
−1
sec ⋅ ⋅ = a fj 1
⋅ ⋅⋅a f′ y = f a xf ±
g a xf
1

a⋅ ⋅f
13. (d) 1
dx ⋅⋅⋅
2
−1 2

(e) y = f a xf ± f a xf
a fj a f′
1 2
d
e
−1
cosec ⋅ ⋅ =
−1
⋅ ⋅⋅
a⋅ ⋅f
14. Now we consider each one by one
dx ⋅⋅
2
−1
Form: (i) → y = f1 f2 f3 …fn f (x)
15.
d
dx
blog a⋅ ⋅ ⋅fg = a⋅1⋅f ⋅ a⋅ ⋅f′ (ii) → y = (f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x))n
whenever we are given the problems in the above

FH IK
16. d e a⋅ ⋅f = e a⋅ ⋅f ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ′
af
forms, we find their derivatives using the following
working rule.
dx Working rule: To find the derivative of differentiable
where dots within circular brackets/absolute value
function having the form (1), we use directly the rule
sign denote the operand being the same in the l.h.s
for the derivative of the composition of a finite number
and r.h.s. Further, we should note that it is only the
of differentiable functions and the derivative of a
operator ‘e’ which remains unaltered before and after
differentiable function having the form (2) is found
the differentiation.
using the following rule:
Remember: The above explanation throws light
upon the fact that only function (or, operator) is (a) Use the formula: F x b a fg
n ′
=n⋅ F x
n −1
⋅ b a fg
af
differentiated successively till we get x when the given
function is y = f1 f2 … fn f (x), where each constituent F ′ x where F (x) = f1 f2 … fn f (x).
function f1, f2, …, fn or f being differentiable represents
sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1,
af
(b) Find the derivative F ′ x using the rule for the
derivative of the composition of a finite number of a
sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, ( )n, n , | |, etc.
differentiable functions.
Problems on the composition of a finite number of
Do not forget
differentiable functions af
b a fg ⇒ x → f a x f → b f a x fg → f b f a x fg
n
f f1
n n n
Different types of problems in the composition of a 1. f 1 f x 1
af
2. b f b f a xfgg ⇒ x → f axf → f b f a xfg → b f b f a xfgg
n
finite number of differentiable functions may be n f f1
n
guided only by the problems appearing in different 1 1 1
forms which are where f (x) = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x)/sum/difference/
(i) y = f1 f2 f3 …fn f (x) or, y = (f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x))n product or quotient of two or more than two
differentiable functions.
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 395

Solved Examples cos x

= ; sin x > 0
Without substitution 4 x sin x
Find the differential coefficients of the following.
2
1. y = tan 2 x 4. y = tan 1 + x + x
2
Solution: y = tan 2 x , defined for tan 2x > 0 Solution: y = tan 1 + x + x

dy d tan 2 x dy d FG d 1+ x + x IJ 2
⇒ =
H K e
2
⇒ = tan 1 + x + x ⋅ ⋅
dx
d
dx
a
tan 2 x d tan 2 x d 2 x f a f
dx dx d 1+ x + x
2
j
=
d a tan 2 x
2
⋅
fd 2x
⋅
dx a f e
d 1+ x + x
2
j
sec 2 x
= dx
tan 2 x
1 =
a1 + 2 xf sec 2
1+ x + x
2

Remember: changes into , tan 2x changes 2

2 2 1+ x + x
into sec2 2x, 2x changes into 2 while differentiating.
2 Note: That f1 = tan, f 2 =
2. y =
af
sin x
2
f3 x = 1 + x + x

af
2
Solution: y = sin x 2
f 1 f 2 f 3 x = tan 1 + x + x
2
dy d sin x
⇒ = Remember: tan changes into sec2
dx dx

d sin x
2
e
d sin x
2
j ⋅ d ex j
2
changes into
2
1
e
, 1+ x + x 2 j
= ⋅
e
d sin x
2
j d x e j
2 dx
changes into 1 + 2 x a f
2
=
x cos x
2
; sin x2 > 0 5. y = a
tan tan x f
a f
sin x
Solution: y = tan tan x
Remember: sin changes into cos, while
differentiating.
⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
ea fj tan tan x
3. y = sin
d tan a tan x f d tan a tan x f d tan x
x

d tan a tan x f
= ⋅ ⋅
Solution: y = sin x d tan x dx

sec x ⋅ sec a tan x f

dy d 2 2
⇒ = sin x
=
2 tan a tan x f
dx dx ; tan (tan x) > 0

=
d sin x
⋅
e
d sin x j⋅d x
e
d sin x j d e xj dx
396 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Note: That f 1 = = af 1
2 ,
8. y = sec
−1
x
2

f2 = tan, f3 = tan, f4 = x,
a f
−1 2
Solution: y = sec x
FG IJ
f1 f2 f3 f4 = tan tan x
dy d −1 2
6. y = cos–1 (tan x2)
⇒ =
dx dx
sec x
H K
Solution: y = cos–1 (tan x2)
FG −1 IJ d esec j ⋅ dx
d FH cos etan x jIK H K⋅
2 −1 2
−1 2 d sec x x 2
dy =
⇒ =
dx dx d sece −1
x
2
j dx
2
dx

FH
d cos etan x jIK ⋅ d etan x j ⋅ d e x j
−1 2 2 2
1 1
=
d e tan x j d ex j
=
F
2G
IJ ⋅ F x I ⋅ 2x
GH e j
−1
H K − 1J
2 2 2 2 2
dx sec x 2
x
K
−1
= ⋅ sec 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x x
1 − tan x =
FG sec IJ FG IJ
2 2
−1
H KH K
2 2 4
Note: f1 = cos–1 x x x −1
−2 x sec x 2 2
=
FH3 x IK
, f2 = tan
1 − tan 2 x 2 f3 = ( )2 2
= x
2
=x
2

f3 (x) = (x)2
tan x 2 < 1 . f1 f2 f3 (x) = cos–1 tan x2
1
=
FG −1 IJ FG IJ , | x | > 1
H KH K
2 2
7. y = tan–1 (a · ex · x2) x sec x x −1
Solution: y = tan–1 (a · ex · x2)

dy
FH
d tan
−1
ea ⋅ e x
⋅x
2
jIK
Form 2:

⇒
dx
=
dx f1 f2 f 3 ... f x af
FH
d tan
−1
ea ⋅ e x
⋅x
2
jIK ⋅ d ea ⋅ e x
⋅x
2
j i.e. the form of the composite function being
= differentiable obtained by the operation of applying
e
d a⋅e ⋅x
x 2
j dx a differentiable function (sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec,
sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, | |, etc.)

=
e x
a e ⋅ x + 2x ⋅ e
2 x
j and the operation of taking the square root is
successively performed more than once upon a

e
1+ a ⋅e ⋅ x j x 2 2 differentiable function of x.
Working rules: 1. Method of substitution:
a e ⋅ e2 x + x j af
x 2
(a) Put z = f x which may be regarded as the
=
1 + ea ⋅ e ⋅ x j
x 2 2 inner most function

Note: Here, f1 = tan–1,

(b) Use e z j′ = 2 1 z ⋅ azf′ ⋅ dxdz
f2 (x) = a · ex · x2 (c) Lastly express z in terms of x.
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 397

2. Method of making no substitution:

FG sin 1 + x IJ d F sin 1+ x I d F IK
H K⋅ H K⋅ H
The above type of problems may be differentiated by 2
d 2
1+ x 2

F I F I
using directly the formula for the derivative of a finite = ⋅
number of differentiable functions regarding firstly
as f1 and secondly f2 as any function being
H
d sin 1 + x
K d H 1+ x K
2 2 dx

e j
differentiable like trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
power, logarithm i.e., mod or exponential in every d 1+ x 2
successive step i.e. we have to use the formula: dx

f 1 f 2 f 3 ... f n f x a f′ 1 FG IJ ⋅ 1
a f
H K2
2
= ⋅ cos 1+ x ⋅ 2x
b f a x fg ⋅ f ′ b f a fg
2
1+ x
= f 1′ f 2 f 3 ... f n
2
f 4 ... f n f x ... 2 sin 1 + x
2 3

f ′ b f a x fg ⋅ f ′ a x f ,
FG IJ
H K
2
regarding each successive x cos 1+ x
n

differentiable function as and trigonometric,

=
F2 I FG IJ
inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, mod or exponential GH sin 1 + x
2
JK H 1+ x
2
K
etc. in every step.

Solved Examples 2. y = cos sin x

Find the differential coefficient of the following. Solution: y = cos sin x

1. y = sin 1 + x
2
dy
FH
d cos sin x IK
=
Method 1:
d F cos sin x I d F sin x I d esin x j
dx dx

Solution: y = sin 1 + x
2
H K⋅ H K⋅
d F sin x I
= ⋅
d esin x j de xj
Putting z = 1 + x ,
2 H K
dy d d e xj
⇒ = sin z
dx dx dx
dy 1 d sin z dz 1 1
⇒ = ⋅ ⋅ = − sin sin x ⋅ ⋅ cos x ⋅
dx 2 sin z dx dx 2 sin x 2 x

FH −sin IK e j
1 2x
= ⋅ cos z ⋅
2
2 1+ x
2 sin x ⋅ cos x
2 sin 1 + x
4F x I ⋅ e xj
= , sin x >0

cos FH 1 + x2 IK H sin
K
; sin e1 + x j > 0
x
= ⋅ 2

2 sin 1 + x 2 1 + x2 3. y = sin x

Method 2: Solution: y = sin x

af F I
d
dx
y =
d
dy GH sin 1 + x
2
JK
398 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d FH sin x IK b g
sec 2 1 + x + x 2 ⋅ 2 x + 1
2 H 1 + x + x IK
F
⇒
dy
= =
dx dx 2

d FH sin x IK d esin x j d e x j
=
d sine xj
⋅
d e xj
⋅
dx sec 2 FH 1 + x + x IK 2 x + 1
2

= ⋅
1 + x + x2 2
=
2 FH
1
IK ⋅ cos e j
x ⋅
1
2 x
sin x Form 3:

cos e x j , sin af af
f 1 x + f 2 x + ... f n x + af af
f x
=
4 FH sin x I ⋅ e xj
K
x >0
where each function of x is either a constant or a
differentiable function of x excepting the inner most
differentiable function of x which can never be a
4. y = sin cos x constant; the form of the composite function obtained
by performing the operation of taking square root
Solution: y = sin cos x and addition of a differentiable function of x or a

⇒
e
dy d sin cos x
=
j constant successively more than once upon a
differentiable function of the independent variable x
dx dx which can be expressed in the arrow diagram as
e
d sin cos x j ⋅ de cos x j ⋅ d bcos xg af f a xf
+ fn x af a xf + f a x f
=
b g
f x 
→   → f n 
→
d e cos x j d cos x dx
af
fn a xf + f a xf + fn −1 x
  → ...

= cos cos x ⋅
1
2 cos x
b
⋅ − sin x g The method of finding the derivative of the
composite differentiable function of the above form
is explained by the examples done below using the
method of substitution.
–sin x ⋅ cos cos x
= , for cos x > 0 Solved Examples
2 cos x
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
2
5. y = tan 1 + x + x 2
1. y = a+ a+ a+ x
2
Solution: y = tan 1 + x + x
dy d FG IJ Solution: y = a+ a+ a+ x
2

H K
2
⇒ = tan 1 + x + x
dx dx
FG IJ d FG
IJ d 1+ x + x 2
Putting a + x = u , we have y = a+ a+u
H K⋅ eK⋅ H j
2 2
d tan 1+ x + x 1+ x + x 2
and
=
F I d e1+ x + x j dx
d G 1+ x + x J
2
FG IJ
H K
2 du d
H K
2
= a+x
dx dx
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 399

FG IJ d ea + x j
H K⋅
2
a+ x 2 x
F I ⋅F
d =
=
GH JK GH IJ F IK
e
d a+ x
2
j dx 4 a + a + a + x2
KH
a + a + x2 ⋅ a + x2

=
x
FG3 u = IJ
H K
2
2 ...(1) a+x
a+x
Note: The above procedure of finding the derivative
3y = a+ a+u of the composite differentiable function having the
form mentioned above is fruitful only when f1 (x), f2
Again putting a + u = v, we have
(x), …, fn (x) are all constants excepting the inner most
y = a + v and differentiable function ‘f ’ of x but when f1 (x), f2 (x),
…, fn (x) are all constants besides the inner most
dv d
=
e a+u j differentiable function ‘f ’ of x, we directly use the
chain rule for the derivative without making any
du du
substitution.
d e a+u j ⋅ d aa + u f Form 4:
=
d a+ua f du
... f x af
1
= ...(2) i.e. the form of the composition of a finite number of
2 a+u differentiable functions obtained by performing the
3y = a + v operation of taking the square root more than once
upon a differentiable function of the independent
Lastly, putting a + v = w , we have variable x which can be expressed in the arrow diagram

dw
=
1
⋅
d a+v a f as x → f x
f
af 
→ f xaf 
→ af
f x 
→

dv 2 a+v dv
1 ...  
→ af
... f x . The method of finding the
= ...(3)
2 a+v derivative of the composite differentiable function
having the above form is explained by the examples
∴
dy
dx
= 1 × 2 × 3 =af a f af
dw dv du
⋅
dv du dx
⋅ done below using the method of substitution.

1 1 x Solved Examples
= ⋅ ⋅
2 a+v 2 a+u a+ x
2
Find the differential coefficient of the following.

1 1 x 1. y = x+1
=
FH 2 IK F 2 ⋅
I FG
⋅
IJ
a + a +u
GH JK H K
2
a+ a+x
2
a+x Solution: y = x+1

e3 v = a + uj
Putting x + 1 = z , we have y = z and

x dz d e x +1 j
=
FH F
a + u IK ⋅ G
I ⋅ FG IJ =
4 a+
H a+ a+x
2
JK H a+x
2
K
dx dx
400 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d e x +1 j ⋅ d a x + 1f differentiable functions of x’s for finding

du dv
, and
=
d x +1 a f dx
dw
dx dx

.
dy 1 dz dx
= ⋅
dz 2 z dx Note: The given problem may be the combination
(sum, difference, product and/quotient) of composite
1 1
= ⋅ differentiable functions of x’s or it may be the
2 z 2 x +1 combination of a differentiable x and a differentiable
function of a differentiable function of x.
1 1
2 FH x + 1 IK 2 e
= ⋅
x +1 j Solved Examples
Find the differential coefficient of the following
1 FG cot x + 1 − x IJ
4F x + 1 I ⋅ e x + 1j
= , x > −1
H x K
2
1. y =
H K
Form 5: (a) y = f a x f ⋅ f a x f ± g a x f ⋅ g a x f Solution: y = GH
F cot x + 1 − x IJ
K
2
1 2 1 2

g a xf
x
(b) y = f a x f ⋅ f a x f ±
g a xf
1
cot x
Putting u =
1 2 2
2 and v = 1 − x , we have y
x
(c) y = f a x f ± g a x f ⋅ g a x f dy du dv
1 1 2
= u + v and = + which means we have to
g a xf
dx dx dx
(d) y = f a x f ±
g a xf
1
1 du dv
2 find and separately and then their sum is to
dx dx
(e) y = f a x f ± f a x f
1 2
be found out.
where anyone or all of f1 (x), f2 (x) , g1 (x) and /g2 (x)
may be a differentiable function of a differentiable Now,
e 2
du − x cosec x + cot x
=
j …(i)
function of the independent variable x. 2
dx x
Working rule: The working rule consists of following
and dv = −2 x …(ii)
steps.
Step 1: Put each addend, subtrahend and minuend dx 2 1 − x 2
equal to u, v and w respectively and then y becomes
equal to u ± v ± w ; i.e. y = u ± v ± w . ∴
dy du dv
= + = 1 + 2 af a f
d F I dx dx dx
Step 2: Take the differential operator
dx
on both
H K e
− x cosec 2 x + cot x j− x
sides of the equation defining y as a function of the = 2
,0 < x <1
independent variable x. i.e.,
x 1 − x2

dy
=
dx dx
d
a
u±v±w =
du dv dw
±
dx dx
±f dx
2. y =
tan x
x
+ x 1− x
2

Step 3: Use the rules for the derivative of the product,

tan x 2
quotient and/composite of two or more than two Solution: y = + x 1− x
x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 401

2
tan x = 2 x cos 4 x − 4 x sin 4 x ...(ii)
Putting u = and v = x 1 − x 2 , we have
x
dy du dv
= +
3
dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx
= 1 + 2 af a f
y = u + v and
dx dx dx
− x cos 1 − x 2
du x sec x − tan x
2 = + 2 x cos 4 x − 4 x 2 sin 4 x , x < 1
Now, = 2 …(i) 1− x 2
dx
FG IJ
x

LM 1 − x e j
j ⋅ a−2 xfOPQ H K
2 3 2
4. y = cos ax + bx + c + sin ax + bx + c
e
dv 2 x 2 − 21
= + 1− x
and
dx N 2
FG IJ
LM 2 OP Solution: y = cos ax + bx + c + sin e 2
j 3
H
2
ax + bx + c
K
x
MN PQ
2
= 1− x − Putting cos (ax 2 + bx + c) = u and
2
1− x
FG sin IJ 3

H K
2

F 1 − 2x I ax + bx + c = v, we have y = u + v and

=G JJ
2

GH 1 − x 2
K ...(ii) dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx

∴
dy du dv
= + = 1 + 2 af a f du d cos ax + bx + c d ax + bx + c e 2
j e 2
j
dx dx dx = ⋅
F 1 − 2x I
Now,
dx 2
d ax + bx + c dx e j
x sec 2 x − tan x
−G JJ , 0 <
2
=
x 2 GH 1 − x 2
K
x <1 = –sin (ax2 + bx + c) · (2ax + b)
= – (2ax + b) sin (ax2 + bx + c) ...(i)
dv
3. y = sin 1 − x
2
+ x cos 4 x
2
and =
dx

Solution: y = sin 1 − x
2 2
+ x cos 4 x FH
d sin ax 2 + bx + c IK 3
FH
d sin ax 2 + bx + c IK
d FH sin + bx + c IK FH IK
2 2 ⋅ ⋅
Putting sin 1 − x = u and x cos 4 x = v , we
ax 2 d ax 2 + bx + c
dy du dv
= +
FG IJ
have y = u + v and
dx dx dx
H K
2
ax + bx + c
FH IK
d
Now,
du
dx
1
= cos 1 − x 2 ⋅ ⋅ 1 − x 2
2
e j ⋅ b−2 x g
− 12

dx

− x cos 1 − x
2 = 3 sin 2 ax 2 + bx + c ⋅ cos ax 2 + bx + c ⋅
=
a f
2 ...(i)
1− x 1
⋅ 2ax + b
2
2 ax + bx + c
and
dv
dx
2
= 2 x cos 4 x + x −sin 4 x ⋅ 4 a f
402 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f FGH
3 2ax + b ⋅ sin
2 2 IJ FG
KH
ax + bx + c ⋅ cos ax + bx + c
2 IJ
K
2
x +1 d x +1
FG
H
2 IJ
K
= ⇒
dy
=
de
⋅ ⋅
d 2
x +1 e j
2
2 ax +bx + c
dx 2
d x +1
2
d x +1 dx
e j
...(ii)
2
x +1 1
∴
dy
dx
af a f
= i + ii
=e ⋅
2 x +1
2
⋅ 2x

= – (2ax + b) sin (ax2 + bx + c) +

3 b2ax + bg F sin + bx + c I ⋅ F cos + bx + c I

x2 + 1
x⋅e
H 2
ax 2
KH ax 2
K, =
x2 + 1
2 ax + bx + c
2

for ax2 + bx + c > 0.

e x −x
2
j
2. y = e
Exponential Functions e x −x
2
j
Solution: y = e
We recall that exponential functions are differentiable
d e j
on any interval on which they are defined and their x −x
2
dy
derivatives are obtained by using the formula ⇒ = e
dx dx
d f axf f a xf

dx
e =e ⋅ f′ x af e x −x
2
j
af
where the derivative f ′ x is obtained by using the =
d e
⋅
d
e x −x
2
j
rule for differential coefficient or power, exponential,
d e x −x
2
j dx

logarithmic, inverse trigonometric, sum, difference,

product, quotient or composite of two or more than e 2
j F d x − dx I 2

GH dx dx JK
x −x
two differentiable functions. =e ⋅
Note: If f (x) = x = an identity function,
d x e x −x
2
j F 1 I
⋅G − 2 x J for x > 0.
x
e =e ⋅ =e
dx H2 x K
Solved Examples a cot x f 2

3. y = e
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
a cot x f 2
2
x +1 Solution: y = e
1. y = e
dy d a cot x f2
2
x +1
⇒ = e
Solution: y = e dx dx

dy d x +1
2
⇒
dy d e b g d cot x
=
cot x
⋅ ⋅
d cot x
2
b g 2

⇒ =
dx dx
e
dx d cot x 2 b g
d cot x dx

acot x f
e j
2
2
=e ⋅ 2 cot x ⋅ − cosec x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 403

= − 2 cot x ⋅ e b g
b a fg = ff ′aaxxff , f a xf > 0
2
cot x
⋅ cosec 2 x , x ≠ nπ d
log f x
dx
esin x j
−1 2
and if some differentiable function | f (x) |, provided
4. y = e
af
f x ≠ 0 at any point belonging to any interval on
which f (x) is defined is under the sign of logarithm,
esin x j −1 2

Solution: y = e its derivative found using the chain rule for the
derivative of the composite differentiable function is
d esin j
b a f g = ff ′aaxxff , f a xf ≠ 0 .
−1 2
dy x d
⇒ = e log f x
dx dx dx

dy d e
esin x j −1 2

d sin e −1
x j
2
−1
d sin x
Remember: 1. The derivative
d
dx
blog f a xfg for
⇒ = ⋅ ⋅
e j blog f a xf g for f a xf ≠ 0 is called
−1 2 −1
dx d sin x dx d
d sin x f (x) > 0 and/
dx
logarithmic derivative of the function f (x). Further we
e j b ′
a fg
−1 2

e j
sin x
−1 1 should note that either the derivative log f x
=e ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅
1− x
2
for f (x) > 0or the derivative log f x b ′
a fg
for
af
f x ≠ 0 is equal to the ratio of the derivative
2 sin −1
x⋅e
esin x j −1 2
af
f ′ x to the value of the function f (x); i.e. if y = f (x)
= , x <1 is a positive differentiable function of x and / y = f (x)
1 − x2 is a differentiable function of x such that f (x) may be
af
f′ x
Logarithmic Functions positive and negative both, then the ratio
af
f x
is

We recall that logarithmic functions are differentiable dy

on any interval on which they are defined and their obtained on finding the first derivative and then
dx
derivatives are dividing it by the given value of the differentiable

1.
d
dx
a f 1
log x = , x > 0
x
function represented at f (x).
2. If some differentiable function of x is under the
sign of logarithm, it is pre-assumed (or, understood)
2.
d
dx
b
log x g = 1x , x ≠ 0 that f (x) is positive (i.e. f (x) > 0 is pre-assumed or
understood) or we have to mention that f (x) > 0 while
f ′ a xf
finding the logarithmic derivative, i.e. to differentiable
b log f a x fg = , f a xf > 0
d
f a xf
3. the function of x that can be put in the form:
dx log f (x) = a logarithm of the function of the
f ′ a xf
independent variable x, it is pre-assumed (or,
blog f a x f g = , f a xf ≠ 0
d
f a xf
4. understood) that f (x) is a positive differentiable
dx function of x whenever no restriction (or, condition)
i.e. of some positive differentiable function of x, say f which makes f (x) positive is imposed on the
(x) is under the sign of logarithm, its derivative found independent variable x or we have to mention that
using the chain rule for the derivative of the composite f (x) > 0.
differentiable function is 3. Logarithm of a function of x (or, logarithmic
function of x) put in the form log f (x) is not defined
404 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

for f (x) < 0 at any point x belonging to any interval on On Language

which it is defined. This is why we take the modulus
1. It is common to say “the function f (x) and / the
of the value of the function f (x) if the value of the
value of the function f (x) for the function f at (or, of)
function concerned f (x) is negative at any point x
x, the value of the function f at (or, of) x and / the
while finding the logarithmic derivative of the
function of x namely (or, say) f (x)”.
af
differentiable function of x.
4. Sometimes we are given a differentiable function f′ x
of x under the sign of logarithm along with the interval Hence, we say
f x af
is the ratio of the derived
(or, the quadrant) in (or, on, or, over) which the value function f ′ at (or, of) x to the function f at x instead
of the differentiable function f (x) > 0 or the condition
f′ x af
imposed on the independent variable x (like x > a, x <
a, x ≥ a etc.) which makes f (x) positive is given.
of saying
f x afis the ratio of the derived function

Notes: 1. If the value of the function f (x) is both af

(or, derivative) f ′ x to the function (or, the value of
the function) f (x).
positive and negative in the interval (or, the quadrant)
2. Plural of “a function of x” is functions of x’s. This
in which it is defined, we take the modulus (or,
is why whenever we want to mention more than one
absolute value) of the value of the function f (x) only
function of x, we write (or, say) functions of (or, at )
when the function f concerned at x is to be positive as
x’s. however, if f1 (x) is a differentiable function of x
in case of logarithmic differentiation.
and f2 (x) is also a differentiable function of x, we
2. By using the rules for differentiating the power,
write f1 (x) and f2 (x) are differentiable functions of x’s.
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, sum, difference, product, quotient or Problems based on first type
composite of two or more than two differentiable
Form 1: Problems on the form
functions, we are able to find the differential coefficient
y = log f (x)
of the value of the differentiable function f (x) written
or, y = log log log …log f (x); f (x) > 0
under the sign of logarithm.
af
3. f x ≠ 0 ⇒ f x > 0 af Solved Examples
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
On Types of Problems
FG 1 + tan x IJ , 0 < x < π
In general there are two types of logarithmic functions
whose derivative is required to find out.
1. y = log
H 1 − tan x K 4
1. The value of a differentiable function f (x) written
Solution: y = log G
F 1 + tan x IJ
under the sign of logarithm with or without an interval
(or, quadrant) in which f (x) is positive. H 1 − tan x K
= log a1 + tan x f − log a1 − tan x f
2. A differentiable function | f (x) | written under the
sign of logarithm.
log a1 + tan x f − log a1 − tan x f
Further we should note that type (1) has the dy d d
following forms: ⇒ =
dx dx dx
(i) y = log f (x) and / y = log log … log f (x)
2 2
(ii) Power of logarithmic function, i.e. y = [log f (x)]n sec x sec x
and / y = [log log log … log f (x)]n = +
1 + tan x 1 − tan x
(iii) A logarithmic function with base other than ‘e’,
af
i.e. y = log φ a x f f x . 2 LM 1 − tan x + 1 + tan x OP
N a1 + tan xf a1 − tan xf Q
= sec
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 405

F 2 I dy d FG IJ
H K
2
⇒ = log x + x −1
2 GH cos x JK
2
dx dx

LM OP
2 sec x
=
1 − tan x
2
=
F cos x − sin x I
2 2 1 1 2
e
− 21
j
GH cos x JK 2
=
x+ x −1
2
⋅ 1+
N 2
x − 1 ⋅ 2x
Q
F I
=
2
=
2
=
1
GG1 + x JJ
−1 H x − 1K
2 2
cos x − sin x cos 2 x 2 2
x+ x
π
= 2 sec 2 x , 0 < x < F x − 1 + xI
GG JJ
2
4 1
=
FG 2 x − 6 IJ , 3 < x < 5 x+ x
2
−1 H x −1 K
2
2. y = log
H 5− x K
FH x +a I
K
F 2 x − 6 IJ = log b2 x − 6g − log b5 − xg 5. y = log x +
2 2

Solution: y = log G
H 5− x K FG IJ
H K
2 2
Solution: y = log x + x +a
log a 2 x − 6f − log a5 − x f
dy d d
⇒ =
dx dx dx
⇒
dy
=
1
⋅ 1+
LM 1 2
e
x +a
2
j
− 12
⋅ 2x
OP
=
2
−
−1
=
1
−
1
2x − 6 5 − x x − 3 x − 5
dx
x+ x +a
2 2
N 2 Q
−2 LM OP
=
a x−3 x−5 fa f =
1
2 2 MN
⋅ 1+
2x
2 2 PQ
x+ x +a 2 x +a
π
3. y = log cos x , 0 < x <
L OP
⋅M
2 2 2
1 x +a + x
Solution: y = log cos x =
x+
2
x +a
2 MN 2
x +a
2 PQ
dy d
⇒ = log cos x
dx dx 1
=
=
1
cos x
a
⋅ −sin x f 2
x +a
2

6. y = log [log (cot x)]

= – tan x Solution: y = log [log (cot x)]
FG IJ e j
H K
2 dy 1 1
4. y = log x + x −1 ,x >1 ⇒ = ⋅
2
⋅ −cosec x
dx log cot x cot x
FG IJ
H K
2
Solution: y = log x + x −1
a f
2
− cosec x
= ; cot x > 1
cot x ⋅ log cot x
406 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3 cot x > 1 ⇒ log cot x > 0 Solved Examples

⇒ log log cot x is defined Find the differential coefficient of the following.
1. y = (log x)3; x > 0
7. y = log [log (log x)]
Solution: y = (log x)3
Solution: y = log [log (log x)]

⇒
dy ⇒
dy
=
d
log x a f 3
=
a f
d log x
⋅
3
d log x
dx dx dx d log x dx

a f
d log log log x d log log x d log x
a f 1 3 log x a f 2

d log a log x f
= ⋅ ⋅ dy
⇒ = 3 log x ⋅ =
2
d log x dx dx x x
1 1 1 2
=
a f
⋅ ⋅ 3 log x
log log x log x x = .
x
1 1 1 2. y = [log (cos x)]4
= ⋅ ⋅ ;
a f
x log x log log x for x > 0 i.e. when y is
Solution: y = [log (cos x)]4

defined. ⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
a f
log cos x
4

8. y = log log log log log x5

d log acos x f d log a cos x f d cos x
Solution: y = log log log log log x5 4

d log acos x f
5 = ⋅ ⋅
dy d log log log log log x d cos x dx
⇒ =
dx dx
= 4 log a cos x f ⋅ ⋅ a − sin x f
1 3
5
d log log log log log x cos x
= ×
d log log log log x 5
= − 4 log cos x a f 3
⋅
sin x
cos x
d log log log log x 5 d log log log x 5
× ×
d log log log x 5
d log log x 5 3
a f
= − 4 log cos x ⋅ tan x ; where cos x > 0.

e π
j π 2
d log log x 5 d log x 5 d x5 3. y = log cos x
3
< x< ,−
× × 2 2
d log x 5 d x5 dx
Solution: y = [log (cos3 x)]2
4
5x
=
e j
dy d 2
5
e 5
je
x loglogloglog x ⋅ logloglog x ⋅ loglog x ⋅log x
5
je 5
j ⇒ =
dx dx
log cos3 x

e j e j ⋅ d cos
5 2
= d log cos3 x d log cos3 x 3

e je je j
x d cos x
5
x loglogloglog x ⋅ logloglog x ⋅ loglog x ⋅ log x
5 5 = ⋅ ⋅
d log ecos x j
3 3
d cos x cos x dx
for all those values of x at which y is defined.
Form 2: Problems on the form
y = [log f (x)]n
e
= 2 log cos3 x ⋅ j 3 cos2 x 2
cos3 x
b
⋅ −sin x g
or, y = [log log log … log f (x)]n
e
= − 6log cos3 x ⋅ j sin x
cos x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 407

e j FG π π IJ 2. y = log log | x |, | x | > 1

= − 6 log cos 3 x ⋅ tan x ; −
H 2
<x<
2 K Solution: y = log log | x |
Remember:
f (x) · f (x) · f (x) … up to n times = [f (x)]n = f n (x).
⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
log log x b g
Problems on Second Type 1 1 1
= ⋅ =
Form 1: Problems on the form log x x x log x
y = log | f (x) | and y = log log log … log | f (x) |; 3. y = log | (x3 + 1) |
bg
f x ≠0 Solution: y = log | (x3 + 1 ) |

Solved Examples
⇒
dy
=
d 3
log x + 1 FH IK
dx dx
Find the differential coefficient of the following
1 3x 2
= ⋅ 3x 2 = for x ≠ − 1
1. y = log
a + b tan x
; tan x ≠
a ex 3
+1 j ex 3
+1 j
a − b tan x b
4. y = log | tan (1 – x2) |, | x | < 1
a + b tan x Solution: y = log | tan (1 – x2) |
Solution: y = log
a − b tan x ⇒
dy
=
d FH
log tan 1 − x
2
e j IK
dy d FGa + b tan x IJ dx dx
⇒ =
dx dx
log
Ha − b tan x K =
1 2
⋅ sec 1 − x e 2
j ⋅ a −2 x f
aa − b tan xf ⋅ tan 1 − xe 2
j
=
aa + b tan xf −2 x sec 2 1 − x 2 e j
aa − b tan xf eb sec xj − aa + b tan xf e−b sec xj
2 2 =
e j
tan 1 − x 2
aa − b tan xf 2

= 2 x sec e x − 1j cosec e x − 1j
aa − b tan xf ⋅ 2 2

=
aa + b tan xf 5. y = log | sin x|, x ≠ a multiple of π
Solution: y = log | sin x |, x ≠ n π , n ∈ Z
aa − b tan xf eb sec xj + aa + b tan xf eb sec xj
2 2

aa − b tan xf 2 ⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
log sin x b g
aa − b tan xf ⋅ b sec x aa − b tan x + a + b tan xf
2
=
1
⋅ cos x
=
aa + b tan xf aa − b tan xf 2 sin x

cos x
2 a b sec x
2 = = cot x , x ≠ n π , n ∈ Z
=
a fa f
sin x
a + b tan x a − b tan x
Form 3: Problems on the form:

= 2 2
2
2 a b sec x
2
y = log φ a x f f x af
a − b tan x
408 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Working rule: To differentiate a logarithm of function

of x whose base is another function of x, we adopt ⇒ y=
a
log 1 + x f
the following working rule. log x

log e f x log f x af af log x log x + 1 a f

Step 1: Write y =
log e φ x
=
log φ x af af dy x+1
−
x
⇒ =
log f x af dx alog xf 2

Step 2: Differentiate y =
log φ x
w.r.t. x by using
af L log x − log a x + 1f OP
⋅M
1
=
the rule for differentiating the quotient of two
differentiable functions. alog xf N x + 1 2
x Q
D N ′ − N D′
i.e. y ′ = 2 Exercise Set on
D
Composition of two differentiable functions
log e a log a Form: y = (any differentiable function of x)n
Remember: log b a = =
log e b log b or, y = f1 f2 (x)

Solved Examples Exercise 9.1.1

Find the differential coefficient of the following.

dy
1. y = log sin x b g
1 + tan x ; 0 < x <
π
2
Find
dx
of each of the following functions.

1. y = (3x + 1)4
Solution: y = log sin x 1 + tan x a f 2. y = (7x2 + x)2

⇒ y=
a
log 1 + tan x f 3. y = 1 − x
2

log sin x
dy 4. y = x 2 + ax + 1 ; a 2 < 4
⇒
dx 5. y = (x3 + 1)5

log sin x ⋅
d
dx
a f d
a
log 1+ tan x − log 1 + tan x ⋅ log sin x
dx
f e 2
6. y = 7 x + 11x + 39 j
3
2

=
a
log sin x
2
f
7. y = a − bx
F 1 IJ ⋅sec x −loga1+ tan xf⋅ 1 ⋅a−cosxf
logsin x G
H1+ tan xK
2
1
8. y =
=
sin x
2
log sin x
a p − qxf 3
4

2
sec x ⋅ log sin x cos x ⋅ log 1 + tan x a f 9. y =
bl − mxg
1
, n ∈Z
a f
n
+
1 + tan x sin x
= 2 10. y = (3x – 7)12
log sin x 11. y = (5x5 – 3x)24
2. y = logx (1 + x), x > 0 , ≠ 1 12. y = (4x + 3)–5
Solution: y = logx (1 + x) 13. y = (3x2 + 2x + 1)8
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 409

F 1 I 2
e j
3

H K
2 2
14. y = x + 15. 15 x 3 x + 4
x
3x
e j
5
2 2
16.
15. y = 3 x + 4 2
3x + 5
2 17. –6 (1 – x)5
16. y = 3x + 5
17. y = (1 – x)6 FG 10 7 IJ
1 H
− 4x2 +
3
x−
3 K
18. y =
3 4 x + 5x 2 − 7 x + 6
3
;x>0 18.
2 FH 4 x 3 + 5x 2 − 7 x + 6 IK 3

19. y = bx + 1gbx + 2gbx + 3g ; x > − 1 2

3x + 12 x + 11
Answers
1. 12 (3x + 1)3
19.
2 a x + 1fa x + 2fa x + 3f
2. 2 (7x2 + x) 14 + 1
Exercise 9.1.2
−2 x
3. ; x <1
2 1 − x2
dy
a2 x + a f
Find of each of the following.
dx
4. 1. y = sin x3
2
2 x + ax + 1 2. y = tan x2
3. y = sin (cot x)
5. 5 (x3 + 1)4 · 3x2 4. y= sin (sec x)

e j ⋅ a14 x + 11f
3 2
1
2 5. y = sin 5x
6. 7 x + 11x + 39 6. y= cos 2x
2
7. y = sin x2
−b a
7. ;x< 8. y = sin x
2 a − bx b
F 2I
8.
3
4
⋅ q ⋅ p − qxb g − 74
;x<
p
q
9. y = sin
H xK
10. y = cot 2x
m⋅n l 11. y = cot (1 – 2x2)
;x≠ if n > 0
b g
9. n +1 12. y = cos (1 – x2)
l − mx m
−1
10. 36 (3x – 7)11 13. y = sin x
11. 24 (10x – 3) (5x2 – 3x)23
−1
−4 14. y = cos x
12. –20 (4x + 3)–6, x ≠
3
−1
13. 16 (3x + 1) (3x2 + 2x + 1)7 15. y = tan x
14. (2x – 2x–3) x ≠ 0 FG 1 − x IJ , 0 ≤ x < 1
16. y = cosec
H1 + xK
410 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG 2 x + 7 IJ F 2 x + 7I , x ≠ 1
b1 − 2 xg GH 1 − 2 x JK 2
16
17. y = sin
H 1 − 2x K 17. 2
⋅ cos

y = sin G
F 1 IJ F 1 IJ , x > 0
18.
H xK 18. −
1
2x x
⋅ cos G
H xK
Answers
1. 3x2 cos x2
Exercise Set on
π
2. 2x sec2 x2, x ≠ nπ + , n ∈ Z
2
Composition of more than two differentiable functions
2 Form 1: y = f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x)
3. –cos cot x · cosec2 x, x ≠ nπ or, y = (f1 f2 f3 … fn f (x))n
π
4. cos (sec x) (sec x · tan x); x ≠ nπ + Exercise 9.2.1
2
5. 5 cos 5x
6. –2 sin 2x
7. 2x cos x2
1. y = cosec e 3x + 4 j
cos x 2. y = cot sin xe j
8. ,x>0
2 x 3. y = cot (tan x)
4. y = sin2 x2
F 2 cos 2 I 5. y = cos2 x2
G x JJ , x ≠ 0
−G
6. y = tan3 x2

GH x JK
9. 2 7. y = (log x2)2
−1 2
8. y = sec x
nπ
10. –2 cosec2 2x, x ≠ −1 2
2 9. y = cosec x
11. –4x cosec2 (1 – 2x2) −1 3
12. 2x sin (1 – x2) 10. y = sin x
11. y = (tan–1 x3)2
1 1 12. y = (sec–1 xm)n
13. ⋅ ,0< x <1
2 sin −1 x 1 − x2 13. y = (cos–1 xp)q

F −1 I e −1
j
1

⋅G J; x < 1
3 3
1 14. y = cot x
2 cos x GH 1 − x JK
14.
−1 2
−1
F 1 IF 1 I
x
15. y = cot e
GG J
H 2 tan x JK GH 1 + x JK
15. ;x>0 16. y = secn (ax2 + bx + c)
−1 2

F 1 − x IJ ⋅ cot FG 1 − x IJ 17. y = e
cos 3x + 4
2
j
⋅ cosec G
2
16.
a x + 1f 2
H1 + xK H 1 + xK 18. y = secn (m x)
19. y = tan–1 (4ex + 3)2
20. y = sec3 (m sin–1 x)
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 411

21. y = cos5 (log tan2 x3)4 x

−e
22. y = e j
sin sin x 15.
FG −1 IJ e1 + e j
H K
x 2x
2 cot e
23. y = tan a tan x f
16. n (2ax + b) secn (ax2 + bx + c) tan (ax2 + bx + c)
24. y = (sin (log x))2
Answers (under suitable restrictions on x) −3x sin 3x + 4 e 2
j
FG − 3 cosec IJ 1 17.
e j
H 2 3x + 4 ⋅ cot 3x + 4 ⋅
K
2
1. cos 3x + 4
3x + 4
18. m · n secn (m x) tan m x
1
2. − 2 x ⋅ cosec sin x cos x
2
e j
19.
e
8e x 4e x + 3 j
1 + e4e + 3j
3. –cosec2 (tan x) sec2 x x 4
4. 4x sin x2 cos x2
5. –4x cos x2 sin x2
6. 6x tan2 x2 sec2 x2
20.
e
3m sec 3 m sin −1 x tan m sin −1 x j e j
4 2
1− x 2
7. log x
x

8.
1
−1
⋅
1
⋅ 2x
2
21. −120 x cos log tan x
4
e 2
j
3 4
e 2
sin log tan x
3
j
2 sec x 2
x 2
x −14

elog etan x jj FGH sectan xx IJK

3 2 3
−1
2 3
9. 3

x cosec −1 x 2 ⋅ x 4 − 1

2
cos x ⋅ cos esin x j
3x 1 22.
10.
−1 3
⋅
6 4 x ⋅ sin esin x j
2 sin x 1− x

sec x sec a tan x f

2 2
2 −1 3

2 tan a tan x f
6 x tan x 23.
11. 6
1+ x

m⋅n⋅ x m −1
e
⋅ sec −1
x m n −1
j 24. b2 sin alog xfg ⋅ cos alog xf ⋅ 1x2

12.
xm x 2m − 1 Exercise 9.2.2

e j
q −1
− p q x p −1 cos−1 x p dy
13. Find of each of the following functions.
1− x 2p dx
1. y = sin cos tan x

14.
e
− x 2 cot −1 x 3 j − 23
2. y = sin cos tan cot x
1 + x6
412 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. y = cos tan x + 1 2 x e tan

−1
x2

4. y = cos sin log x 11.

1 + x4
esin tan −1
2x j
5.
6.
y=e
y = cot sin cos x
12.
− m
2 x
esec 2
je je
mx ⋅ sin tan mx ⋅ cos cos tan mx j
7. y = log log log x (x > 0) 13. –sec x · tan x · (sec2 sec x) · (sin tan sec x) · (cos
8. y = log sin x2 cos tan sec x)
tan x
9. y = e Form 2:
10. y = log (tan–1 x2)
e tan −1
x
2
j f1 f2 f 3 ... f x af
11. y = e
Exercise 9.3
12. y = sin cos tan mx , m > 0
13. y = sin cos tan sec x
dy
Answers (under proper restrictions on x) Find of the following functions.
dx
1. e– cos cos tan x jesin tan x j ⋅ sec 2
x ⋅
1
2 x 1. y = sin cos ax
2. (–cos cos tan cot x) · (sin tan cot x) (sec2 cot x)
· cosec2 x 2. y = sin cos tan mx

e
3. − sin tan x + 1 ⋅ sec j 2
e x+1 ⋅ j 1
2 x +1
3. y = sin x

4. y = cos x
a
4. − sin sin log x ⋅ cos log x ⋅
1
fa f
x 5. y = tan x
e j ⋅ cos
5. e
sin tan −1 2 x
etan −1
2x ⋅ j 2
1 + 4x2
6. y = log x

6. (cosec2 sin cos x) · (cos cos x) · sin x Answers (under suitable restrictions on x)

1 1 1 FH
− a cos cos ax ⋅ sin ax IK e j
7. log log x ⋅ log x ⋅ x
1.
4 FH cos ax IK ⋅ e ax j
2
2 x cos x
FH IK e
8.
j
2
sin x − m cos cos tan mx ⋅ sin tan mx sec mx
2

9.
1 2
sec x cot x ⋅ e
tan x 2.
4 FH cos tan mx IK e tan mx j
2
2x
cos x
e1 + x j tan
10. 4 −1 2
x 3.
4 x cos x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 413

Required Answer
−sin x
4. F I
4 x cos x 1 GG 1 JJ ⋅
GH sin x JK
1. cos x
2
sec
2
x sin x + sin x +
5.

F I
4 x tan x

1 GG1+ 1 1 JJ
6.
4x log x GH 2 sin x + sin x
+
4 FH sin x + I
sin x K sin x J
K
Form 3: 2. Find
3. Find
y= af af
f 1 x + f 2 x + ... + af
f x 1
e j
4.
Exercise 9.4 2 2x 2 + 2x

a
e j
dy 5.
Find of each of the following functions 4 ax a + ax
dx

1. y = sin x + sin x + sin x Form 4:

2. y = cos x + cos x + cos x af

... f x , f (x) being a differentiable function
of x.
3. y = x+ x+ x
Exercise 9.5
4. y = 2 + 2x
dy
5. y = a + ax Find of each of the following functions.
dx
Answers
Hint: In the above problems, we may use directly the 1. y = sin x
chain rule without making any substitution as
2. y =
F I
x
d G sin x + sin x + sin x J
H K⋅ 3. y =
2

d FH sin x + sin x + sin x IK

1. x
Answers (under suitable restrictions on x)
R| d F I
S| dx asin xf + GG dd esinsinxx++ sinsinxxj JJ ⋅ FGH d sin x
+
FH
cos x
IK e
H K j
1.
T dx 4 sin x sin x

d sin x d sin x I U
⋅
dx K W
JV 2.
4F
1
IK e x j
d sin x
H x ⋅
414 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x x x a
2
FG IJ
F I FG x IJ H K
2 2 2 2
9. y = x −a − log x + x −a
e j
3. or
2G JK H K
2 2 2x x 2 2
H x
cos 3 x
FG3 ′ x IJ 10. y = −
3 sin 3 x
+ cot x

H K
2
x = x and x = ,x ≠0
x 1
11. y = − 2
+ log tan x
Form 5: 2 sin x
af af af af
(a) y = f 1 x ⋅ f 2 x ± g1 x ⋅ g 2 x
1 x 1 cos x
g a xf
12. y = log tan −
y = f a xf ⋅ f a xf ±
2 2 2 sin 2 x
g a xf
1
(b) 1 2
2
Answers
g a xf
y = f a xf ⋅ ±
1. 2 sin log x, x > 0
g a xf
1
(c) 1

e j
2 −1 2
, x <1
y = f a xf ± g a xf ⋅ g a xf
2. sin x
(d) 1 1 2
−1
3. sec x, x > 1
Exercise 9.6
−1 F xI , ∀ x
dy
4. − tan
H 2K
Find of each of the following functions.
dx 2
5. 2 x + 1 , ∀ x
1. y = x sin log x – x cos log x, x > 0

2. y = x sin x
–1
e j
2
+ 2 1 − x 2 sin −1 x − 2 x , x < 1 1
×
LM 1 + 1 OP
6.
x +1 MN x 2 b x + 1g x PQ
−1 I F
x − log G x +
x − 1J , x > 1
K H
2
3. y = x sec
e j
5 3 − x2
b g
F xI , ∀ x − 2 sin 4 x + 2
7.
y = log e x + 4j − x tan 3 e1 − x j
4
−1
H 2K
2 2 3
4.

y = x x + 1 + log F x + x + 1I , ∀ x
2 2

H K a + x
2 2 8.
5.

F x + 1 − 1I
2 2
9. x −a
y = log G J x
+
6.
H x + 1 + 1K 1+ x
10.
cos 2 x
4
sin x
+ cos a 2 x + 1f
5x 2
7. y = 1
2
3
1− x 11.
sin 3 x ⋅ cos x

x a
2
FG IJ 1
H K
2 2 2 2
8. y = a +x + log x + x +a 12. 3
2 2 sin x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 415

Form 5: continued 3. y = x2 sec2 x

Problems based on combination composite 4. y = x3 cosec3 x
differentiable functions of x’s.
5. y = e x
log cos x
Exercise 9.6.1
e
6. y = cos x log sin x j
m n
Find dy of each of the following functions. 7. y = sin α x ⋅ cos β x
dx 8. y = sin (2x + 3) · cos2 (3x + 4)

e j
1. y = sin log x – log sin x x
2 9. y = e log cos x
2. y = sin x + cos x

F
y = cos eax + bx + cj + sin G
I
+ bx + c J
10. y = e sin x
x

H K
2 3 2
3. ax
Note: This type of problems can be done using the
rules of logarithmic differentiation.
5x
4. y = log log x − e Answers (under proper restrictions on x)
3 1. 6 sin 3x cos2 2x cos 5x
5. y = cot x − tan x 2. 2x (cot 2x –x cosec2 2x)
Answers 3. 2x sec2 x (1 + x tan x)
4. 3x2 cosec3 x (1 – x cot x)
1
1. cos log x − cot x 1 x x
x
5. e log cos x − e tan x
2 x
2.
2 x
1
cos x 1 − 2 sin xe j 1
6. cot x cos x − sin x log sin x
2 x
a f e 3 2
2
2 2
3. − 2ax + b sin ax + bx + c + sin ax + bx + c ⋅ j m −1
α x cos n −1 β x m α cos α x cos β x − b
7. sin
2
cos ax + bx + c ⋅
a2ax + bf n β sin α x sin β x f
2 8. 2 cos (3x + 4) cos (2x + 3) – 3sin (2x + 3) sin (3x + 4)
ax + bx + c

4.
1
− 5e
5x 9.
e x
2 x
elog cos x − tan x j
x log x

2
5. −3 cot x ⋅ cosec x −
2 1
⋅ sec
2
x 10.
2 x
1
e
x
ecos x + sin x j
2 x

Exercise 9.6.2 Exercise 9.6.3

dy dy
Find of each of the following functions Find of each of the following functions
dx dx
1. y = sin2 3x cos3 2x
2. y = x2 cot 2x 1. y =
a
2 x − sin x f 3
2

x
416 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

−1
4. 6 cosec 6x (cosec x – cot 6x)
tan x

2. y =
e −1
FG x + 1 − x IJ
H K
sin x 2
2 e
1+ x
5.
b x + 1g x − 1 e1 − x j
3
2 2 2

y=
3.
b x + 4g e 2 x
6. m cos mx sec nx + n sin mx sec nx tan nx
7. (4 sin3 x sec4 x + 5 tan5 x sec x)
sin 6 x
4. y = 8. [2 sin (3 – 2x) – 2cos (3 – 2x) cot (2x + 3)] cosec
1 + cos 6 x (2x + 3)

f FG cos I
m− 1
a J
−1
sin x ax
9. − ma sin a x sin b x + bn cosb x cos a x ⋅
H sin bx K
e
5. y = 2
n +1

1− x
10. 2 sec2 2x cos (x + 1) – tan 2x sin (x + 1)
sin m x
6. y = Exercise 9.6.4
cos n x
4
sin x dy
7. y = 5 Find of each of the following functions.
cos x dx

cos 3 − 2 x a f b
1. y = x − 1 ⋅ x + 1 g b 3
g 2

8. y =
sin 3 + 2 x a f 2. y = x 1 + 2 x
cos m
baxg
9. y = ex j
3

bbxg
5 2
sin n 3. y = x + 3x + 2

2
tan 2 x 4. y = 2 x 2− x
10. y =
sec x + 1 a f 2
Note: This type of problem can also be done using 5. y = x 3 − 2 x

a f
the rules of logarithmic differentiation.
2
Answers 6. y = x − 1 x − 2x + 2

1.
x
1
x
a2 x − 3x cos x + sin xf x − sin x 7. y = x x + c
2 2

Answers

e
tan
a1 − 2 xf
−1
x
1. a x + 1fa5x + 1fa x − 1f 2

2.
e1 + x j 2 2
2.
1 + 3x
1 + 2x

a x + 1f LM 5x − 3 x + 6 OP
2
x−1
MM 2 e x − 1j − x + 4 PP e
3. x 4 x 2 + 3x + 2 j e11x
2 2
+ 24 x + 10j
3.
a x + 4f 2
⋅e
x

N
2
Q
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 417

a
x 8 − 5x f 2
2x − 4x + 3
4.
2−x 8. y = 2
x − 2x + 3
2
3 − 4x
5. x −1
2 9. y =
3 − 2x x +1

2 x
2x − 4x + 3 10. y =
6. 2
2 1− x
x − 2x + 2
x
x2 11. y =
7. + x +c2 2
1 − 4x
2
x 2 + e2
3x
12. y =
Exercise 9.6.5 b1 + 3xg 1
2

dy 1+ x
13. y =
Find
dx
of each of the following functions. 2+ x

x 2
1. y = 1− x
x +1 14. y =
1− x
x −1−1
2. y =
x +1+1
15. y =
a x − 1fa x − 2f
x a x − 3fa x − 4f
3. y =
ea j
3
2 2
−x
2
Answer (under proper restrictions on x)
1. Find
2. Find
1− x
4. y = 3. Find
1+ x
−
1 LM 1+ x
+
1− x OP
5. y =
1 + 3x 2 MN 1− x 1 + x PQ
1 + 2x 4.
a1 + xf
6. y =
a
x 8 − 5x f 5. Find
6. Find
2− x
7. Find
2 8. Find
3 − 4x
7. y = 1
b x + 1g
2 9.
3 − 2x
x2 − 1
418 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 1+ x
2

10. 5. y = e
e1 − x j
3
2 2

e3x − 6 x + 2j
2

1 6. y = e
11.
e1 − 4 x j
3
tan x
2
7. y = e
2

−1

3 b2 − 3 x g
cos x
8. y = e

2 b1 + 3x g
12. 3 −1
cot x
9. y = e
2

−1
1 sin x
10. y = e
a f
13.
2
2 2+x x + 3x + 2 −1
sec x
11. y = e
1
a1 − xf
14.
esin x j −1 2
2
1− x 12. y = e

j e
− 2 x − 10 x + 11
2
13. y = e
cot x

15.
a x − 3fa x − 4f ⋅ a x − 1fa x − 2f 3
2
1
2
14. y = e
cosec
2
x

Form 6: Problems based on exponential functions x

of x’s having the form y = ef (x), where f (x) stands for 15. y = e
any one of the elementary functions of x’s (like sin x, − x
cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x, sin–1 x, cos–1 x, 16. y = e
tan–1 x, cot–1 x, sec–1 x, cosec–1 x, xn log x, ex or their 2
x
combination) or composite of a differentiable function 17. y = e
of a differentiable function … of a differentiable
2x
function of x. 18. y = x ⋅ e
Answers (Under proper restrictions on x)
Exercise 9.7
− 2x
−e
dy 1.
2
Find of each of the following functions.
dx 2 x
3

2. 3x ⋅ e
− 2x
1. y = e sin x
3
3. cos x ⋅ e
x
2. y = e −3 x
2

4. −6 x ⋅ e
sin x
3. y = e
x 1 + x2
−3 x
2 5. ⋅e
4. y = e 1+ x 2
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 419

Form 7: Problems based on logarithmic functions of

e3x j
a f
2
−6x + 2
6. 6 x − 1 e x’s having the form:
y = log f (x), where f (x) stands for any one of the
2 tan x elementary functions of x’s (like sin x, cos x, tan x,
7. sec x ⋅ e
cot x, sec x, cosec x, sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x,
−1
cos x sec–1 x, cosec–1 x, xn, log x, ex or their combination) or
−e composition of a differentiable function of a
8. 2
1− x differentiable function of … of a differentiable function
of x.
−1
cot x
−e Exercise 9.7.1
9. 2
1+ x
−1
dy
sin x Find if
e dx
10.
1− x
2
FG IJ
H K
2
1. y = log x + 1 + x
−1

e
sec x 2. y = log (x + 3)2
11. 3. y = log sin2 x
2
x x −1 4. y = log sin 3x

FG e IJ
F xI
2 sin
−1
x −1 2 5. y = log tan
H 2K
H K
sin x
12. 2
1− x 6. y = log 4x
7. y = log x2
cot x 2 8. y = log (5x – 14)
−e ⋅ cosec x
13. 9. y = log (xn + a)
2 cot x 10. y = log (ex + 1)
11. y = log (ex + e–x)
2
−cosec 2 x ⋅ cot x ⋅ e cosec x
12. y = log (cos x + 3)
14. 13. y = log sin x
x
14. y = log tan x
x 15. y = log tan–1 x
e
15. 16. y = log log tan–1 x
2 x
F π + xI
−e
x
17. y = log tan
H 4 2K
16.
2 x F x+4 −9 I
2
18. y = log GH J
x + 4 + 9K
x x
2x e xe
17. or ,x≠0 2
2 x
2 x 1+ x + x
19. y = log 2
1− x + x
18. e
2x
a2 x + 1f
420 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a cos x − b sin x 5
20. y = log 8.
5x − 14
a cos x + b sin x
n −1
1 − 4x nx
21. y = log 9.
1 + 4x
n
x +a

FG IJ
H K
2 x
22. y = log x − 1 + x e
10. x
e +1
F
y = log G x − − 1J
I
H K
2
23. x x −x
e −e
11. x −x
1 − cos x e +e
24. y = log
1 + cos x − sin x
12.
Fx + I cos x + 3
GG JJ
2
x −1
25. y = log 13. cot x
Hx − x
2
− 1K 1
14.
sin x cos x
1 + ax
26. y = log
1 − ax 1
e1 + x j tan
15. −1
F I
2
x
1+ x − 1− x
y = log G J
27.
H 1+ x + 1− xK 1
e1 + x j tan
16. 2 −1 −1
2 x log tan x
28. y = log x ⋅ log x
Answers (under proper restrictions on x) 17. sec x

1 9
1.
1+ x
2
18.
a x − 77f x +4
2
2 1− x
2. 19. 4 2
x+3 x + x +1
3. 2 cot x
− ab
4. 3 cot 3x
ea j
20. 2 2 2 2
1 x x cos x − b sin x
5. sec , cosec = cosec x
2 2 2
4
1 21. 2
6. 16 x − 1
x
2 −1
7. 22.
x 2
1− x
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 421

−1 FG 1 + sin x IJ
23. 2
x −1
18. y = log
H 1 − sin x K
24. cosec x F a + b tan x IJ
y = log G
2
19.
H a − b tan x K
25. 2
x −1 1+ x
20. y = log
1− x
a
26.
1− a x
2 2
LM a4 x + 1f ⋅ a3x + 2f OP
1
4
1
3

21. y = log
1 MNa2 x + 3f ⋅ a6x − 4f PQ
1
2
1
6

27.
L a x − 1f ⋅ a2 x − 3f OP
2
x 1− x
y = log M
2 3

28.
2 log x
22.
MN a2 − xf PQ 5

F e − 1I
x
x
y = log G
Exercise 9.7.2 23.
H e + 1JK
x

F x ⋅ x + 1I
y = log G
GH x + 2 JJK
dy 2 2
Find if
dx 24. 3
3
1. y = log ( 3x – 2)

F 1 + x − xI
2. y = log sec x

y = log G
GH 1 + x + x JJK
3. y = log cosec 2x 2

2 25.
4. y = log x + 1
2

5. y = log log x
6. y = log (sec x + tan x) Answers (under proper restrictions on x)
7. y = log sin x 3
8. y = log (cosec x – cot x) 1.
3x − 2
9. y = log sin–1 x
10. y = log cos x2 2. tan x
11. y = log cos–1 x4 3. –2 cot 2x
12. y = log sin 2x x
13. y = log log log x3 4. 2
x +1
x2
14. y = log sin e
1
15. y = log sin (x2 + 1) 5.
FG IJ
x log x

H K
2
16. y = log x + x +1 6. sec x
7. cot x
F
y = log G x + − 1J
I 8. cosec x
H K
2
17. x
422 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 2
9. 2 x x
−1 2 24. + 2 − 3
sin x 1− x x x +1 x +2
2
10. −2 x tan x −2
25. 2
−4 x 3 1+ x
11.
cos −1 x 4 1 − x8
Exercise 9.7.3
12. 2 cot 2x
3
13. dy
x log x log log x 3 3 Find if
dx
2 2 1. y = log | cos (ax + b) |
x x
2x e cos e 2. y = log | x2 – 6 |
14. 2 3. y = log | tan x |
x
sin e 4. y = log | x |

e j
2
Answers
2 x cos x + 1
b g
1. −a tan ax + b , ax + b ≠ nπ +
π
e j
15. 2
sin x + 1 2
2x
2. ,x ≠± 6
1 x −6
2
16. 2
1+ x
sec 2 x π
3. ,x≠n
1 tan x 2
17.
2
x −1 1
4. ,x ≠ 0
18. 2 sec x x

2ab Exercise 9.7.4

19. 2 2 2 2
a cos x − b sin x
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x
1 F πI
20.
1− x
2
H
1. y = log cos x , 0 < x <
2K

y = tan log x , F 0 < x < e I

π

H K
2
1 1 1 1 2.
21. + − −
y = sin log x , a x > 0f
4 x + 1 3x + 2 2 x + 3 6 x − 4
3.

, a x > 0f
2 6 5
+ + log x
22.
x − 1 2x − 3 2 − x 4. y=
1 + x log x

, a x > 0f
x x sin x
2e 5. y=
23. 2x 1 + log x
e −1
 Chain Rule for the Derivative 423

a f , FH − π2 < x < π2 IK
6. y = log cos x
2
1
x
a f
− log x
2

4.
a f
y = log F x + x + a I
2
1 + x log x
7. H 2
K
2
x cos x a1 + log x f + sin x log x
Answers 5.
a1 + log xf2

−2 tan x log acos x f

1. –tan x
6.
2.
1
x
2
a f
sec log x
1
3.
1
x
a f
cos log x
7. 2
x +a
2
424 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

10
Differentiation of Inverse
Trigonometric Functions

Differentiation of Inverse Circular Functions Note:

Before explaining the techniques of finding the
differential coefficient of inverse circular functions,
(i) sin
−1
asin θf = θ for θ ∈ LMN −2π , π2 OPQ
sin esin x j = x for x ∈ −1, 1
we recall the definition of an inverse of a function −1
which tells us that the mapping must be one-one and (ii)
−1
onto in order that an inverse of a function should 2. We define cos x as an angle ‘ θ ’ measured from
exist. Hence, to make the trigonometric functions one-
one and onto, we restrict the domain of each
b g
0 to π i.e. 0 ≤ θ ≤ π whose cosine is x. The angle
trigonometric function by the principal values of the ‘ θ ’ satisfying the inequality 0 ≤ θ ≤ π is called the
−1 −1
angle (i.e., the smallest positive value of the angle or principal value of cos x . Hence, θ = cos x is an
the smallest numerical value of the angle) because
angle representing an inverse circular function whose
each trigonometric function is a many valued function
and a many valued function has no inverse. domain is [ – 1, 1] and whose range is 0, π . In the
Definitions: notational form, the inverse of a cosine function is

1. We define sin
−1
x as an angle ‘ θ ’ measured from
defined as θ = f
−1
a x f = cos −1
x ⇔ x = cos θ and

π π F π π I θ ∈ 0, π , x ∈ − 1, 1 .
−
2
to
2 H
i.e., − ≤ θ ≤
2 2 K
whose sin is x. The Note:
π
angle ‘ θ ’ satisfying the inequality − ≤ θ ≤ is
π (i) cos
−1
acos θf = θ for θ ∈ 0, π
2 2
cos e cos x j = x for x ∈ [– 1, 1]
−1 −1
called the principal value of sin x . Hence, θ = (ii)
−1
sin x is an angle representing an inverse circular −1
3. We define tan x as an angle ‘ θ ’ lying between
function whose domain is − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and whose range
π π π π F i.e; − π < θ < π I whose tan gent is x.
is −
2
≤ θ ≤ . In the notational form, the inverse of
2
−
2
and
2 H 2 2K
sin function is defined as θ = f −1 x bg The angle θ satisfying the inequality −
π π
< θ < is

= sin −1 x ⇔ x = sin θ and θ ∈

LM −π , π OP , x ∈ − 1, 1 −1
2 2

N 2 2Q called the principal value of tan x. Hence θ

 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 425

−1 −1
= tan x is an angle representing an inverse circular θ = cot x because in this interval 0 < θ < π , θ
function whose domain is entire number line
= cot −1 x is defined at all points. For this reason, it is
F −π π I
(i.e. − ∞ < x < ∞) and whose range is H ,
2 2 K usual to take the interval 0 < θ < π as the range for
−1

F i.e; − π < θ < π I . θ = cot x for practical purpose instead of

H 2 2K F − π , 0I ∪ F 0 , π I in which
In the notational form, the inverse of trigonometri-
considering the range H 2 K H 2K
cal tangent is defined as θ = f
−1
a xf = tan −1 x ⇔ x θ = cot
−1
x is undefined at θ = 0 .
F π π I Hence, an alternative definition of cot −1 x is also
= tan θ and θ ∈ −
H ,
2 2 K
, x ∈R .
available which is expressed in the notational form as
Note:
af
follows θ = f −1 x = cot −1 x ⇔ x = cot θ and
a tan θf = θ for θ ∈ F − , I b g
π π
H 2 2K
−1
(i) tan θ ∈ 0, π , x ∈ R . We shall follow this definition.
Note:
e −1
j
(ii) tan tan x = x for x ∈ R b g
(i) cot −1 cot x = θ for θ ∈ 0, π b g
−1
4. Some writers define cot x as an angle ‘ θ ’
d −
i
(ii) cot cot 1 x = x for x ∈ R
−1
π π 5. We define sec x as angle ‘ θ ’ measured from 0
lying between − and excluding θ = 0 (i.e.,
2 2
π FG π RS UVIJ
π π
− < θ < , θ ≠ 0 ) whose cotangent is x. The
2 2
to π excluding θ =
2 H
i.e; 0 , π −
2 T WK
whose

secant is x. The angle θ belonging to the interval

π π
angle ‘ θ ’ satisfying the inequality − < θ , π RS UV −1
0, π −
TW
2 2 is called the principal value of sec x .
−1 2
θ ≠ 0 is called the principal value of cot x . Hence,
−1
−1
θ = cot x is an angle representing an inverse Hence θ = sec x is an angle representing an
circular function whose domain is entire number inverse circular function whose domain is
line (i.e; − ∞ < x < ∞ ) and whose range is
b− ∞ , − 1g ∪ b1, ∞g and the range is RS π UV
F − π , π I − k0p = F − π , 0I ∪ F 0 , π I .
0, π −
T2 W
H 2 2K H 2 K H 2K FG i.e; L0, π IJ ∪ FG π , πOIJ .
In the notational form, the inverse of cotangent H MN 2 K H 2 PQK
function is defined as θ = f
−1
a xf = bg
cot − 1 x ⇔ x In the notational form, the inverse of
trigonometrical secant function is defined as
π π F I kp a xf = sec x ⇔ x = sec θ and θ ∈ 0 , π
−1 −1
= cot θ and θ ∈ − ,
H
− 0 , x ∈R .
K θ= f
2 2
RπU
− S V , x ∈ a − ∞ , − 1f ∪ a1, ∞f .
An important remark: It is customary to take the
b g
open interval (as a domain) 0, π in (or, on, or over)
T2 W
6. (i) f f a x f = x for all x in the domain of f .
−1 −1
which the function x = cot θ has an inverse
426 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
(ii) f − 1 f x = x for all x in the domain of f.
(ii) cosec
−1
acosec θf = θ for θ ∈LMN− π2 , 0IK ∪ FH 0 , π2 OPQ
Therefore these relations (i) and (ii) hold for the
restricted trigonometric functions and their inverse.
Note:
−1
(iii) cosec cosec e −1
j
x = x for x ≥ 1
(i) An angle denoted by sec x given by the relation
Remember:
−1 −1 F I 1 1. The restricted domains and the ranges over which
θ = sec x = cos
H K x
, x ≥ 1 is also accepted
each respective inverse circular function (defined
earlier) can be summarised in the chart.
as a definition of inverse trigonometrical secant
function of an angle θ . Functions Domain Range( θ may be a real

(ii) sec
−1
g
x is not defined for x ∈ −1, 1 b number or an angle)

L π I ∪ F π , πOP mx RSθ − π ≤ θ ≤ π UV
r
(iii) sec asec θf = θ for θ ∈ M0 ,
−1
−1

N 2K H 2 Q
sin x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
T 2 2W

(iv) sec e sec x j = x for x ≥ 1

−1 cos
−1
x mx − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1r
mθ 0 ≤ θ ≤ πr
−1
6. We define cosec x as an angle ‘ θ ’ measured tan
−1
x mx − ∞ < x < ∞r RSTθ − π2 < θ < 2π UVW
π π
mx − ∞ < x < ∞r RSTθ − 2π < θ < π2 , θ ≠ 0UVW
from − to excluding θ = 0 whose cosecant
2 2 −1
cot x
is x. The angle θ belonging to the interval
FG − π , π IJ − l0q , is called the principal value of (some writers)

H 2 2K m
or θ 0 < θ < π r
(we adopt)
−1 −1
cosec x . Hence, θ = cosec x is an angle
lx RSθ π UV
T 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ ≠
W
−1
representing an inverse circular function whose sec x − ∞ < x ≤ −1;
2
b g b g
domain is − ∞ , − 1 ∪ 1, ∞ and whose range is 1≤ x < ∞ p
LM− π , π OP − k0p FG i.e; LM− π , 0I ∪ F 0 , π OPIJ . lx RSθ π π UV
N 2 2Q H N 2 K H 2 QK cosec
−1
x − ∞ < x ≤ −1 ;
T −
2
≤θ≤ , θ≠0
2 W
In the notational form, the inverse of the 1≤ x ≤ ∞ p
trigonometrical secant function is defined as
a xf = cosec x ⇔ x = cosec x and
−1 −1
−1 −1 2. The principal value of sin x , cosec x,
θ= f

L π I F πO
−1 −1
tan x and cot x is the smallest numerical value
θ ∈ M− , 0 ∪ 0 , P , x ∈ b − ∞ , − 1g ∪ b1, ∞g
N 2 K H 2Q of the angle.
−1 −1
Note: 3. The principal value of cos x and sec x is the
−1 smallest positive value of the angle.
(i) An angle denoted by cosec x given by the
−1 F 1I , 4. A circular function of an angle θ = a number.
relation θ = cosec x = sin
H xK x ≥ 1 is also 5. An inverse circular function of a number = an angle.
6. General value of sin
−1
a f
x = n π + − 1 θ whose
n
accepted as a definition of inverse of cosecant −1
function of θ θ stands for the principal value of sin x.
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 427

−1
7. General value of cos x = 2 n π ± θ whose θ
f
−1
a y + ∆ yf − f a yf
−1

a y + ∆ yf − y
−1
stands for the principal value of cos x . = lim
∆y→0
−1
8. General value of tan x = n π + θ where θ
−1
[adding and subtracting y in denominator ]
stands for the principal value of tan x .
a x + ∆ xf − x
f a x + ∆ xf − f a xf
N.B.: = lim
∆ y→0
1. The principal value of each circular function is
[Q y + ∆ y = f b x + ∆ x g from (3) and x + ∆ x
obtained by putting n = o in its general value.

= f b y + ∆ y g from (4)]
Important Notes: −1
1. Unless otherwise stated by the value of each
inverse circular function, we mean its principal value.
af
2. If y = f x , then the derivative of x with respect = lim
∆x → 0 a
∆x
f x + ∆x − f x f af [since ∆ x → 0
to y is given by the formula:
when ∆ y → 0 ]
dx 1
=
F dy I , where ‘ f ’ is assumed to be one-one =
FG a
1
f a f IJ [Taking reciprocal]
H dx K dy
dy
f x+∆x − f x

and onto as well as is assumed to be finite and

lim
∆x→ 0 H ∆x K
dx
F dy
a f IK =
1
af
non-zero i.e ;H dx
= f ′ x ≠ 0 or, alternatively, f′ x
let y = f (x) be a single – valued monotonic and af
N.B.: If y = f x and x = f
−1
y =g y af af
continuous, and x = f ′ a y f = g a yf be the inverse
Then f ′ a x f = g ′ a yf =
dx
function, then if f ′ a x f be finite and non – zero,
dy
and
dx dy

g ′ a yf = af
1
f ′ a x f [ E.G. Philips ( p – q 4 ) ]
1
∴ g′ y =
f′ x af
Proof: y = f a x f … (1)
x = f a yf
dx 1
−1
…(2) ⇒ =
F dy I which provides us a formula to
H dx K
dy
1. ⇒ y + ∆ y = f b x + ∆ x g … (3)
2. ⇒ x + ∆ x = f b y + ∆ yg −1 be very useful in the differentiation of inverse
… (4)
functions.
Also, as ∆ x → 0 , ∆ y → 0 and as ∆ y → 0 ,
af
Differential coefficients of inverse circular functions
∆ x → 0 (Q x = f −1 y is continuous)
Now, using the definition of derivative of a function,
af af
If y = f −1 x ⇔ x = f y , then y is called an
inverse function of x and x is called the direct function
we have,
of y.
f −1
b yg ′ = g ′ b y g Question: What is the rule for the derivative of the
inverse function ?

f b y + ∆ yg − f b y g
Answer: The rule for the derivative of the inverse
−1 −1
function is the reciprocal of the derivative of the
= lim
∆y→0 ∆y original function (i.e. direct function) expressed as
428 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d
y = bg
d
1
⇔
d
y ⋅
d
x =1 bg bg Step 7. Lastly find
d
dx
af
y using the rule
dx (x) dx dy
dy d
dx
af
y ⋅
d
dx
af
x = 1 which means taking the

⇔
d
dx
af
y =1÷
d
dy
x af reciprocal of
d
af
x to find
d
y . af
dy dx
Recapitulation of working rule to find d.c. of inverse Notes: 1. In the process of finding the d.c of inverse
functions by ∆ - method trigonometrical functions, we generally get
The rule to find d.c of inverse functions by ∆ - method F ∆ yI
consists of following steps.
Step 1. Change inverse functions into direct functions
2 sin
H2K except for tan
−1
x and cot
−1
x . In
∆y
af
which means y = f −1 x should be expressed as
order to find its limit as ∆ y → 0 , we can use any one
af −1
x = f y , where f −1 stands for sin , cos , tan ,
−1 −1
of the following methods.
−1 −1 −1
cot , sec , cosec or any other inverse function F ∆ yI 2 ⋅ F ∆ yI
and f stands for sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec or any
(i)
2 sin
H 2 K = H 2 K = 1 ⋅ ∆ y⋅2 = 1
other direct function. ∆y ∆y 2 ∆y
Step 2. Add ∆ x to x and ∆ y to y whereever these
(Q when θ is small, sin θ = θ )
FG sin r θ IJ = lim FG r sin r θ IJ
are present in the direct function which means forming
the equation x + ∆ x = f y + ∆ y . b g H θ K
Step 3. Find ∆ x by subtracting the first value x
(ii) θlim
→0 H rθ K
θ→0

= f ( y ) from the second value x + ∆ x = f b y + ∆ yg F sin r θ IJ = r ⋅ 1 = r , r being a constant.

= r lim G
which means forming the equation ∆ x H rθ K
θ→0

= f b y + ∆ yg − f b yg .
Step 4. Divide ∆ x = f b y + ∆ y g − f a yf by ∆ y F ∆ yI F ∆ yI
2 sin
H 2 K
2 sin
H2K
which means forming the equation
f b y + ∆ yg − f a y f
(iii) lim
∆y
∆y→ 0
= lim
F ∆ yI
∆y→0
∆x
=
2⋅
H2K
F ∆ yI
.
∆y ∆y
Step 5. Take the limit as ∆ y → 0 on both sides of
sin
H 2 K =1
∆ x f b y + ∆ y g − f b yg
= lim
F yI
∆
∆y→ 0
the equation
∆y
=
∆y
which means H2K
forming the equation 2. ∆ x → 0 ⇔ ∆ y → 0
3. Finding d.c. by ∆ - method means finding d.c. of
d
bg
y = lim
b
f y+ ∆ y − f y
.
g bg the given function by making no use of rules of
dx ∆ y→0 ∆y differentiation and d.c. of standard functions but one
Step 6. Express the direct function ( like sin, cos, tan, can use only fundamental theorems on limits and
cot, sec, cosec or any other direct function ) of y in standard results on limits.
terms of x using the relation x = f ( y).
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 429

d a fi = F d 1 I
Practical methods of finding d.c. of inverse circular d
functions ⇒ f −1 x
In practice, of the question says simply to find d.c. of
an inverse circular function, one can use the following
dx
GH dy a xfJK
methods.
Method (A): It consists of following steps. ⇒
d
dx
a yf =
FG d a xfIJ dQ f a x f = yi
1 −1

H dy K
(i) Change the given inverse circular function in to
direct circular function ( called commonly circular
af
function), i.e. of y = f −1 x is given, it should be 1 1
changed into x = f ( y).
(ii) While differentiating, we must choose the variable
=
f′ yaf
=
d a fi
f ′ f −1 x
.

y as an independent variable (instead of usual variable Standard formulas or d.c of inverse circular functions
x as independent variable) w.r.t. which the direct
π π FG IJ
H K
−1
circular function should be differentiated, i.e., 1. If y = sin x , y ∈ − , , show that
2 2
x= f y ⇒ af d
dy
x = af d
dy
c a fh
f y = f′ y af dy
=
1

(iii) Now required derivative is

d
dx
af
y which is
dx 1− x 2
Proof : First method: (Derivation of d.c. Using the
d
x , af definition)

c x ≤ 1h
obtained by simply taking the reciprocal of −1
dy Step 1. Let y = sin x ,
d
( y) =
1
⇔
d 1
af F π
⇒ x = sin y , H − ≤ y ≤ K
πI
af af
i.e; x
dx d dy d ...(1)
x y 2 2
Step 2. x + ∆ x = sin a y + ∆ y f
dy dx
…(2)
Method B: It may be explained in the following way.
Let y = f −1
b xg ⇒ x = f b yg Step 3. ∆ x = sin a y + ∆ y f − sin y (subtracting (1)

⇒ x = f f b yg Q y = f a xf
from (2))
−1 −1
…(1)
FG ∆y IJ∆y FG IJ
or, x = f a yf ⇒ y = f a x f ⇒ y = f f a yf
−1 −1 H
= 2 cos y +
2
⋅ sin
K2 H K
…(2)
Hence, whenever, we have the form y = f f y , −1
af ⇒
1
∆x
=
FG
1
∆y IJ
∆y FG IJ …(3)
it can be differentiated by using the chain rule, i.e, H
2 cos y +
2
⋅ sin
2 K H K
d
dy
af
y =
d
dy
f e
−1
f y a fj ∆y ∆y

a fj b a fg
Step 4:
∆x
=
F ∆y ∆y I F I
a fe H K H K
d −1 d
= f f y ⋅ f y 2 cos y + ⋅ sin
d f y dy 2 2
(using chain rule) (Multiplying both sides of (3) by ∆ y )

⇒1=
d
d a fi a f
f −1 x ⋅
d
x 1
dx dy =
F ∆ yI …(4)

FG Q d a yf = 1, f a yf = xIJ F ∆ yI H2K
H dy K H 2 K ⋅ sin
cos y + ∆y
2
430 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

∆y
=
1
=
1 FG π π IJ
⇒ cos y > 0 ⇒ cos y = cos y
and y ∈ −
H K
Step 5: lim (Taking the ,
∆x→ 0 ∆ x cos y ⋅ 1 cos y 2 2
limits on both sides of (4) as ∆ x → 0 )
cQ f a x f af
= f x for f x > 0 af h
F I
...(3)
Step 6: Q cos y = cos y GHQ f a x f = f a x f JK
2 2
Equating (2) and (3), we have
2
cos y = cos y = 1 − x ... (4)
= 1 − sin y = 1 − x
2
aQ sin y = x f
2
Putting (4) in (1), we have
F π πI
Now cos y is positive for y ∈ G − , J
dy
=
1
H 2 2K dx 1− x 2
, for x < 1

F π πI
⇒ cos y = cos y for y ∈ G − , J
−1

H 2 2K ⇒
d sin x
dx
=
1
2
for x < 1
1− x
e Q f b x g = f b xg for f b x g ≥ 0j Cor 1.: On replacing x by f (x) in the L.H.S. and R.H.S.
of the above formula, we get
dy 1
∴ =
dx 1− x 2 d sin
−1
a f=
f x 1
. f′ x af
FG Q ∆ y dy IJ dx
1− f
2
a xf
H lim=
∆ x dx
∆x → 0
, x < 1.
K −1
d sin | f x | af 1 af
d| f x |
Second method using the formula: = ×
a xf
Cor 2.:
dx 2 dx
dy 1 1− f
dx
=
FG IJ
dx
af af
H K
2
Q f x = f2 x
dy

1. y = sin x
−1 b g
2. If y = cos −1 x , y ∈ 0 , π , show that
dy 1
π π =−
⇒ x = sin y for − ≤ y≤ .
2 2
dx 1− x 2
−1 Proof: First method (Derivation of D.C using the
(from the definition of sin x )
definition)

b x ≤ 1g
dx −1
⇒ = cos y (differentiating both sides w.r.t. y) Step 1.: Let y = cos x,
dy

dy 1 1 ⇒ x = cos y , b0 ≤ y ≤ πg ...(1)
⇒ =
FG IJ = ...(1)
dx dx cos y Step 2.: x + ∆ x = cos a y + ∆ y f
H K
...(2)
Step 3.: ∆ x = cos a y + ∆ y f − cos y
dy
(subtracting
Now, cos y = cos 2 y (1) from (2))
FG ∆y IJ ∆y FG IJ
= 1 − sin 2 y = 1 − x 2 ...(2) = − 2 sin y +
H 2 K
, sin
2 H K
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 431

−1
1 1 3. The domains of the derived functions of sin x
⇒ =−
F I F I
−1
...(3) and cos x are the open interval (– 1, 1).
∆x ∆y ∆y
H
2 sin y +
2
⋅ sin
2 K H K Second method
dy 1
∆y ∆y Using the formula: =
F dy I
H dx K
dx
Step 4.:
∆x
=−
F∆y ∆y I F I
2 sin y +
H2
. sin
2 K H K −1
2. y = cos x
(multiplying both sides of (3) by ∆ y )
⇒ x = cos y for 0 ≤ y ≤ π (from the definition of
1
F ∆ yI
−1
=− ... (4) cos x)
F ∆ yI H2K
H 2 K . sin F ∆ y I
sin y + dx
⇒ = − sin y (differentiating both sides w.r.t. y)
H2K dy

dy 1 1
∆y 1
⇒
dx
=
FG IJ
dx
=
− sin y
...(1)
Step 5.: lim
∆x → 0 ∆x
=−
sin y + 0 .1 a f (Taking the
H Kdy
limit of both sides of (4) as ∆ x → 0 ) 2 2y 2
Now, sin y = sin y = 1 − cos = 1− x
1
= ...(2)
sin y
b g
and y ∈ 0, π ⇒ sin y > 0 for y being measured from
Step 6.: sin y = 2
sin y Q
FH af
f x = f2 xa f IK 0 to π ⇒ sin y = sin y

2
bQ f a xf af
= f x for f x > 0 af g ...(3)
= 1 − cos y Equating (2) and (3), we have

= 1− x 2 aQ cos y = x f ...(a) sin y = sin y = 1 − x

2
... (4)

Now sin y > 0 in 0, π b g Putting (4) in (1), we have

⇒ sin y = sin y for y ∈ 0, π b g dy

=
1
dx − 1 − x 2
, for x < 1

bQ f a xf = f a xf for f a xf > 0g −1
Equating (a) and (b), we have ...(b) d cos x 1
⇒ = , for x < 1
dy
=−
1 FGQ ∆ y dy IJ dx
− 1− x
2

dx 1− x 2
H lim
∆ x→0
=
K
∆ x dx , x < 1
−1 −1 π
Remark: Note: (i) sin x + cos x= , ∀ x ≤1
−1 −1 2
1. The derivatives of sin x and cos x become
undefined at x = ± 1 . For this reason we leave these ⇒
d
dx
e−1
sin x +
d
dx
−1
j
cos x = 0 e j
points out of our consideration.
2. The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric
functions are not transcendental but algebraic.
⇒
d
dx
e
sin −1 x = −
d
dx
j
cos − 1 x e j
432 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 ∆y
= ; x < 1. Step 5.: lim
1− x 2 ∆x→ 0 ∆x

d −1
af = lim
RScos y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f ⋅ ∆ y UV
(ii)
dx
sin f x ∆x → 0 T sin ∆ y W

f b xg bg (on taking the limit of both sides of (4)) as ∆ x → 0

d cos − 1 −1 d f x
=− = ⋅
dx 1− f 2
bg x dx 2
= cos y =
sec y
1
2
=
1 + tan y
1
2

d −1
af −1 af
d| f x |
(iii)
dx
cos f x =
a xf 1− f
2
⋅
dx =
1
1+ x 2 aQ tan y = x f ...(a)

−1 F π π I , show that dy ∴
dy
=
1
H 2 2K
3. If y = tan x, y ∈ − , .
dx dx 1 + x2
Second method (using the formula):
1
= . dy 1
1 + x2
dx
=
FG IJ
dx
Proof: First method: (Derivation of d.c using the
definition)
H K
dy
−1
Step 1.: y = tan b ∀ x ∈R g
−1
x
3. y = tan x
π π
⇒ x = tan y , H
F − π < y < π I ...(1) ⇒ x = tan y for − <y<
2K
2 2
2 −1
Step 2.: x + ∆ x = tan b y + ∆ yg
(from the definition of tan x ).
...(2)
Step 3.: ∆ x = tan b y + ∆ y g − tan y (subtracting (1)
dy 2
⇒ = sec y
from (2))
dx

a f
(differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. y)
sin y + ∆ y sin y
=
a f
cos y + ∆ y
−
cos y ⇒
dy
dx
=
FG IJ
1
dx
=
1
2
=
1
1 + tan y
2
=
1+ x
1
2

H K
sec y
sin a y + ∆ y f ⋅ cos y − sin y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f dy
cos a y + ∆ y f ⋅ cos y
=
aQ x = tan y f
sin a y + ∆ y − y f sin ∆ y Cor 1.: On replacing x by f (x) in the L.H.S. and R.H.S
cos y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f cos y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f
= = of the above formula, we get

1 cos y ⋅ a y + ∆ y f d tan
−1
f x af =
1
⋅ f′ x af
⇒
∆x
=
sin ∆ y
...(3) dx 1+ f
2
a xf
Step 4.:
∆y
∆x
= cos y cos y + ∆ y ⋅
∆y
b
sin ∆ y
(Multiply- g d tan
−1
af
f x
=
1
⋅
d f x af
ing both sides of (3) by ∆ y ) ...(4)
Cor 2.:
dx 1+ f
2
a xf dx
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 433

4. If y = cot
−1
b g
x , y ∈ 0, π , show that ∴
dy
=−
1
dx 1 + x2
dy 1
=− . Note: The domains of the derived functions of
dx 1+ x 2
Proof: First method (Derivation of d.c using tan −1 x and cot −1 x are the open interval − ∞ , ∞ b g
definition)
dy 1
−1 because dx = ± is defined for all real values
Step 1.: Let y = cot x , ∀ x ∈R 1+ x 2

⇒ x = cot y , y ∈ 0, π b g ...(1)
of x.

x + ∆ x = cot a y + ∆ y f
Second method using the formula:
Step 2.: ...(2)
∆ x = cot a y + ∆ y f − cot y
dy 1
Step 3.: (subtracting (1) dx
=
FG IJ
dx
from (2)) H K
dy
a
cos y + ∆ y cos y f −1
=
a
sin y + ∆ y
−
sin y f 5. y = cot x
⇒ x = cot y for 0 < y < π (from the definition
a f
sin y cos y + ∆ y − cos y ⋅ sin y + ∆ y a f
=
sin y + ∆ y sin y a f of cot −1 x ) ...(1)

a f
dx 2
sin y − y − ∆ y sin ∆ y ⇒ = − cosec y (differentiating both sides of
a f a f
= = dy
sin y ⋅ sin y + ∆ y sin y ⋅ sin y + ∆ y (1) w.r.t. y)
1 sin y ⋅ sin y + ∆ y a f dy 1
⇒
∆x
=−
sin ∆ y
...(3) ⇒
dx
=
FG dx IJ
H dy K
Step 4.:
∆y
∆x
= − sin y ⋅ sin y + ∆ y ⋅
∆y
sin ∆ y
b g
(Multiplying both sides of (3) by ∆ y ) ...(4)
=−
1
cosec 2 y
=
−1
1 + cot 2 y
=
−1
1+ x 2
aQ x = cot y f
∆y −1 −1 π
Step 5.: lim Note: (i) tan x + cot x= , ∀x
∆ x →0 ∆x 2

= lim
RS− sin y ⋅ sin a y + ∆ yf ⋅ ∆ y UV ⇒
d −1
tan x +
d −1
cot x = 0
∆ x →0 T sin ∆ y W dx dx
(On taking the limit of both sides of (4) as ∆ x → 0 ) d −1 d −1 1
⇒ tan x = − cot x = 2
= − sin y ⋅ sin y = − sin y
2 dx dx 1+ x

=−
1
2
=−
1
2
=−
1
2 ...(a)
(ii)
d
dx
−1
tan f x af
cosec y 1 + cot y 1+ x

aQ cot y = x f =−
d −1
cot f x =
1
af
⋅
d f x af
dx 2
1+ f x dx af
434 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d cot
−1
f x af= −1
⋅
d f x af Step 5.: lim
∆ y cos y ⋅ cos y
∆x
= (Taking the limits
a xf dx
(iii) 2 ∆x→ 0 sin y . 1
dx 1+ f
of both sides of (4) as ∆ x → 0 )
−1 Rπ U
y ∈ b0 , π g − S V , show that
1
6. If y = sec x,
T2 W =
sec y ⋅ tan y
dy 1 Step 6.: sec y ⋅ tan y = sec y . tan y
=
FG IJ FQ f a xf
.
a f IK
dx 1− x 2
KH
x
H
2
= sec y tan y = f2 x
Proof: First method (derivation of the d.c. using the
definition)
sec y G
F I
y − 1J
H K
2

Step 1.: Let y = sec

−1
c
x , x >1 h ...(1)
= sec

F π I = x ⋅ x 2 −1
H
⇒ x = sec y , 0 < y < π , y ≠ K
a
2
aQ sec y = xf
f
...(a)
Step 2.: x + ∆ x = sec y + ∆ y
RπU
...(2)
a f Now, y ∈b0 , π g − S V
Step 3.: ∆ x = sec y + ∆ y − sec y (subtracting (1)
T2 W
F π I ∪ FG π , πIJ
from (2))
1 1 cos y − cos y + ∆ y a f H 2K H 2 K
⇒ y∈ 0,
=
a
cos y + ∆ y
−
f
cos y
=
cos y ⋅ cos y + ∆ y a f
F F I I F π I or y ∈ FG π , πIJ
H
2 sin y +
∆y
H K
⋅ sin
K
∆y ⇒ y∈ 0,
H 2K H 2 K
2 2
fa
cos y ⋅ cos y + ∆ y
Again,
FG π IJ ⇒ sec y and tan y both are positive
1 cos y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f
y ∈ 0,
H 2K
⇒
∆x
=
F ∆ y I ⋅ sin F ∆ y I ... (3) ⇒ The product sec y . tan y is positive
H 2K H2K
2 sin y + ...(b)
F π , πI ⇒ sec y and tan y both are negative
∆ y cos y ⋅ cos a y + ∆ y f ∆y
and y ∈
H2 K
Step 4.:
∆x
=
F ∆ yI
⋅
F ∆ yI ⇒ the product sec y · tan y is positive ...(c)
H 2 K sin H 2 K
2 sin y + Hence, from (b) and (c), we observe that the
product of sec y and tan y is positive in the first
( Multiplying both sies of (3) by ∆ y ) quadrant and in the second quadrant for

a
cos y ⋅ cos y + ∆ y f 1 b g RST π2 UVW ⇒ the product sec y · tan y is
y∈ 0, π −
=
F ∆y
.
I ∆y F I ...(4)
Rπ U
sin y +
H K H K positive for y ∈ b0 , πg − S V . Which means that
T2 W
2 2
sin
∆y F I Rπ U
H K sec y ⋅ tan y = sec y ⋅ tan y for y ∈ b0 , πg − S V
T2 W
2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 435

(Q f x af af
= f x for f x > 0 ) af ...(d) FG Q tan y IJ
H K
2
= x tan y
2 = tan y
Equating (a) and (d), we have

sec y ⋅ tan y = sec y ⋅ tan y = x . x 2 − 1 = x

2
sec x − 1
dy
∴ dx =
1 FGQ ∆ y dyIJ = x x 2 −1
H K
lim = ...(4)
,
x x −12 ∆x→ 0 ∆ x dx Equating (3) and (4), we have
for x > 1. sec y ⋅ tan y = sec y ⋅ tan y = x ⋅ x2 −1
Second method using the formula:
dy 1 1
dy
=
1
FG IJ
∴
dx
=
dx FG IJ =
x2 −1
, x > 1.

H K
dx dx x
H K
dy
dy
Third method
7. y = sec
−1
x −1 −1 F 1I ,
π
y = sec x = cos
H xK x ≥1
⇒ x = sec y for 0 ≤ y ≤ π , y ≠ (from the
dy d −1 d −1 1 FI
HK
2
⇒ = sec x = cos , x ≥1
−1 dx dx dx x
definition of sec x) ...(1)
1 d FG 1 IJ ,
H xK
dx =− ⋅
⇒ = sec y ⋅ tan y (differentiating both sides x >1
dy 1 dx
1− 2
of (1) w.r.t. y) ...(2) x
Now,
F 1I
y ∈ LM 0 , I ∪ F , π OP
1
dx − 1 x i H x K , x
π π =− ⋅ −
N 2 2 QK H >1
2 2 2

⇒ tan y and sec y both are positive for

1 F 1 I , x >1
π =
F I ⋅
Hx K 2
0< y<
GG x −1
J
2
and tan y and sec y both are negative for
H x JK
2
2
π
< y<π
2 x 1
= ⋅ 2 2

cxh
2
⇒ the product sec y . tan y is always positive for, 2 (Q x = x and x =x )
x −1
2

π 1
0 < y < π, y ≠ =
2 , x >1
x x 2 −1
Hence, sec y ⋅ tan y = sec y ⋅ tan y Cor: On replacing x by f (x) in the L.H.S and R.H.S of
bQ f a xf = f a xfg the above formula, we get

(for f a x f > 0 ) af
−1
...(3) d sec f x
=
1
⋅ f′ x af
and sec x ⋅ tan y = sec x ⋅ tan y dx
af
f x f
2
a xf − 1
436 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F π , π I − k0p , show FH Q f a xf a f IK
H 2 2K
−1 = f2 x
x , y∈ −
2
8. If y = cosec = cosec y cot y

, c x > 1h .
dy 1 2
that =− = cosec y ⋅ cosec y − 1
−1
aQ cosec y = xf
dx x x2
= x ⋅ x 2 −1 ...(a)
Proof: First method (derivation of d.c. using the
definition) Now,
−1
c x > 1h F π π I kp
Step 1.: Let y = cosec x , ...(1) y∈ −
H ,
2 2 K
− 0

⇒ x = cosec y ,
−π π
< y< ,y≠0 F π I F πI
2 2
H 2 K H 2K
⇒ y∈ − , 0 ∪ 0,
Step 2.: x + ∆ x = cosec y + ∆ ya f ...(2)
F π I F πI
Step 3.: ∆ x = cosec ( y + ∆ y ) − cosec y (subtracting H 2 K H 2K
⇒ y ∈ − , 0 or y ∈ 0 ,

F π I
(1) from (2) )
Again, y ∈ G − , 0J
=
a
1
sin y + ∆ y
−
f
1
sin y
H 2 K
⇒ cosec y and cot y both are negative
sin y − sin a y + ∆ y f ⇒ The product cosec y . cot y is positive
sin a y + ∆ y f ⋅ sin y
=
F π I
and
H
y ∈ 0,
K ...(b)

2 cos a y + ∆ y f ⋅ sin
F ∆ yI 2

H2K ⇒ cosec y and cot y both are positive

sin a y + ∆ y f ⋅ sin y
=− ⇒ the product cosec y · cot y is positive
From (b) and (c), we observe that the product of

sin a y + ∆ y f ⋅ sin y
π π F I kp
⇒
1
=−
F ∆ y I ⋅ ∆ y ...(3)
cosec y and cot y is positive for y ∈ −, − 0
H K
2 cos a y + ∆ y f ⋅ sin
2 2
∆y
H2K ⇒ The product cosec y · cot y is positive for
F π π I kp
sin y ⋅ sin a y + ∆ y f 1
y∈ −
H ,
2 2 K
− 0 which means that
=−
F ∆ y I ⋅
F ∆ yI ...(4)
cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y
H 2 K sin H 2 K
cos y +
af af af
F ∆ yI (Q f x = f x for f x > 0 ...(d)
H2K Equating (a) and (d), we have
cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y
∆y sin y ⋅ sin y
Step 4.: ∆ lim =− = x ⋅ x 2 −1
x→0 ∆x cos y ⋅ 1 (Taking the
limits of both sides of (4) as ∆ x → 0 ) ∆ y dy
and since, lim = , so (5) becomes equal
∆ x →0 ∆ x dx
1
=− ...(5)
cosec y ⋅ cot y dy
=−
1
to , x >1
Step 5.: cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y dx x x2 −1
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 437

Second method using the formula:

dy 1 −1
dy 1 = = , x > 1.
= dx dx x . x2 −1
dx dx dy
dy
Third method
9. y = cosec
−1
x FG 1 IJ , x ≥ 1
⇒ x = cosec y , for −
π π
≤y≤ ,y≠0 ... (1)
H xK
10. y = cosec −1 x = sin − 1

d F 1I
2 2
dy d −1 −1

dx H xK
dx ⇒ = cosec x = sin , x ≥1
⇒ = − cosec y ⋅ cot y dx dx

d F 1I
dy
dy 1
dx H x K
(differentiating (1) w.r.t. y) ...(2) ⇒ = . , x >1
LM OP k p
π π
dx
1−
1
Now, y ∈ −
N Q ,
2 2
− 0 x2

L π I F πO −1 F 1 I,
⇒ y∈ M − , 0 ∪ 0, P
N 2 K H 2Q
=
x −1 x
2 2
. −
H x2 K x >1

⇒ cosec y and cot y both are negative for

π −1 1
− < y < 0 and cosec y and cot y both are positive =
F I ⋅ 2

GG x −1
JJ
x
eQ x j
2 2
2
= x2
for 0 < y <
π H x 2
K
2
⇒ the product cosec y · cot y is always positive
=
− x
.
1
2
FHQ x2 = x IK
−π π x −1
2 x
for < y< ,y≠0
2 2
1
Hence, cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y =− , x >1
x2 −1
af af af
x
(Q f x = f x for f x > 0 ) ...(3)
−1 −1 π
and cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y Note: (i) sec x + cosec x = , ∀ x ≤ − 1 or x ≥1
2
FGQ tan y IJ
H K
2 d −1 d −1
= x ⋅ cot y
2 = tan y ⇒ sec x + cosec x = 0
dx dx
2 −1 −1
= x ⋅ cosec y − 1 d sec x d cosec x 1
⇒ =− =
dx dx 2
= x ⋅ x2 − 1 ...(4) x x −1

af af
Equating (3) and (4), we have
d −1 d −1
(ii) sec f x = − cosec f x
cosec y ⋅ cot y = cosec y ⋅ cot y dx dx
= x x 2 −1 1
⋅
d
af
af axf − 1
= f x
2 dx
∴ (2) becomes equal to f x f
438 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

An important remark:
a fe
2
The domain of the derived function of sec
−1
x and =−
2
x
⋅ −1 ⋅ x
−2
j ⋅ dxd x
−1 x −1
cosec x are defined for x > 1. According to the
convention we have adopted
+ x 1 x
−1 = ⋅ 2
⋅
d sec x 1 2 x x
(i) = x −1
dx 2
x x −1 2
x 1
= ⋅
−1 2
d cosec x −1 x x −12 x
(ii) = are inaccurate unless
dx 2
x x −1 1
=
we consider the restriction ‘ x > 1 ’ against the derived x x2 − 1
functions of inverse circular functions namely
−1 −1
Cor:
d −1
sec f x = af 1
⋅
d
af
f x
af a xf − 1
sec x and / coses x because
dx 2 dx
f x f
−1

f a xf
d sec x 1
dx
=
x −1
2 , c x > 1h =
1
⋅
d

af a xf − 1
x 2 dx
f x f
−1
⇔
d sec x
=
1
, for x > 1 d −1 d −1 FG 1 IJ
dx (ii) dx cosec x = dx sin
HxK
2
x x −1
−1
=
x x2 − 1
,for x < –1 =
1
1
⋅
d 1
dx x eQ x 2
= x2 j
1− 2
−1 x
and
d cosec
dx
x
=−
1
2
, c x > 1h
x −1
2
x x d −1 d x
= ⋅ x .
2 dx dx
d cosec
−1
x −1 x −1
⇔ = , for x > 1
dx
b ge
2

1
x x −1
=
x −12
x
⋅ −1 x
−2
j. x
x
=
, for x < –1
x x2 − 1
− x x 1
Remember: = . 2
.
x −12 x x
d −1 d −1 FG 1 IJ
(i) dx sec x = dx cos
HxK =
2
− x
2

x 2 −1 . x
F1I Qx
x .
=−
1
1
⋅
d
dx GH x JK e 2
= x2 j =
−1
1− 2 x x2 − 1
x
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 439

−1
af af
1
d cosec −1 d d cos x 1 1 1
Cor: f x = ⋅ f x = =− =−
af a xf − 1 e j
2.
dx
f x f
2 dx dx −
− sin cos x
1 sin θ sin θ

−1 d f a xf Q0≤θ≤π
= ⋅
f xaf f
2
a xf − 1 dx
=
−1
=−
1
; x <1
2 2
3. The differential coefficients of those trigonometric 1 − cos θ 1− x
and inverse trigonometric function which begin with
‘c’ are negative. −1
d tan x 1
4. Method of remembering the d.c. of standard =
e j
3. 2 −1
inverse circular functions dx sec tan x

Let y = f −1
b xg ⇒ x = f b yg ⇒ dxdy = f ′ b yg 1 1 1
= 2
= 2
= 2
dy 1 1 1 sec θ 1 + tan θ 1+ x
⇒
dx
=
FG IJ
dx
=
f′ y
=
af
f′ f
−1
, where
af
H K d cot −1 x
x −1
=
e j
dy 4.
dx cosec x cot −1 x
2

af
(i) f −1 x = θ is required to put and simplify as well
af
as f θ = x is put in the last stage to get an algebraic =
−1
2
=
−1
2
expression in x. 1 + cot θ 1+ x
(ii) f ′ = d.c. of f = prime of f
−1
(iii) f = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec d sec x 1
=
e j e j
(iv) f ′ = d.c. of sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec 5. − 1 −1
dx sec sec x ⋅ tan sec x
2 2
= cos / − sin / sec / − cosec / sec ⋅ tan / –cosec ·

af
1 1
cot whose operand is f −1 x = given inverse = =
sec θ ⋅ tan θ sec θ ⋅ tan θ
trigonometric function. Thus the d.c. of inverse
trigonometric function = reciprocal of the derivative Q0<θ<π
of the direct trigonometric function (of the given t −1 – 1 1
= =
function ) whose operand is the given function which sec θ ⋅ tan θ 2
x sec θ − 1
is put equal to θ to get an algebric expression in x.
Thus:
1
= ; x >1
d sin −1 x 1 1 1 x −1
2
= = = x
1.
dx −1
cos sin x e
cos θ cos θ j −1

LM −π π OP 6.
d cosec x

N
Q
2
≤θ≤
2 Q dx
−1 −1
1 1 = =
=
1 − sin θ
2
=
1− x
2 ; x <1 e
cosec cosec x cot (cosec x )
−1
j −1 cosec θ ⋅ cot θ
440 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

=
−1 LMQ − π ≤ θ ≤ π OP 4. On replacing f (x) by f x in the L.H.S and R.H.Saf
cosec θ ⋅ cot θ N 2 2Q
and retaining | f (x) | where it is in the above formulas,
we get
−1 −1
=
cosec θ cot θ
=
x
2
cosec θ − 1 (i)
d sin
−1
f x af =
1
⋅
d f x af
−1
dx
1− f a xf
2 dx

=
x
2
x −1
; x >1 eQ f a xf 2
= f2 a xfj
d cos f a x f af
−1
Note: 1. Insertion and removal of mod operator is −1 d f x
(ii) = ⋅
performed by considering the principal values of given
inverse circular function.
dx
1− f
2
a xf dx

2. x < 1 means domains of derivatives of inverse

sine and cosine function are the same namely x < 1 (iii)
d tan
−1
af
f x
=
1
⋅
d f x af
whereas x > 1 means domains if derivatives of
inverse secant and cosecant function are the same
dx
1+ f
2
a xf dx

namely x > 1
3. On replacing x by f (x) in the L.H.S and R.H.S of the (iv)
d cot
−1
f x af =
−1
⋅
d f x af
above furmulas, we have dx
1+ f
2
a xf dx

d sin −1
f x bg =
1
⋅ f′ xbg −1
af= af
bxg
(i) d sec f x 1 d f x
dx 1− f (v) ⋅
af a xf − 1
2
dx 2 dx
f x f

d cos −1
f x bg =
−1
⋅ f′ xbg −1
af −1 af
b xg
(ii) d cosec f x d f x
dx (vi) = ⋅
1− f
af a xf − 1
2
dx 2 dx
f x f

d tan
−1
f x a f= 1
⋅ f′ x af af
5. “ a 2 T 2 θ ” can be written equal to “ a T θ ” , if af
a xf
(iii)
2
dx 1+ f it is pre-assumed that ‘a’ is positive and the angle ‘ θ ’
of any trigonometric function sin, cos, tan, cot, sec or
d cot
−1
f x a f= −1
⋅ f′ x af
cosec is an acute angle.

a xf
(iv)
dx 1+ f
2 N.B.: “ T ” in “ T ( θ ) ” means the operator sin, cos,
tan, cot, sec or cosec indicating trigonometric
d sec
−1
a f=
f x 1
af
⋅ f′ x
functions.
Type 1.: y = t −1 f x af
af a xf − 1
(v)
dx 2
f x f −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec
d cosec
−1
a xf = −1
af
⋅ f′ x a f a f f a xf + f a xf
f1 x + f 2 x
(vi)
dx
af
f x f
2
a xf − 1 af
f x =
f a xf + f a xf
3 f a x f + f a xf
4
1

3
2

f a xf × f a xf f a xf × f a xf
Which are known as derivatives of inverse
trigonometric function of a function of x formulas. 1 2 1 2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 441

af af af
Where f1 x , f2 x , f3 x and f4 x are trigo- af ⇒ − sin y
dy
nometric functions of x / algebraic expressions in x /
bg bg
dx
one or two of the four functions f 1 x , f 2 x ,
bg bg =
a− sin xfa25 + 15 cos x − 9 − 15 cos xf
a5 + 3 cos xf
f 3 x and f 4 x may be constant. 2
Working rule:
1. Change the inverse trigonometric function into dy 16 sin x
⇒ = ⋅ , sin y ≠ 0 .
b5 + 3 cos xg
direct function 2
dx sin y
⇒y=t
−1
af
f x ⇔t y = f x af af
2. Differentiate both sides w.r.t. x, i.e eQ f2 a xf = f a xf j 2
...(iii)
af
dt y
=
df x af Now, from (ii),
dx dx siny = sin y
a f ⋅ dy = f ′ a x f
FG 3 + 5 cos x IJ
dt y
⇒ 2
4 sin x
H 5 + 3 cos x K a f
dy dx = 1− =
dy f ′ x af 5 + 3 cos x
⇒
dx
=
FG d t a yfIJ aQ 0 ≤ y ≤ π ⋅ ∴ sin y ≥ 0f
H dy K Which gives for x ≠ n π
3. Express the d.c. of t (y) in terms of f (x) and simplify.
Note: The above method is known as general method sin x
=
a5 + 3 cos xf sin x
...(iv)
to differentiate an inverse trigonometric function of sin y 4 sin x
af
the type : y = t −1 f x which can be used to From (iii) and (iv), we get for x ≠ n π
differentiate any type of inverse circular function dy 4 sin x
provided given function can be put in the form
af
y = t −1 f x ⇔ t y = f x .af af dx
=
a5 + 3 cos xf sin x

Examples worked out on type (1) find the d.c. of the 4 sin x
following
=
b5 + 3 cos x sin x g
FG 3 + 5 cos x IJ
−1 Note: A direct method has been mentioned later.
1. y = cos
H 5 + 3 cos x K F 2x I
F 3 + 5 cos x IJ 2. y = sin
−1
GH 1 + x JK
Solution: y = cos G
2
−1

H 5 + 3 cos x K ...(i)
F 2x I
⇒ cos y = G
F 3 + 5 cos x IJ Solution: y = sin G
H 1 + x JK
−1

H 5 + 3 cos x K
2
...(ii)

Now differentiating both sides w.r.t. x 2x

⇒ sin y = 2 ...(1)
dy 1+x
⇒ − sin y
dx
1+ x e 2
j ⋅ 2 − 2 x a2 x f
a5 + 3 cos xf a− 5 sin xf − a3 + 5cos xfa− 3 sin xf ⇒
d sin y
=
=
a5 + 3 cos xf 2
dx
e1 + x j 2 2
442 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

e j
Which gives
2 1 + x2 − 4 x2
= d
2 1− x 2 i d i
1 + x2
e j 2 dy
1 + x2 = ⋅
dx d i d i
1 + x2
2
1 − x2

⇒ cos y
dy
=
2 − 2x
2
=
2 1− x e 2
j 2 e1 − x j 2
= , x ≠ ± 1.
dx
1+ x
2 2
1+ xe
e j
2 2
j e1 − x j e1 + x j
2 2

LMQ d sin y = d sin y ⋅ dy OP F 1 + x IJ

N dx dx Q 3. y = tan G
−1
dy
H1 − xK
dy 2 e1 − x j
F 1 + x IJ , x ≠ 1
2
1
⇒ = ⋅ ; cos y ≠ 0
Solution: y = tan G
...(ii)
e1 + x j cos y
−1
H1 − xK
2
dx 2

2 1+ x
Now, cos y = cos y = 1 − sin y ⇒ tan y = ...(i)
1− x
FQ − π ≤ y ≤ π ⇒ cos y ≥ 0I a a
H 2 2 K ⇒
d tan y
=
1− x ⋅1− 1+ x f f a− 1f
dx 1− x
2
a f
= 1−
4 x2
a1 − xf + a1 + xf
d1 + x i
[from (1)]
2 2 =
a1 − xf 2

dy 2
e1 + x j − 4 x
2
⇒ sec y ⋅ =
a f
2 2 2
2
=
dx 1− x
e1 + x j 2 2

⇒
dy
=
2
⋅
1

1+ x + 2x − 4x
4 2 2
dx 1− x a f 2
sec y
2 ...(ii)

=
d1 + x i 2
2 2 FG 1 + x IJ 2
Now, sec y = 1 + tan y = 1 +
H1 − x K
Q e1 + x j is always + ve ⇒ e1 + x j
2 2
= 1+ x
2

=
b1 − xg + b1 + xg
2 2

=
1 + x 4 − 2x 2 b1 − xg 2 [ from (1) ]

d1 + x i 2
1 + x2 − 2x + 1 + x2 + 2x
=
d1 − x i 2 2 b1 − xg 2

= 2 + 2x2
d1 + x i 2 =
b1 − xg 2

d1 − x i F 2 d1 + x i
a xf = f a xf IK
2 2

d1 + x i HQ
= =
b1 − xg
2
2 f 2 ...(iii)
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 443

Which gives dy
⇒ cos y = cos x
dy
=
2 b1 − xg = 1 ; x ≠ 1
⋅
2
dx
dx b g 2 e1 + x j e1 + x j
1− x
2 2 2 dy cos x Fy ≠ ± πI
⇒ =
dx cos y H 2K
4. y = sin a cos x f
−1
cos x
=
Solution: y = sin a cos x f
−1
cos y
⇒ sin y = cos x F∴ − π ≤ y ≤ π ⇒ cos y ≥ 0 ∴ cos I
d sin y d cos x H 2 2
= cos y
K
⇒ =
dx dx cos x
=
dy 2 Q sin y = sin x
cos y ⋅ = − sin x 1 − sin x
dx
dy − sin x π =
cos x
=
cos x
π
⇒ = y≠± ; x ≠ nπ +
dx cos y for 2 cos x
2 cos x
2

=−
sin x
−1 FG cos x − sin x IJ
π
cos y
π
6. y = tan
H cos x + sin x K
Q− ≤ y ≤ ⇒ cos y ≥ 0 First method:
2 2
∴ cos y = cos y −1 FG cos x − sin x IJ
Solution: y = tan
H cos x + sin x K
dy sin x π
∴ =− ,y≠± cos x − sin x
dx cos y 2 2 ⇒ tan y = ...(i)
cos x + sin x
− sin x
= d tan y
1 − sin 2 y ⇒
dx

− sin x =
bcos x + sin xgb−sin x − cos xg − bcos x − sin xg⋅b−sin x + cos xg
=
1 − cos2 x
; x ≠ nπ bcos x + sin xg 2

LMecos x + sin x j + acos x − sin x f OP

N Q
2 2
Nr = −
− sin x − sin x
= = , x ≠ nπ, n ∈ z
2
sin x sin x 2 2
= − 2 cos x + sin x = − 2
5. y = sin
−1
asin xf 2 dy 2
⇒ sec y =−
Solution: y = sin
−1
asin xf dx sin x + cos xa f 2

⇒ sin y = sin x dy 2 1
⇒ =− ⋅
⇒
d sin y d sin x
=
dx a
sin x + cos x f 2 2
sec y
...(ii)
dx dx
444 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Now, from (i), 2 2

dy − sin x − sin y − cos y
RS cos x − sin x UV
2
⇒ sec y =
a f
2
1 + sin x
2 2 2
sec y = 1 + tan y = 1 + dx
T cos x + sin x W
dy − 1 + sin x a −1 f
acos x + sin xf + acos x − sin xf
2

=
2 2 ⇒ sec y
dx
=
1 + sin xa2
=
1 + sin x f a f
acos x + sin xf 2

dy 1 1
=
2 2
cos x + sin x + cos x + sin x
2 2 ⇒
dx
=−
a ⋅
1 + sin x sec 2 y f ...(ii)

acos x + sin xf 2

2 2 F cos x IJ
Now, sec y = 1 + tan y = 1 + G
2
2

=
acos x + sin x f 2 ...(iii) H 1 + sin x K
Which gives
a1 + sin xf + cos x 2 2

dy
=
−2
×
acos x + sin xf 2
= − 1 Ans.
=
a1 + sin xf 2

dx a
sin x + cos x f 2
2
2 2
1 + sin x + 2 sin + cos x
=
a1 + sin xf
Second method:
F I
2
cos x − sin x 1 − tan x π
=
cos x + sin x 1 + tan x
= tan
4
− x
H K 2 + 2 sin x 2 a1 + sin x f
= =
−1 LMtan F π − xI OP = n π + π − x a1 + sin xf a1 + sin xf 2 2

∴ y = tan
N H 4 KQ 4 2

where ‘n’ is such that −

π π
≤ nπ + − x ≤
π
=
a1 + sin x f ...(iii)
2 4 2 Which gives
∴
dy
= −1 dy 1 1 + sin x 1 a f
dx
dx
=
a
1 + sin x
×
2
=−
2
Ans.
f
−1 FG cos x IJ Method (2)
7. y = tan
H 1 + sin x K x x
Solution: Method (1) cos x cos2 − sin 2
= 2 2
−1 FG cos x IJ 1 + sin x x FG
x
2
IJ
y = tan
H 1 + sin x K cos + sin
2 2H K
cos x
⇒ tan y = x x x
1 + sin x ...(i) − sin
cos 1 − tan
2 = tan π − x FG IJ
H K
2 2
d tan y
=
FG
x x IJ =
x 4 2
⇒
dx H
cos + sin
2 2 K 1 + tan
2

a1 + sin x f dxd acos x f − cos x dxd a1 + sin xf ∴ y = nπ +

π x
−
=
a1 + sin xf 2 4 2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 445

∴
dy
dx
=−
1
2
bb + a sin xg dxd ba + b sin xg − ba + b sin xg dxd bb + a sin xg
=
−1 1 bb + a sin xg 2

8. y = tan
x dy
⇒ − sin y
−1 1 dx
Solution: y = tan
x
=
ab + a sin xf b cos x − aa + b sin xf a cos x
⇒ tan y =
1 ab + a sin xf 2

x
d tan y d F 1I = − 1 dy b cos x − a cos x
2
1
2

⇒
dx
=
dx H xK x 2
⇒
dx
=
b + a sin x
2
⋅
− a
sin y f
⇒ sec y ⋅
2 dy
dx
1
=− 2
=
eb − a j cos x ⋅ − 1
2 2

ab + a sin xf 1 − cos y
x
2 2
dy 1 1
⇒ =− 2 ⋅
dx x
2
sec y bQ sin y = sin y as 0 ≤ y ≤ πg
F 1 I eb − a j cos x ×
1
GH 1 + tan y JK
2 2
=− ⋅ −1
=
2 2
x
ab + a sin xf 2
FG a + b sin x IJ 2

F I 1−
H b + a sin x K
1 G⋅ G 1 JJ LQ tan y = 1 O
GH 1 + x1 JK MN x PQ
=−
x2
2
=
eb − a j cos x ×
2 2

bb + a sin xg 2

R| U|
1 | |V = − 1 b
−| b + a sin x | g
=− S 2
1
x | F x + 1I | 1+ x 2
e
b + a sin x + 2 a b sin x − a + b 2 sin 2 x + 2 a b sin x
2 2 2 2
j
|T GH x JK |W
2

eQ f a xf 2
= f2 x a fj
9. y = cos G
F a + b sin x IJ
−1

H b + a sin x K eb 2
−a j acos xf × − 1
2

F a + b sin x IJ
=
LMb + e a − b j sin x O
ab + a sin xf
Solution: y = cos G N QP
2 2 2 2 2
−1 −a
H b + a sin x K
⇒ cos y =
a + b sin x
b + a sin x =
b ge
− cos x b 2 − a 2 j ×
1

⇒
d cos y eb − a j − eb
2 2 2 2
j
− a sin x 2 bb + a sin xg
dx
446 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a fe
− cos x b − a j × 1
2 2
ea − b j sin x ⋅
2 2
1
=
FG b − a IJ FG 1 − sin x IJ ab + a sin xf =
ab + a cos xf 2
F a + b cos x IJ
H KH K
2 2 2 2
1− G
H b + a cos x K
F I
− G b − a J acos x f
H K
2 2

= =
ea 2 2
− b sin x j ⋅
b + a cos x
b + a sin x
eb + a cos x j − aa + b cos xf
cos x
b + a cos x
2 2 2

dy
exists only when b 2 > a 2 .
LMQ f a xf = f a xf a fOQP
Note:
dx
N
2
f2 x af = f2 x
F a + b cos x IJ
and
10. y = sin G
−1

H b + a cos x K ea − b j sin x ×
2 2

Solution: y = sin G
F a + b cos x IJ
−1
=
ab + a cos xf
H b + a cos x K 1
a + b cos x
⇒ sin y =
b + a cos x
2 2 2
b + a cos x + 2 a b cos x − a + b cos x + 2 a b cos x e 2 2 2
j
⇒
d sin y
dx =
ea 2 2
− b sin x j ⋅
1

=
ab + a cos xf dxd aa + b cos xf − aa + b cos xf dxd ab + a cos xf b + a cos x
eb 2
−a
2
j − eb 2 2
− a cos x j 2

ab + a cos xf 2

⇒ cos y
dy
=
ea 2
−b
2
j sin x ⋅ 1
dx

=
ab + a cos xf (−b sin x) − aa + b cos xf ⋅ a −a sin xf
b + a cos x
eb 2
−a
2
j e1 − cos xj 2

ab + a cos xf 2

dy − b 2 sin x + a 2 sin x 1 =
e
− b −a
2 2
j sin x ⋅ 1
⋅
1
⇒ = ⋅ b + a cos x
b g
2 2 2
dx b + a cos x
2
cos y b −a 1 − cos x

2 2 2 2
− b sin x + a sin x 1 − b −a sin x
= ⋅ = ⋅
ab + a cos xf 2
cos y b + a cos x sin x

FQ cos y = cos y as − π ≤ y ≤ π I Type 2: Method of substitution and use of chain

H 2
ea − b j sin x ⋅ 1
2 2
=
ab + a cos xf 1 − sin y
2K
rule.
Form A: y = a constant × t −1 f x b a fg
−1
or, y = a constant × t [ a constant times f (x)]
Where, f (x) = a function of x / sin x / cos x/.... /
2 2 an expression in x etc.
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 447

Working rule: * or alternatively,

1. Put t −1
b a fg
f x or t −1 [ constant f (x) = u and dy dy du
= ⋅ =
1
⋅ 2
ab
differentiate w.r.t. x]. dx du dx ab a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2

u
2. Put y = or, (a constant × u) and differ- dy 1
constant ⇒ =
dy dy du dx a 2 cos 2 x + b 2 sin 2 x
entiate it by using chain rule, i.e. = ⋅ , where
dx du dx Form B:
dy
=
du constant
1
or, constant. y = a constant × t −1 e f a xf j
f a xf ± f a xf
f a xf =
Solved Examples:
f a xf m f a xf
1 2
where, a quotient of two
Find the d.c. of the following. 1 2

1 −1 b F I functions/an expression in x.
1. y =
ab
⋅ tan
a
tan x
H K Working rule:
× t au f
F b tan xI a f U|V ⇒ y = a constant
−1
−1 u=
Ha K
Solution: Let u = tan ...(i) f x
v = f a xf |
1. Put 1 .
W u = v ⇒ dv = 2 v
du

b
∴ tan u = tan x
a
du dv dy
du b
2 2
2. Find , and .
⇒ sec u = sec x dv dx du
dx a 3. Use the chain rule:
dy dy du dv
du b 2 1 b sec x
2
1 = ⋅ ⋅
⇒ = sec x ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
dx du dv dx
dx a sec u a b 2
1+ Note: 1. The constant may be unity. Similarly any
af af
2
tan x
a one of f 1 x and f 2 x may be unity.
2 2 2. The above method may be termed as u − v method
du b sec x a just for easiness.
⇒ = ⋅ 2 2 2
dx a a + b tan x Solved Examples on form (B)
Find the d.c. of the following
du ab
⇒ = 2
dx a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2 ...(ii)
FG 1 + sin x IJ
H 1 − sin x K
1
1. y = tan
u *
Now again, let y = ...(iii)
ab
Solution: y = tan G
F 1 + sin x IJ
H 1 − sin x K
1
dy 1 du 1 ab
∴ = ⋅ = ⋅ 2
dx ab dx ab a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2

Let u = G
F 1 + sin x IJ
H 1 − sin x K
[from (ii)] ...(i)
1
= 2 2 2 2
a cos x + b sin x
448 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

v=
1 + sin x FG 1 − cos x IJ =
1 − sin x ...(ii) Let u =
H 1 + cos x K v ...(i)

∴ y = tan −1 v ⇔ tan −1 u ...(iii)

1 − cos x
Now, from (1), where v = ...(ii)
1 + cos x
u= v
−1
∴ y = tan u ...(iii)
du 1 1
⇒ = =
FG 1 + sin x IJ
From (i),
dv 2 v
2
H 1 − sin x K u= v ⇒
du
=
1
=
1
dv 2 v FG 1 − cos x IJ
and from (ii),
y = tan −1 u
2
H 1 + cos x K
and from (ii),
dy 1
⇒ = 1 − cos x
du 1 + u 2 v=
1 + cos x
1 1 dv sin x (1 + cos x ) + sin x (1 − cos x )
=
FG
1 + sin x IJ FG=
1 − sin x + 1 + sin x IJ ⇒
dx
=
a
1 + cos x
2
f
1+
H
1 − sin x K H 1 − sin x K dv sin x + sin x cos x + sin x − sin x cos x
⇒ =
=
1 − sin x dx a
1 + cos x
2
f
...(iv) −1
2 Now, y = tan u
dy dy du dv
Hence, = ⋅ ⋅ dy 1 1
dx du dv dx ⇒ =
du 1 + u 2
=
1 − cos x FG IJ
1 − sin x 1 FG 1 − sin x IJ ⋅ 2 cos x 1+
1 + cos x H K
=
2
⋅ ⋅
2 H 1 + sin x K a1 − sin xf 2
1 1
=
FG 1 + cos x + 1 − cos x IJ FG
=
2 IJ
=
1
2
⋅
cos x
b1 + sin xg b1 − sin x g
=
1 cos x
⋅
2 cos x
, H 1 + cos x K H 1 + cos x K
1 + cos x
π = ...(iv)
x ≠ nπ + 2
2 Now,

FG 1 − cos x IJ
dy dy du dv
−1
= ⋅ ⋅
2. y = tan
H 1 + cos x K
dx du dv dx

=
a1 + cos xf ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 + cos x
⋅
2 sin

−1 FG 1 − cos x IJ 2 2 1 − cos x a1 + cos xf 2

Solution: y = tan
H 1 + cos x K =
1
⋅
sin x 1 sin x
= ⋅ , x ≠ nπ.
2 1 − cos x
2 2 sin x
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 449

On Method of Trigonometric Substitution 2

1 + cot θ = cosec θ
af
(c1)
−1
Type 1: y = t f x
2
where t = −1
sin–1
/ cos–1 / tan–1 / cot–1 / sec–1 / (c2) cosec θ − 1 = cot θ , ... etc.
cosec–1
f (x) = a trigonometrical function of x / algebraic
Where mod operator ‘ .... ’ can be removed a f
from the trigonometric function by considering the
function of x / an algebric expression in x.
prinicipal values of θ = sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1
Note: 1. In such types of problems mentioned above,
our main aim is to remove inverse trigonometric x, sec–1 x, cosec–1 x.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 2 θ
operator sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec by (ii) (a1) 1 + cos θ = 2 cos
2
a trigonometric substitution x = sin θ / cos θ / tan θ /
2 θ
cot θ /sec θ / cosec θ or by any other means. (a2) 1 − cos θ = 2 sin
af
2. When y = t −1 f x is provided, where f (x) = an
(b1) 1 − 2 sin 2 θ = cos2 θ
2

expression in x, we substitute x = a trigonometrical

function of θ and t given expression in x becomes 2 2
(b2) 2 cos θ − 1 = cos θ
the direct trigonometrical function (or, trigonometrical
function / circular function) of multiple angle of (iii) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ ⋅ cos θ
−1
b g
θ ⇒ f f m θ = mθ which is differentiated w.r.t.
(iv) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin 2 θ = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ
x and lastly θ is expressed in terms of x, where m = 1, 2
2, 3, .... etc. = 2 cos θ − 1

⇔ (a) In sin
−1
af
f x , we put θ = sin –1 x,
(v) sin 2θ =
2 tan θ
2
π π 1 + tan θ
− ≤ θ ≤ , then x = sin θ . 2
2 2 1 − tan θ
(vi) cos 2 θ =
af
2
−1 −1 1 + tan θ
(b) In cos f x , we put θ = cos x, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ,
then x = cos θ 2 tan θ
(vii) tan 2θ =
af
2
−1 −1 1 − tan θ
(c) In tan f x , we put θ = tan x, 3
(viii) sin 3 θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin θ
π π
− < θ< , then x = tan θ etc. 3
2 2 (ix) cos 3 θ = 4 cos θ − 3 cos θ
3. Remember the following formulas which give us 3
3 tan θ − tan θ
idea of trigonometric substitution (x) tan 3 θ = 2
2
1 − 3 tan θ
(i) (a1) 1 − sin θ = cos θ

2
a
(xi) (a1) tan θ + φ = f tan θ + tan φ
1 − tan θ ⋅ tan φ
(a2) 1 − cos θ = sin θ

(b1) 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ
a
(a2) tan θ − φ = f tan θ − tan φ
1 + tan θ ⋅ tan φ
−1 A+B −1 −1
(b2) 2
sec θ − 1 = tan θ (xii) (a1) tan = tan A + tan B
1 − AB
450 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Examples:
−1 A− B −1 −1
(b2) tan
1 + A⋅ B
= tan A − tan B
(i) sin
−1
a−1f = − sin a1f = − π2−1

FG π + θ = 1 + tan θ IJ tan a−1f = − tan a1f = − etc.

−1 π−1
(xiii) tan
H4 1 − tan θ K (ii)
4
Fπ
tan G − θ =
1 − tan θ I
J (B) If y = cos
−1 −1
x , or cot x , then x is
x , sec
−1
(xiv)
H4 1 + tan θ K
negative means y is between
π
and π . In this case
N.B.: 1. In the given question, we are given an 2
expression in x which are obtained by replacing
−1 −1
y = π − cos x = cos − x a f
x = sec a− x f
−1 −1
x = sin θ / cos θ / tan θ / cot θ / cosec θ and sec θ in y = π − sec
x = cot a− x f
the above formulas in r.h.s. This is why the form of −1 −1
y = π − cot
the expression in x gives us the idea of proper
Examples:
substitution x = sin θ / cos θ / tan θ / cot θ / sec θ /
F − 1 I = π − cos F 1 I = π − π = 2π
−1 −1
cosec θ .
2. Remember:
(i) cos H 2K H 2K 3 3
−
a f π π −1F −2 I = π − sec a2f = π − π = 2π etc.
−1
(i) sin 1 sin x = x , when − ≤ x ≤ ,
2 2 (ii) sec
H 3K 3 3
sin sin e150 j ≠ 150 ( = 30 ) (4) (i) sin e sin x j = x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1 o o o −1

(ii) cos acos x f = x , when 0 ≤ x ≤ π ,

(ii) cos ecos x j = x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1 −1

F 2 π IJ = 2 π
cos G cos
−1
(iii) tan e tan x j = x for x ∈ R
H 3K 3
−1

(iii) tan atan x f = x , when − < x < , (iv) cot ecot x j = x for x ∈ R
−1 π π −1

2 2
F
−1 πI π (v) sec e sec x j = x for x ≥ 1
−1

H 6 K = 6 , ... etc.
tan tan
(vi) cosec e cosec x j = x for x ≥ 1
−1
where we should note that sin–1 x, tan –1 x, and
π π F 1 I or sin
−1 −1
H xK
−1
cosec x are angles which lie between − and + 5. If x ≥ 1 , then cosec x = sin –1

F 1I
2 2
−1
x = cosec H K .
−1 −1
denoting their principal values and cos x , cot x x
−1
F 1 I or cot
−1 −1
and sec x are angles lying between 0 and π denot- (ii) If x > 0 , then tan x = cot
H xK –1

ing their principal values.

−1 −1 −1
FI
−1
x = tan H K .
1
3. (A) If y = sin x , cosec x , or tan x , then x x
π F 1 I or cos
−1 −1
is negative means y is between −
2
and 0. In this (iii) If x ≥ 1, then sec x = cos
H xK –1

case y = sin–1 (–x) = –sin–1 x, y = cosec–1 (–x) F I

−1
x = sec H K .
1
= –cosec–1 x, y = tan–1 (–x) = –tan–1 x x
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 451

Solved Examples put in the form: y = t −1 f x af = sin

−1
asin 3θf
Find the d.c. of the follwoing:
π π
−1
= 3 θ = 3 sin x if −
≤ 3 θ ≤ , i.e;
1. y = cos
−1
e1 − 2 x j 2
2 2
π π 1 1
−1 − ≤θ≤ i.e; − ≤ x ≤
Solution: on putting x = sin θ ⇔ θ = sin x , where 6 6 2 2
π π ∴
dy
=
3 1
− ≤ θ ≤ , 1 − 2 sin 2 θ = cos 2 θ suggests to for x <
2 2 dx 1− x 2 2
put x = sin θ in 1 − 2 x d 2
i to get π π
Now, y = − π − 3θ for − ≤θ≤− and
e1 − 2 sin θj = cos acos 2 θf
−1 2 −1 2 6
y = cos
π π
y = π − 3 θ for ≤θ≤
−1 π 6 2
= 2 θ = 2 sin x if 0 ≤ θ ≤ ; i.e; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2 dy −3 1
∴ = for < x <1
−1 π dx 1− x 2 2
= − 2 θ = − 2 sin x if − ≤ θ ≤ 0 ; i.e;
2
Note: By chain rule
−1≤ x ≤ 0

∴
dy
=
2
if 0 < x < 1
dy
=
e
3 1 − 4x2 j ,x ≠±
1
, ± 1.
dx 1− x 2 dx 1 − x2 1 − 4x2 2
−2
=
1 − x2
if − 1 < x < 0 3. y = cos
−1
e4 x 3
− 3x j
Note: (i) y is defined for x ≤ 1 Solution: on putting x = cos θ ⇔ θ = cos−1 x , where

(ii)
dy
does not exist for x = 0 , 1, − 1 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ = cos 3 θ suggests to
dx put x = cosθ to get,

(iii) (Chain rule):

dy
=
−1
b− 4 x g y = cos
−1
e4 cos θ − 3 cos θj
3
dx
e
1 − 1 − 2x 2
j
π
=
2x
, x ≠ 0 , ±1
= cos
−1
acos 3θf = 3 θ = 3 cos −1
x for 0 ≤ θ ≤
3
x 1 − x2 1
= 3 θ − 2 π for − 1 < x < −
2
2. y = sin
−1
e3 x − 4 x j 3

∴
dy
=
−3 1
for < x <1
−1
dx 1 − x2 2
Solution: on putting x, x = sin θ ⇔ θ = sin
π π 1
where − ≤ θ ≤ , 3 sin θ − 4 sin 3 θ = sin 3 θ Also y = 2 π − 3 θ for x <
2 2 2
suggests to put x = sinθ in 3 x − 4 x 3 to get, d i ∴
dy
=
3
for x <
1

e3 sin θ − 4 sin θj
−1 3 dx 1− x 2 2
y = sin
452 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

−1 2x π π
4. y = tan 2
= − π − 2 θ for − <θ<− i.e; x < –1
1− x 2 4
dy 2
Solution: on putting x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan
−1 ∴ = for x < 1
x for dx 1 + x 2
π π 2 tan θ −2
− <θ< , = tan 2 θ suggests to put = for x > 1
2 2 1 − tan 2 θ 1 + x2

x = tanθ . dy
Note: (i) does not exist at x = ± 1
dx
∴ y = tan −1
2 tan θ
1 − tan 2 θ
b
= tan −1 tan 2 θ g (ii) To avoid different cases, we may differentiate
directly using chain rule as shown below in example
(6) and others
= n π + 2 θ = n π + 2 tan −1 x
F1 − x I 2

where
−π π
< y< .
6. y = cos
−1
GH 1 + x JK 2
2 2

y = cos G
F1 − x I 2

H 1 + x JK
dy 2 −1
∴ = ; x ≠ ± 1. Solution:
dx 1 + x 2 2

−1
F I
2x
5. y = sin
−1 d 1 − x2
GH JK
2 dy
1+ x ⇒ = ×
−
Solution: On putting x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan 1 x , dx
F1 − x I 2 dx 1 + x 2
GH 1 + x JK
2
1−
π π 2
− <θ<
2 2
2 tan θ
= sin 2 θ suggests to put =
d
− 1 + x2 i× − 4x
1 + tan θ
2
4x 2
d1 + x i 2 2

2x
x = tanθ in 2x
1 + x2 = x ≠ 0.
e j
(very easy method)
x 1 + x2
2 tan θ
∴ y = sin −1
1 + tan 2 θ F1 − x I 2
7. y = sin
−1
GH 1 + x JK
F 2 sin θ cos θ I = sin a2 sin θ cos θf
2

= sin
−1
GH cos θ + sin θ JK
2 2
−1

F1 − x I 2
y = sin G
H 1 + x JK
−1
Solution:
a sin 2θf
2
−1
= sin

= 2 θ = 2 tan
π −1
≤θ≤
π
x , if −
i.e; x ≤ 1 F
d 1 − x2 I
4 4 ⇒
dy
dx
=
F1 − x I
1
2
× GH
dx 1 + x 2 JK
π π
1−G
H 1 + x JK
2
= π − 2 θ for < θ < , i.e. x > 1 2
4 2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 453

=
d1 + x i ×
2
− 4x
1 + x4 − 2 x2 e1 − x j 2 2

4x 2
d1 + x i 2 2 =
e1 + x j
=
2 2
e1 + x j 2 2

− 2x
=
e
x 1 + x2 j
,x≠0
=
e1 − x j = e1 − x j
2 2

e1 + x j e1 + x j
2 2

F 2x I [ Q e1 + x j = 1 + x because e1 + x j is always
8. y = cos
−1
GH 1 + x JK 2
2 2 2

positive]

y = cos G
F 2x I , 0 ≤ y ≤ π d i d1 + x i
H 1 + x JK
dy 2 1 − x
2 2
−1
Solution: = ×
d i d1 − x i
2 Hence, 2
dx 1 + x2
2

2x
⇒ cos y =
1 + x2
=
e
2 1 − x2 j , x ≠ ± 1.
d cos y e j
1 + x2 × 2 − 2x 2 x b g e1 − x j e1 + x j
2 2

⇒ =
dx
e1 + x j 2
2
Note: If we do the above problem by the method
of trigonometric substitution, we get complete

=
e
2 1+ x j − 4x
2 2 result provided different cases are properly
considered otherwise (i.e; if different cases are not

e1 + x j 2 2 properly considered) , we get an incomplete result

dy 2
=
dx 1 + x 2 which is only possible when x < 1

⇒ − sin y
dy
=
2 − 2x2
=
2 1 − x2 e j F1 − x I 2
dx
e
1 + x2
2
1 + x2 j e
2
j 9. y = cos
−1
GH 1 + x JK 2

dy 2 1 − x
2
e 1 j F1 − x I 2
y = cos G
H 1 + x JK
⇒ = ⋅ , sin y ≠ 0 . −1
dx 1 + x2 e2
sin y
j Solution: 2

2
1− x
Now, sin y = 1 − cos y
2
⇒ cos y = 2
1+ x
= 1−
4 x2 1+ x e 2
j × a−2 xf − e1− x j × a2 xf
2

d1 + x i 2 2 ⇒
d cos y
=
dx
e1 + x j 2 2

=
e1 + x j − 4 x
2 2 2

=
4
1+ x + 2 x − 4 x
2 2
=
− 2 x − 2 x 3 − 2x + 2 x3

e1 + x j 2 2
e1 + x j 2 2
d1 + x i 2 2
454 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dy −4 x 2x
⇒ − sin y = = ;x≠0
dx
e 1+ x
2 2
j e1 + x j ⋅ x
2

F1 − x I 2

10. y = sin G
H 1 + x JK
dy −4 x 1 4x 1 −1
⇒ = × = ⋅
e j e j
2
dx 2 2 −sin y 2 2 sin y
1+ x 1+ x

Solution: y = sin G
F1 − x I 2

H 1 + x JK
−1
2
Now, sin y = 1 − cos y 2

c Q sin y = sin y as 0 ≤ y ≤ π h F1 − x I 2
⇒ sin y = G
F1 − x I H 1 + x JK
2
1−G
H 1 + x JK
2 2
= 2

d sin y e1 + x j × a−2 x f − e1 − x j × a2 x f
2 2

d1 + x i − d1 − x i
2 2 2 2 ⇒ =
=
d1 + x i 2 2
dx
e1 + x j 2 2

1 + x + 2 x − d1 + x i
3 3
dy −2 x − 2 x − 2 x + 2 x −4 x
4 2 4
− 2 x2 ⇒ cos y = =
= 2 2
e j e j
2
dx
d1 + x i
2
2 2 1+ x 1+ x

dy −4 x 1
1 + x4 + 2 x2 − 1 − x4 + 2 x2 ⇒ = ⋅
=
d1 + x i 2 2
dx
e1 + x j 2 2 cos y

2
2 Now, cos y = 1 − sin y
4x
=
e1 + x j 2 2
FQ cos y = π π I
H cos y as −
2
≤ y≤
2 K
=
d
2 x
i 1−G
F1 − x I 2

H 1 + x JK
2
1 + x2 = 2

1 + x2 d i
Hence,
dy
dx
=
4x
1 + x2
.
2 x d i =
d1 + x i − d1 − x i
2 2 2 2

d1 + x i 2 2

4x e1 + x j 2

1 + x + 2 x − d1 + x i
= ⋅
e1 + x j 2 x − 2 x2
2 4 2 4
=
d1 + x i 2 2

e Q d1 + x i is always positivej
2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 455

4x x
= =− , x ≠ 0.
d1 + x i 2 2 x 1 − x2

F 3x − x I 3
=
2 x
d1 + x i
2
=
2 x
1 + x2
12. y = tan
−1
GH 1 − 3x JK 2

e j being always y = tan G

F 3x − x I 3

H 1 − 3x JK
2 2 2
(Q 1 + x = 1 + x for 1 + x
Solution:
−1
2
positive)

e1+ x j =
−1
2 on putting x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan x for
dy 4x −2 x
∴ =− ×
dx 1+ xe2
j 2 x x 1+ xe 2
j −
π π 3 tan θ − tan θ
<θ< , 2
= tan 3 θ suggests
3

2 2 1 − 3 tan θ
−1
F 3x − x I ; x ≠ ± 1
2
11. y = sin 1− x 3

Solution: y = sin
−1
1− x
2
to put x = tan θ in GH 1 − 3x JK 2 3

⇒ sin y = 1 − x
2
F 3θ − tan θ I = tan btan 3θg
3
∴ y = tan −1 GH 1 − 3 tan θ JK 2
−1

⇒
d sin y
=
1
b g
× −2 x =
−x
dx 1− x 1 − x2 = 3 θ + n π = 3 tan −1 x + n π
2

dy −x ⇒
dy
=
3
;x≠±
1
⇒ cos y = .
dx dx 1 + x 2
3
1 − x2
F 4x I
⇒
dy
dx
=
−x
⋅
1
cos y
13. y = tan
−1
GH 4 − x JK 2
1 − x2

y = tan G
F 4x I ; x ≠ ± 2
H 4 − x JK
2 −1
Q cos y = 1 − sin y Solution: 2

FQ cos y = cos y as − π ≤ y ≤ π I F I F I
H 2 2K
−1 GG x JJ = tan GG 22x −1 JJ
= tan
F I GG 1 − F x I JJ
2
GG 1 − F x I 2
JJ
1 − G 1 − x J = 1 − e1 − x j = 1 − 1 + x H H 2K K H H 2K K
2

H K
2 2 2
=

x −1 F x I for
= x2 = x Now on putting ,
2
= tan θ ⇔ θ = tan
H 2K
dy x 1
∴ =− × π π
dx 1 − x2 x − < θ < , we have
2 2
456 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F 2 tan θ I = tan btan 2 θg = 2 θ + n π −

a f π π
y = tan −1 GH 1− tan θ JK 2
−1 and y = sin 1 sin 2 θ = π − 2 θ , when
4
<θ≤
2
1
< x ≤1
π π i.e;
2
...(iii)
where − < y <
2 2 Hence, from (i),

⇒ y = 2 tan −1
x
2
+ nπ
dy 2 d θ 2 d sin
= =
e −1
x j= 2
for 2 x 2 < 1
dx dx dx 2
dy 1 1 1− x
⇒ = 2⋅ ⋅
dx FG x IJ 2
2 ...(iv)
1+
H 2K from (ii) and (iii),
dy 2d θ −2
4 =− = for 2 > 2 x 2 > 1 ...(v)
= , x ≠ ±2 dx dx
1− x
2
4 + x2
1
FG 2 x IJ
dy
does not exist for x = 1,
2
−1
H K
2 dx 2
14. y = sin 1− x
or, alternatively,
−1 FG 2 x IJ FG 2 x IJ
H K
2 −1
Solution: y = sin 1− x
H K
2
y = sin 1− x

on putting, x = sin θ ⇔ θ = sin −1 x for

2
⇒ sin y = 2 x 1 − x
π π
− ≤θ≤ , 1 − sin 2 θ = cos θ suggests to put
2 2
⇒
d sin y
dx
2
= 2 1− x +
2x
2
a f
× −2 x
x = sinθ in 1 − x 2 2 1− x

FH
∴ y = sin −1 2 sin θ 1 − sin 2 θ IK ⇒ cos y
dy
= 2 1 − x2 −
2x2
dx 1 − x2
= sin −1
b2 sin θ cos θg
d i
2 1 − x 2 − 2x 2
FQ π π I =
H cos θ = cos θ as − ≤ θ ≤
2 2 K 1 − x2

R|1 − x − x U| 2 d1 − 2 x i
asin 2 θf = 2 θ for − π4 ≤ θ ≤ π4
2

S| 1 − x V| = 1 − x
2 2
−1
⇒ y = sin =2

1 1
T W 2 2

dy 2 e1 − 2 x j
i.e; − ≤x≤ or 2 x 2 ≤ 1 ...(i) 2
2 2 1
⇒ = ×
b g
y = sin −1 sin 2 θ = − π − 2θ , dx
1− x
2 cos y

π
when − ≤ θ < −
2
π
4
i.e; − 1 ≤ x < −
1
2
...(ii) Now, cos y = 1 − sin y = 1 − 4 x
2 2
e1 − x j
2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 457

LMQ π π OP and this will be true in particular when a is a positive

N cos y = cos y as −
2
≤ y≤
2 Q constant and θ represents the principal values of
F or , sin x I , cos x F or , cos x I ,
−1
H aK
−1 −1
2
= 1− 4 x + 4 x = e1− 2 x j = e1− 2 x j
4 2 2 2
sin x −1
H aK

LM Q f a xf = f a xf OP
F or , tan x I , cot x F or , cot x I
−1 −1

N
2
Q
−1
tan x H aK H
−1
aK

dy 2 d1 − 2 x i
2 (i) If x = a sinθ , then a 2 − x 2 = a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ
1
∴ = ×
dx 1− x d1 − 2 x i
2 2
= a cos θ = a cos θ .

2 d1 − 2 x i 2 (ii) If x = a tan θ , then a 2 + x 2 = a 2 + a 2 tan 2 θ

= ; 2 x ≠ 1, x ≠ 1 2 2

d1 − 2 x i 1 − x
2 2
= a sec θ = a sec θ = a sec θ .
2 2

More about substitution (iii) If x = a secθ , then 2 2 2 2 2

x − a = a sec θ − a
1. (a1) If a − x 2 2
occurs , we put x = a sin θ or
= a tan θ = a tan θ .
2 2
−1 FI x π π
cosθ , i.e; θ = sin
HK a
, when − ≤ θ ≤ and
2 2 3. If we are not given the expression which can be
transformed into the trigonometric function of
‘a’ is positive multiple angle of θ , we should avoid this substitution
(a2) If x 2 − a2 occurs , we put x = a sec θ or rule since it becomes complicated and gives no fruitful
result to find d.c.. For this reason we should use chain
−1 F xI , rule to find d.c. when substitution method fails, i.e;
cosec θ , i.e; θ = sec
H aK when 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
we should use the formula.

FG θ ≠ π IJ and ‘a’ is positive. dy

=
1
FG IJ or chain rule (i.e; function of a
H 2K dx dx
dy H K
(a ) If a + x
3
2
dor , a + x i occurs , we put
2 2 2
function rule).

F x I , when −1
Remember: Generally, we are provided the following
x = a tan θ or a cot θ , i.e; θ = tan
HaK LM F
π π
form t −1 f
N H 1 ± x2 a2 ± x2 1 ± x2 ± a

− < θ < and ‘a’ is positive.

2 2 IK OP Whose differ-
a−x
constant a 2 + x 2 ± a constant
Q
(a 4 ) If a − x or a+ x or or
a+x ential coefficient is required to find out, where
t–1 = sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, and cosec–1.
a+x
occurs, we put x = a cos2θ . Solved Examples:
a−x
2. The preceeding square roots are a cos θ , a sec θ Find the d.c. of the following inverse trigonometric
and a tan θ when these quantities are not negative functions.
458 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM OP FQ for − π ≤ θ ≤ π ⇒ I
1. y = sin
−1
MN
x
2 PQ H 2 2
cos θ = cos θ
K
1+ x
⇒ y = tan a tan θf = θ = sin
−1 −1
x

−1
LM x
OP dy d sin −1 x
MN PQ
1
Solution: y = sin ⇒ = = , x ≠ ± 1.
2 dx dx
1+ x 1 − x2
Firstly, on simplification after putting
π π −1
LM x
OP
−1
x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan x , where − ≤ θ ≤
2 2
3. y = tan MN 2
a − x
2 PQ
∴ y = sin
−1 LM OP tan θ Solution: Firstly, on simplification by putting
MN
1 + tan θ PQ −1 F xI π π
x = a sin θ ⇔ θ = sin
H aK for − ≤θ≤
L tan θ OP 2 2

⇒ y = sin M c h
−1
MN sec θ PQ 2
and a > 0 i.e; a = a

LM OP L a sin θ OP
L tan θ OP
∴ y = sin M
−1 ∴ y = tan
−1
MN P = tan M
a sin θ
N a cos θ Q
−1

N sec θ Q a − a sin θ Q
2 2 2

FQ sec θ = sec θ for − π ≤ θ ≤ π I LMQ cos θ = cos θ for − π ≤ θ ≤ π OP

H 2 2K N 2 2Q

⇒ y = sin M
L sin θ × cos θOP −1 F xI −1
H aK
−1
⇒ y = tan tan θ = θ = sin
N cos θ Q
−1
⇒ y = sin sin θ dy 1 1 1 1
⇒ = ⋅ =
F I ⋅
GG
dx a
JJ
2 2 2 a
−1 x a −x
⇒ y = θ = tan x 1−
H K
2
a a
dy 1
⇒ =
dx 1 + x 2 a 1
= ⋅
−1 x 2 2 a
2. y = tan a − x
2
1− x dy 1
⇒ = , x ≠ ±a.
Solution: Firstly, on simplification after putting dx a − x2
2

π π
LM OP
−1
x = sin θ ⇔ θ = sin x for − ≤ θ ≤
2 2 −1 1+ x −1
2

−1 sin θ −1 FG sin θ IJ 4. y = tan

MN x PQ
∴ y = tan
1 − sin θ
2
= tan
H cos θ K
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 459

Solution: y is defined for all x ≠ 0 . Firstly on FQ sec θ π π I

simplification by putting H = sec θ for −
2
<θ<
2 K
−1 π
x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan x for − < θ <
π
LM1+ 2 cos θ − 1OP
2 2 F 1 + cos θ I = cot MM θ 2 θ PP
2

LM OP LM OP = cot −1
GH sin θ JK −1

N 2 sin 2 ⋅ cos 2 Q
2 2
−1 1+ x − 1 −1 1 + tan θ − 1
∴ y = tan
MN x PQ = tan MN tan θ PQ
−1 F cot θ I
LM sec θ − 1OP ; θ ≠ 0 , i.e; x ≠ 0
= cot
H 2K
= tan −1
N tan θ Q =
θ 1 −1
= tan x if 0 < θ <
π

FGQ sec θ π π IJ 2 2 2
H = sec θ for −
2
<θ<
2 K and y = π +
θ
2
π
, if − < θ < 0
2
LM 2 sin θ OP2
1 −1 π
= tan
−1 LM1− cosθ OP = tan −1
MM 2 sin θ2 cos θ PP = tan FH tan θ2 IK
−1
=π+
2
tan x , if − < θ < 0
2
N sin θ Q MN 2 2 PQ
ib g
dy 1
= ; x≠0 .
Hence,
d
dx 2 1 + x 2
θ 1 −1
= = tan x Type 2:
2 2
e j−1

i b g
dy 1 1 1 Form: A function having the form t t x or
⇒ = ⋅ = , x≠0
d LMt et jOPQ
dx 2 1 + x 2
2 1 + x2 n
−1

LM O N x where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec

− 1P
2
−1 1+ x and t–1 = sin–1 / cos–1 / tan–1 / cot–1 / sec–1 / cosec–1
5. y = cot
MN x PQ is differentiated using the following working rule.
Working rule:

−1
LM 1+ x −1
2 OP (1) Put x = sin θ in sin
−1
x
Solution: y = cot MN x PQ x = cos θ in cos
−1
x
−1
The function is defined for all x ≠ 0 . Firstly, on x = tan θ in tan x
−1
simplification by putting x = cot θ in cot x
−1 π π −1
x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan x for − < θ < , θ ≠ 0 x = sec θ in sec x
2 2
−1
LM
1 + tan θ + 1O
PP
x = cosec θ in cosec x
af
2

MN
−1 −1
y = cot So that we may obtain t t θ = θ where θ
tan θ
Q represents the principal values of sin
−1
x , cos
−1
x,

= cot M
L sec θ + 1OP
−1 −1 −1 −1
x and cosec
−1
x.
N tan θ Q
tan x , cot x , sec
460 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dt θ af LMQ sec θ = π π OP
2. Differentiate
dt θ
=
af
dt θ dθ
⋅ =
dθ af N sec θ for −
2
<θ<
2 Q
dx dθ dx dx
x
dθ =
1 + x2
3. Express the required result in terms of x (or, in terms
of x and y both if required).
2. y = tan sin e −1
x j
Note: The above types of problems also can be done
−1 −1
d i d i F π ≤θ≤ πI
H 2 2K
−1
dy d t t x d t x Solution: Put x = sin θ ⇔ sin x = θ for −
by using the chain rule ⇒ = ⋅
dx d t −1 x dx d i
∴ y = tan sin e −1
j
x = tan sin e −1
sin θj = tan θ

or,
dy
=
d i
d t t −1 x
n

d i
2 2 2
dx d t t −1 x dy 2 d θ sec θ sec θ sec θ
⇒
dx
= sec θ ⋅
dx
=
dx
= =
d sin θ cos θ FG IJ
d i . d dt x i d t t −1 x −1 dθ dθ H K
d i
= n t t −1 x
n −1

d dt x i
.
dx −1
= sec θ =
3 1 Fθ ≠ ± π I
cos θ
3
H 2K
Solved Examples on the form: y = t d t x i
−1

1 π π
= as cos θ > 0 for − <θ<
Find the d.c. of the following.
FG IJ 3
2 2
e j H K
2
−1 1 − sin θ
1. y = sec tan x

π π 1
−1 =
x = θ for − <θ<
Solution: Put x = tan θ ⇔ tan
2 2 d1 − x i 2 3/ 2 for x < 1.

e
∴ y = sec tan −1 tan θ = sec θ j −1
Solved Examples on the form: y = t t x d i n

Find the d.c. of the following

d sec θ

⇒
dy d sec θ d sec θ d θ
= = ⋅ =
dθ 1. y = sec cos j
2
e −1
x
dx dx dθ dx dx
Solution: y = sec e cos x j , x ≠ 0
2 −1
dθ

d LMsec ecos x jOP

dy d sec ecos x j
2
dy sec θ ⋅ tan θ −1 −1

= N Q
2
⇒ = Q x = tan θ
dx d tan θ ⇒ =
dθ dx dx dx
sec θ ⋅ tan θ sin θ Now, using chain rule, we have
= = ⋅ cos θ = sin θ
sec θ
2
cos θ LM e −1
jOPQ
2
e −1
j ⋅ d cos
dy N
d sec cos x d sec cos x −1
x
=
tan θ
=
x =
LM e
dy d sec cos −1 x
jOQP
⋅ −1

N d cos x dx
sec θ 2
1 + tan θ
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 461

j 1b−−1xg e j
−1
e j e j e
2
= 2 sec cos − x ⋅ sec cos− x ⋅ tan cos − x ⋅
1 1 1
, 2. y = tan cos x
2

e j LNM e jOQP
−1 2
2 −1
x < 1. Solution: y = tan cos x = tan cos x

LM e −1
jOQP
2
e −1
j
=
N
−2 sec cos x ⋅ tan cos x Put x = cos θ ⇔ cos
−1
x = θ , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

1− x
2
π
∴ y = tan 2 θ , θ ≠ , i.e. x ≠ 0 .
2 2
=− for x < 1 , x ≠ 0 .
x3 dy d tan θ
2

or, alternatively, ⇒ =
dθ dx
y = sec cos x
2
e −1
j = 2 tan θ ⋅ sec θ ⋅
2 dθ
−1 dx
Put x = cos θ ⇔ cos x = θ , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
2
2 2 tan θ ⋅ sec θ
⇒ y = sec θ =
dx
dy d sec θ dθ dθ
⇒ = 2 sec θ = 2 sec θ ⋅ sec θ ⋅ tan θ ⋅
dx dx dx
2
−1 2 tan θ ⋅ sec θ
d cos x =
= 2 sec θ ⋅ tan θ ⋅
2
d cos θ
dx dθ
−2 sin θ
= , x < 1, x ≠ 0 . 2 tan θ ⋅ sec 2 θ
cos θ 1 − x 2
3
= , x < 1, x ≠ 0 .
−sin θ

−2 −2
aQ x = cosθf for
2
−2 1 − cos θ = =
= 3 3
3 2 cos θ x
x 1− x
x < 1, x ≠ 0
Q sin θ = sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

=
− 2 1 − x2 2
= − 3 for x ≠ 0 , ± 1.
e
3. y = cot tan
−1
x j
x3 1 − x2 x
−1 −π π
Note: Solution: Put x = tan θ ⇔ θ = tan x, <θ<
2 2

e j e j e j
2
y = sec 2 cos −1 x = sec cos −1 x ∴ y = cot tan −1 tan θ = cot θ , θ ≠ 0 .

L F
= Msec G sec
1 IJ OP 2 d cot θ

N H KQ
−1
dy d cot θ d cot θ d θ dθ
x ⇒ = = ⋅ =
dx dx dθ dx dx
1 dθ
=
x2
462 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

or, alternatively,
−cosec 2 θ cosec 2 θ cos2 θ
=
d tan θ
=−
sec θ
2
= −
sin θ
2
= − cot 2 θ e
y = sin m sin −1 x j
dθ Now

1 1 1. sin −1 y = 2 n π + m sin −1 x
=−
tan θ
2
=−
x
2
,
b x ≠ 0g if −
π −1
≤ 2 n π + m sin x ≤
π
2 2
e
4. y = sin m sin
−1
x j −1
b −1
2. sin y = 2 n + 1 π − m sin x g
π π
Solution: Put x = sin θ ⇔ θ = sin
−1
x for −
2
≤θ≤
2
if
−π
2
a f
−1
≤ 2 n π + 1 π − m sin x ≤
π
2

e
∴ y = sin m sin
−1
j
x = sin m sine −1
j
sin θ = sin m θ
Hence,

dy m 1 − y2
=+ in case (1), x < 1.
dy d sin m θ d sin m θ d m θ dθ
⇒ = = ⋅ = cos m θ ⋅ m ⋅ dx 1 − x2
dx dx d mθ dx dx
m 1 − y2
2 =− in case (2), x < 1.
dy m cos m θ m 1 − sin m θ 1 − x2
⇒ = =
dx dx 2
1 − sin θ
dθ 5. y = cos 2 sin e −1
x j
π
if cos mθ ≥ 0 and θ ≠ ± F π π I
H K
−1
2 Solution: Put x = sin θ ⇔ sin x =θ , − ≤θ≤
2 2
dy + m 1 − y
2
⇒
dx
=
1 − x2
Q sin m θ = y , for ∴ y = cos 2 sin e −1
j
sin θ = cos 2 θ

x < 1. dy d cos 2 θ d cos 2 θ d 2 θ dθ

⇒ = = ⋅ = − sin 2 θ ⋅ 2 ⋅
dx dx d 2θ dx dx
π −1 π
if 2n π − ≤ m sin x ≤ 2n π +
2 2 dy −2 sin 2 θ −2 sin 2 θ
⇒ = =
dx dx d sin θ
2
dy −m 1 − sin m θ dθ dθ
and ⇒ = 2
if cosmθ < 0
dx 1 − sin θ −sin 2 θ π
= ,θ ≠ ±
cos θ 2
m 1 − y2
=− for x < 1.
1 − x2 dy 2 × 2 sin θ ⋅ cos θ
⇒ =− = − 4 sin θ = − 4 x
dx cos θ
Q sin θ = x and sin m θ = y ,
for x < 1.
π −1 3π
if 2n π + < m sin x < 2n π +
2 2 Q x = sin θ
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 463

e
6. y = cos 2 cos
−1
x j Form 2: An algebraic implicit function ⇔ f 1 x , y a f
Solution: using chain rule, we have
=t
−1
a f
f2 x , y = t −1 (an algebraic implicit function)
Working rule:
dy
=
e
d cos 2 cos−1 x j ⋅ d e2 cos xj ⋅ d cos
−1 −1
x 1. Change the given inverse trigonometric function

e j −1 into direct trigonometric function.

dx d 2 cos −1 x d cos x dx 2. Differentiate both sides implicitly w.r.t. x remem-
bering that y is a function of x.
d cos −1 x
e
= − sin 2 cos −1 x ⋅ 2 j d cos −1 x
⋅
−1
1 − x2
, 3. Finally solve for
dy
dx
.

x <1
−1
Solved Examples on the form: y = t f x , y b g
e j
−1 −2 Find the d.c. of the following.
= − sin 2 cos x ⋅
1− x
2
1. y = tan
−1
ax + yf
e j y = tan a x + y f
−1 −1
2 sin 2 cos x Solution:
= ⇒ tan y = x + y
2
1− x
⇒
d tan y d x + y
=
a f
−1 dx dx
Let cos x = θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
d tan y dy dx dy
2 sin 2 θ 2 ⋅ 2 sin θ ⋅ cos θ 4 x sin θ ⇒ ⋅ = +
= = = dy dx dx dx
2 2 sin θ
1− x 1− x 2 dy dy
⇒ sec y ⋅ =1+
dx dx
= 4x Q sin θ = sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π for
2 dy dy
x < 1. ⇒ sec y − =1
dx dx

e j dydx = 1
Type 3:
b g
2
−1 ⇒ sec y − 1
Form 1: y = t f x, y
Where, t–1 = sin–1 / cos–1 / tan–1 / cot–1 / sec–1 / dy 1 1 1
b g
cosec–1 f x , y = an algebraic implicit function of x
⇒
e
dx
= 2
j
sec y − 1
= 2
tan y
=
x+ y a f 2

and y or f b x , yg = an algebraic expression in x and

2. y = sin a x + y f
−1
y mixed together.

Solution: y = sin a x + y f
Working rule: −1
1. Change the given inverse trigonometric function
into direct trigonometric function. ⇒ sin y = x + y

a f
2. Differentiate both sides implicitly w.r.t. x remem-
bering that y is a function of x. d sin y d x + y
⇒ =
dy dx dx
3. Finally solve for .
dx
464 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒ cos y ⋅
dy dx dy
= +
dx dx dx
a f
⇒ sec x + y ⋅ tan x + y ⋅ a f d a xdx+ yf = 1 − dydx
⇒ cos y ⋅
dy dy
− =1 ⇒ sec a x + y f ⋅ tan a x + y f M1 +
L dy OP = 1 − dy
dx dx N dx Q dx
a
⇒ cos y − 1 f dydx = 1 ⇒ sec a x + y f tan a x + y f + sec a x + y f ⋅ tan a x + y f
dy
dx
dy 1 dy
=1−
⇒
dx
=
a
cos y − 1 . f dx

Solved Examples out on the form: a f a f dydx + dydx

⇒ sec x + y tan x + y

a f = 1 − sec a x + y f ⋅ tan a x + y f
−1
f1 (x, y) = t f2 x , y
Find the d.c. from the following. dy 1 − sec a x + y f tan a x + y f
dx 1 + sec a x + y f tan a x + y f
⇒ =
1. x + y = sin a x + yf
−1

3. xy = sin a x + y f
−1
Solution: x + y = sin a x + y f
−1

⇒ sin a x + y f = x + y Solution: xy = sin a x + y f

−1

d sin a x + y f d a x + y f ⇒ sin a xy f = x + y

d sin a xy f d a x + y f
⇒ =
dx dx
⇒ =
a f d a xdx+ yf = 1 + dydx
dx dx

a f d dxaxyf = 1 + dydx
⇒ cos x + y ⋅
⇒ cos xy ⋅
L dy OP = 1 + dy
⇒ cos a x + y f M 1 +
N dx Q dx L dy + y dx OP = 1 + dy
⇒ cos b xy g M x
N dx dx Q dx
⇒ cos a x + y f + cos a x + y f
dy dy
− =1
dx dx LMQ d sin a xyf = d sin axyf ⋅ d axyf OP
N dx d a xy f dx Q
a
⇒ cos x + y − 1 f dy
dx
a
= 1 − cos x + y f
⇒ x cos a xy f + y cos a xy f ⋅ 1 = 1 +
a f
dy dy
dy − cos x + y − 1 dx dx
⇒ =
a f
cos x + y − 1
= −1
a f dydx − dydx = 1 − y cos axyf
dx
⇒ x cos xy
2. x + y = sec a x − y f
−1

Solution: x + y = sec a x − y f
−1 ⇒ x cos xy − 1a f dy
dx
a f
= 1 − y cos xy

d sec a x + y f d a x − y f dy 1 − y cos a xy f 1 − y cos a xy f

dx x cos a xy f − 1 1 − x cos a xy f
⇒ = ⇒ = =−
dx dx
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 465

Type 4: Differentiation of inverse trigonometric

d sin y dx
function of a function of x w.r.t. an other inverse (1) ⇒ =
trigonometric function of a function of x / an other dx dx

function of x ⇒ differentiate t −1 f x af w.r.t. ⇒ cos y

dy
=1
af
t −1 g x or, differentiate t −1 f x w.r.t. g (x)af dy
dx
1
where f (x) = a function of x ⇒ =
dx cos y
g (x) = an other function of x / sin x / cos x / tan x / cot
x / sec x / cosec x dy 1
⇒ = for x < 1.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 dx 2
t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec 1 − sin y

t1−1 = another inverse trigonometric operator LMQ π π OP

excepting t −1 . N cos y = cos y as −
2
≤ y≤
2 Q
dy 1
Working rule: ⇒ =
...(3)
1. Put t −1 f x af = y [ The function put before
dx 1 − x2

“w.r.t.”] ...(1) d cos z dx

(2) ⇒ =
and t
−1
af
g x = z [the function put after w.r.t.] ...(2)
dx dx
dz
2. Find the d.c. of (1) w.r.t. x using the rule of finding ⇒ − sin z =1
d.c. of inverse trigonometric function. Similarly, find x dx
the d.c. of (2) w.r.t. using the rule of finding the inverse dz 1
trigonometric function. ⇒ =−
dx sin z
3. Divide the d.c of y by the d.c. of z regarding z as a
dy 1 −1
=− =
2 2
function of x ⇒ dx which is the required d.c. 1 − cos z 1− x
dz
dx Q sin z = sin z as 0 ≤ z ≤ π ...(4)

LM OP
Remember:
df y af dy
af
1
1. = f′ y ⋅ dy M 1− x PP = − 1
2
(3)
dz M
dx dx Now, ⇒ =
df z af dz
af
( 4)
MM 1
PP
2.
dx
= f′ z ⋅
dx N 1 − x2 Q
Solved Examples: for x < 1.
Find the d.c. of the following. Or, alternatively,
−1 −1 −1 π −1
1. sin x w.r.t. cos x sin x = − cos x
2
Solution: Let sin −1 x = y
π
⇒ sin y = x , − ≤ y ≤
π
⇒
e xj = − 1
d sin
−1

d ecos x j
... (1) −1
2 2
−
and cos x = z ⇒ cos z = x , 0 ≤ z ≤ π
1 ... (2)
466 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FI F I d1 − x i + x ⋅
JJ w.r.t. cosec GG
GG JJ .
2 2
−1 x −1 1 1
2. tan
1− x K H H K
=
FH 1 − x IK ⋅ d1 − x i LM 1 − x + x OP
MMdF i I
2 2 2 2
1− x 2 2

PP
F x I MN H 1 − x K
2
2

PQ
Solution: Let tan G
GH 1 − x JJK = y
−1
2

ex 2
− x +1
2
j e1 − x j 2

=
FG IJ e1 − x j ⋅
x
⇒ tan y = ... (1) 1
H K
2 2
1− x 2 1− x

F I
−
and cosec 1 GG 1
JJ = z =
1

H 1− x 2
K 1 − x2
...(3)

Again,
1
⇒ cosec z = 1
... (2) (2) ⇒ cosec z =
1 − x2 2
1− x
F0 < z ≤ π I
H 2K F I
⇒
d cosec z
=
d
GG 1
JJ
Now,
LM OP
dx dx
H 1− x
2
K
(1) ⇒
d tan y
dx
=
d
dx MN
x
2 PQ = −1 ×
1
⋅
a− 2 x f ⋅ 1
1− x
2 1− x
2 1
e1 − x j 2

1− x ⋅ 1−
2 x ⋅1
a f
⋅ −2 x dz x
dy 2 1− x
2 ⇒ − cosec z ⋅ cot z
dx
=
FG IJ e1 − x j
H K
2 2 2
⇒ sec y ⋅ = 1− x
dx FG IJ 2

H K
2
1− x
2
dz −1 x 1⋅ 1− x
⇒ = ⋅ ⋅
1− x +
2 x
2

2
dx
1− x
2
e1 − x j 2 cot z

dy 1− x
⇒ = −x
2
e j e1 + tan yj 2
= ⋅
1
e1 − x j aQ cot z > 0f
dx 1− x
2 2
cosec z − 1

FH 1 − x2 IK + x2
=
− x
⋅
1

=
1 − x2
⋅
1 d1 − x i F 2
I 2

d1 − x i 2
F I 2
GG 1
JJ −1
1+ GG x
JJ H 1 − x2 K
H 1 − x2 K
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 467

−x 1 2 x 2 x
= ⋅
d1 − x i 2 1
−1
1 − cos x 2 sin 2
= =
sin
2
d i
Solution:
1 − x2 1 + cos x 2 2 x 2 x
cos cos
2 2
−x
=
d1 − x i
⋅
1
R| U|
d i
2 x
2 2 x
1 − 1 − x2 sin sin

d1 − x i 2
∴ y = tan
−1 2 = tan
2 x
− 1
S|
2
2 x
V|
cos
2
cos
2|T |W
− x 1 − x2
=
d1 − x i = tan
−1 RS tan x UV
T 2W
2
x2

− 1 − x2 x −x 1 x
= ⋅ = ⋅
FH 1− x 2 IK 2
x x 1 − x2
⇒ tan y = tan
2
x x
Hence, tan sec 2
dy 2 2
dy ⇒ sec 2 y = ⋅
dx x 2
(3) 1 x tan
⇒ dx =− ⋅ 1 − x2 ⋅ 2
( 4) dz
1− x 2 x
x 2 x
dx tan ⋅ sec
dy 1 2 2
⇒ =
dy − x dx 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 y
∴ = , x < 1.
dz x 2
x 2 x
On Method of Transformation tan ⋅ sec
1 2 2
= ⋅
F 2 I
GH JK
Type 1: 2 x x
tan 1 + tan
−1 1 ± sin x −1 1 ± cos x 2 2
Form: 1. t or t
1 m sin x 1 m cos x
x 2 x x 2 x
tan ⋅ sec tan ⋅ sec
−1 1 ± sin x −1 1 ± cos x 1 2 2 1 2 2
2. t
1 ± cos x
or t
1 ± sin x
=
x F 2 x
= ⋅
I
2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x
H K
2
tan ⋅ 1 + tan
2 2 2 2
Working rule: Whenever 1 ± sin x and / 1 ± cos x
x
appear ( or, appears) under the radical sign , we tan
1 2
express the function within the radical as a square of = ⋅ , x ≠ nπ
2 tan x
some function.
2
Solved Examples: Or, alternatively,
Find d.c. of the following
1 − cos x
tan y = , Now using logarithmic differ-
−1 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
1. y = tan
1 + cos x entiation,
468 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 − cos x 1 1 − cos x FG IJ F cos x + sin x I 2

⇒ log tan y = log = log
1 + cos x 2 1 + cos x H K 1 + sin x H
=
2 2K
Solution:
1 − sin x F cos x − sin x I 2

=
1
2
l a f
log 1 − cos x − log 1 + cos x a fq H 2 2K
⇒
1
⋅
d tan y
F cos x + sin x I 2
x x
tan y dx
⇒
1 + sin x
=
H 2 2K =
cos + sin
2 2
RS a fUVW
1 − sin x F cos x − sin x I 2 x
cos − sin
x
=
1
T
1
2 1 − cos x
⋅ sin x −
1
1 + cos x
⋅ − sin x H 2 2K 2 2

1 dy 1 sin x RS
sin x UV F1 + tan x I
H 2K
2
⇒ ⋅ sec y ⋅ = +
tan y T
dx 2 1 − cos x 1 + cos x W 1 + sin x
=
1 − sin x
=
F1 − tan x I
⇒
1 + tan y dy
⋅
2
H 2K
tan y dx

R|1 + cos x + 1 − cos x U| = 1 ⋅ sin x ⋅ 2 a

Q tan A + B = f tan A + tan B
1 − tan A ⋅ tan B
= sin x S
1
V
2
T| 1 − cos x W| 2 sin x 2 2
−1 1 + sin x −1 π x F I
1 − cos x
⇒ tan
1 − sin x
= tan tan +
4 2 H K
1+
⇒
1 + cos x
⋅
dy
=
1 −1 F π + xI
1 − cos x dx sin x ⇒ y = tan tan
H 4 2K
1 + cos x
dy d −1 F π + xI
2
⇒ =
dx dx
tan tan
H 4 2K
1 + cos x
⇒ ⋅
dy
=
1
F π + xI F π + xI
H 4 2K H 4 2K
2
1 − cos x dx sin x 1
tan sec
1 + cos x
=
R| π π
1 + S + tan F + I
U| ⋅ F π + xI ⋅
V|
2

H 4 2K
2
|T H 4 2 K
tan
W
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
dy 1 + cos x 1 + cos x F π + x I sec F π + x I
F 2 IJ H 4 2K ⋅ H 4 2K
2
⇒ = = tan
sin x ⋅ G
dx 2 sin x 1
H 1 + cos x K 1 + cos x
=
F + I tan F π + x I
π x
⋅
H 4 2K H 4 2K
2 2
1 + tan

1 − cos x a1 + cos xf a1 + cos x f 1 − cos x

tan F + I sec F + I
= ⋅ = ⋅ π x π x
1 + cos x 1 + cos x
H 4 2K H 4 2K
2
2 sin x 2 sin x
1
1 + sin x
=
F π xI
⋅
F π xI
⋅
H 4 + 2 K tan H 4 + 2 K
−1 2 2
2. y = tan sec
1 − sin x
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 469

FG π + x IJ FG cos x IJ
−1

1
tan
H 4 2K 1. y = tan
H 1 + sin x K
=
2
⋅
F π xI
tan G + J Solution: y = tan G
F cos x IJ
H 4 2K −1
H 1 + sin x K
af F sin F π − xI OP
d −1
af =
1
⋅
d f x
⇒ y = tan G
G H2 K P
{1 + f a xf}
Note: tan f x −1

GH 1 + cos FH π2 − xIK PPQ

dx 2 dx

Type 2:
Form: t −1 (an expression in direct t − function
LM 2 sin F π − x I ⋅ cos F π − x I OP
involving sin x and cos x only)
⇒ y = tan M
−1 H 4 2K H 4 2K P
Working rule:
MM 1 + 2 cos FH π − x IK − 1 PP
2
1. Transform given trigonometrical expression in sin
x and cos x in such a way that it becomes equal to
N 4 2 Q
F π ± x I = π ± x for which are required to ⇒ y = tan Mtan
L F π − x I OP
−1

H 4 2K 4 2
t −1 t
N H 4 2KQ
F π ± xI ⇒ y =nπ +
π x
−
π
such that − < y <
π
(i) Use sin x = cos
H 2 2K 4 2 2
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x
2

(ii) Use multiple and / submultiple angle formulas of

dy 1 1
trigonometric functions. ⇒ =0− =−
Or alternatively, dx 2 2
Put y = given function and change it into direct FG 1 + sin x IJ
−1

function and then find

dy
regarding y as a function
2. y = tan
H cos x K
dx
Solution: y = tan G
F 1 + sin x IJ
−1

of x, i.e; find
dy
implicitly. H cos x K
LM cos x + sin x + 2 sin x + cos x OP
dx
−1 FG cos x IJ 2 2

Example: 1. y = tan
H 1 + sin x K ⇒ y = tan M
−1

MN
2 2
x x
2 2
PP
Q
2 2
cos − sin
cos x dy 2 2
⇒ tan y =
1 + sin x , Now find dx implicitly
FG 1 + sin x IJ LM F cos x + sin x I 2 OP
2. y = tan
−1

H cos x K −1 H
MM x 2x 2x x PP K
MN FH cos 2 + sin 2 IK FH cos 2 − sin 2 IK PQ
⇒ y = tan

1 + sin x dy
⇒ tan y =
cos x . Now find dx implicit
function rule: LM cos x + sin x OP
Solved Examples: ⇒ y = tan
−1
MM 2x 2x PP
Find the d.c. of the following. N cos 2 + sin 2 Q
470 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM1 + tan x OP ⇒ y = tan

−1
a f
tan α + x = nπ + α + x a f where
MM xP
−1 2
⇒ y = tan π π
1 − tan P n is such that − <y<
N 2Q 2 2
dy
LM tan π + tan x OP ⇒
dx
= 1 ( α being a constant )

⇒ y = tan
−1
MM 4 π 2x PP Remember:

N1 − tan 4 ⋅ tan 2 Q −1 FG K − x IJ , find dy

−1 LMtan F π + x I OP = n π + π + x
1. If y = tan
H 1 + K x K dx
⇒ y = tan
N H 4 2K Q 4 2 Solution: Let y = n π + tan K − tan x
−1 −1

π π dy 1
such that −<y< ⇒ =− 2
2 2 dx 1+ x
dy 1 1 dy
⇒ =0+ = Similarly, can be obtained if
dx 2 2 dx
Type 3: −1 FG K + x IJ
Form: y = tan
−1 LM a ± b OP
y = tan
H 1 − Kx K
N a m ab Q Solved Examples:
The following points should be noted about the Find the d.c. of the following.
bracketed expressions in the above.
FG x − a IJ
−1

H x + aK
(i) The signs connecting the two terms in the 1. y = tan
numerator and denominator are opposite.

F x − a IJ
(ii) One of the two term in the denominator is 1 and
Solution: y = tan G
the other terms is the product of two terms in the −1
numerator. H x + aK
F xI
(iii) Somtimes at the place of 1, another constant is
⇒ y = tan G J − tan b1g + n π
provided, then that constant should be changed into
H aK
−1 −1
1 by using the mathematical manipulation of dividing
numerator and denominator by that constant.
1

Example: y = tan G
F 2 + 3 tan x IJ
−1 ⇒
dy
= a =
a
H 3 − 2 tan x K dx
1+
x 2
a + x2
2

a2
F 2 + tan x I FG a + bx IJ
G
= tan G 3
−1 JJ 2. y = tan
−1

H b − ax K
GH 1 − 3 tan x JK
2
L a O
F tan α + tan x IJ Where tan α = 2 −1 FG a + bx IJ = tan MM b + x PP
−1

⇒ y = tan G
−1

H 1 − tan α tan K
Solution: y = tan
H b − ax K MM1 − FH a IK x PP
3 N b Q
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 471

Let
a
b
= tan α and x = tan B a
tan A + B = f tan A + tan B
1 − tan A ⋅ tan B

∴ y = tan
LM tan α + tan B OP
−1 Hence, on putting , x = tan A
N1 − tan α tan B Q a = tan B , we get
tan aα + B f = n π + α + B
−1
= tan
y = tan
−1 LM tan A + tan B OP = tan −1
a
tan A + B f
⇒ y = n π + tan
−1 a −1
+ tan x N1− tan A ⋅ tan B Q
b −1 −1
⇒ y = n π + A + B = n π + tan x + tan a
dy 1 1
⇒ =0+0+ =
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2
⇒
dy
=
1
⋅
d 1
e j
x2 + 0
FG 5 + 2 x IJ e j
2
dx 1 + x 12 dx
−1
3. y = tan
H 2 − 5x K F 1I
1 H− 2K
Solution: y = tan G
F 5 + 2 x IJ
−1 ⇒
dy
=
1
⋅ ⋅x =
1
a f
H 2 − 5x K dx 1 + x 2 2 x 1+ x

F 5+x I Note: tan x = cot

−1 −1 1
only for x > 0

⇒ y = tan G 2
G JJ x
−1

GG 1 − FGH 5 IJK x JJ −1 FG 5 + 2 x IJ ≠ cot FG 2 − 5x IJ−1

H 2 K
∴ tan
H 2 − 5x K H 5 + 2x K
−5 2
5 for x < or x > .
Let = tan α and x = tan B 2 5
2

∴ y = tan
−1 LM tan α + tan B OP = tan −1
a
tan α + B f
Problems on inverse circular functions

N1− tan α tan B Q Exercise 10.1

⇒ y = nπ + α + B
1. Prove the following results by ∆ _ method.
−1 5 −1 π π
⇒ y = nπ + tan + tan x Where − < y <
2 2 2
d
e
−1
(i) dx cos x = − j 1
2
, c x < 1h
dy 1 1− x
⇒ =
dx 1 + x 2 d
e −1
cot x = −
1
j , ∀x

4. y = tan M
L x + a OP
−1
(ii)
dx 1+ x
2

N1 − x ⋅ a Q d
e
−1
(iii) dx cosec x = − j 1
, c x > 1h
L x + a OP
Solution: y = tan M
−1 x x −1
2

N1 − x ⋅ a Q 2. Find the differential coefficients of the following

functions w.r.t. their independent variables using
x + a
Now, gives us an idea of the formula ∆ _ method.
1− x⋅ a
472 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

−1 −1 −1 −1
(i) sin x (ii) tan x (iii) sec x 14. y = tan x
−1
(iv) Log sin x
15. y = sin
−1
ea sin xj 2

Problems based on type 1:

F o r m : t −1 f x af l a fq
t −1 f x
n
l a fq
f t −1 f x 16. y = tan
−1
ex ⋅ e j2 −x

−1 −1 −1
where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec
−1 −1 −1 −1
−1 FG e IJ −1

H K
tan x
17. y = sin
f = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec / log / e / .....
−1
l a fq F x I
etc. in f t f x −1
GG J
H 1 − x JK
18. y = tan 2
Exercise 10.2
F I
dy
e
19. y = tan 5 x
−1
j
2
+ sin
−1
GG 1
JJ
H K
Find of the following functions. 2
dx 1− x

e j
3

e1 + x j
−1 −1
1. y = sin x 20. y = e
10 x
tan
2

−1 −1 −1
2. y = tan 3x 21. y = sin x + cos x

e j FG1 − 1 − 1 IJ
−1 2 1
3. y = sin x −1 2

4. y = cos −1
bg
φ x
22. y = cos
H x xK 2

5. y = tan
−1
asec x + tan xf 23. y = tan
−1
e1 + e + 2 log xj x

e tan x j F x I
GG JJ
1 2
6. y = cos −1
24. y = tan
H a − b − x K 2 2

e j
−1 3
7. y = tan 2 x 25. y = sec
−1
x

e j
−1 −1 2 2
8. y = sec x 26. y = sin x
−1 2
y = e tan 5x j
9. y = tan 1+x −1 2
27.
10. y = sin cos x e −1
j
y = Lcos e x − 2jO
2

MN PQ
−1 2
28.
11. y = cos sin x e j −1
1
−1 2 3

y = tan asin x f
−1 29. y = cot x
12.

y = tan e sin x j
−1 2
−1
13. 30. y = tan x
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 473

31. y = a cot
−1
m tan abx f
−1
9. y = sin
−1 LM2 tan −1 1− x OP
LM N 1+ x Q
−1 F 1 I OP
32. y = cos a sin
N H xKQ 10. y = cos
−1
1− x
2

Type 2:
F a −x I
GG a JJ
2 2
−1
Problems based on substitution and change of form 11. y = cos
Form: t −1 f x af H K
−1 −1 −1
Where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec
−1 −1 −1 −1
12. y = cos
−1
e2 x − 1j
2

and f ( x ) = algebraic function of x

2
−1 1+ x
Exercise 10.3 13. y = cos
2
dy F 1− x I
GG J
Find of the following functions. 2
−1

H 1 + x JK
dx 14. y = cos 2
−1 2
1. y = sin 1− x

F a −x I F x−x I −1

GG a JJ
2 2 −1
GG J
H x + x JK
15. y = cos
−1
2. y = sin −1
H K
−1
e3 x − 4 x j F 2x I
GH 1 − x JK
3
3. y = sin 16. y = tan
−1
2

F 2x a − x I
GG a JJ F x I
2 2
−1
4. y = sin
H K 17. y = tan
−1
GG JJ
H a −x K
2 2

F a + x − a −xI
5. y = sin
−1
GH 2 a JK −1
LM 1 + x − 1OP
2

18. y = tan MN x PQ
−1 FG x 1 − x − x 1 − x IJ
H K
2
6. y = sin
LM a + x + x OP
2 2

F 2x I 19. y = tan
−1
MN a + x − x PQ
7. y = sin
−1
GH 1 + x JK
2
2 2

F1 − x I −1 FG a − x IJ
8. y = sin
−1
2

GH 1 + x JK
2
20. y = tan
H 1 + ax K
474 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F x − xI LM 3a x − x OP
GG J
2 3

MM a ea − 3x j PP
−1

3 J
−1
21. y = tan 30. y = tan
GH 1 + 2 JK N Q
2 2

FG 1 + x IJ L 1 OP
y = tan M
−1

H1 − xK
−1
22. y = tan 31. MN x − 1 PQ 2

F 3x − x I
F x I
3

23. y = tan
−1
GH 1 + 3x JK
y = tan G
GH 1 − x JJK
2 −1
32.
FG a + bx IJ
2
−1
24. y = tan
H b − ax K F 4x I
y = tan G
H 4 − x JK
−1
33.
−1 x−a 2
25. y = tan
b−x
y = tan M
−1 L 1 + x − 1 − x OP
26. y = tan
−1 x + x
3
34.
MN 1 + x + 1 − x PQ
1 − x2
y = cot G
−1 F 2 − 5x IJ
35.
H 5 + 2x K
−1 x − x
y = cot G
−1 F 1 + x IJ
27. y = tan 3 36.
H1 − xK
1+ x 2

LM 3ax OP y = sec G
F x + 1I 2

H x − 1JK
−1 −1
28. y = tan
MN a − 2 x PQ
37. 2
2 2

Hint: dividing Nr and Dr by a 2 , we have

y = sec G
F 1 I
H 2 x − 1JK
−1

LM x OP LM x OP 38. 2

y = tan
−1 MM 3 ⋅ a PP = tan −1 MM 3 ⋅ a PP F1 + x I 2
y = cosec G
MM1 − 2 ⋅ x
PP MM1 − 2 ⋅ x PP H 2 x JK
2 2 −1
39.
N aQ 2
N a
2
Q Answers (under suitable restrictions on x):
LM 2 x + x OP 1. −
1
2. −
1 3
y = tan M a
2x x P
−1 a −1 2x −1 x 3.
= tan + tan = ...etc. 1− x
MN1 − a ⋅ a PQ a2 − x 2
2 2
a a 1− x

2 1 1
F 5 ax I 4. 5.
2 1− x
6.
GH a − x JK
2
−1
2
a − x
2
1 − x2
29. y = tan 2 2
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 475

2 −2 −x Exercise 10.4
7. 8. 9.
1 + x2 1 + x2 1− x 2
dy
Find of the following functions.
1 1 −2 dx
10.
1− x 2 11.
a − x
2 2 12.
1 − x2 −1 FG a + b cos x IJ
−1 2 −2
1. y = cos
H b + a cos x K
13.
d
1
i
14.
1 + x2
15.
1 + x2 −1 FG sin x IJ
2 1− x2 2 2. y = tan
H 1 − cos x K
2 1 2
16.
1 + x2
17. 18.
1 + x2 −1 1 − cos x
a −x 2 2
3. y = tan
1 + cos x
1 −1
asec x + tan xf
19. 20.
a − x2
2 1 + x2 4. y = tan
−1

1
21. 1 + x ⋅
1
2 x
−
1
1 + x2
22.
1
1 + x2
5. y = cot
−1
acosec x − cot xf
3 1 1
6. y = tan
−1 LM a cos x − b sin x OP
23.
1+ x 2 24.
1 + x2
25.
2 b x − ag b x − bg N b cos x + a sin x Q
1 1 1 a
26. ⋅ + Hint: Put a = r sin α and b = r cos α ⇒ = tan α
2 x 1 + x 1 + x2 b

1 1 1 −1LM r asin α cos x − cos α sin x f OP

N r acos α cos x + sin α sin xf Q
∴ y = tan
27. 1 + x ⋅ − 28. − 1
2 x 1 + x2

d
a 2 2 + 13 x 2 i 3a −1 LM sin aα − xf OP = tan tan aα − xf
−1

N cos aα − xf Q
= tan
29.
da 2
+ 9x 2
i da 2
+ 4x 2
i 30.
a + x2
2

−1 a
−1 1 4 = α − x = tan −x
31. 32. 33. b
x2 − 1 1 − x2 4 + x2
LM cos x − sin x OP
x
1 1 1 −1 −1
7. y = tan
34.
2 1− x 2
35.
1+ x 2 36.
1 + x2 N cos x + sin x Q
−2 −2 2
8. y = tan
−1 LM a − b tan x OP
37.
1 + x2
38.
1− x 2 39.
1+ x 2 N a + b tan x Q
−1
Type 2 continued 9. y = tan tan x + sec x
Problems based on substitution and change of form
1 − sin x
af
−1
Form: t −1 t x 10. y = tan
1 + sin x
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec
af
t x = a trigonometrical function of x / a combination 11. y = tan
−1 LM cos x OP
of trigonometrical functions of x. N1 + sin x Q
476 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

−1 LM b tan xOP Exercise 10.5

12. y = tan
Na Q
−1
Differentiate:
13. y = cot cosec x + cot x
1. sec
2
e tan xj w.r. t e1 − x j
−1 2

14. y = tan
−1
asec x f
acosec xf
−1F I
tan G 1 + x − xJ w. r.t tan x
−1
H K
2
−1
15. y = cot 2.

16. y = sec
−1
atan x f L x + 1 − 1OP
cot M
2
−1 −1

17. y = sec
−1 LM a + b cos x OP 3. MN x PQ w.r.t cot x
N b + a cos x Q
2 sin G
F 2 x I w.r. t sin F 1 + x I 2

H 1 + x JK GH 1 − x JK
−1 −1
−1 1 + cos x 4.
18. y = tan
2 2
1 − cos x
cosec e cot x j w. r.t sec e tan x j
−1 −1
Answers (under suitable restrictions on x): 5.
2 2
− b −a 1 1 1 1
2. − 5. −
2
1. 3. 4. −1 1− x −1 2
b + a cos x 2 2 2 2 6. tan w.r.t cos x
2
1+ x
1 1 1
6. − 1 7. − 1 8. − 1 9. 10. − 11. −
F 2 x I w.r.t sin F 2 x I
GH 1 − x JK GH 1 + x JK
2 2 2 −1 −1
2 7. tan 2 2
ab sec x 1 sin x
12. 2 13. 14. 2
2 2
a + b tan x 1 + cos x
2
F 1+ x I
8. tan G J
2 2
−1 1+ x +1
−1

GH x JK
cos x 1 w. r.t cos
2
15.
1 + sin x
2 16.
sin x
2 2
sin x − cos x 2 1+ x
F 1 I w. r.t 1 − x
9. sec G
H 2 x − 1JK
2 2 −1 2
− b −a 1
a f 18. −
17. 2
a + b cos x 2
F 2 x I w. r.t cos F 1 − x I 2
10. tan G
H 1 − x JK GH 1 + x JK
Type 3: −1 −1
2 2
Differentiation of a function w.r.t. an other function
−1
Form: t f1 f2 x l a fq w.r.t. t t
−1
n b a fgs
g1 g2 x or,
F 2 x I w.r.t sin F 2 x I
11. tan G
H 1 − x JK GH 1 + x JK
−1 −1

l a fq
t t −1 f x −1
w.r.t. t t x af
where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec
12. sin G
F 1 − x IJ w. r.t x
−1

H1 + xK
−1 −1 −1 −1
t = sin / cos / tan / cot–1 / sec–1 / cosec–1
f (x) = a function of x.
 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 477

F 1 + x − 1I F I F I
GG x JJ w.r. t tan x GG JJ GG JJ
2 2
−1 −1 −1 1+ x −1 −1 x
13. tan 16. tan w.r.t sin
H K H x
K H 1+ x
2
K
F 2 x I w. r.t cos F 1 − x I 2
Answers: 1. −1 2. −
11 1
14. sin
−1
GH 1 + x JK
2 GH 1 + x JK
−1
2
22
3.4. 2 5. 1 6.
2 1
2
7. 1 8. 1 9. 4 10. 1 11. 1 12. 13.
F 1− x I 1+ x 2
GG x JJ w.r.t cos x
2
−1 −1 1 1
15. tan 14. 15. 1 16. .
H K 2 2
478 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

11
Differential Coefficient
of Mod Functions

Differentiation of Mod Functions

a f × f ′ a x f which is the general formula
f x

Definition: af
f x = b f a xfg 2
=
af
f x
of (or, for) d.c. of mod function f (x) (at the point x
where f a x f ≠ 0 ).
Formulas:
d
af a f ⋅ f ′ a xf ; for f a xf ≠ 0
f x
af
1. f x = Note: At the points where f (x) = 0, the value of
dx f x
d f x af is to be found out by first principles. It may
n f b xg
n dx
f b xg = ⋅ f ′ b x g ; f b x g ≠ 0 , n ∈Q
d n

f b xg
2. or may not exist at such a point because generally
dx
“mod functions” are not differentiable at their roots
i.e. at the roots of | f (x) | = 0.
d x x
= ;x≠0
3.
dx x
2.
d f x bg n

, n ∈Q
d x
n
n x
n dx
= ; x ≠ 0, n ∈Q
af af
4. n n
dx x f x =z⇒ f x =z
Proof: n
dz n −1 dz
1.
d
dx
f x af =
d
dx
af
f x
2 Now
dx
= nz ×
dx

f a x f LMQ f a x f = f a x f OP
af a f × d fdxa x f
n
d 2 d f x n −1
⇒ =n f x
N Q
2
=
dx dx

=
1
⋅
d f a f ; when f a xf ≠ 0
x
2

af n −1 f axf
× f ′ a xf
f axf
=n f x ×
2 f a xf dx
2

2 f a xf d f a xf f a xf af
⋅ f ′ axf af af
n
n f x
f a xf
= ⋅ =
f a xf
= × f ′ x when f x ≠ 0
2 f a xf dx
2
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 479

Problems based on algebraic functions

2
3. d x = d x Solved Examples
dx dx
Find the d.c. of
2
1 dx 1. y = | x3 |
= ⋅ for x ≠ 0 Solution: y = | x3 |
2 dx
2 x
3
dy d x
2 ∴ =
2x x dx dx
= ×
2 2
2 x x 3
d x dx
3

2x x = 3
⋅
= dx dx
2
2x
3
x
=
x
x
a x ≠ 0f =
x
3
⋅ 3x
2

Further, f ′ b0g = 1 , f ′ b0g = − 1 where f (x) = | x |

+ − 3x 2 x 3
∴ f ′ b0g does not exist.
= ; x ≠ 0 = 3x x , x ≠ 0
x3
n Further,
4.
d x
dx
, n ∈Q af
f +′ 0 = f −′ 0 = 0 af
dy
x =z⇒ x
n
=z
n
which means on differen- ∴ = 0 for x = 0
dx
tiating 2. y = | x |2 – 4 | x | + 2
n Solution: y = | x |2 – 4 | x | + 2
dz n −1 dz
= nz dy d 2
dx dx ∴ = x −4 x +2
dx dy
n

bg
d x n −1 d x
⇒ =n x ⋅ d d x d 2
2
dx dx = x −4 +
dx dx dx
n −1 x
=n x ⋅ d x 4 x
x =2 x ⋅ − ,x≠0
dx x
a f
n
n x
=
x≠0 x x
x =2 x ⋅ −4
bg
Further, f ′ 0 = 0 for n > 1 where f x = x bg n
. x x
Remember: 2

af af 2x 4 x
= −
d f x
dx
=
f x
f axf
af
× f ′ x for f x ≠ 0 af x x

af f axf
af = 2x − ; x≠0
4 x
a f
or,
d f x
dx
=
f axf
af
× f ′ x for f x ≠ 0 x
Further y' (0) does not exist.
480 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. y = x | x | 1
Solution: Q y = x | x |
dy d
=
ax − 1f
∴ = x x 3. y = log | x |
dx dx
Solution: y = log | x | which is defined for x ≠ 0
d x dx
= x + x dy d log x
dx dx ∴ For x ≠ 0; =
dx dx
= x⋅
x
x
+ x , x≠0 a f =
d log x d x
⋅
d x dx
= x + x
1 x
=2 x ,x≠0 = ⋅
af
Also, f +′ 0 = f −′ 0 = 0 af x x

1
dy = ; x ≠ 0x
∴ = 2 x for all x. x
dx
4. y = | log x |
Problems based on transcendental functions Solution: y = | log x |, which is defined for x > 0
Solved Examples dy d log x
∴ For x > 0, =
Find d.c. of dx dx
1. y = log | f (x) | d log x d log x
Solution: y = log |f (x) | which is defined for f (x) ≠ 0 = ⋅
d log x dx
bg
For f x ≠ 0 ,
dy
=
d
log f x bg
dx dx =
log x 1
a
⋅ ; for x ≠ 1 f
d log f x bg d f x bg log x x
=
d f b xg
×
dx
af
Also f +′ 1 = lim
a f
log 1 + h − log 1
;h>0
h→0 h
1 bg
f x
bg =1
f bxg
= × × f′ x
bg
f x
bg
f −′ 1 = lim
b g
log 1 − h − log 1
;h>0
f ′ b xg
h→0 h
; f b xg ≠ 0
=
f bxg
= lim
a
log 1 − h f
h→ 0 h
2. y = log | x – 1 |
Solution: y = log | x – 1 |; which is defined for x ≠ 1 = –1
dy
dy d log x − 1 d x − 1 ∴ does not exist at x = 1
∴ For x ≠ 1 , = ⋅ dx
dx d x −1 dx 5. y = | sin x |
Solution: y = | sin x |
=
1
x −1
⋅
x −1 d
⋅
b
x − 1 dx
x −1
g b g ⇒
dy
=
d
sin x
dx dx
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 481

=
sin x d sin x
sin x
⋅
dx
a
; sin x ≠ 0 , i.e.; x ≠ nπ f = lim
h→0
sin h
h
=1
RSa2n + 1f π UV = lim sin h = − 1
sin x
= ⋅ cos x
T
f −′
2W
sin x
−h h→ 0
= sin x ⋅ cot x
does not exist for x = a2n + 1f
dy π

a f
Also, f +′ nπ = lim
a f
sin nπ + h − sin nπ
;
∴
dx 2
h→0 h 7. y = sin | x |
h>0 Solution: y = sin | x |

sin h dy d sin x
= lim ⇒ =
h→0 h dx dx

= lim
sin h =
d sin x d x
d x
⋅
dx
; x≠0 a f
h→0 h
=1 cos x ⋅ x

b g FG sin h IJ , h > 0 =
x
for x ≠ 0
f −′ nπ = lim
h→ 0 H −h K af af a
= –1 af
Also, f +′ 0 = lim
h→0
sin h − sin 0
h
; h>0 f
dy =1
∴ does not exist for x = n π
bg b g
dx sin h
6. y = | cos x | f −′ 0 = lim , h>0
h→ 0 −h
Solution: y = | cos x |
= –1
dy d cos x
⇒ = dy
dx dx ∴ does not exist for x = 0
dx
=
cos x d cos x
cos x
⋅
dx
; cos x ≠ 0 a f 8. y = cos
x
2
=
cos x
cos x
a
⋅ − sin x f Solution: y = cos
x
2
a f FH a
= cos x ⋅ −sin x ; x ≠ 2n + 1 f π2 IK d cos
x

LMa2n + 1f π OP
dy 2
⇒ =
Also, f +′
N 2Q
dx dx
x
F π I F π I
cos
2 d x F I
= lim
H 2 K
cos nπ + + h
H
− cos nπ +
2 K ;
=
cos
⋅
x dx
cos
2 H K
h→ 0 h 2
(h > 0)
482 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x x FI x ⋅ sec
2
a f
F I HK b a
cos d x
= ; x≠0
=
2
x
⋅ −sin
x
H
2
⋅
2
dx K
; x ≠ 2n + 1 π fg x

bg b g
cos tan h
2 Also, f +′ 0 = lim ; h>0
h→ 0 h
x x
− sin cos =1
2 2 1
= ⋅
cos
x 2 bg
f −′ 0 = lim
h→ 0
tan h
−h
, h>0 b g
2
= –1
x x
−sin cos dy
=
2
x
2
; x ≠ 2n + 1 π b a fg ∴
dx
does not exist at x = 0
2 cos 11. y = sin–1 | x |
2
Solution: y = sin–1 | x | which is defined for x ≤ 1
Also,
dy
dx
does not exist for x = 2n + 1 π . b g ⇒
dy
=
d −1
sin x
9. y = sin | x – 2 | dx dx
Solution: y = sin | x – 2 | −1
d sin x d x
= ⋅
dy d sin x − 2 d x dx
⇒ =
dx dx
1 x
d = ⋅ ; x ≠ 0, x ≠ ±1
= cos x − 2
dx
x−2
1− bxg 2 x

x−2 d x−2 a fa f
= cos x − 2 ⋅
x−2
⋅
dxa ; x≠2
f =
x
eQ x 2
j
= x2 = x ; x ≠ 0 , x < 1
x 1− x 2

f a f
x−2
= cos x − 2 ⋅
a x−2
⋅ 1; x ≠ 2
bg
f +′ 0 = lim
sin −1 h
;h>0

a x − 2f ; a x ≠ 2f
x − 2 cos x − 2 h→ 0 h
=
=1
−1
af
dy sin h
dx
does not exist at x = 2 and f −′ 0 = lim ,h>0
h →0 −h
10. y = tan | x |
= –1
Solution: y = tan | x |
dy
dy d tan x ∴ does not exist at x = 0
⇒ = dx
dx dx
The derivative is + ∞ at x = 1; − ∞ at x = –1
2 d x 12. y = | sin–1 x |
= sec x ⋅
dx Solution: y = | sin–1 x |

a f
x −1
2
= sec x ⋅ ; x≠0 dy d sin x
x ⇒ =
dx dx
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 483

−1 1 F xI ⋅ d F xI
H 2 K dx H 2 K
2
= ⋅ sec
ja f
sin x
= −1
sin x
×
d
dx
−1
sin x ; x ≠ 0 e tan
x
2

sin −1 x x
=
sin −1 x
×
1
c
; x ≠ 0, x < 1 h =
cos
2 ⋅ 1 ⋅1
1 − x2 x 2 x 2
sin cos
2 2
dy
does not exist at x = 0 and the derivative is 1
dx =
+ ∞ and − ∞ at x = 1, –1 respectively. x x
2 sin ⋅ cos
13. y = tan–1
|x| 2 2
Solution: y = tan–1 | x | 1
=
dy d −1 sin x
⇒ = tan x
dx dx = cosec x

=
1
⋅
d
bxg 15. y = log (log | x |)
1+ bxg 2 dx
Solution: y = log (log | x |) is defined for | x | > 1
dy d log log x b g
= 2
⋅
x1 2
;x≠0 Q x = x FH 2
= x
2 IK ∴ For x > 1,
dx
=
dx
1+ x x
=
1
⋅
log x dx
d
log x b g
x
=
e
x 1+ x
2
j =
1
⋅
log x x
1

dy
does not exist for x ≠ 0 LMQ d log f axf af
f′ x d log x 1 OP
dx
N dx
=
af
f x
and
dx
=
x Q
FG x IJ
14. y = log tan
H 2 K =
1
x log x
FG x IJ
Solution: y = log tan
H 2 K which is defined for a + b tan x
16. y = log a − b tan x
x ≠ nπ
a + b tan x
Solution: y = log
dy
∴ For x ≠ n π , a − b tan x
which is defined for
dx

1 d x F
d log f x I LM af f′ x a f OP a ≠ ± b tan x i.e. a ≠ b tan x
2 2 2

=
tan
⋅
x dx
tan
2
Q
H
dx KN =
f x a fQ 2
∴ For a ≠ b tan x ,
2 2
2
dy d a + b tan x
= log
dx dx a − b tan x
484 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

aa − b tan xf × Answer: (i) Multiply and divide the expression

=
aa + b tan xf ( a cos θ + b sin θ ) or ( a sin θ + b cos θ ) by
2 2
a + b which means to multiply and to divide the
LMb sec x aa − b tan x f − e−b sec x j aa + b tan x f O
PP
2 2
given expression ( a cos θ + b sin θ ) or
MM aa − b tan xf PQ
( a sin θ + b cos θ ) by
N
2

acoefficient of cos θf + acoefficient of sin θf

2 2

2 2 2
ab sec x −b sec x tan x + ab sec x +b sec x tan x
2 2 2 (ii) Use the “A + B or A – B” formula as the case may
= 2 2 2 require.
a −b tan x
Solved Examples
2
2 a b sec x
= 2 2 2
Find the d.c. of
a − b tan x 1. y = | cos x – sin x |
− x Solution: y = | cos x – sin x |
17. y = e
− x =
a
2 cos x − sin x f
Solution: y = e 2
dy d − x
⇒ = e 1 1
dx dx = 2 cos x − sin x
2 2

=
d
e
− x
⋅
c h
d d x
= 2
o
cos 45 cos x − cos 45 sin x
o
d x dx

a f e o
j F π I
=e
− x
× −1 ⋅
d x
dx
= 2 cos x + 45 = 2 cos x +
H 4 K
Now differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
=e
− x
× −1 × a f x
dy d RS F π I UV
− x
x
− x
=
dx dx T 2 cos x +
H 4 KW
=
−e
=
− x e ⋅ x
; x≠0 a f d π F I
x x
Remember: Rule to differentiate mod function
= 2
dx
cos x +
4 H K
a cos θ + b sin θ . To differentiate mod of a function
F πI F π I d Fx + πI
a cos θ + b sin θ, we may adopt the following working H 4K
d cos x + d cos x +
H 4 K ⋅ H 4K
rule: = 2
F πI ⋅
F π I
H 4K H K
dx
1. Express a cos θ + b sin θ (or, a sin θ + b cos θ ) as d cos x + d x+
4
a single cosine (or, single sine).
af af FG π IJ ⋅ RS−sin FG x + π IJ UV ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1
2. Use
d f x
=
f x
f a xf
× f′ x ; f x ≠0 afb af g = 2 cos x +
H 4 K T H 4 K W cos FG x + π IJ
dx
H 4K
Question: How to express a cos θ + b sin θ or
a sin θ + b cos θ as a single cosine (or, single cosine)
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 485

Solution: Q y = | sec x – tan x | which is defined for

F πI ⋅ sin F x + π I
cos x +
H 4K H 4K x ≠ nπ +
π
=− 2
F πI 2
H 4K
cos x +
For x ≠ n π =
π
,
F I
2
for cos x +
H
π
≠0
K dy d f x af d f x af d f xaf
4
Further, y is not differentiable at x when
dx
=
dx
=
d f x af ×
dx

F π I af
f x
af
H K f a xf
cos x + =0 = × f′ x
4
Or, alternatively,
by using general method =
a
sec x − tan x
⋅
sec x − tan x dx
d
f
sec x − tan x a f
dy d cos x − sin x
=

asec x − tan xf ⋅ esec x ⋅ tan x − sec xj

dx dx sec x − tan x 2
=
Now, putting (cos x – sin x) = f (x)

⇒
dy d f x
=
af sec x − tan x ⋅ a− sec x f ⋅ asec x − tan x f
dx dx =
asec x − tan xf
af
f x
af af = (–sec x) | sec x – tan x |
f a xf
= × f ′ x , for f x ≠ 0

cos x − sin x a
d cos x − sin x f Problems based on the substitution | f ( x) | = f
2
axf
=
acos x − sin x
×
f dx
Refresh your memory: In calculus while differentiat-
ing a given function under the square root symbol,
when cos x ≠ sin x when we simplify a given function under the square
root symbol and after simplification, we get

f a f
cos x − sin x
=
a cos x − sin x
× − sin x − cos x
af
f x
2
= a xf , this should be replaced by
f
2

d f axf
acos x − sin xf × a−1f × asin x + cos xf
cos x − sin x
= | f (x) | and then we should find .
dx

a
− cos x − sin x ⋅ sin x + cos x f Solved Examples
=
a
cos x − sin x f
for tan x ≠ 1
Find the d.c. of
π 2
i.e. x ≠ n π = 1. y = 1 − cos x
4
π Solution: y = 1 − cos x =
2
sin x
2
Further y is not differentiable at x = n π +
4
⇒ y = sin x
2. y = | sec x – tan x |
dy d sin x
⇒ =
dx dx
486 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

=
sin x d sin x
⋅ FG 1 − sin x IJ 2
asec x − tan xf
H cos x K
2
sin x dx = =

sin x = sec x − tan x

= ⋅ cos x , x ≠ nπ , n ∈Z
sin x
dy d
y' (x) does not exist for x = nπ . ∴ = sec x − tan x
dx dx
Precaution: It is a common mistake to write down

y = 1 − cos x =
2 2
sin x = sin x
=
a
sec x − tan x
⋅
sec x − tan x dx
d
f
sec x − tan xa f
dy
f e j
⇒ = cos x which is completely wrong. sec x − tan x 2
dx =
a sec x − tan x
× sec x tan x − sec x

2
2. y = 1 − sin x
asec x − tan xf ⋅ a−sec xf ⋅ asec x − tan xf
sec x − tan x
=
2 2
Solution: y = 1 − sin x = cos x = cos x
π
dy d cos x = − sec x sec x − tan x , x ≠ nπ + .
⇒ = 2
dx dx
FG 1 + cos x IJ
=
cos x d cos x
cos x
⋅
dx
4. y =
H 2 K
Solution: y = G
F 1 + cos x IJ
= − sin x ⋅
cos x
cos x
H 2 K
π 2 x
= − tan x cos x , x ≠ nπ + , n ∈Z 2 cos
2 x x
2 = 2 = cos = cos
2 2 2
1 − sin x
3. y =
1 + sin x ⇒
dy
=
d
cos
x
dx dx 2
1 − sin x
Solution: y = , defined for x
1 + sin x cos
d x F I
H K
2
= ⋅ cos
b
x ≠ 2n + 1 π + gπ
2
cos
x dx
2
2

Rationalizing the denominator, we get

a1 − sin xf × a1 − sin xf = a1 − sin xf

x
2 cos
F −sin x I ⋅ d F x I
a1 + sin xf × a1 − sin xf 1 − sin x H 2 K dx H 2 K
= 2
2 =
x
cos
2

=
a1 − sin xf 2

2
cos x
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 487

6. | x | + cos x
x x
− sin cos 7. sin x – | x |
2 2 1
= ⋅ sin x
x 2 8.
cos x
2
x
x x
−sin cos 9.
sin x
=
2
x
2
b
, x ≠ 2n + 1 π g x−1
2 cos
2 10. x−1
5. y = 1 + sin 2 x − 1 − sin 2 x x
11.
Solution: y = 1 + sin 2 x − 1 − sin 2 x x

⇒ y= acos x + sin xf 2
− acos x − sin x f 2
12.
a x − 2f x
x−2
⇒ y = cos x + sin x − cos x − sin x
a
x x−1 f
dy d cos x + sin x d cos x − sin x 13.
x−1
⇒ = −
dx dx dx
1

bcos x + sin xg × bcos x − sin xg + bcos x − sin xg ×

cos x + sin x cos x − sin x 14.
= x
15. x | x |
asin x + cos xf 16. log | x |
17. | log x |
bcos x − sin xg cos x + sin x + 1 + cos 2 x
=
bcos x + sin xg 18.
2 cos x
bsin x + cos xg cos x − sin x ,
bcos x − sin xg
x
19.
1 − cos x
π
for x ≠ nπ ± , n ∈Z 20. 1 + sin x − 1 − sin x
4
Problems based on differentiation of mod of a function 1 + cos 2 x
21.
1 − cos 2 x
Exercise 11.1
22. log | sin x |
23. log | cos (ax + b) |
Find the differential coefficients of the following 24. | sin x |
functions. 25. | cos x |
1. | 5x + 3 | 26. | tan x |
2. | x2 – a2 | 27. | cot x |
3. | x + 1 | 28. | sec x |
4. | x – 1 | 29. | cosec x |
5. x + | x | 30. sin | x |
488 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

31. cos | x | 15. 2 x

a f
32. tan | x |
33. cot | x | 23. − a tan ax + b
34. sec | x |
sin x
35. cosec | x |
24. ⋅ cos x
sin x
Answers (with suitable restrictions on x).

1.
5 5x + 3
a5x + 3 f 25.
cos x
cos x
a
⋅ − sin x f
2 2
2x x − a tan x 2
26. ⋅ sec x
ex j
2. 2 2 tan x
−a
x+1
cot x
e 2
⋅ − cosec x j
a f
27.
3. cot x
x+1
x−1 sec x
a
⋅ sec x ⋅ tan x f
4.
a x−1 f 28.
sec x

5. 1 +
x
x 29.
cosec x
cosec x
a
⋅ − cosec x ⋅ cot x f
x
6. − sin x x
x 30. cos x ⋅
x
x
7. cos x − x
x 31. − sin x ⋅
x
x x cos x − sin x x
8. 2 x
x x
2
32. sec x ⋅
x

sin x x − x x cos x 2 x
33. − cosec x ⋅
9.
x sin x a f 2 x
x
10. 0 34. sec x ⋅ tan x ⋅
x
11. 0
la x − 2f x q FG − x IJ
12.
+ x x
x−2
x−2 − x x
2
x−2 35. cosec x ⋅ cot x H xK

13.
a
x − 1 2x − 1 − x x − 1 f Change of Form before Differentiation

x −1
2 In certain cases the given function can be reduced
into a simple form before it is differentiated so that
− x process of differentiation becomes simple and easier.
14. 3 Notable cases are those of fractions whose
x
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 489

denominator is a surdic quantity, which are simplified

by rationalizing the denominator. x+a + x−a
Solution: y = , defined for
Type 1 x+a − x−a
Form: x>|a|>0
a f g axf
f x ±
x+a + x−a x+a + x−a
f a xf m g a x f = ×
1.
x+a − x−a x+a + x−a
1 [Rationalizing the denominator]
2.
a f g axf
f x ±
e x+a + j x−a
2

f a xf ± g a xf =
ax + af − ax − af
f a xf m g a xf
3.
2 2

f a xf
x+a + x−a+2 x −a
=
f a xf + a ± f a x f − a
4. 2a

f a xf
FG x + IJ
H K
2 2
x −a
f a x f ± f a xf
5. =
1 2 a
⇔ If numerator and denominator are irrational
∴
RS e
dy 1
= 1+
d 2
x −aj2 UV 1
2

T W
functions of x, rationalization helps to get the d.c. in
easy way. dx a dx
N.B.: Irrational function is always rationalized by
dy 1 R
| U|
= S1 + × 2xV ,
1
substitution or rationalization while finding limit/d.c./ ⇒
integral/value of the function at a particular point/ …
etc.
T 2 x − a |W
dx a | 2 2

Working rule: To find the d.c. of the forms mentioned

dy 1 |
R U|
⇒ = S1 +
x
V for x > | a | > 0.
dx a |
T x − a |W
above, we rationalize the denominator.
af
2 2
−1
Type 2: t f x
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Where t = sin / cos / tan / cot / sec / cosec 2 2 2 2
x +a + x −a
2. y =
f (x) = a quotient of trigonometrical functions of x/
algebraic function of x which can be reduced into a 2 2 2 2
x +a − x −a
simple and easy form by simplification or substitution
before differentiation. 2 2 2 2
x +a + x −a
N.B.: The second type has been explained in the Solution: y = 2 2 2 2
, defined for
chapter of d.c. of inverse circular functions. x +a − x −a

Solved Examples on rationalization x 2 > a2 > 0

Find the d.c. of the following 2

x +a + x −a
2 2 2 2 2
x +a + x −a
2 2
= ×
x+a + x−a 2
x +a − x −a
2 2 2 2 2
x +a + x −a
2 2
1. y =
x+a − x−a
490 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

ex 2
je j
+ a2 + x2 − a2 + 2 x2 + a 2 ⋅ x2 − a 2 FG x + IJ × FG x + IJ
H K H K
2 2 2 2
= x +a x +a
ex 2
+ a j − ex 2 2
− a2 j =
FG x − I F IJ
+a J × Gx +
H K H K
2 2 2 2
x x +a
2 4 4
2x + 2 x − a
= 2
x +a − x +a
2 2 2
FG x + IJ 2

H K
2 2
x +a
=
− ex − a j
2 4 4 2 2 2
2x + 2 x − a x
= 2
2a
x2 + x2 + a2 + 2 x x2 + a2
x +
2
x −a
4 4 =
= x2 − x2 − a2
2
a
2x2 + a2 + 2x x2 + a 2
2 4 4 =
x x −a −a 2
= 2
+ 2
a a Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x.
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x. dy −2 d RS FG −2 x IJ UV
T Ha KW
⇒ = 2 ⋅ 2x + 0 + x2 + a2
dy dx a dx 2
⇒
dx
dy −4 x 2 1 × 2x 2x
d −1i ⇒ = − x2 + a2 − ×
ex j e j
1
2x 1 d 4
= + 4
−a 4
x − a4 dx a 2 a 2 a2
2
2 x2 + a2
a2 2a 2 dx

dy 2 x 4x F I
⇒ =
dx a 2
+
FG IJ a G 4x + 2
= −G
2x JJ
H K x2 + a2 +
FH IK a J
4 4 2
x −a
GH a a
2
K
2 2
x2 + a2 2

3
dy 2 x 2x
⇒ =
dx a 2
+
FG IJ for x2 > a2.
4. y =
1

H K
2 4 4
a x −a 2
x +a +
2
x +b
2 2

1
x+
2
x +a
2 Solution: y =
3. y =
2 2 2 2
2 2
x +a + x +b
x− x +a
2 2 2 2
x +a − x +b [Rationalizing the
2 2 =
x+ x +a 2 2
Solution: y = a −b
2 2
x− x +a denominator]
Now, on differentiating both sides w.r.t. x.
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 491

LM e j
c −1h
e j L OP
+M
1

⇒
dy
=
1
⋅
1 2
x +a
2 2 d 2 2
x +a − a 1 a2 − x2
e
dx a 2 − b 2 2
j N dx =−
x2 MN a2 − x2
+
x2 PQ , x ≠ 0 .
jOPQ
c −1h
e j e
1
1 2 2
x +b
2 d 2 2
x +b x +1 + x −1
2 dx 6. y =
x +1 − x −1

dy 1 2x
LM 2x
OP x +1 + x −1

e j MN PQ
⇒ = 2 2 ⋅ − Solution: y = , defined for x > 1
dx a −b 2 2 2 2 x +1 − x −1
2 x +a x +b

L 1 OP e x+1+ x−1 j 2

⋅M
=
e j −e j
x 1 [Rationalizing the

ea − b j MN x + a PQ
2 2
= 2 2
− x +1 x−1
2 2 2 2
x +b
denominator]
a+x − a−x 2
5. y = , a > 0. x + 1 + x − 1 + 2 x −1
a+x + a−x =
x +1− x −1 a f
a+x − a−x
Solution: y = , defined for | x | < a. 2x + 2 x −1
2
a+x + a−x =
x +1− x +1
e a+x − j e a + x − a− xj , x ≠ 0
a−x ⋅ FG IJ
H K
2
= 2 x+ x −1
e a + xj − e a− xj 2 2
=
2

a + x + aa − x f − 2 a + x ⋅ a − x
2
= x+ x −1

a + x − aa − x f
=
⇒
dy
dx
=1+
1
2
×
d 2
dx
x −1 e j
2 2 2 2 2 x −1
2a − 2 a − x 2a − 2 a − x
= =
a+ x−a+ x 2x 2x x
=1+ =1+
, x > 1.
FG IJ
2 2
2 x −1 x −1
H K
2 2
2 a − a −x
x
= 7. y =
2x x+2 + x−2
2 2
a a −x x
= − Solution: y = , defined for x > 2
x x x+2 + x−2

dy a 1
LM a −2 x f 1
OP x⋅ e x+2 − x−2 j
MN PQ
2 2
⇒ =− 2 − ⋅ − ⋅ a −x =
e j −e j
2
dx 2x 2 2 2
x a −x x
x+2 x−2
492 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x⋅ e x+2 − x−2 j Solution: y =

x
, defined for x2 < a2
=
ax + 2f − ax − 2f a − a −x
2 2

x e x +2 − x−2j
Now rationalizing the denominator, we have
=
4
...(i)*
x⋅ a+ FH a2 − x2 IK
⇒
dy
y=
FH a − a 2
− x2 IK FH a + a2 − x2 IK , x ≠ 0
dx
1 LM d
e je j F
x Ga + −x J
I
=
N x+ 2 − x −2 + x+2 − x−2 ⋅
H K
2 2
x a
4 dx
=
OP
2 2 2
d a −a + x
dx
x
Q 2 2
a+ a −x
LM F I+e x+2 − x−2 jOP , =

MN x GH 2 J
1 1 1 x
=
4 x +2
−
x−2 K 2 x PQ ⇒
dy
dx
for x > 2
d FG IJ − FG a + IJ dx
H K H K dx
2 2 2 2
Note: x⋅ a + a −x a −x
dx
1 FG I
− 2x J
= 2

H K
2 2 x
* Or, alternatively (1) ⇒ y = x + 2x − x

a f FGH IJ
4
e j
1 2 − 21

K
2 2 2
a −x × −2 x − a + a − x
LM a f a f OP
dy 1 1 ⋅ 2 x + 2 1 ⋅ 2x − 2 =
2
⇒
MN= −
PQ
2
x
dx 4 2 2
2 x + 2x 2 x − 2x
LM −x
2 OP
L
dy 1 1 M a2 x + 2f a O
2 x − 2f P MN 2
a −x
2
− a − a −x
2 2
PQ
dx 4 2 M P
⇒ = × − =
N x + 2 x x − 2x Q
2 2
x
2

L a2 x − 2f OP LM− x OP
1 a2 x + 2 f
2 2 2 2 2

= M N Q
− a a −x − a + x
8 M
N x + 2 x x − 2 x PQ
− =
2 2 2 2 2
x a −x

L
1 b x + 1g bx − 1g OP for x > 2 . FH IK
= M −a a + a 2 − x 2
4 M x + 2x x − 2 x PQ
−
N = ; x ≠ 0, x < a2
2 2 2

x 2
a −x
2 2

x
8. y = ,a ≠ 0 2 2
a− a2 − x2 x −a − x
9. y =
2 2
x +a + x
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 493

2 2
x −a − x 2 sin
x
2
Solution: y = , defined for x2 > a2 2
x +a
2 2
+ x =
2 x
2 cos
FG I
− xJ
2 2
H K
2 2
x +a
=
FG IJ FG IJ x
sin
H KH K
2 2 2 2
x +a + x x +a − x 2 x
= = tan
x 2
cos
2 2 2 2 2
2x + a − 2x x + a
= 2
a dy d x
⇒ = tan
dy dx dx 2
⇒
dx x
LM OP
tan
2 2 x 1
1 1 = ⋅ sec ⋅
MN4 x − 2 x + a − 2 x ⋅ 2 x + a PQ
2 2
= 2
⋅ 2x tan
x 2 2
2 2
a 2

LM 2 ex + a j + 2 x OP
2 2 2
tan
x

MM4 x − x + a PP
1 1 x 2
= = sec 2 ⋅ ; x ≠ nπ, n ∈Z
N Q
2
a 2 2 2 2 tan x
2

2
LM 2 x + a OP 2 2
Note: (i) This problem can be done by substitution

MN2 x − x + a PQ for x > a .

= 2 2 method also but that method becomes lengthy.
2 2 2
a 1 − cos x 1 − cos x
y= = u where ‘u’ =
Problems based on Trigonometical Transformation 1 + cos x 1 + cos x
Type 1: Whenever 1 ± cos x appears under the ⇒ We are required to find
radical sign , we always express the function
1 c 12 −1h du
1

within the radical as a square of some function. du du 2 1 du

= = u ⋅ = ⋅
Type 2: Wherever 1 ± sin x appears under the dx dx 2 dx 2 u dx
radical sign , we always express the function (ii) This problem also can be done by logarithmic
within the radical as a square of some function. differentiation.

F 1 − cos x IJ = 1 log FG 1 − cos x IJ

N.B.: The above method may be remembered as 1

log y = log G
2
“expressing the function within the radical as a square
of some function”. H 1 + cos x K 2 H 1 + cos x K
Solved Examples
⇒ 2 log y = log G
F 1 − cos x IJ
Find the d.c. of the following. H 1 + cos x K
1 − cos x = log a1 − cos x f − log a1 + cos x f
1. y =
1 + cos x

Solution: y =
1 − cos x
1 + cos x
defined for x ≠ 2n + 1 π b g
494 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒2
d log y d d
a
= log 1 − cos x − log 1 + cos x f a f 1
x
2
−1
d
tan
x FG IJ
H K
dx dx dx
= ⋅
x FG⋅
dx
tan − 1 ,
2 IJ
H K
1 dy sin x sin x 2 tan − 1
⇒2⋅ = + 2
y dx 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
π
F 1 + cos x + 1 − cos x I = sin x ⋅ 2
= sin x G
x ≠ 2nπ +

H 1 − cos x JK
2
2 2
sin x x
tan −1
1 2 2 x 1
⇒
dy
=
2 y
× =
y =
F x
⋅ sec
I ⋅
H K
2 2 2
dx sin x 2 sin x tan − 1
2
1 1 − cos x x
= × ; x ≠ nπ tan − 1
sin x 1 + cos x 1 x 2 2
= sec ⋅
x
;
F I
H K
2 2 2
1 − sin x tan − 1
2
2. y =
1 + cos x
FG x ≠ a2n + 1f π and x ≠ F 2nπ + π I IJ
H H 2 KK
Solution: y =
1 − sin x
1 + cos x
b
, defined for x ≠ 2n + 1 π g 3. y = 1 − sin x

Solution: y = 1 − sin x
F x x I 2

H sin − cos
2 2 K F sin x − cos x I 2
=
2 cos
2 x
=
H 2 2K
2 x x
= sin − cos
2 2
x x
sin − cos x x
=
2 2 d sin − cos
dy 2 2
2 cos
x ⇒ =
2 dx dx
x x
x x
− cos
sin
1 x x F I
H K
2 2
1 sin
2
− cos
2
=
Fx x
⋅ ⋅ sin + cos
I
⇒y=
H K
2 2 2
x sin − cos
2 cos 2 2
2
F sin x + cos x I sin x − cos x
=
1
tan
x
−1 1 H 2 2K 2 2 ;
2 2 = ⋅
F sin x − cos x I for
H 2 2K
2
dy 1 d x
⇒ = tan − 1
dx 2 dx 2 π
x ≠ 2nπ + .
2
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 495

4. y = 1 + cos x x
⇒ tan y = tan
2
Solution: y = 1 + cos x
x
x 2 x d tan
= 2 cos = 2 cos d tan y 2
2 2 ⇒ =
dx dx
x
d cos x x
⇒
dy
=
2 tan sec 2
2 dy 2 2
dx dx ⇒ sec y ⋅ 2
= ⋅ , x ≠ nπ
dx x 2
tan
x 2
cos
x 1 F I
H K
2
= 2⋅ ⋅ −sin ⋅ x 2 x
x 2 2 tan sec
cos dy 2 2
2 ⇒ = ⋅
dx x 2 sec 2 y
tan
x 2
cos
1 x 2
= − ⋅ 2 ⋅ sin ⋅
R|SQ tan x U|V
x 2 x
2 2 cos x tan sec 2
2 2 x
F
2
2 =
x
⋅
2 x I T| 2 = tan
W|
H K
2
tan 2 1 + tan
x 2 2
cos
=−
1
2
x
sin ⋅
2
2
x
, x ≠ 2n + 1 π b g tan
x 2 x
cos sec
dy 2 2
2 ⇒ = ⋅
dx x 2 x
N.B.: The above problem also can be done by using tan 2 sec
2 2
the chain rule for u , where u = given function
x = f (x) or by using logarithmic differentiation.
x
tan
−1 1 − cos x 1 2
5. y = tan = , x ≠ nπ
1 + cos x 2 tan x
2
−1 1 − cos x
Solution: y = tan or, alternatively,
1 + cos x
1 − cos x
tan y =
x2 1 + cos x

a f
2 sin
−1 2 ; x ≠ 2n + 1 π
= tan 1 − cos x
2 cos
2 x ⇒ log tan y = log , x ≠ nπ
2 1 + cos x

R| 1sin x U| 1FG IJ
1 − cos x
=
H
log
K
S| x2 V| = tan RST tan 2x UVW
2 1 + cos x
−1 −1
⇒ y = tan
= log a1 − cos x f − log a1 + cos x f
T| cos 2 W|
1
2
496 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
1
⋅
d tan y 1 sin x
= +
LM
sin x OP −1 1 ± sin x −1 1 ± cos x
tan y dx N
2 1 − cos x 1 + cos x Q 3. y = f
1 m sin x
, f
1 m cos x
,

=
LM
sin x 1 + cos n x + 1 − cos e x OP −1 1 ± sin x −1 1 ± cos x
MN PQ
f , f
2 1 − cos x
2 1 ± cos x 1 ± sin x

1 2 dy sin x 2 1 − sin x 1 + sin x 1 + cos x

⇒ ⋅ sec y ⋅ = ⋅ 4. y = , , ,
tan y dx 2 2
sin x 1 + sin x 1 − sin x 1 − cos x
2
1 + tan y dy 1 1 ± sin x 1 ± cos x
⇒ ⋅ = , ,
tan y dx sin x 1 ± cos x 1 ± sin x

FG 1 − cos x IJ 5. y = 1 ± sin x , 1 ± cos x is logarithmic

⇒
1+
H 1 + cos x K ⋅ dy = 1 differentiation.
1 − cos x dx sin x
1 + sin x
1 + cos x 6. y = log ,
1 − sin x
2 Solution: First method:
1 + cos x dy 1
⇒ ⋅ = 1 + sin x π
1 − cos x dx sin x y = log , defined for x ≠ nπ +
1 + cos x 1 − sin x 2

1 − cos x l a
=
1
2
f a fq
log 1 + sin x − log 1 − sin x
dy 1 + cos x
⇒
dx
=
FG 2 IJ ⇒
dy 1 R cos x
= S −
a−cos xf UV
sin x ⋅
H 1 + cos x K dx 2 T1 + sin x 1 − sin x W

1R cos x U
= S− V
1 − cos x cos x
1 + cos x a
1 − cos x 1 + cos x f +
2 T 1 + sin x 1 − sin x W
FG 2 sin x IJ
= =
1 + cos x
⋅
2 sin x
R|1 − sin x + 1 + sin x U|
H 1 + cos x K = ⋅ cos x ⋅ S
1
V
dy b1 + cos x g 1 − cos x
2
T| 1 − sin x W| 2

⇒ = ⋅ , x ≠ nπ
dx 2 sin x 1 + cos x 1 2 1 π
= ⋅ cos x ⋅ 2
= , x ≠ nπ +
Note: The first method is more simple than the second 2 cos x cos x 2
method. But a general method to find differential
Second method
coefficient of
af
g1 x sin
x
+ cos
x
1. y = f
af
g2 x
1 + sin x
1 − sin x
=
2
x
2
x
sin − cos
−1 g a xf 2 2
g axf
2. y = f
1 –1=
, where f sin–1, cos–1, tan–1,
2
cot–1, sec–1, and cosec–1.
 Differential Coefficient of Mod Functions 497

Problems based on Change of Form before

x x
+ cossin Differentiation
1 + sin x 2 2
∴ y = log = log
1 − sin x x x Exercise 11.2
sin − cos
2 2
Find the differential coefficients of
x x x x
= log sin + cos − log sin − cos 1
2 2 2 2 1.
x+a + x+b
F 1 ⋅ cos x − 1 ⋅ sin x I −
F sin x + cos x I H 2 2 2 2 K 2. a1 + x f + a1 − x f
dy 1
⇒ = ⋅
H 2 2K
dx
a1 + xf − a1 − x f
1 F 1 cos x + 1 sin x I ea + x j + ea − x j
F sin − cos I H 2 2 2 2 K
⋅ 2 2 2 2
x x
H 2 2K
ea + x j − ea − x j
3. 2 2 2 2

R F cos x − sin x I F cos x + sin x I U|

1 |H 2K H 2 2K V
= S
2 x
2 |F xI F I
− 4.

|T H sin 2 + cos 2 K H sin 2 − cos 2 K ||W

x x x 2 2
1− a − x

R F cos x − sin x I F cos x + sin x I U x

1 |H 2K H 2 2 K |V 5.
x+2 + x−2
= S
2
2 |F xI F x xI |
+
x
T| H sin 2 + cos 2 K H cos 2 − sin 2 K W| 6.
x
x +2 −1
R| F cos x − sin x I + F cos x + sin x I U|
G 2 2 JK GH 2 2 JK |
2 2

1 |H
= S V aa + bxf + aa − bxf
2 | F x − cos x IJ
– G sin || 7.
aa + bxf − aa − bxf
|T H 2 2K
2 2

W
R|1 − 2 sin x cos x + 1 + 2 sin x cos x U| 2
2+ x + x

= S V|
1 8. 2
2 2 2 2 2+ x − x
2 | cos x
T W LM F 2 + x + xI 2 OP
MMHint: H 2 + x − x K = 2 + x + 2 x 2 2 + x
π 2

PP
1 2 1 2 2
+ x2
= ⋅ = , x ≠ nπ +
2 cos x cos x 2 2 2

Remark: The above problem has not been solved MN PQ

by logarithmic differentiation.
Answers (with proper restrictions on x)

1 LM 1 1 OP
1.
a
2 a−b
⋅
f MN x+a
−
x + b PQ
498 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1 1 −1 1 − cos x
2. − − 2. y = tan
2 2 2
1 + cos x
x 1− x x
1 + sin x
2 R| 2 U| 3. y =
1 − sin x
3. −
2a
S|1 + a
V|
T W
3 4 4
x a − x Answers (with proper restrictions on x)

4. Find asin x + cos xf ⋅acos x − sin xf − asin x − cos xf ⋅

5. Find
1.
asin x + cos xf asin x − cos xf
R| U| acos x + sin xf
6. −
1
x |
S1 + 1
V| x x x
|T e j |W 2. y = if tan > 0 , then tan
2 2
1 + x 2 2 2
x dy 1
= tan ∴ =
a |
R U| 2 dx 2
7. −
bx |
S1+
a
V|
T a −b x W
2 2 2 2 x
tan
or,
dy 1
=
dx 2 tan x
2
a
, x ≠ nπ f
Exercise 11.3 2
x
tan + 1
Differentiate the following functions. 1 2 x 2
1. y = 1 + sin 2 x − 1 − sin 2 x
3. sec ⋅
Fx I
H K
2 2 2
tan + 1
2

12
Implicit Differentiation
Firstly, we recall the basic definitions in connection
with implicit differentiation.
1. Explicit function: Whenever it is possible to
equate the dependent variable y directly to a function
of the independent variable x as y = f (x) , we say that
the dependent variable y is an explicit function of the
independent variable x. Here f (in the equation y =
f (x)) stands for all elementary functions (sin, cos, tan,
cot, sec, cosec, sin–1 , cos–1 , tan–1, cot–1, sec –1,
cosec–1, log, e, ( )n, n , | |, etc.). examples,
(i) y = x2 – 1
(ii) y = sin x3, etc.
N.B.: All algebraic, trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions
of x’s are explicit functions of x’s.
2. Implicit function: Whenever it is not possible to
equate the dependent variable y directly to a function
of the independent variable x as y = f (x), we say that
the dependent variable y is an implicit function of the
independent variable x.
Examples:
(i) x3 y4 = (x + y)7
(ii) x y = c
(iii) xy + x2 y2 = c
(iv) xm ym = (x + y)m + n
(v) y = cos (x – y)
(vi) y = tan (x + y)
(vii) cot xy + xy = 3
(viii) sin (x + y) + sin (x – y) = 1
Implicit Differentiation 499
Notation: The notation for the implicit function is
either
1. F (x, y) = c, c being a constant, or, (Note: Implicit
function is also defined in the following way: If the
dependence of the dependent variable y on the
independent variable x is expressed by the equation:
F (x, y) = c or F (x, y) = 0 not solvable for y, then y is
called an implicit function of x.)
2. F (x, y) = 0 where F (x, y) denotes
(i) A rational integral function of x and y, i.e. it is the
sum of a finite series of the terms Cm,n xm, yn, where m,
n may have the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
(ii) A function (sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1,
cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, ( )n, n , | |,
etc.) of a rational integral function of x and y.
(iii) A combination of (i) and (ii) and the equation F
(x, y) = c or F (x, y) = 0 denotes the dependence of the
dependent variable y on the independent variable x
not solvable for y.
Remember:
1. The equation F (x, y) = c or, F (x, y) = 0 determines
one or more values of y to be associated with the given
value of the independent variable x provided a definite
number from some domain is substituted for x.
2. If the set {(x, y) | F (x, y) = c} or, {(x, y) | F (x, y) = 0}
is the graph of a function (or, union of graphs or more
than one function), we say that the equation F (x, y)
= c or F (x, y) = 0 defined implicitly y as a function x.
Further we should note that if y = f (x) is a function of
x, then F (x, y) = F (x, f (x)) = c or F (x, y) = F (x, f (x))
= 0 is an identity, i.e. F (x, f (x)) is a constant function.
500 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Kinds of Implicit Function n n

dy dy dy
1. Implicit algebraic function: y is said to be an implicit Hence, = ⋅ , provided y is a
dx dx dx
algebraic function of x if a relation of the form: differentiable function of x.
Ym + R1 Ym – 1 + … + Rm = 0 exists, where R1, R2, …, 2. The derivative of a function (sin, cos, tan, cot, sec,
Rm are rational functions of x’s and m is a positive cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e,
integer. e.g., ( )n, | |, etc.) of a rational integral function of x and y
(i) y2 – 2xy + x = 0 with respect to the independent variable x is equal to
2 x the derivative of the whole given implicit function
(ii) y − y +1= 0 with respect to the rational integral function of x and
x −1
y times the derivative of the rational integral function
2. Implicit transcendental function: y is said to be an of x and y with respect to the independent variable x
implicit transcendental function of x if a relation of
d
a f a f a f
dT x, y d x, y
a f
the form: T (x, y) = 0 exists, where T denotes T x, y = ⋅
only, i.e. pro-
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, logarithmic and dx d x, y dx
exponential functions and the ordered pair (x, y) vided denotes sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1,
denotes a rational integral function of x and y. e.g., cos–1, tan–1, cot–1, sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, ( )n, | |, etc
(i) tan (x, y) = 0 and the ordered pair (x, y) denotes the rational inte-
(ii) cos (x + 2y) = 0 gral function of x and y. e.g.,
a f a f
(iii) sin (a + y) = 0
(iv) ey – x = 0
(v) tan–1 (x + y) = 0
(i)
d
dx
a
sin x + y + f
d sin x + y d x + y
d x+ y a f⋅
dx

F dy I
(vi) log (xy) = 0
= cos a x + y f ⋅ 1 +
Question: What is implicit differentiation?
Answer: Differentiation of an implicit function is called H dx K
d log a xy f d a xy f
implicit differentiation, or more explicitly it is defined
log a xy f =
d
d a xy f
dy (ii) ⋅
as “Finding the derivative of an implicit function dx dx
dx
put in the form F (x, y) = 0 or F (x, y) = c without 1 F dy I
xy H dx K
explicitly determining the function y = f (x) is called = x + y , xy > 0
the implicit differentiation.
N.B.: Whenever we differentiate an implicit function 3. Question: When would you differentiate as an
put in the form F (x, y) = c or, F (x, y) = 0, we assume implicit function?
that the given implicit function is differentiable and y Answer: (i) When it is neither convenient nor
is a differentiable function of x. possible to find y (dependent variable) in terms of x
only, i.e. if it is convenient or impossible to write y =
Facts to Know: an expression in x only or y = f (x), where ‘f’ stands for
1. Whenever we differentiate the algebraic implicit sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, cosec, sin–1, cos–1, tan–1, cot–1,
function of x (or, the rational integral function of x sec–1, cosec–1, log, e, etc. then we differentiate the
and y), we simply need do is to differentiate each term given function as an implicit function of x. e.g.,
of it with respect to x remembering that y is itself a x3 + y3 + 3axy = 0
differentiate function of x, say g (x) and the derivative
af
of any function of y, say ∅ y with respect to x is
sin (x2 + y2) = y

equal to its derivative with respect to y multiplied by −1 FG x IJ = y

af
sin
H yK
dy
dx
, i.e.
d∅ y
dx
=
d
dx
∅ y ⋅
dy
dx
af log (x + y) = y
 Implicit Differentiation 501

af
2
x + xy d
e = y Step 1: Take on both sides of the given
dx
x · log y = y, etc. equation.
(ii) Whenever we would like to find out the derivatives Step 2: Differentiation each term of the given equation
of an implicit function of x without solving its given with respect to the independent variable x using the
equation for y, we differentiate the given relationship rules for the derivatives of sum, difference, product,
between the variables x and y as an implicit function quotient, composite of differentiable functions and a
of x. e.g., constant multiple of the differentiable function
x 2 + y 2 = a2 remembering that
tan (x + y) = 0
F xI dF y af
=
d F y dy
⋅
af
log G J = 0
H yK dx dy dx
which means wherever with respect to the
x
independent variable x, we differentiate a differentiable
e = 0 , etc.
y

algebraic, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,

4. In the implicit function, y is said to be defined logarithmic and exponential function of y being
implicitly as the function of x or x is said to be defined preassumed (or, understood) to be a differentiable
implicitly as a function of y. function of x, we should multiply the differential
5. An implicit function expresses always an unsolved coefficient of the differentiable function of y with
relationship between the variables. e.g., dy
x OP
= tan 60
o
respect to y by
dx
.

y
x + y =a P
2 P are functions expressing unsolved
2 2
Step 3: Collect the terms involving
dy
dx
on the left

Z + y tan x = aP
2 P relationship between variables. hand side and the terms without
dy
on the right
PQ hand side.
dx

6. An explicit function expresses always a solved dy

relationship between the variables. One variable is Step 4: Finally, solve the equation for .
dx
solved in terms of the other. e.g.,
o
dy
y = tan 60 ⇒ y is an explicit function of x. Notes: 1. The final result for is an expression in
dx
terms of both x and y.
y
x= o
⇒ x is an explicit function of y. 2. While finding the derivatives of an implicit
tan 60 algebraic function of x, often required derivatives
2 2
x = ± a − y ⇒ x is an explicit function of y. obtained from
dF y af
=
d F y dy
⋅
af
are the
2 dx dy dx
Z = a − y tan x ⇒ Z is an explicit function of following.
y and x. d n n −1 dy
The dependent variable is therefore the value of (i) y − ny
the explicit function. dx dx
n n
Problems on Implicit Algebraic Functions (ii)
d
dx
en n
x ± y =
dx
dx
+ j
dy
dx
To find the derivative of an implicit algebraic function
of x without solving its given equation for y, we adopt n −1 n −1 dy
= nx + ny
the rule which consists of following steps. dx
502 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

n n
dy 2 dy
(iii)
d n n
dx
e
x y = x
n dy

dx
+ y j
n dx

dx
⇒ 2x + ⋅
dy dx
=0

n n −1 dy n −1 n dy
= nx y + nx y ⇒ 2x + 2 y ⋅ =0
dx dx
n n dy
⇒ 2y = − 2x
Fx I = n y
n dx
− x
n dy
dx
(iv)
d
GH y JK dx dx
dy −2 x − x
ey j
n n 2
dx
⇒ = =
dx 2y y
3. xy + x2 y2 = c
n −1 n −1 n −1 n −1 dy
ny x − nx y Solution: xy + x2 y2 = c
= dx
a y nf 2
⇒
d
e
dx
2 2
xy + x y =
d
j af
dx
c

Solved Examples ⇒
d
dx
a xy f +
d
dx
ex y j = 0 2 2

F dy + y dx I + FG x dy I=0
dy 2 2

JK
Find if dx
H dx dx K H dx
2 2
dx ⇒ x + y
1. y8 – 5x2 y6 + x8 = 11 dx
Solution: y8 – 5x2 y6 + x8 = 11
dy dy
⇒
d
dx
e
x 8 − 5x 2 y 6 + y 8 =
d
dx
11 j b g ⇒x
dx
+ y + 2x2 y
dx
+ y2 ⋅ 2x = 0

FG dy + 2 x y dy IJ = − e y + 2 x y j
e j e j e j ⇒ x
H dx dx K
d 8 d d 8 2 2
⇒ x − 5x 2 y 6 + y =0
dx dx dx

⇒ e x + 2 x yj = − ey + 2x y j
7 6 2 5 dy 7 dy dy
2 2
⇒ 8 x − 10 x y − 30x y + 8y =0
dx dx dx

e
⇒ 8 y 7 − 30 x 2 y 5 j dydx = 10x y 6
− 8x 7 dy − y + 2 xy e 2
j
− y 1+ 2 x y y a f
⇒
dx
=
e2
x + 2x y
=
x 1 + 2 xjy
=−
x a f
⇒
dy
=
x 5y 6 − 4 x 6e j
dx e
y 5 4 y 2 − 15x 2 j 4. x5 + x4 y2 – y = 4
Solution: x5 + x4 y2 – y = 4
2. x2 + y2 = a2
Solution: x2 + y2 = a2 ⇒
d 5
dx
e 4 2
x + x y − y =
d
dx
4 j af
⇒
d 2
dx
e
2
x + y =
d 2
dx
a j e j ⇒ e j e j
d 5
x +
d 4 2
x y −
dy
=0
dx dx dx
dx dy
2 2
F dy + y I − dy = 0
H dx K dx
4 4 2 3
⇒ + =0 ⇒ 5x + x 2 y ⋅ 4x
dx dx
 Implicit Differentiation 503

⇒
dy
dx
e4 4
j e
3 2
2 x y − 1 = − 5x + 4 x y j ⇒
2 1+ y
x
⋅
dy
dx
+ 1+ y +
y
2 1+ x
+

4 3 2
dy −5 x + 4 x y dy
⇒ = 4
1+ x =0
dx 2x y − 1 dx
5. ax2 + by2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 F I
Solution: ax2 + by2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ⇒ GH 2 x dy
1 + y dx
+ 1+ x
dy
dx
+ 1+ y + JK
⇒
d
dx
e
2 2
j
ax + by + 2hxy + 2 gx + 2 f y + c = 0
y
=0
2 1+ x
⇒
d
eax j + dxd eby j + dxd a2hxyf + dxd a2 gxf +
2 2

dx
F I dy
d
a f
2f y +
d
c =0 af ⇒ GH 2 x
1+ y
+ 1+ x JK dx
dx dx
dy dy dy
⇒ −G
F I
⇒ 2ax + 2by
dx
+ 2hx + 2hy + 2 g + 2 f
dx dx
=0
H
1+ y +
2
y
1+ xK
J
dy dy dy
⇒ ax + by + hx + hy + g + f =0
dx dx dx F 1+ y + y I
a
− GH 2 1+ xK
J
f dydx = − aax + hy + gf
⇒ by + hx + f dy
⇒ =
F x + 1 + xI
GH 2 1 + y JK
dx
dy −bax + hy + g g
⇒ =
dx hx + by + f
7. x + y =1
6. x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0
Solution: x + y =1
Solution: x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0

⇒
d
e
x 1+ y + y 1+ x = 0 j ⇒
d
dx
e x + j
y =
d
dx
1af
dx
d d
⇒x
d
dx
e j
1+ y + 1+ y
dx
dx
+
⇒
dx
x +
dx
y =0

1 1 dy
y
d
dx
e 1 + x j + 1 + x dydx = 0 ⇒
2 x
+
2 y dx
=0

1 F dy I
⋅ G J + e 1+ y j ⋅ 1 +
y ⇒
1 dy
=−
1
1 + y H dx K
⇒x⋅ +
2 2 1+ x 2 y dx 2 x

dy dy −2 y − y
1+ x ⋅ =0 ⇒ = =
dx dx 2 x x
504 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Problems based on the combination of implicit
algebraic and transcendental functions
To find the derivatives of problems being the
combination of implicit algebraic and transcendental
functions of x’s, we adopt the rule consisting of
following steps.
(or, functions) of the rational integral function (or,
functions) of x and y (or, x’s and y’s).
2. While finding the derivatives of an implicit function
being the combination of implicit algebraic and
transcendental functions of x’s, often required
derivatives from:

Step 1: Take
d
af
on both sides of the given (i)
dF y
=
af
d F y dy
⋅
af
dx dx dy dx
equation.
Step 2: Differentiate the transcendental functions of d
(ii) F (a · r · i · f · o · x and y)
rational integral functions of x’s and y’s and implicit dx
algebraic functions of x’s with respect to x’s using
a f a
d F a ⋅ r ⋅ o⋅ f ⋅ o ⋅ x and y d a ⋅ r ⋅ i ⋅ f ⋅ o⋅ x and y f
the rules for the derivatives of sum, difference,
product, quotient, composite of differentiable
=
a
d a ⋅ r ⋅i ⋅ f ⋅ o ⋅ x and y
⋅
dx f
functions and a constant multiple of the differentiable are the following ones.
function remembering that
af af
n
dy n −1 dy
dF x d F x dy (a) = ny
(i) = ⋅ dx dx
dx dy dx

(ii)
d
F (a · r · i · f · o · x and y)
(b)
d
dx
x+ ya f n
a
=n x+ y f FH1 + dydx IK
n −1

dx
a f a
d F a ⋅ r ⋅ o ⋅ f ⋅ o ⋅ x and y d a ⋅ r ⋅ i ⋅ f ⋅ o ⋅ x and y f dF y e j ⋅ dy
n
n
=
a
d a ⋅ r ⋅i ⋅ f ⋅ o ⋅ x and yf ⋅ (c)
d n
F y = e j
Where “F” stands for “power, trigonometric,
dx dx d y
n
e j dx
inverse trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, etc,
function”.
“a · r · e · f · o · x and y” stands for “a rational
= F′ y e j⋅n⋅ y
n n −1
⋅
dy
dx

e j ⋅ d ex j
integral function of x and y; and y is pre-assumed (or, n n n n
dF x ± y ± y
e j
understood) to be a differentiable function of x, say g d n n
F x ± y =
e j
(x). (d) n n
dx d x ± y dx
dy
Step 3: Collect the terms involving on the left
dx
dy dF x ⋅ y e n n
j ⋅ d ex y j
n n
hand side and the terms without on the right (e)
d n n
F x y = e j
e j
dx n n
hand side. dx d x y dx
dy
Step 4: Solve the equation for on the right hand
dx Solved Examples
side.
Notes: dy
Find if
dy dx
1. The final result for is an expression either (i) in
dx 1. y = sin (x + y)
terms of both x and y only or (ii) interms of both x and Solution: y = sin (x + y)
y with one (or, more than one) transcendental function
 Implicit Differentiation 505

a f
a f a f
dy d sin x + y d sin x + y d x + y dy dy F I
H K
3 2 2 3
⇒
dx
=
dx
=
a f
d x+ y
⋅
dx
⇒ 3x y
dx
+ 3x y = − sin xy x
dx
+ y

dy F dy I
= cos a x + y f 1 + ⇒ 3x y
3 2 dy 2 3
+ 3x y = − x sin xy
dy
− y sin xy
⇒
dx H dx K dx dx

= cos a x + y f + cos a x + y f
dy e 3 2
⇒ 3x y + x sin xy j dydx = − 3x y − y sin xy
2 3

dx
= − y e3x y + sin xy j
a f a f
2 2
dy dy
⇒ − cos x + y ⋅ = cos x + y
dx dx

b
⇒ 1 − cos x + y a
fg dydx = cosax + yf ⇒
dy
=−
e
y 3x y + sin xy
2 2
j
3 2
dx 3x y + x sin xy
dy cos a x + y f
dx 1 − cos a x + y f
⇒ =

=−
e 2 2
y 3x y + sin xy j=−y
x e 3x y + sin xy j
2. xy = sin (x + y) 2 2 x
Solution: xy = sin (x + y)
dy d
a f a f a f
a f
d sin x + y d x + y
⇒
dx
xy = sin x + y =
dx a f
d x+y
⋅
dx 4.
x
y
= cosec xy

dy dx
= cos a x + y f ⋅
F dx + dy I
H dx dx K
⇒x + y⋅ x
Solution: = cosec xy
dx dx y
dy F dy I
+ y = cos a x + y f 1 +
⇒ x = y cosec xy
⇒x
H dx K
a f
dx dy d
⇒ = y cosec xy
+ y = cos a x + y f + cos a x + y f
dy dy dx dx
⇒x
b g b g
dx dx d dy
= y cosec xy + cosec xy ⋅
⇒x
dy
− cos x + y
dy
b
= cos x + y − y g b g dx dx
d cosec xy d a xy f
dx dx
dy
d a xy f
⇒1= y ⋅ + cosec xy ⋅
c
⇒ x − cos x + y b
gh dydx = cos bx + yg − y dx dx

dy cos b x + y g − y
F dy + y dx I +
⇒ 1 = y a−cosec xy cot xy f x
H dx dx K
dx x − cos b x + y g
⇒ =
dy
3. x3 y3 = cos (xy) cosec xy ⋅
dx
Solution: x3 y3 = cos (xy)

⇒
d 3 3
x y =ed
cos xy j a f a
⇒ 1 = − yx cosec xy cot xy f dydx + cosec xy dydx −
dx dx

a f a f
2
3 3 y cosec xy cot xy
dy 3 3 dx d cos xy d xy
⇒x
dx
+ y
dx
=
d xy
⋅
dx a f
506 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a
⇒ − yx cosec xy cot xy + cosec xy f dydx ⇒
dy
dx
−
1 dy
a
f a f
x + y dx
=
1
x+ y
2
= 1 + y cosec xy cot xy F 1 I dy = 1
⇒ G1 −
dy 1 + y cosec xy cot xy
2 H a x + yf JK dx a x + yf
⇒
dx
=
a
cosec xy − yx cosec xy cot xy f x + y − 1 dy 1
5. y = tan–1 (x + y)
⇒
a
x+ y
⋅
dx
=
f
x+ y a f
a x + yf
Solution: y = tan–1 (x + y)

a fa f a f
dy 1 1
⇒ = ⋅
a =
f a f a f
−1 −1
dy d tan x + y d tan x + y d x + y x+ y x + y −1 x+ y−1
a f
⇒ = = ⋅ dx
dx dx d x+ y dx
7. y = exy
dy 1 F dy I Solution: y = exy
dx 1 + a x + y f H dx K
⇒ = ⋅ 1+
e j
e j a f a f
2 xy
dy d xy d e d xy
⇒ = e = ⋅
1 1 dy dx dx d xy dx
= + ⋅
a
1+ x + y f 2
a
1+ x + y f 2
dx
dy xy F dy dx I = e ⋅ F x dy + y ⋅1I
H dx dx K H dx K
xy
⇒ =e ⋅ x +y
dy 1 FG dy IJ = 1 dx
b g H dx K 1 + b x + yg
⇒ − 2 2
dx 1 + x + y dy xy dy xy
⇒ = xe ⋅ + y⋅e
F I dy = 1
dx dx
⇒ G1 −
H 1 + a x + y f JK dx 1 + a x + yf
1 dy xy dy xy
2 2 ⇒ − xe ⋅ = y⋅e
dx dx

1 + a x + y f − 1 dy e j dydx = y ⋅ e
2 xy xy
1 ⇒ 1 − xe
⇒ ⋅ =
1 + a x + yf 1 + a x + yf
2 2
dx
xy

a x + yf dy = 1
dy ye
2 ⇒ =
⇒ dx 1 − x ⋅ e xy
1 + a x + y f dx 1 + a x + y f
2 2
8. x2 + y2 = log (xy)
1 + a x + yf
2 Solution: x2 + y2 = log (xy)
dy 1 1
j b a fg
⇒ = ⋅ =
dx 1 + a x + y f a x + yf a x + yf e
d 2 2 d
2 2 2
⇒ x + y = log xy
dx dx
d blog a xy fg d a xy f
6. y = log (x + y)

d a xy f
Solution: y = log (x + y) = ⋅
dy d
a f
d log x + y d x + y a f a f dx
⇒ =
dx dx
log x + y =
d x+y
⋅
dx a f dx dy2
1 F dy
⋅ Gx
2
I
+ y ⋅ 1J
xy H dx K
⇒ + =
dy 1 F dy 1 1 dy I dx dx
⇒ =
a f H
dx x + y
⋅ 1+
dx
=
x+ y
+ ⋅
x + y dx K a f a f ⇒ 2x + 2y ⋅
dy 1 dy
= ⋅ +
1
dx y dx x
 Implicit Differentiation 507

dy 1 dy 1 dy d log y dy
⇒ 2y − = − 2x ⇒ =x ⋅ + log y ⋅ 1
dx y dx x dx dy dx

F 1 I dy = e1 − 2 x j 1 dy
2
= x⋅ ⋅ + log y
⇒ G2 y − J
H y K dx x
y dx
dy x dy
⇒ − = log y
e2 y − 1j ⋅ dy = e1 − 2 x j
2 2 dx y dx
⇒
y dx x FG x IJ dy = log y
H y K dx
⇒ 1−

dy 1 − 2 x
2
e y −y j
1− 2 x 2 FG IJ FG I
JK F y − x IJ dy = log y
j H K H ⇒G
⇒ = ⋅ = ⋅
dx x 2 y2 −1 x e
1− 2 y 2 H y K dx
dy F y log y I
9. exy = log (xy)
=G J
dx H y − x K
Solution: exy = log (xy) ⇒

⇒
d xy
dx
e e j
=
d
dx
log xy b a fg 11. exy = cos (x2 + y2)
Solution: exy = cos (x2 + y2)
e j ⋅ d a xyf = d blog a xyfg ⋅ d axyf
d e
xy
⇒
d xy
e =
d
e j FH e
2
cos x + y
2
jIK
d a xy f d a xy f
⇒ dx dx
dx dx

F dy + y ⋅ 1I ⋅ e = 1 ⋅ dy + y d ee j d a xy f d FH cos e x + y jIK d e x + y j
xy 2 2 2 2

H dx K
xy
⇒ x
d a xy f dx
⇒ ⋅ = ⋅
d ex + y j
xy dx xy dx 2 2

xy dy 1 dy 1 xy
⇒ xe ⋅
dx
− ⋅
y dx
= − ye
x
⇒ e ⋅ Gx
F dy + yIJ
H dx K
xy

FG IJ
dy 1 − x y e
xy

F dy I
1
H K
xy
⇒ xe − ⋅ =
= − sin e x + y j ⋅ 2 x + 2 y
H dx K
2 2
y dx x

1 − x ye e xy
j⋅ F dy + y ⋅ e I
H dx K
dy y xy xy
⇒ = ⇒ xe ⋅
dx x ex y e − 1j xy

= − 2 x sin e x + y j − 2 y sin e x + y j ⋅
2 2 dy 2 2

F − y I F 1 − x y e IJ = − FG y IJ
=G J ⋅G
xy dx
H x K H1 − x y e K H xK xy
⇒ xe
xy
⋅
dy 2 2
+ 2 y ⋅ sin x + y ⋅edy
j
10. y = x log y dx dx
Solution: y = x log y
= − 2 x sin x + y e 2
j− y⋅e
2 xy

⇒
dy
=
d
x log y = x a
d log y
f
+ log y ⋅
dx
FH + 2 y sin e x + y jIK
dx dx dx dx xy 2 dy 2
⇒ xe
dx
508 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x3 y = (2x + 3y)2
e j − ye
2 2 xy 25.
= − 2 x sin x + y 26. (x3+ y3) xy = x5 – y5
27. x5 + y5 –5x2 y3 – 5x3 y2 = 0
F e 2 2
j xy I 28. x2 y = (2x + 3y)2
⇒
dy
=−
2 x sin x + y + y e
GG JJ 29. x2 y3 = (2x + y)5
dx 2 2
2 y sin x + y + x e
xy
H e j K 30.
31.
x3 y4 = (x + y)7
x5 y4 = (x + y)9
32. x4 y5 = (x – y)9
Problems based on implicit algebraic functions
33. xa yb = (x – y)a + b
Exercise 12.1 Answers
5x
1. y
dy
Find if
dx 2a
1. y2 = 5x2 + 1 2.
y
2. y2 = 4ax
3. x2 + y2 = 9 x
3. −
4. 2x2 + 3y3 = a2 y
2 2
x y 2x
5. + =1 4. −
2 2 3y
a b
2
2 2 b x
6.
x
− 2 =1
y 5. − 2
2 a y
a b
7. xn + yn = an 2
8. ax2 + by2 = (x + y) b x
6. 2
9. xy = a a y
10. 3x2 y = 16
11. x2 + y2 – xy = a
FG x IJ n −1
12. ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1
13. x2 + y2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
7. −
H yK
14. x3 + y3 = 3axy
1 − 2ax
15. x + y = a 8. 2by − 1
3 3 3
16. x 2 + y 2 = a 2 y
9. −
x
17. x y + y x =1
x3 + y3 = xy 2y
18. 10. −
19. x + y = xy2 x
20. xy + x2 y2 = c y − 2x
21. x2 y + xy2 = c3 11. 2 y − x
22. x2 y + xy2 = 3x3 + 4y3
23. y = (x + y)2
FG
ax + hy IJ
24. x2 y = (x + 2y)3
H
12. − hx + by
K
 Implicit Differentiation 509

FG g + x + hy IJ Fx 4 2 2 I 3
13. −
H f + hx + y K 27. − GH y 4
− 3x y − 2 xy
2 2
− 3x y
J
− 2x y K
3

2
ay − x 2 2
14. 2 −28 x + 54 y + 70 xy
y − ax 28. 2 3
35 x + 81 y + 108 xy

15. −
y
x
a
10 2 x + y f − 2 xy
4 3

− 5 a2 x + y f
29. 2 2 4
3x y
x
16. − y
y
30.
F
y 2 x + I x

17. x GH
2 y +
y
J
xK 31.
y
x
2 y
y − 3x 32.
18. 2 x
3y − x
y
2 33.
y −1 x
19.
1 − 2 xy Problems based on the combination of implicit
algebraic and transcendental functions
y
20. −
x Exercise 12.2
y F y + 2x I
− G J
x H x + 2yK
21.
dy
Find if
2 2 dx
9 x − 2 xy − y
22. 1. y = sin (x + y)
2 2
x + 2 xy − 12 y 2. y = tan (x + y)

a f
3. y = cot (x + y)
2 x+ y 4. y = sec (x + y)
23. 1 − 2 x + y
a f 5. y = cos (x – y)
6. sin (x + y) + sin (x – y) = 1
F 3x
−G
2 2 I
JK
+ 10 xy + 12 y 7. x = 2 cos y + 3 sin y
24.
H 5x 2
+ 24 xy + 6 y
2
8. x = sin y + cos y

2 9. x = 2 3 sin y − 4 cos y
8 x + 12 y − 3 x y
25. 3
10. cos (x + y) = y sin x
x − 12 x − 18 y 11. tan (x + y) + tan (x – y) = 1
12. x = (2 cos–1 y)2
4 3 4
5x − 4 xy − y
26. 4 3 4
x + 4 xy − 5 y
510 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Answers 2. x + y = sin (x + y)
cos x + ya f 3. x + y = tan (xy)
1.
1 − cos x + y a f 4. xy = tan (xy)
5. xy = sin (x + y)

a x + yf
2
6. xy = cos (x + y)
sec 7. xy = sin (2x + 3y)
2. −
1 − sec a x + y f
2 8. x – y = sec (x + y)
9. xy = sec (x + y)
cosec a x + y f
2 10. x2 y = sin y
− 11. x2 y2 = sin (xy)
1 + cosec a x + y f
3. 2
12. x3 y3 = cos (xy)
13. x3 + y3 = sin (x + y)
sec a x + y f tan a x + y f 14. xy = sin2 (x + y)
1 − sec a x + y f tan a x + y f a f
4.
15. xy = tan 2 y − x
sin a x − y f 16. y2 = tan (2y + x)
sin a x − y f − 1 F xI
5.
H 2K
2 3
17. y = x + y sin
6. 2 cot x ⋅ cot y
18. x cos y + y sin x = 0
1 19. x sin y + y cos x = 0
7. 3 cos y − 2 sin y
20. x cos y + y cos x = tan (x + y)
21. y3 = (x + sin x) (x – cos x)
2 sin x + cos y 22. log (xy) = x2 + y2
8. exy = log (xy)
cos y − sin y 23.
24. log y = exy
3 sin y − 4 cos y 25. exy + xy = 0
9. 26. x = y log (xy)
3 cos y + 4 sin y
27. exy + log (xy) + xy = 0
y cos x + sin x + y a f 28. log | xy | = x2 + y2
a
10. − sin x + y + sin x
f 29.
30.
y log x = x – y
x + y = tan–1 (xy)

sec
2
a x + yf + sec a x − yf 2 31.
32.
exy = cos (x2 + y2)
x = y log | xy |
11.
sec
2
a x − yf − sec a x + yf 2
FG IJ
y

− 1 − y2
H K
33. y = x log a + bx

log a x + y f + sin ee j
12. x
4 cos−1 y 2
34. y = 3
x
Exercise 12.3 35. xy = log (x2 + y2)
36. x2 + y2 = log (x + y)
dy Answers
Find
dx
if
a f
y cos xy − 1
1. x + y = sin (xy) 1. 1 − x cos xy
a f
 Implicit Differentiation 511

2. –1
3 x x FG IJ
1 − y sec a xy f
2 1+
2
sin 2
2
cos
2
y2
H K
a xy f − 1
3. 17.
x ⋅ sec
2 x
1 − 2 y sin 3
2
y
4. − y cos x + cos y
x 18. x sin y − sin x
b g
y − cos x + y
x − cos b x + y g
5. − y sin x − sin y
19. x cos y + cos x
y + sin a x + y f
6. −
x + sin a x + y f sec a x + yf − cos y + y sin x
2

cos x − x sin y − sec a x + y f

20.
2 cos a2 x + 3 y f − y
2

x − 3 cos a2 x + 3 y f x + a x + sin x − cos x f a1 + sin x + cos x f

7.

1 − sec a x + y f tan a x + y f
21. 2
3y
1 + sec a x + y f tan a x + y f
F I
8.
2

y − sec b x + y g ⋅ tan b x + y g
y
22. x ⋅ GH
2x − 1
1 − 2y
2 JK
x − sec b x + y g ⋅ tan b x + y g
9. −

y F1 − x ye I
xy
2 xy ⋅G J
x H x y e − 1K
10. 2
23. xy
cos y − x

a f
y cos xy − 2 xy
2
y e
2 xy

11. 2
2 x y − x cos xya f 24.
1 − x ye
xy

3 x y − y sin b xy g
2 3
y
25. −
3x y + x sin b xy g
12. 3 2 x

cos a x + y f − 3x
b x − yg y or x − y
x b x + yg x b1 + log xy g
2
26.
3 y − cos a x + y f
13. 2

sin 2 a x + y f − y
y
27. −
x − sin 2 a x + y f
14.
x

F y + 2 tan a2 y − xf sec a2 y − xf I
2 e
y 2x − 1
2
j
−G
H x − 4 tan a2 y − xf sec a2 y − xfJK x e1 − 2 y j
15. 2
28. 2

sec b2 y + x g
2 log x
16.
2 y − 2 sec b2 y + x g 2
29.
a1 + log xf 2
512 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

y − sec a x + yf
2 3. When a function of x under the radical sign appears
defining y as a function of x, we should try to remove
30.
sec
2
ax + yf − x the radical sign by squaring or raising the same power
both sides of the equation defining y as a function of
F ye
−G
xy
e jIJ
+ 2 x sin x + y
2 2 x under the radical sign.
4. Whenever we are given a function of x put in the
GH x e + 2 y sin e x + y j JK
31. xy 2 2 forms:
(i) y = f 1 xaf af
f2 x

y a x − yf
f a xf
a f ⋅ f axf a f ⋅ f a x f g a x f ...
x ax + yf
g1 x g2 x 3
32.
(ii) y =
f ′ a xf
a f ⋅ f ′′ a xf ⋅ f ′′′ a x f
1 2 3
g′ x g ′′ a x f g ′′′ a x f
...
− y eay + bxy − bx j af af
2
the bases f 1 (x), f 2 (x), f 3 (x) …, f ′ x , f ′′ x ,
33.
x a x − y f aa + bx f af
f ′′′ x , ... are assumed to be positive before taking
the logarithm of both sides of the equation defining y
1 + {e cos ee j − 3x y } b x + y g
x x 2 2 as a function of x provided it is not mentioned in the

2x y bx + yg − 1
34. problems that the bases are positive (i.e. > 0).
3
5. If we are given a function of x put in the form:

2 x − yx 2 − y 3 y=
b f a xfg ⋅ b f a xfg ⋅ b f a xfg
1
m1
2
m2
3
m3
...
35.
x + xy − 2 y
3 2 b f ′ a x fg ⋅ b f ′′ a xfg ⋅ b f ′′′ a x fg
m′ m′′ m′′′
...
where the bases f 1 (x), f 2 (x), f 3 (x), …;
af af af
2
1 − 2 x − 2 xy f ′ x , f ′′ x , f ′′′ x , ... are functions of x’s where
36. 2
2 xy + 2 y − 1
the indices m1 , m2 , m3, …; m′ , m′′ , m′′′ , ... are
Conditional identities based on a given explicit constants, it is differentiated taking the logarithm of
function of x both sides of the given equation defining y as a
function of x.
Whenever we have to form a differential equation
with the help of a given explicit function of x, we
Solved Examples
adopt the following working rule provided the
required differential equation contains only first
1 dy
derivative. 1. y = x + , show that 2 x + y=2 x.
x dx
dy
Working rule: Find the first derivative (i.e. ) of − 12
dx 1 1

the given explicit function of x and use mathematical Solution: y = x + ,= x2 + x …(i)

x
manipulations to put the first derivative into the
dy 1 − 12 1 −3
required differential equation. ⇒ = x − x 2
Notes: dx 2 2
1. In successive differentiation, we have discussed F
1 − 21 1 − 2
3
I
GH JK
dy 1 −1
in detail the methods of procedure of forming ⇒ 2x = 2x x − = x2 −x 2 …(ii)
dx 2 2
differential equation whenever a function of x is given.
2. A given function x or an equation defining y as a Adding (i) and (ii), we have
function of x can put into different forms according dy 1
to our need. y + 2x = 2x 2 = 2 x
dx
 Implicit Differentiation 513

1 dy 2 6
2. If y = x + , show that x + y = 2x . ⇒ y =1+ x
x dx
dy 5
1 ⇒ 2y = 6x
Solution: y = x + …(i) dx
x
dy 5
2 ⇒y = 3x
x +1 dx
⇒y=
x 1 dy dx
4. y = , show that + = 0.
e j e j af x
d 2 d 4 4
x
2
x +1 − x +1 x 1+ x 1+ y
dy
⇒ = dx 2
dx
dx x 1
Solution: y =
x

=
x × 2x − x + 1 e 2
j ⇒
dy 1
=− 2
2 dx
x x
2
dy 2 x − x + 1
2
e 2
j F I 4
x +1
x +1
GH JK
1
⇒ = = 2 − 4 1+
dx 2 2 1+ y x =
4
x
2
1 dy
x x Now, = = 2
=−
4 4 4 dx
1+ x 1+ x x +1 x
dy F x + 1I
2
⇒ +G J=2
dx H x K 2 4
1+ y dy
⇒ =−
F x + 1I = 2 × x
+ x×G
2 1+ x
4 dx

H x JK
dy
⇒x 2
dx dx dy
⇒ =−
dy F x + 1I
4 4
2 1+ x 1+ y
⇒x +G J = 2x
dx H x K dx dy
⇒ + =0

dy F x 1I
4 4
2 1+ x 1+ y
⇒ x +G + J = 2x
dx H x xK Remark: Since the derivative is a limit of the quotient

dy F 1I
∆y
as ∆ x → 0 (i.e. lim ) which is symbolised as
⇒x
dx H
+ x+
xK
= 2x
dy
∆ x→0 ∆x

which does not indicate a quotient of dy and dx

dy dx
⇒x + y = 2 x (From (1))
dx dy
but dx and dy are so defined as to consider as a
6 dy 5
dx
3. If y = 1 + x , show that y = 3x . quotient of dy and dx which may be seperated as dy ÷
dx
1
6 dx or dy × . The above example (4) provides us a
Solution: y = 1 + x dx
514 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

fruitful example for regarding

dy
as a quotient of dy
b
⇒ x2 1 + y = y2 1 + x g b g
dx
and dx which are known as differential of y and ⇒ x2 − y2 + x2 y − y2 x = 0
differential of x respectively. a fa f a f
⇒ x + y x − y + xy x − y = 0
⇒ a x − y fa x + y + xy f = 0
Conditional identities based on a given implicit
function of x
Now, we will learn how to form a differential equation ⇒ x + y + xy = 0 ( Q x − y ≠ 0 since x and y
with the help of a given implicit function of x. The rule have opposite signs from (i))
to form a differential equation with the help of a given Now differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
implicit function of x consists of following steps dy dy
provided the required differential equation contains 1+ +x + y=0
dx dx
only first derivative.

Step 1: Find the first derivative (i.e.

dy
) of the given
⇒ 1+ x a
f dydx = − a1 + yf
dx
implicit function of x.
dy a1 + yf
Step 2: Use mathematical manipulations to put the
first derivative into the required differential equation.
⇒
dx
=−
a1 + xf …(ii)

Refresh your memory: Again, Q x + y + xy = 0 ⇒ y 1 + x a f

1. Whenever we have functions put in the forms (i)
af a f a f (iii) f a xf a f = f a yf a f
x x
f2 ya f (ii) f2 x f2 x f2 y = −x ⇒ y = − ⇒1+ y =1−
f1 x f1 y 1 1 1+ x 1+ x
f a xf
(iv) a f = f a y f a f , we should assume the
f2 y f2 x
1 1 1
⇒1+ y = …(iii)
bases to be positive to use logarithmic differentiation. 1+ x
2. Whenever we are given product or quotient of
Putting (iii) in (ii), we have
functions put in the form f1 (x) and f2 (y), we should
take firstly modulus to use logarithmic differentiation.
3. Logarithmic differentiation is only possible when
dy
dx
=−
1
1+ x b g 2
= − 1+ x b g −2

the given function is positive. This is why we take

the modulus of the given function or equation if it FG IJ
H K
2 2
has the possibility of being negative. 2. If y x + 1 = log x + x + 1 , show that
4. log f (x) always means f (x) is preassumed to be
positive similarly log f (y) means f (y) is preassumed to
be positive. ex 2
+1 j dydx + xy − 1 = 0 .
FG IJ
H K
Solved Examples 2 2
Solution: y x + 1 = log x + x + 1
1. x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 , show that Now differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
dy
a f −2 d FG IJ dy
= − 1+ x
H K
2 2
. y⋅ x +1 + x +1⋅
dx dx dx
Solution: x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 1 d FG IJ
H K
2
= ⋅ x+ x +1
⇒ x 1+ y = −y 1+ x …(i) x+ x +1
2 dx
 Implicit Differentiation 515

1 dy 2
⇒ y⋅ ⋅ 2x +
2
x +1⋅ dy xy log y − y
2 dx ⇒ =
2 x +1 dx xy log x − x
2

F I 4. If sin y = x sin (a + y), show that

⋅ G1 + ⋅ 2 xJ a f
1 1
=
G 2 JK
2
dy sin a + y
+1 H =
2 2
x+ x x +1 dx sin a

xy dy Solution: sin y = x sin (a + y)

a f
2
⇒ + x +1⋅
2 dx ⇒ sin y = x sin a + y
x +1
⇒ log sin y = log x + log sin a + y a f
a f
2
1 x +1+ x 1
= ⋅ = 1 dy 1 cos a + y dy
x+ x +1
2 2
x +1
2
x +1
⇒
sin y
⋅ cos y ⋅
dx
= +
x
⋅
sin a + y dx a f
⇒ xy + x + 1 e 2
j dydx = 1 (multiplying both sides FG cos y − cos aa + yf IJ dy = 1
⇒
H sin y sin aa + yf K dx x
by 2
x +1)
⇒G
F cos y sin aa + yf − sin y cos aa + yfIJ dy = 1
H sin y ⋅ sin aa + y f K dx x
e
⇒ x +1
2
j dydx + xy − 1 = 0
sin aa + y − y f dy 1
sin y sin aa + y f dx
⇒ ⋅ =
dy xy log y − y 2 x
3. xy = yx, show that = .
dx xy log x − x 2
sin a dy 1
Solution: Firstly supposing that the bases x and y
both are positive and then taking the log of both
⇒ ⋅
a
sin y sin a + y dx x
=
f
sides of the given equation.
xy = yx we have ⇒
dy 1 sin y ⋅ sin a + y
= ⋅
a f
dx x sin a
y log x = x log y

⇒y⋅
d
a f
log x + log x ⋅
dy
= ⋅
a
1 x sin a + y ⋅ sin a + y f
( Q sin y = x
a f
dx dx x sin a

= x⋅
d
b g
log y + log y
sin (a + y) is given)
dx
sin
2
aa + y f
y dy x dy FG IJ =
sin a
⇒
x
+ log x ⋅
dx
=
y dx
+ log y
H K
dy dy
5. If 1− x + 1− y
2 2
a
= a x − y , show thatf
⇒ y 2 + xy log x − x2 = xy log y
dx dx 2
dy 1− y
(multiplying both sides by xy) =
dx 2
1− x
e
⇒ xy log x − x
2
j dy
dx
= xy log x − y
2
516 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2
Solution: Given is 1 − x + 1 − y = a x − y
2
a f ⇒
1
2
−
1
2
dy
dx
=0

F π π I 1− x 1− y
Putting x = sin C , −
H 2
≤C≤
2 K ⇒−
1 dy
=−
1
FG − π ≤ D ≤ π IJ 1− y
2 dx
1− x
2
y = sin D ,
H2 2K
in the hypothesis, we
dy dx
have 6. Show that x2 + y2 = 3xy ⇒ ⋅ = 1.
dx dy
1 − sin 2 C + 1 − sin 2 D = a sin C − sin D b g Solution: x2 + y2 = 3xy

⇒ cos C + cos D = a sin C − sin D b g ⇒

d 2
e 2
x + y =
d
3xy j a f
b g
dx dx
⇒ cos C + cos D = a sin C − sin D
dy F
dy I
F C + D IJ ⋅ cos FG C − D IJ
⇒ 2 cos G
⇒ 2x + 2 y
dx
=3 x
H
dx
+ y ⋅1
K
H 2 K H 2 K dy dy
⇒ 2y − 3x = 3y − 2 x
F F C + D IJ ⋅ sin FG C − D IJ IJ
= a G 2 cos G
dx dx
H H 2 K H 2 KK a
⇒ 2 y − 3x f dydx = 3y − 2 x
F C − D IJ = a sin FG C − D IJ
⇒ cos G
H 2 K H 2 K ⇒
dy 3y − 2 x
= …(i)
dx 2 y − 3x
F C − D IJ
cos G
H 2 K = a bQ x ≠ y ⇒ C ≠ D or π − Dg Again x2 + y2 = 3xy
⇒
F C − D IJ
sin G ⇒
d 2
e
x + y2 =
d
j b g
H 2 K
3xy
dy dy

F C − D IJ = a dx dx FG IJ
⇒ cot G H K
⇒ 2x + 2y = 3 x + y
H 2 K dy dy

dx dx
C− D −1 ⇒ 2x − 3y = 3x − 2 y
⇒ = cot a dy dy
2

⇒ C − D = 2 cot
−1
a a
⇒ 2 x − 3y f dxdy = 3x − 2 y
−1 −1 −1
⇒ sin x − sin y = 2 cot a dx 3x − 2 y
⇒ = ...(ii)
dy 2 x − 3y
⇒
d
dx
e
−1 −1
sin x − sin y =
d
dx
−1
2 cot a j e j
dy dx
Hence, (i) × (ii) ⇒ ⋅
⇒
d
e −1
sin x −
d
j −1
e
sin y = 0 ( Q 2 cot–1 a = j dx dy
dx dx
FG 3 y − 2 x IJ × FG 3x − 2 y IJ = 1
=
H 2 y − 3x K H 2 x − 3 y K
constant)
 Implicit Differentiation 517

e j
1 dy x y x+ y
7. Show that y = x +
2 2
⇒ x − y +3 = 1. Solution: e + e = e
y dx Dividing both sides of the given equation by ex + y,
1 we have
Solution: y = x + −y −x
y e +e =1

⇒ y− x=
1
y
⇒
d
dx
e
e− y + e − x =
d
dx
1 j bg
− y dy −x
2
⇒ y + x − 2 xy =
2 1 ⇒ −e −e = 0
2 …(i) dx
y
− y dy −x
⇒ −e =e
1 dx
Again y = x +
y −x
dy e −x y
⇒ = − −y = − e e
xy + 1 dx e
⇒y=
y Conditional identities based on a given implicit
2 function of x
⇒ y − 1 = xy
2 Exercise 12.4
⇒ 2 y − 2 = 2 xy
2
⇒ 2 − 2 y = − 2 xy …(ii) dy y
1. If y = x sin y, show that x = .
1 dx 1 − cos y
Now, y = x +
y 2. If cos y = x cos (a + y), show that

⇒
dy 1 dy
=1− 2 ⋅
dy cos a + y
=
2
.
a f
dx y dx dx sin a
3. If sin y = x sin (a + y), show that

a f
dy 1 dy
⇒ + 2 =1 2
dx y dx dy sin a + y
= .
dx sin a
F I dy = 1
GH JK dx
1 1 dy
⇒ 1+ 4. If y = x + , show that x + y = 2x .
y
2 x dx
1 dy
5. If y = x + , show that 2 x + y=2 x.
e
⇒ 1 + y + x − 2 xy
2 2
j dydx = 1 (using (i)) x dx
1 dy dx
6. If y = + = 0.
e j
2 2 2 dy , show that
⇒ 1 + y + x + 2 − 2y = 1 (using (ii)) x 1+ y
4
1+ x
4
dx

e 2
⇒ x − y +3
2
j dydx = 1 7. If 1+ x
2 2
a
+ 1 + y = a x − y , show that f
2
x y x+ y dx y−x dy 1+ y
8. Show that e + e = e ⇒ = −e =
dy dx 2 .
1+ x
518 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1− x
e j F y I + eby − y j
GH b JK
1
2 dy −1 2
21. If x = b cos
2
8. If y = , show that 1 − x + y = 0. , show that
1+ x dx

9. If y= a1 − xfa1 + xf , show that

dy by − y
2
= .
e1 − x j dydx + xy = 0 .
2 dx y

22. If x 1+ y + y 1+ x = 0, show that

1
dy
10. If y = x , show that
a f
x
vanishes when x =e. dy −2
dx = − 1+ x .
dx
1
y
2 2
11. If y = x + , show that x − y + 3
dy
dx
= 1. e j 2
−1 1− x
23. If y = tan , and t = cos–1, x2, show
a f
2
12. 1− x
2 2
+ 1 − y = a x − y , show that 1+x

dy 1
dy 1− y
2
that = .
= 2 .
dx 2
dx 1− x
dy 2 − log x
=
13. If xm yn = (x + y)m + n, show that
dy y
= .
24. If xy = e–x + y, show that
dx a
1 − log x
2 .
f
dx x
FG IJ
H K
2 2
dy y 25. If y x + 1 = log x + 1 − x , show that
14. If y = ex – y, show that dx = 1 + y .

15. If exy – 4xy = 2, show that

dy y
=− .
ex 2
j dydx + xy + 1 = 0 .
+1
dx x 26. If sin y = x sin (x + m), show that
FG IJ dy y x− y dy sin m + y
2
a f
16. If x = y log (xy), show that
H K dx
=
x x+ y
.
dx
=
sin m
.

y F y + xI
= G J.
dy 27. If u = sin–1 (x – y), x = 3t, y = 4t3, show that
x H y − xK
17. If y = x log (xy), show that
e j
dx du 2 − 12
= 31− t .
dy y dt
18. If xy – log (xy) = log 2, show that =− .
dx x 2
dy 1− y
dy log x 28. If y = sin (2 sin–1 x), show that =2 2 .
= dx 1− x
19. If xy = ex – y, show that dx a
1 + log x f 2 .

FG sin x IJ , show that dy = 1 . −1 FG 3 + 5 cos x IJ , show that (5 + 3 cos

20. If y = tan
−1

H 1 + cos x K
29. If p = cos
H 5 + 3 cos x K
dx 2
dp
x) = 4.
dx
 Implicit Differentiation 519

−1 FG x sin a IJ , show that (1 – 2x cos a f a

(vi) x = a t − sin t , y = a 1 − cos t , t ∈ 0 , 2π f
30. If y = tan
H 1 − x cos a K Notes:
1. Actually parametric equations x = f1 (t), y = f2 (t);
dy
a + x2) =sin a. represents the x and y co-ordinates of a variable point
dx p on a given curve.
F xI F yI
31. If H K + H K
m n
= 1 , show that
dy b
= − at
2. When the parameter ‘t’ is eliminated by any process
from the parametric equations x = f1 (t), y = f2 (t); the
a b dx a cartesian equation of the curve put in the form
(a, b). F (x, y) = c or F (x, y) = 0 is obtained. e.g.,
32. If x = a sin 2t (1 + cos 2t), y = a cos 2t (1 – cos 2t), 1. If we have the equations x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ ;
dy π where r is a constant and θ is a parameter, these
show that = 1 , when t = .
dx 4 equations can be expressed in cartesian equation by
FG IJ the eliminating ' θ ' using the mathematical

H K
2
33. If y = log x − 3 + x − 6 x + 1 , show that manipulation of squaring and adding the separate
equations for x and y, i.e. (Note: x = f1 (t) and y = f2 (t)
must be differentiable on a common domain.)
e j
dy 2 − 21
= x − 6x + 1 . 2 2 2
dx x = r cos θ ⇒ x = r cos θ …(1)
2 2 2
Parametric Differentiation y = r sin θ ⇒ y = r sin θ …(2)

Firstly, we recall the basic definitions in connection

with parametric differentiation.
af a f 2 2
∴ 1 + 2 ⇒ x + y = r sin θ + cos θ = r
2
e 2 2
j 2

1. Parametric differentiation: The equations put in which is the cartesian equation of the circle.
any one of the following forms: 2. The point of the curve x = f1 (t), y = f2 (t); found by
af af
(i) x = f 1 t , y = f 2 t ; t ∈ T1 , T2 giving a special value, say t1, to the parameter t is

(ii) x = f at f , y = f at f ; t ∈ T , T
called shortly “the point t1” whereas it is not unusual
1 2 1 2 for the letter ‘t’ itself to be used instead of t1 for a
(iii) x = f at f , y = f at f
1 2
special point.
3. Any other letter θ , s, u, etc can be used to
which tells x and y are seperately differentiable
functions of (depending upon) the same variable ‘t’ represent the parameter instead of t in parametric
(called the parameter) are said to be parametric equations.
equations of the curve or simply parametric Question: What is parametric differentiation?
equations. e.g., Answer: Finding the derivative of the parametric
(i) x = t, y = t2; t being a parameter. equations is called parametric differentiation.
(ii) x = ct2, y = ct; where c is a constant and t is a Or, more explicitly,
parameter. dy
(iii) x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ ; r being a constant and “Finding the derivative of the given parametric
dx
θ being a parameter. af
equations put in the form (i) x = f 1 t , y = f 2 t ; af
F πI , a >b >0 af af a f
(ii) x = f 2 t , y = f 2 t , t ∈ T1 , T2 (iii) x = f1 (t), y
(iv) x = a sec θ , y = b tan θ , θ ∈ 0 ,
H 2K = f2 (t); t ∈ T1 , T2 without eliminating the parameter

F π πI
x = e asin t + cos t f, y = e asin t − cos t f, t ∈ − ,
‘t’ (or, any other parameter θ , s, y, etc given the
H 4 4K
t t
(v) parametric equations) by any process is called
parametric differentiation”.
520 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Question: Using the definition, find the differential

af af
g′ t
coefficient of parametric equations
x = f (t)
=
af
f′ t
,f′ t ≠0

y = g (t);
where x and y are differentiable functions (depending Hence, the general rule for the differential
upon) a single variable ‘t’ (called parameter) g′ t af
af a f
dy
Solution: x = f t ⇒ x + ∆ x = f t + ∆ t …(1) dx
=
coefficient of g (t) with respect to f (t) is
f′ t af
af a f
y = g t ⇒ y = ∆ y = g t + ∆t …(2) being valid for all values of t such that f ′ t ≠ 0af
(1) ∆ x = f at + ∆ t f − f at f
which can be stated in words in the following way:
…(3) Derivative of y with respect x is equal to the
(2) ⇒ ∆ y = g at + ∆ t f − g at f …(4) quotient of the derivative of y with to t and the
derivative of x with respect to t.
Now dividing (3) by ∆ t , we obtain
Working rule of find the differential coefficient of
∆x
=
a
f t + ∆t − f t f af …(5)
parametric equations
∆t ∆t To find the differential coefficient of the given
parametric equations put in any one of the forms:
and dividing (4) by ∆ t , we obtain
af af a f
(i) x = f 1 t , y = f 2 t ; t ∈ T1 , T2
∆y
=
a
g t + ∆t − g t f af …(6) (ii) x = f a t f , y = f at f : t ∈ a T , T f
1 2 1 2
∆t ∆t
Again dividing (6) by (5), we obtain
af af
(iii) x = f1 t , y = f 2 t we have the rule which

a f af
consists of the following steps.
∆y g t + ∆t − g t Step 1: Find the derivative of ‘y’ with respect to ‘t’.
∆y ∆t ∆t
a f af
Step 2: Find the derivative of ‘x’ with respect to the
= = …(7)
∆x ∆x f t + ∆t − f t same parameter ‘t’.
∆t ∆t Step 3: Divide the derivative of ‘y’ with respect to ‘t’
by the derivative of x with respect to ‘t’.
lastly, taking the limit as ∆ x → 0 , ∆ t → 0 , Step 4: The quotient obtained in step (3) is the
required derivative of y with respect to x.
∆ y → 0 , we have form (7),
Solved Examples
∆y
lim
∆y ∆t ∆ t
dy
lim = Find from the following equations.
∆ x →0 ∆ x ∆x dx
lim
∆t→0 ∆ t
1. x = 3cosθ
lim
a f af
g t + ∆t − g t y = 4 sin θ
∆t→0 ∆t
=
lim
a f af
f t + ∆t − f t
Solution: y = 4 sin θ

∆t →0 ∆t ⇒
dy
= 4 cos θ ...(i)
dθ
dy
dy d
f t b a fg dx
⇒ = dt = dt ⇒ = − 3sin θ ...(ii)
dx dx
dt
d
dt
f t b a fg dθ
 Implicit Differentiation 521

af
Note: Here x = f 1 θ and y = f 2 θ af where
a1f ⇒ dy = e − sin t t

f aθf = 3 cos θ and f aθf = 4 sin θ .

1 2
∴
a2f dx 1 + cos t
t
a1f ⇒ dy = − 4 cos θ = − 4 cot θ
∴
a2f dx 3 sin θ 3
t

I = ee j a1 + ttcos t f
e − sin t t
=
F 1 + t cos t
− sin t ⋅
2. x = 2 − 3sinθ H t K
y = 3 + 2 cosθ
dy e t
t e − sin t j
Solution: y = 3 + 2 cosθ ⇒
dθ
=
a1 + t cos t f
a f
= 0 + −2 sin θ = − 2 sin θ ...(i)
2t 1− t
2

dy 5. x = 2
,y= 2
x = 2 − 3sin ⇒ 1+ t 1+ t
dθ
2
= 0 − 3 cos θ = − 3 cos θ ...(ii) 1− t
Solution: y =
a1f ⇒ dy = −2 sin θ = 2 tan θ
2
1+ t
∴
a2f dx −3cos θ 3
e1+ t j LMN dtd e1− t jOPQ − e1− t j LMN dtd e1+ t jOPQ
2 2 2 2
3. x = a (t + sin t)
⇒
d
y = bg
y = a (1 – cos t) dt
e1+ t j 2 2

b
Solution: y = a 1 − cos t ⇒ g dy

b a fg = a sin t
= a 0 − − sin t
dt
...(i) =
e1 + t j a−2t f − e1 − t j ⋅ 2t
2 2

e1 + t j 2 2

x = a at + sin t f ⇒ = a a1 + cos t f
dx
...(ii)
dt
−2t − 2t 3 − 2t + 2t 3 −4t
a1f dy a sin t = =
e1 + t j e1 + t j
a sin t
a2f ⇒ dx = a a1+ cos t f = a F1+ 2 cos t − 1I
∴ 2
2
2
2 ...(i)

H 2 K
2

e1 + t j ⋅ dtd b2t g − 2t ⋅ dtd e1 + t j

2 2

a ⋅ 2 sin
t
⋅ cos
t d
bg
x =
= 2
t
2
t
= tan
t dt
e1 + t j 2 2

a ⋅ 2 cos ⋅ cos 2
2 2
=
e1 + t j ⋅ 2 − 2t ⋅ a2t f = 2 + 2t − 4t
2
2 2

4. x = log t + sin t
y = et + cos t e1 + t j 2 2
e1 + t j 2 2

t dy t
2 e1 − t j
Solution: y = e + cos t ⇒ = e − sin t ...(i) 2
2
dx 2 − 2t
= =
e1 + t j e1 + t j
dx 1 2 2 2 2 ...(ii)
x = log t + sin t ⇒ = + cos t ...(ii)
dt t
522 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

b1g ⇒ dy = −4t × e1 + t j 2 2
=
4t
⋅
1
∴
b2g dx e1 + t j 2 e1 − t j 2 2 2 e1 + t j 2 2
e1 + t j − e1 − t j
2 2 2

=−
4t
=−
2t e1 + t j 2 2

e
2 1−t
2
j e1 − t j 2

=
4t
⋅
e1 + t j 2

e1 + t j
2
−1 2t −1 1 −t 2
6. x = sin 2
, y = cos 2 4t
2

1+t 1+ t

F1 − t I 2 e1+ t j = 2

GH 1 + t JK
−1 4t 2t
= ⋅ , t ≠ 0 ...(i)
Solution: y = cos 2
e1+ t j 2
2
2 t e1+ t j t2

2 −1 2t
1− t Again x = sin
⇒ cos y = 2
1+ t
2 1+ t

2t

⇒ acos yf =
d e1+ t j e1 − t j − e1 − t j e1+ t j
d
dt
2 d
dt
2 2 2 ⇒ sin x =
1+t
2

dt
e1+ t j 2 2

e1 + t j a2t f − 2t e1 + t j
d d 2 2

⇒
d
a f
sin x = dt dt

dy e1 + t j a−2t f − e1 − t j ⋅ 2 t e1 + t j
2 2 dt 2 2

⇒ − sin y ⋅ =
dt
e1 + t j 2 2

=
e
2 1+t j − 2 t ⋅ 2t
2

e1 + t j 2 2
3 3
dy −2t − 2t − 2t + 2t 4t
⇒ − sin y ⋅ = =−
e j e j
2 2
dt 2 2
1+ t 1+ t

⇒ cos x
dx 2 + 2t 2 − 4t 2 2 − 2t 2 2 1 − t
= = =
2
e j
⇒
dy
=
4t
⋅
1
=
4t
⋅
1 dt
e j e j e j
1+ t 2
2
1+ t 2
2
1+ t 2
2

e1 + t j e1+ t j
2 2 2
dt 2 sin y 2
1 − cos y

dx 2 e1 − t j 1 2 e1 − t j
2 2
1
4t 1 ⇒ = ⋅ = ⋅
= ⋅
e
1+ t j
2 2
F1 − t I 2 2
dt
e1 + t j 2 2
cos x
e1 + t j 1 − sin x 2 2 2

1−G
H 1 + t JK 2
2 e1 − t j
2
1
= ⋅
e1 + t j 1 − FG 2t IJ
2 2 2

H1 + t K 2
 Implicit Differentiation 523

e
2 1− t 2 j⋅ a tFG IJ FG π IJ
=
1 8. x = a cos t +
2
log tan 2
2 H K H 2K
t ∈ 0,
e1+ t j 2 2
1 + t 4 + 2t 2 − 4t 2 y = a sin t

e1+ t j 2 2
dy
Solution: y = a sin t ⇒
dt

=
e
2 1− t 2 j ⋅ e1+ t j 2

, t2 ≠1 =
d
a f
a sin t = a cos t ...(1)
e
1+ t 2 j e1− t j
2
2 2 dt
a F
2 t I
x = a cos t + log tan
H K
e j ⋅ e1 + t j = 2 e1 − t j
2 2 2 2 2
2 1− t
= FG IJ
j e1 − t j e1 + t j e1 − t j
dy a 1 t t 1
e1 + t H K
2 2 2 2 2 ...(ii) ⇒ = − a sin t + ⋅ ⋅ 2 tan sec 2
dt 2 tan 2 t 2 2 2
2

b1g ⇒ dy = 2t ⋅ e1+ t j e1− t j 2 2

t 2
∴
b2g dx e1+ t j t 2 e1− t j 2 2
= − a sin t +
a sec
t
2 = − a sin t +
t
a
t
2 tan 2 sin cos
e j , t ≠0, ±1
2 2 2
t 1− t 2

=
e1 − t j t
a
2 = − a sin t +
sin t
7. x = e t (sin t + cos t), y = e t (sin t – cos t),
F I F 1 − sin tIJ = a e1− sin t j = a cos t ...(2)
2
2
= aG
π π
H
t∈ − ,
4 4 K H sin t K sin t sin t
Solution: y = et (sin t – cos t)
a1f ⇒ dy = a cos t ⋅ sin t = sin t = tan t , t ∈ F 0 , π I
⇒
dy
=
d t
(e (sin t – cos t)) = et (cos t + sin t) +
∴
a2f dx a cos t cost 2 H 2K
dx dt
(sin t – cos t) et x = a at − sin t f
y = a a1 − cos t f
= et (cot t + sin t + sin t – cos t) = 2 sin t · et …(1) 9. t ∈ 0 , 2π
and x = et (sin t + cos t)

e a fj Solution: y = a a1 − cos t f ⇒
dx d t dy
⇒ = e sin t + cos t = a sin t ...(1)
dt dt dt

b g b g
= et (cos t – sin t) + (sin t + cos t) et dx
= et (cos t – sin t + sin t + cos t) x = a t − sin t ⇒ = a 1 − cos t ...(2)
dt
= 2 cos t · et ...(2)

a1f dy 2 sin t ⋅ e F I a1f dy a sin t

∴
a2f ⇒ dx = a a1 − cos t f
t
π π
∴
a2f ⇒ dx = 2 cos t ⋅ e t
= tan t , t ∈ −
H ,
4 4 K
524 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG t IJ cos FG t IJ cos FG t IJ F1 − t I 2
2 sin
H 2 K H 2 K = H 2 K = cot FG t IJ , 14. x = a GH 1+ t JK 2
=
FG1 − 1 + 2 sin FG t IJ IJ sin FG t IJ H 2 K
H H 2KK H 2K F 2t I
2

y = bG
for t ≠ 0 , 2π H 1 + t JK 2

Problems based on parametric equations 3at

15. x = 3
1+ t
Exercise 12.5
2
3at
dy y= 3
Find from the following equations. 1+ t
dx
F θ I 16. x =
2t
H
1. x = a cos θ + log tan
2 K 1+ t
2

y = a sin θ 2
1− t
2. x = 2 cos θ – cos 2 θ y= 2
y = 2 sin θ – sin 2 θ 1+ t
3. x = a cos ∅
17. x = 1 − t
y = b sin ∅
4. x = a sec ∅ y = 1+ t
18. x = u2
y = b tan ∅
5. x = a cos3 θ 3
u − 3u + 5
y=
y = b sin3 θ 1+ u
2

6. x = a sec2 θ
y = a tan3 θ a
19. x = 2
7. x = a (cos t + t sin t) m
y = a (sin t – t cos t)
2a
8. x = a ( θ – sin θ ) y=
m
y = a (1 + cos θ )
9. x = a ( θ – sin θ ) 1− t
20. x = a
y = a (1 – cos θ ) 1+ t
10. x = 2 cos2 θ
y = 3 sin2 θ 1− t
y=a⋅t⋅
11. x = a log t 1+ t
y = b sin t 21. x = 2t – | t |
12. x = tan–1 t y = t2 + t | t |
y = t sin 2t a
22. x = a sin θ + cos θ f
y = a asin θ − cos θf
13. x = at2
y = 2at
 Implicit Differentiation 525

2 −2t
t −1 16.
23. x = a 2
1 − t2
t +1
1− t
2 17. −
t −1 1+ t
y = a⋅t ⋅ 2
t +1 4 2
u + 6u − 10u − 3

e j
Answers (with proper restrictions on the parameters) 18. 2 2

1. tan θ 2u u + 1

3θ 19. m
2. tan
2 2
20. t + t − 1
b
3. − cot φ 2t + 2 t
c 2t − t h ⋅ t
a 21.
b
4. cosec φ
a cos θ + sin θ
b 22. cos θ − sin θ
5. − tan θ
a
4 2
3 t + 2t − 1
tan θ 23.
6. 2t
2
7. tan t
Exercise 12.6
θ
8. −cot
2
dy
θ Find from the following equations.
9. cot dx
2
b
x = a t − sin t g
b g t ∈ 0 , 2π , a ≠ 0
3 1.
10. − y = a 1 − cos t
2
x = a cos t
b g
b
11. t cos t t ∈ 0, π , a ≠ 0
a 2.
y = a sin t
12. (2t cos 2t + sin 2t) (1 + t2)
x = a sec θ F I
π
H K
1
13. 3. y = b tan θ θ ∈ 0 , 2 , a > b > 0
t

b 1 − t2 F I = F− b I x = e bsin t + cos t g L π πO
JK GH a JK
2

GH
t
t ∈ M− , P
x
14. − ⋅ ⋅
a 2t 2
y 4. y = e bsin t − cos t g
t
N 4 4Q
e
t 2−t j 3 x = θ + sin θ
5. y = 1 − cos θ θ ∈ − π , π a f
e1 − 2t j
15. 3
526 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x = a cos3 t π LM IJ To find the differential coefficient of a function with

N K
t∈ 0, ,a ≠ 0 respect to an other function
6.
y = a sin t
3
2 Question: Using the definition, find the differential
coefficient of a function f (x) with respect to another
x = at 2 function g (x), where f (x) and g (x) both are
7. t > 0, a ≠ 0
y = 2at differentiable functions having the same independent
variable x.
2
Solution: Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function of x
1− t …(1)
x= 2
1+ t and z = g (x) be another differentiable function of x
8. t>0 …(2)
2t
y=
1+t
2 Now, y + ∆ y = f x + ∆ x a f …(3)
a
and z + ∆ z = g x + ∆ x f …(4)
b
x = a cos θ + θ sin θ π g FG IJ a f af
b
9. y = a sin θ − θ cos θ θ ∈
g H
,π ,a ≠ 0
K From (3), we have ∆ y = f x + ∆ x − f x ...(5)
and from (4), we have ∆ z = g a x + ∆ x f − g a x f …(6)
2

Answers
Dividing (5) by ∆ x , we obtain
FtI
cot G J , t ∈ b0 , 2 πg a f af
1.
H 2K ∆y
=
f x + ∆x − f x
…(7)
∆x ∆x
2. –cot t , t ∈ b0 , πg
Dividing (6) by ∆ x , we obtain
b F πI a f af
3.
a H 2K
cosec θ , θ ∈ 0 , ∆z
∆x
=
g x + ∆x − g x
∆x
…(8)
L π πO
tan t , t ∈ M− , P
N 4 4Q
4. Dividing (7) by (8), we obtain

∆y a
f x + ∆x − f x f af
F θI
tan G J , θ ∈ b − π , πg ∆y ∆x ∆x
5.
H 2K ∆z
=
∆z
=
a
g x + ∆x − g x f af
F πI
− tan t , t ∈ G 0 , J
∆x ∆x
6.
H 2K lastly, taking the limit as ∆ x → 0 , ∆ y → 0 ,

7.
1
,t > 0 ∆ z →0 , we obtain from (9),
t
∆y
lim
1−t
2
∆ y ∆ x →0 ∆ x
8. − ,t >0 lim =
2t ∆ x →0 ∆ z ∆z
lim
FG π , πOP ∆ x→0 ∆ x

9. tan θ , θ ∈
H2 Q lim
a
f x + ∆x − f x f af
∆ x→0 ∆x
=
lim
a
g x + ∆x − g x f af
∆ x →0 ∆x
 Implicit Differentiation 527

af Remember:
af
dy d f x
dy f′ x dy dx dy dy
af af
⇒ = dx = dx = = ⋅ Although is not a quotient we may interpret
dz dz dg x g′ x dx dz dx dx
dx dx as a quotient which means we are able to write.
dy
Hence, the general rule for the differentiable (i) = dy ÷ dx
coefficient of a differentiable function f (x) with respect dx
to another differentiable function g (x) is dy 1 dy
= dy × ⇔ dy = × dx
af (ii)
dx dx dx
af
d f x
d f x
af = dx
af
dy dy dz dy dx
dg x dg x (iii) = ÷ = ×
dx dx dx dx dz
dx
which can be stated in words in the following way. Solved Examples
a
d the function given to be differentiated f 1. cos2 x w.r.t. (log x)3
a
d the function w.r. t which we have to find the d.c f Solution: Putting y = cos2 x …(1)
and z = (log x), x > 0 …(2)
differential coefficient of the given function w.r.t x
= We have

j a f
differential coefficient w.r.t x of the function w. r.t which

e
2
we have to find the d.c. of the given function dy d 2 d cos x d cos x
= cos x = ⋅
Remark: We must note that the function to be dx dx d cos x dx
differentiated and the other function with respect to = cos · (–sin x) = –2 sin x cos x = –sin 2x …(3)
which we have to differentiate, both have the same
independent variable.
and
dz d log x
=
a f⋅
3
d log x
Working rule to differentiate f (x) w.r.t. g (x) dx d log x dx

a f ⋅ 1x = 3alogx xf
To find the differential coefficient of a function f (x) 2
= 3 log x
w.r.t. another function g (x), where f (x) and g (x) both 2
…(4)
are differentiable functions having the same
independent variable x, we adopt the rule consisting
b3g ⇒ dy / dz = dy = − x sin 2 x , x > 0
of following steps.
Step 1: Find the differential coefficient of the given
Hence,
b4g dx dx dz 3blog x g 2

function with respect to the independent variable x Or, alternatively,

j a f
which the function to be differentiated has.
e
2
Step 2: Find the differential coefficient with respect d 2 d cos x d cos x
cos x = ⋅ = − sin 2 x …(i)
to the same independent variable x of the other dx d cos x dx

a f a f a f
function w.r.t. which d.c. of the given function is
3 3 2
required. d log x d log x d log x 3 log x
Step 3: Divide the differential coefficient obtained in = ⋅ = …(ii)
dx d log x dx x
step (1) by the differential coefficient obtained in step
(2). And obtain the required differential coefficient of
f (x) w.r.t. g (x). e j = a1f = − x sin 2 x , x > 0
d cos x
2

a2f 3alog xf
Hence,
d alog x f
3 2
528 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. log x w.r.t. x3
Solution: Putting y = log x…(1)
and z = x3 …(2)
e j ⋅ d e1 + x j
d 1+ x
2 2 2

d e1 + x j dx 2
We have
dy d log x
=
a f
1
= ,x>0 …(3)
dx dx x =
1
⋅ cos 1 + xe 2 2
j ⋅ 2 e1+ x j ⋅ 2 x
2

dz d x e j = 3x
3
2
2 sin 1 + x e 2 2
j
and = …(4)
dx dx

b3g ⇒ dy = dz = dy = 1 ⋅ 1 1 =
2x 1 + xe j cos e1 + x j
2 2 2

Hence,
b4g dx dx dz x 3x 2
=
3x 3
,
sin e1 + x j
2 2
…(3)

x > 0.

e j = 2x
x 2
3. e w.r.t. x
dz d 1 + x
Solution: Putting y = ex …(1) and = …(4)
dx dx
and z = x …(2)
We have b3g ⇒ 2 x ⋅ e1 + x j ⋅ cos e1 + x j / 2 x , x ≠ 0
2 2

dy
=
d x
e =e
x
e j …(3)
∴
b 4g sin e1 + x j 2
2

dx dx

and
dz
=
dx dx
d
e xj = 2 1x , x > 0 …(4)
dy e
2x 1 + x
2
j cos e1 + x j 2 2

⇒ =
b3g ⇒ dy / dz = 2e x
x
dz 2x

b4g dx dx 1 = 2e x , x >0
x
Thus,

=
e1 + x j cos e1 + x j 2 2 2

,x ≠0
sin e1 + x j 2 2
4. e
sin 1 + x j
2 2
e
w. r.t 1 + x
2
j
−1
5. e sin x
w.r. t. sin −1 x
Solution: Putting y = e
sin 1 + x
2 2
j …(1)
sin
−1
x
Solution: Putting y = e …(1)
and z = (1 + x2) …(2)
We have and z = xsin–1 …(2)

F I We have
d GH e
sin 1 + x j JK
2 2
FG −1
IJ
H K
sin x
dy d e
= dy
dx dx =
dx dx
F I
d G sin e1 + x j J d FG sin e1 + x j IJ
H K⋅ H
2 2

K⋅
2 2
FG −1
IJ
H K ⋅ d sin
sin x
d e −1
=
F I =
x

K d e1 + x j
d G sin e1 + x j J
2 2
d esin xj
2 2
H
−1 dx
 Implicit Differentiation 529

−1
x
e sin 1 − tan x
2
= , x ≠ ±1 ...(3) 21. w.r.t. x
1 − x2 1 + tan x
2

dz d sin −1 x 1 x
and = = ; x ≠ ±1 …(4) 22. w.r.t. sin x
dx dx 1− x 2 sin x
23. ex w.r.t. log x
b3g ⇒ dy ⋅ dx = e sin
−1
s
FH IK 24. log x2 w.r.t. ex
∴
b4g dx dz 1− x 2
⋅ 1− x 2
25. e
sin
−1
x
w.r.t. log x
dy
e j
2 2
−1
⇒ = e sin x ; x ≠ ± 1 26. sin 1 + x w.r.t. (1 + x2)
dz
−1
Problems on differentiation of a function with respect sin x
to another function 27. e w.r.t. cos–1 x
28. tan x w.r.t. sin–1 x
–1

Exercise 12.7 29. log sin x w.r.t. sin–1 x

1 − cos x 1 + sin x
30. w.r.t.
Differentiable: 1 + cos x 1 − sin x
1. x5 w.r.t. x3
2. x2 + x + 3 w.r.t. x3 Answers
3. sin x w.r.t. cos x 5 2
4. tan–1 x w.r.t. x2 1. x
3
5. sin–1 x w.r.t. cos–1 x
−1 2x + 1
6. x
sin x
w.r.t. tan–1 x 2. ,x≠0
3x 2
7. e x w.r.t. x 3. − cot x , x ≠ nπ
−1
8. e
sin x
w.r.t. sin −1 x 1
,x≠0
e j
4.
9. sin x w.r.t. x3 2x 1 + x2
10. sin x w.r.t. tan x
11. tan x w.r.t. sin x 5. −1 for x ≤ 1
12. cosec x w.r.t. cot x
F I
13. cot x w.r.t. cosec x
e
6. 1 + x 2 x sin j −1
x
GG log x
+ JJ
sin −1 x
, 0 < x <1
14. tan x w.r.t. sec x
15. tan x w.r.t. cot x H 1 − x2 x K
16. cosec x w.r.t. sec x 7. 2 x e x , x ≠ 0
17. sin x w.r.t. cos2 x −1
18. cos2 x w.r.t. sin x 8. e
sin x
, x ≤1

x cos x
19. w.r.t. tan x 9. ,x≠0
2 3x 2
1+ x
π
1 + cos 2 x 10. cos3 x , x ≠ nπ +
20. w.r.t. x 2
1 − cos 2 x
530 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

π
11. sec3 x , x ≠ nπ + 1 − x2
2 28. , x ≤1
1 + x2
12. cos x , x ≠ nπ
13. sec x , x ≠ nπ
b g 1− x ,0< x ≤1
29. cot x
2

nπ
14. cosec x , x ≠
F 1 − sin x IJ
tan x G
2

H 1 + cos x K
2 30.
π
15. –tan2 x , x ≠ nπ +
2 Differentiation of infinite series (or, continued
nπ fraction which → ∞ )
16. –cot3 x , x ≠
2 Before we find the derivatives of the problems on in
finite series or continued fraction which tends to
1
17. − cosec x , x ≠ nπ infinity, we must know the definitions of the following
2 terms.
18. –2 sin x for all x
1. Infinite series: A series having the number of terms
cos2 x π infinite (i.e. not finite) is called an infinite series. An
19. , x ≠ nπ +
e1 + x j infinite series is written in any one of the following
3
2 2 2
forms.
(i) x1 + x2 + x3 + … + xn + …, where dots denote the
2 cot x nπ
20. ⋅ ,x≠ existance of similar terms obeying the same rule as its
cos 2 x − 1 cot x 2 previous terms.

21.
−2 tan x
, x ≠ nπ ±
π (ii) ∑x n

1 − tan x 4 4
∞

sin x − x cos x nπ
(iii) ∑x i or, more briefly ∑ x , where x
i n and xi
22. ,x ≠ i =0 i
sin x ⋅ cos x
2
2
are the general term or nth term of the infinite series.
23. x · ex, x > 0 2. Continued fraction: A continued fraction is a
2 fraction expressed as a number plus a fraction whose
24. ,x>0 denominator is a number plus a fraction, i.e.
x ex a continued fraction
−1 ⇒ a number + a fraction whose denominator = a
x ⋅ e sin x

25. ,0 < x <1 number + a fraction

1 − x2 b2
⇒ a1
b3
a2 +
e1 + x j cos e1 + x j
2 2 2
a3 +
b4
b5
26. a4 +
a5 + ... ∞
sin e1 + x j
2 2
Notes:
1. A continued fraction may have either a finite or in
−1
27. −e sin x
, x ≤1 finite number or terms. A continued fraction having
finite number of terms is called terminating continued
 Implicit Differentiation 531

fraction. A continued fraction having infinite number Remember:

of terms is called non-terminating continued fraction. 1. In the given series being infinite, we firstly inspect
If a certain sequence of the a’s and b’s occurs what expression in x terminates or converges and
periodically, the continued fraction is recurring or then we retain only one terminating (or, converging)
periodic. The terminating continued fraction expression in x as it is and the rest same terminating
expression is put equal to y (= l.h.s). e.g.,
b2
a1 , a1 + , etc are convergents of the
a2 +
b3 y= x + 2 x + 2 x + ... ∞
←→ ←−−−−−−→
a3
continued fraction whereas the quotients
b2 b3
,
B B
a2 a3
Note: We inspect that x + 2 is the expression
etc are partial quotients. The continued fraction is a
which terminates.
simple continued fraction if bi = 1, i = 2, 3, ... .
2. For the sake of saving space, it is usual to write a
simple continued fraction in the more compact forms retain the first and put the first = y
as: ∴ y = x + 2y
1 1 1 1 1 2. If we are given y = a non-terminating continued
a+ ... or , ... instead of
b+ c+ a+ b+ c+ fraction put in the form:
writing
y= f x +af 1
a+
1
or ,
1
, where af
f x +
1
b+
1
a+
1
af
f x +
1
c + ... a+
1
1
a f f a x f 1+ ...∞ ,
f x +
b+
c + ...
1
it is to be noticed that the letters a, b, c, … all denote we retain f (x) as it is and the rest is put equal to ,
y
integral numbers, the signs are all positive and each
of the numerator is unity. i.e. reciprocal of l.h.s.
We are now prepared to find the ways of
differentiating the non-terminating continued fraction ∴y = f x + af 1
y
of the form
3. Differentiation of a non terminating continued
bg
f x +
1
f x
+
1
f xbg
+
1
f x bg
+ ...
bg
fraction is also termed as differentiation of explicit
functions in an “ad infinitum” form and “… ∞ ” is
replaced by “ad in f”.
1. If y= f x + bg 1
f xbg
+
1
f x bg
+ ... then
e.g.: y = x +
1
1
x +
bg
1
y= f x + .
y
x +
1
x + ad in f
dy 4. Differentiation of explicit functions in any “ad
2. Find using the method of differentiating infinitum” form becomes differentiable after
dx
implicit functions. transformation to finite implicit form which is possible
as under.
532 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

... ∞
2. y = cos x + cos x + cos x + ... ∞
x
x y
(i) y = x ⇒y=x
x ... ∞ Solution: y = cos x + cos x + cos x + ... ∞
e jx y
e
x
(ii) y = e ⇒y= e
⇒ y = cos x + y
... ∞ 2

e j ⇒ y = cos x + y
x
x y
(iii) y = x ⇒y= x etc.

Problems based on "ad infinitum" form. ⇒

d 2
dx
y =
d
e j
dx
cos x + y a f
Solved Examples dy dy
⇒ 2y = − sin x +
dx dx
dy
Find if dy dy
dx ⇒ 2y − = − sin x
dx dx
x ... ∞

1. y = e
x+e
x +e
x +e
a
⇒ 2y − 1 f dydx = − sin x
x ... ∞ dy − sin x sin x 1 −1
⇒ =
b =
g; y ≠ , i.e. cos x ≠
x + e
x + e
x+e dx 2y − 1 1 − 2y 2 4
Solution: y = e

⇒ y=e
x+ y
3. y = sin x + sin x + sin x + ... ∞

e jb g
⇒ log y = log e x + y = x + y ⋅ log e e = x + y b g Solution: y = sin x + sin x + sin x + ... ∞
aQ log e = log e = 1f e ⇒y= sin x + y

⇒
d
dx
alog y f =
d
dx
a x + yf 2
⇒ y = sin x + y

⇒
1 dy
=1+
dy ⇒
d 2
dx
y =
d
e j
dx
sin x + y a f
y dx dx
dy dy
1 dy dy ⇒ 2y = cos x +
⇒ − =1 dx dx
y dx dx

F 1 I dy = 1
dy dy
⇒ 2y − = cos x
⇒ G − 1J
H y K dx
dx dx

a
⇒ 2y − 1 f dydx = cos x
⇒G
F 1 − y IJ dy = 1
H y K dx dy cos x 1 1

dy F y I
⇒
dx
=
2y − 1b 2 g
; y ≠ , i.e. sin x ≠ −
4
=G J for y ≠ 1 , i.e. x ≠ − 1
dx H 1 − y K
⇒
4. y = x + 2 x + 2 x + ... ∞
 Implicit Differentiation 533

... ∞
Solution: y = x + 2 x + 2 x + ... ∞ e x
ex
x
Solution: y = e ,x>0
⇒y= x + 2y
2 y FH e y IK y
⇒ y = x + 2y ⇒y=e
x
=e Note: y = e
x

⇒
d 2
dx
y =
d
e j
dx
x + 2y a f ⇒ log y = x log e = x
y y
⇒
/ log y = y log e
x

⇒ log log y = y log x

dy dy
⇒ 2y =1+ 2
dx dx ⇒
d
dx
a
log log y =
d
dx
y log x f a f
dy dy
⇒ 2y −2 =1
dx dx ⇒
1 1 dy
⋅ ⋅ = y⋅
d
log x ≠ log x
dy
b g
a f
dy log y y dx dx dx
⇒ 2y − 1 =1
dx y dy
= + log x
dy 1 1 x dx
⇒
dx
=
2y − 2
=
b
2 y −1 g b
; y ≠ 1 , i.e. x ≠ − 1
g ⇒
1
⋅
dy
− log x
dy
=
y
... ∞ y log y dx dx x
xx
5. y = x
x
FG 1 − y log x log y IJ dy = y
xx
... ∞
⇒
H y log y K dx x
Solution: y = x ,x>0
x

dy y F IJ = y log y
= ⋅G
2
y log y
dx x H 1 − y log x log y K x b1 − y log x log y g
⇒y= x
y ⇒

⇒ log y = y log x Remark:

FH 33 IK
⇒
d
dx
log y =
d
b g
dx
y log x b g 3
3
3
means 3
FH x y IK
ee j
1 dy y dy y
x y
⇒ = + log x y=e
x
means y =e ≠ =e
x⋅y
y dx x dx

FG 1 − log xIJ dy = y y
... ∞
⇒
Hy K dx x
y
y
7. x = y
1 − y log x dy y
⇒ = y
... ∞
y dx x y
y
Solution: x = y ,y>0
2
dy y x
⇒ =
dx x 1 − y log x b g ⇒ x= y

⇒ log x = log x x − x log y

... ∞
ex

6. y = e
x
ex
⇒
d
dx
b g
log x =
d
dx
x log y b g
534 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
1
x
= x⋅
d
dx
log y + log y ⋅ b g
dx
dx
⇒ log y = log x b
x+ y g b g
= x + y log x

= x⋅
1 dy
⋅ + log y
⇒
d
dx
b g
log y =
d
dx
x + y log x cb g h
y dx
1 x dy
⇒ = ⋅ + log y
b
= x+ yg dxd blog xg + log x dxd bx + yg
F dy I
x y dx
= b x + y g ⋅ + log x G1 + J
1 dy 1
⇒
1 x dy
− log y = ⋅
⇒ ⋅
y dx x H dx K
x y dx

1 − x log y x dy =
b x + yg + log x + log x dy
⇒ = ⋅ x dx
x y dx

b g x+ y b g
dy FG
1 − x log y y y 1 − x log y IJ ⇒
1 dy
⋅ − log x
dy
= + log x
⇒
dx
=
x H⋅ =
x x2 K y dx dx x

=
b x + yg + x log x
8. y = x + x + x + ... ∞ x

Solution: y = x + x + x + ... ∞
FG 1 − y log x IJ dy = bx + yg + x log x
⇒
H y K dx x
⇒y= x+ y
=G
F b + g + I F
⋅G
IJ
J
dy x y x log x y
2
⇒ y = x+ y
⇒
dx H x K H 1 − y log x K
⇒
d 2
dx
y =
d
e j
dx
x+ y a f =
y x + y + x log x
x
⋅
1 − y log x
dy dy ... ∞
⇒ 2y ⋅ =1+ x
x
dx dx 10. y = x
dy dy ... ∞
⇒ 2y ⋅ − =1 x
x
dx dx Solution: y = x ,x>0
a
⇒ 2y − 1
dy
=1 f ej
e j
y
y
⇒ y= = x
2
dx x
dy 1 FG IJ e j = FG y IJ log x
⇒ =
H K
y

2y − 1 ⇒ log y = log x
H 2K
2
dx

FG y ⋅ log xIJ
... ∞
x+
9. y = x
x+
⇒
d
dx
b g
log y =
d
dx H2 K
... ∞
x+
x+
y d
b gd FG y IJ
Solution: y = x
x+ y
,x>0 = ⋅
2 dx
log x + log x
dx H 2K
⇒ y= x
 Implicit Differentiation 535

1 dy y 1 1 dy F 2 cos x − y I F I
⇒ ⋅
y dx
= ⋅ + ⋅ log x
2 x 2 dx ⇒
dy
dx
= − GH
sin x
2 cos x − y
⋅
2 cos x − y + 1
JK GH JK
y 1 dy
= + log x
2x 2 dx =
−sin x
2 cos x − y + 1
=
−sin x
2 y +1
Qy = e cos x + y j
1 dy 1 dy y
⇒ ⋅ − log x ⋅ =
y dx 2 dx 2 x –sin x
=
FG 1 − 1 log xIJ dy = y 1 + 2y
⇒
H y 2 K dx 2 x cos x j ∞
a f a fe
...
cos x
12. y = cos x
⇒G
F 2 − y log x IJ ⋅ dy = y
H 2 y K dx 2 x
... ∞
Solution: y = acos x f
a cos x fecos x j ; cos x > 0

dy F y I F IJ ⇒ log y = y log cos x

=G J ⋅G
2y
dx H 2 x K H 2 − y log x K
⇒
⇒
1 dy
⋅
y dx
=y⋅
1
cos x
⋅ −sin x + log cos x ⋅
dy
dx
b g
2
y
=
b
x 2 − y log x g = − y tan x + log cos x
dy
dx
11. y = cos x − cos x − cos x − ... ∞ FG 1 − log cos xIJ dy = − y tan x
⇒
Hy K dx
Solution: y = cos x − cos x − cos x − ... ∞
dy y 2 tan x
⇒ y = cos x − y
⇒
dx
=−
b
1 − y log cos x g
j debcos x − ygj ⋅ dxd bcos x − yg
d cos x − y
⇒
dy d
=
dx dx
e cos x − y =
13. y = x + 2 + x + 2 + x + ...∞

dy 1 dy FG IJ
⇒ =
dx 2 cos x − y
⋅ −sin x −
dx H K Solution: y = x + 2 + x + 2 + x + ...∞

sin x 1 dy ⇒y= x+ 2+ y
=− −
2 cos x − y 2 cos x − y dx 2
⇒ y = x+ 2+ y
dy 1 dy sin x ⇒ y − x=
2
2+ y
⇒ + ⋅ =−
dx 2 cos x − y dx 2 cos x − y
e j = a2 + y f
2 2
⇒ y − x
F 2 cos x − y + 1I dy = −
⇒ GH 2 cos x − y JK dx 2 sin x
d F I d a2 + yf
cos x − y
G e y − xj J =
2

dx H K dx
2
⇒
536 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

e
⇒2 y −x
2
j FH 2 y dydx − 1IK = dydx Solution: y = x +
1
1
x+
1
x+
⇒ 4y y − xe 2
j dy
dx
2
−2 y −x = e
dy
dx
j x + ... ∞

LM e j OPQ dydx = 2 e y − xj
1
N ⇒ y= x+
2 2
⇒ 4y y − x − 1
y

2 e y − xj
2
2
2 2+ y ⇒ y = xy + 1
dy
⇒ = =
dx 4 y e y − x j − 1 4 y 2 + y − 1
2 dy dy
⇒ 2y = x + y
dx dx
dy dy
⇒ 2y − x = y
14. y = x − 2 x − 2 x − 2 x − 2 ... ∞
dx dx

a
⇒ 2y − x f dydx = y
Solution: y = x − 2 x − 2 x − 2 x − 2 ... ∞
dy y
⇒y= x − 2y ⇒
dx
=
a
2y − x f
⇒ y2 = x − 2y 1
2. x = y +
⇒ y + 2y = x
2 1
y+
1
y+
⇒ 2y
dy
+2
dy
=1 y + ... ∞
dx dx
b
⇒2 y +1
dy
dx
=1 g Solution: x = y +
1
1
y+
1
dy 1 y+
⇒ =
dx 2 y + 1 b g y + ... ∞

Problems based on non-terminating continued 1

fraction ⇒x= y+
x
2
Solved Examples ⇒ x = xy + 1
dy dy
Find if ⇒ 2x = x + y
dx dx
1 dy
1. y = x + ⇒ 2x − y = x
1 dx
x+
FG IJ
1
x+ dy 2x − y
x + ... ∞ ⇒
dx
=
x H K
 Implicit Differentiation 537

x sin x
3. y = ⇒y=
x cos x
a+ 1+
x 1+ y
b+
a f
x
a+ 1 + y sin x
b + ... ∞ ⇒ y=
1 + y + cos x

a f
x x x x x x
or, y = ... ∞ 2
⇒ y + y + y cos x = 1 + y sin x
a + b+ a + b+ a + b+

Solution: y =
x
x
⇒
d 2
dx
e
y + y + y cos x =
d
dx
j
1 + y sin x ba f g
a+
x dy dy dy
b+ ⇒ 2y + + cos x − y sin x
x
a+ dx dx dx
b + ... ∞
x
=
dy
dx
sin x + 1 + y
d
b
dx
g
sin x
⇒y=
x
a+
b+ y a f dydx = y sin x + a1+ yf cos x
⇒ 2 y + 1 + cos x − sin x

y sin x + a1 + y f cos x
x
⇒ y=
a
a b+ y + x f dy
dx a1 + 2 y + cos x − sin x f
⇒ =
b+ ya f
a
b+ y x f tan x
⇒ y=
a
a b+ y + x f 5. y =
1+
cot x
tan x
2 1+
⇒ aby + y + xy = bx + yx cot x
1+
tan x
dy dy 1+
⇒ ab + 2y =b cot x
dx dx 1+
1 + ... ∞
dy b
⇒
dx
=
a
ab + 2 y f or, y =
tan cot x tan cot x tan
... ∞
1+ 1 + 1 + 1+ 1 +
sin x
4. y =
cos x tan x
1+ Solution: y =
sin x cot x
1+ 1+
cos x tan x
1+ 1+
1 + ... ∞ cot x
1+
tan x
1+
cot x
Solution: y =
sin x 1+
cos x 1 + ... ∞
1+
sin x
1+
cos x
1+
1 + ... ∞
538 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

tan x tan x dy 1 1 dy
⇒ = − 2
⇒y=
1+
cot x
=
FG
1 + y + cot x IJ dx 2 x y dx
1+ y 1+ y H K dy 1 dy 1
⇒ + 2 =
a1 + yf tan x dx y dx 2 x
⇒ y=
a1 + y + cot xf F I dy = 1
⇒ y b1 + y + cot x g = b1 + y g tan x
⇒ 1+GH y
1
2 JK dx 2 x
⇒ y + y + y cot x = a1 + y f tan x
2
2
dy y
⇒ =
⇒
d
dx
e y + y + y cot x j =
2 d
dx
ba1 + yf tan xg dx 2 1 + y 2
e j x

dy dy dy Conditional identities on non-terminating continued

⇒ 2y + + cot x − y cosec 2 x fraction or 'ad infinitum' form.
dx dx dx
F dy I d
a f a f
To form a differential equation with the help of a given
= 0+
H dx K
tan x + 1 + y
dx
tan x equation, we adopt the rule which consists of
following steps.
dy dy dy dy Step 1: Take the given and express it as an implicit
⇒ 2y + + cot x − tan x function of x.
dx dx dx dx

a f
Step 2: Find the derivative of the implicit function of x.
2 2
= y cosec x + 1 + y sec x Step 3: Use mathematical manipulations to put the
first derivatives (or, the derivative involved in the
a
⇒ 1 + 2y + cot x − tan x f dydx required differential equation) in to the required form
of the differential equations.
2
= y cosec x + 1 + y sec x a f 2
Solved Examples
dy
2
y cosec x + 1 + y sec x a f 2
... ∞
⇒
dx
=
a
1 + 2 y + cot x − tan x f x
ax
ax

1. If y = a show that
1
6. y = x + 2
1 dy y log y
x +
x +
1 dx
=
a
x 1 − y log x log y f
x + ... ∞
... ∞
a x
1 ax
Solution: y = x + x
1 Solution: y = a , a > 0, x > 0
x +
1 y
x + x
x + ... ∞ ⇒y=a
y
1 ⇒ log y = x log a
⇒ y= x +
y ⇒ log log y = y log x + log log a
 Implicit Differentiation 539

1 1 dy dy y dy dy
⇒ ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ log x + ⇒ 2y − = cos x
log y y dx dx x dx dx

FG 1 − log xIJ dy = y a
⇒ 2y − 1 f dydx = cos x
⇒
H y log y K dx x
dy cos x
dy y 2 log y ⇒ =
a
2y − 1 f
b g
⇒ = dx
dx x 1 − y log x log y
... ∞ 2
4. If y = log x + log x + log x + ...∞ , show
x
x dy y
2. If y = x =
, show that x
dx 1 − y log x a
that 2 y − 1 f dydx = 1x .
... ∞
x
x
Solution: y = x ,x>0 Solution: y = log x + log x + log x + ... ∞ , x > 0
y
⇒ y= x ...(1) ⇒y= log x + y
⇒ log y = y log x 2
⇒ y = log x + y
1 dy dy y
⇒ ⋅ = log x + dy 1 dy
y dx dx x ⇒ 2y = +
FG 1 − log xIJ dy = y
dx x dx
⇒
Hy K dx x a
⇒ 2y − 1 f dydx = 1x
2
dy y x
⇒
dx
=
x 1 − y log xa f ...(2) 5. If y =
1+
x
, show that
x
dy y2 1+
x
∴x
dx
=
b
1 − y log x g 1+
1 + ... ∞

dy 1
3. If y = sin x + sin x + sin x + etc ... to ∞ , =
dx 2 y + 1
dy cos x
show that dx = 2 y − 1 . x
Solution: y =
x
1+
x
1+
Solution: y = sin x + sin x + sin x + ... ∞ x
1+
1 + ... ∞
⇒y= sin x + y
x
⇒y=
2
⇒ y = sin x + y
1+ y
2
⇒ y − y = sin x 2
⇒ y + y= x
540 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dy dy
⇒ 2y + =1 y= sin x + sin x + sin x + ...
dx dx
a
⇒ 2y + 1
dy
dx
=1 f ⇒y= sin x + y
2
dy 1 ⇒ y = sin x + y
⇒ =
dx 2 y + 1

1
a
⇒ 2y − 1 f dydx = cos x
6. If x = y + , show that
1
y+ dy cos x
y+
1
1 ⇒
dx
=
2y − 1a f
which means that we can find

y+
... ∞ dy 1
when ever y ≠ .
dx 2
dy 2 2
= 2 x + y − 3xy . Conditional identities based on explicit function of x
FG 2 − 3x IJ , show dy + 3 = 0 .
dx
−1

Solution: x = y +
1
1
1. If y = tan
H 1 + 6x K dx 1 + 9 x 2

y+
f a x f = sin
1 −1 x
y+ 2. If and and g (x) = tan –1
1
y+ 1+ x
2
... ∞

1 FG 1 + x IJ , | x | < 1, show that f ′ a xf = g ′ a xf .

⇒x= y+
x
...(1) H1 − xK
⇒1=
dy 1
− 2 f ′ axf
f a xf
dx x 3. If f (x) = sec x + tan x, show that = sec x .

dy 1
= y a1 − y f .
⇒ =1+ 2 x dy
dx x 4. If y = , show that x
x+5
=1+ x − ya f 2
(from (1))
dx
2 2 dy
= 1 + x + y − 2 xy 5. If y = x–3, show that x + 3y = 0 .
dx
1
= x − xy + x + y − 2 xy ( Q x − y = ⇒ x2
2 2 2
dy
x 6. If y = x3, show that x = 3y , ∀ x .
– xy = 1 from (1)) dx
2 2 1 dy
= 2 x + y − 3 xy 7. If y = x + , show that x + y = 2x .
x dx
dy 2 2
∴ = 2 x + y − 3xy −1 −1 dy
dx 8. If y = sin x + sin
2
1 − x , show that = 0.
dx
Remark: Special care must be taken when implicit
π π
function or a function defined by an infinite process (Hint: Put x = sin θ , − ≤θ≤ )
are differentiated for the function y = F (x) or 2 2
F (x, y) = 0 at which it is undefined. e.g.,
 Implicit Differentiation 541

−1 2u −1 2u
9. If x = sin and y = tan 2 , show 3. y = sin x + sin x + sin x + ... ∞
2
1+ u 1−u
dy
= 1. 4. y = cos x + cos x + cos x + ... ∞
that
dx
cos x + sin x dy π F I 5. y = x + x + x + ... ∞
H K
2
10. If y = , show that = sec x + .
cos x − sin x dx 4
x ∞
...
x
−1 cos 3x dy 6. y = x
11. If y = cos 3 , show that =
cos x dx 1
7. x = y +
1
3 y+
cos x cos 3x
. y + ... ∞

−1 1
sin x dy 8. y =
12. If y = 2
,m show that (1 – x2) – xy = 1 x+
1
1− x dx 1
x+
−1 FG 3 + 5 cos x IJ , show that cos x = x + ... ∞
13. If y = cos
H 5 + 3 cos x K y
y
... ∞

9. x = y
4 − 5 y1 dy
, where y1 = .
3 y1 dx Answers
y
1 + tan x dy 1. 1 − y
14. If y = log = sec 2 x .
F I
, show that
1 − tan x dx 2

dy 2.
1
GHy
x 1 − y log x
JK
15. If y = e–x, show that + y=0
dx
cos x
16. If y = eax sin (bx + c), show that 3. 2 y − 1
dy 2 2 ax −1 b LMa f OP
dx
= a + b e sin bx + c + tan
a N Q sin x
4. 1 − 2 y
Problems based on infinite series 1
5. 2 y − 1
Exercise 12.8
2
y
dy
6.
a
x 2 − y log x f
Find if
dx 1
7. 1 +
x+e
x + ... ∞ x2
x +e
1. y = e 2
y
... ∞ 8. − 2
x
x 1+ y
2. y = x
542 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

9.
a
y 1 − x log y f 2. If y = sin x + sin x + sin x + ... ∞ , show that
2
x
Conditional problems a2 y − 1f dydx = cos x .
2
Exercise 12.9 (Hint: y = sin x + y ⇒ y = sin x + y )

dy sin x
... ∞ =
a f
3. Show that , when
x 2 dy dx 1 − 2 y
, show that y = x 1 − y log x
x
1. If y = x .
dx
y
(Hint: Here y = x ) cos x + cos x + cos x + ... ∞ .

13
Logarithmic Differentiation
Question: What is logarithmic differentiation?
Answer: Taking logarithm of both sides of an identity
before differentiation is known as logarithmic
differentiation.
Question: Where to use logarithmic differentiation?
Answer: Logarithmic differentiation is used when
1. The given function defining y as a function of x is
the product of two differentiation functions of x’s,
one (or both) of which may be quotient, power (or,
under radical), implicit function or composite of two
(or, more) functions; i.e. when y = f1 (x) · f2 (x) where f1
(x) and f2 (x) are differentiable functions of x’s.
2. The given function defining y as a function of x is
the product of a finite number of differentiable
functions of x’s, some of which may be quotients,
powers (or, under radicals), implicit functions or
composite of two (or, more) functions; i.e. when y = f1
(x) · f2 (x) · f3 (x) … fn (x), where f1 (x), f2 (x) … fn (x) are
differentiable functions of x’s.
3. The given function defining y as a function of x is
the quotient of two differentiable functions of x’s
whose numerator and denominator may be a power
function (or, a function under radical), implicit function
or composite of two (or, more) functions; i.e. when
af
f1 x
af
y= , where f1 (x) and f2 (x) are differentiable
f2 x
functions of x’s.
4. The given function defining y as a function of x is
the quotient whose numerator and denominator
contain a finite number of differentiable functions of
x’s some of which may be powers or, under radicals),
Logarithmic Differentiation 543
implicit function or composite of two (or, more)
af af af af
f 1 x ⋅ f 2 x ⋅ f 3 x ... f n x
functions; i.e. when y =
af af af af
g1 x ⋅ g2 x ⋅ g3 x ... gn x
,
where f1 (x), f2 (x), …, fn (x) and g1 (x) , g2 (x), … , gn (x)
are differentiable functions of x’s.
5. The given function defining y as a function of x is
a power of the function of x whose base is an implicit
or explicit function of x whereas the index is a real
number; i.e. when y = [f1 (x)]n, where f1 (x) is a
differentiable functions of x whereas the index is a
real number.
6. The given function defining y as a function of x is
composite exponential function which is a function
whose both the base and the exponent are
differentiable functions of x’s; i.e. when
y = f1 xaf a f,
f2 x
where f 1 (x) and f 2 (x) are
differentiable functions of x’s. (Note: Logarithmic
differentiation may be defined as “differentiation after
taking logarithm of both sides of an identity”.
Remember:
1. Logarithmic differentiation is practically useful
when the given function defining y as a function of x
is a complicated one consisting of products, quotients
and powers (or, radicals) of differentiable functions
whose derivatives can not be found easily by using
the rule of differentiating the products, quotient or
power of the functions being differentiable.
2. We take logs throughout to avoide repeated
applications of the rules for the differentiation of
products and quotients of functions of x’s.
544 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. We can use logarithmic differentiation only when f (x) < 0, we multiply f (x) by minus one (i.e. –1) to make
the function concerned is positive in its domain. f (x) > 0.
Example
d
af af
f′ x
y= sinn x ⇒ log y = sin x
n (B)
dx
log f x =
af
f x
which means the

derivative of the function log | f (x) | is a logarithmic

1 dy n cos x
⇒ log y = n log sin x ⇒ = derivative of the function f (x). To simplify the notation
y dx sin x in logarithmic differentiation, the sign of absolute
dy value of the function f (x) is usually omitted only
⇒ = n sin n −1 x cos x when the function f (x) concerned is positive. Hence,
af
dx
This result is valid when n is an integer > 1, whether
sin x is positive or negative.
this is why we write
d
dx
log f x = aff′ x
f x
.
af
Question: What are the rules of logarithmic (C) Logarithmic differentiation simplifies finding the
differentiation? derivative of the given function.
Answer: There are two rules of logarithmic On working rule of problems belonging to first type
differentiation. When we are given the interval or the quadrant in
Rule 1: When y = f (x), f (x) being differentiable which f (x) = given function of x is positive or the
positive function (i.e. f (x) > 0), condition imposed on the independent variable x
d
dx
a f
log y =
d
dx
log f xb a fg makes f (x) > 0, we adopt the following rule to find the
differential coefficient of the given function by using
logarithmic differentiation.
⇒
1 dy
⋅
y dx
=
1
⋅
f x dx
d
af
f x , f x >0 af af Step 1: Take logarithm on both sides of the equation
defining y as a function of x, i.e. log y = log f (x).
Rule 2: When y = f (x), f (x) being differentiable and Step 2: Differentiate the equation log y = log f (x)
af
f x ≠0
using the rule:
d 1 dy
log y = ⋅
d
log y =
d
log f x bg (i)
dx y dx
,y>0

af
dx dx
1 dy 1 d
af af (ii)
d
af
log f x =
1
af
⋅
d f x
, f (x) > 0
⇒ ⋅
y dx
= ⋅
f x dx af
f x ,f x ≠0 dx f x dx

log f a x f
Notes: (A) dy d
(iii) = y⋅
(i) y = f x af dx dx
Remember: (a) After taking logarithm, we are
(ii) y = ef (x)
required to use the following formulas.
(iii) y = | f (x) |
(i) log u · v = log u + log v, u > 0, v > 0.
(iv) y = log f (x)
af
(v) log ∅ a x f f x = y (ii) log
u
v
= log u − log v , u > 0, v > 0.
(vi) y = log log log … log f (x) are differentiable
(iii) log uv = v log u, u > 0, v ∈ 0.
functions where f (x) > 0 is pre assumed but in y = | f (x) |,
n
f (x) may be greater than zero or less than zero (iv) log u = n log u , n ∈ R , u > 0.
remaining the possibility of being zero also whereas where u and v are functions of x.
| f (x) | means always > 0. For this reason wherever
 Logarithmic Differentiation 545

b g
(b) The above working rule may be remembered as
“GLAD”, the letters being in order which means ⇒ log y = log x +
1
2
e 2
j
log x 2 + 1 − log x + 1
3
G = given function
L = take the logarithm 1 dy 1 1 1 2 1
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2x − ⋅ ⋅1
A = apply the logarithmic formulas y dx x 2 x + 1 3 x +1
D = differentiate.
(c) We take logarithm on both sides of the equation F I
defining y as a function of x only when the given
function is positive because logarithmic differen-
⇒
dy
dx
= y⋅
1
x
+ 2
x
GH
−
2
x +1 3 x +1 a fJK
tiation is applicable only when the function concerned
is positive. F1 + x − 2 I
x ⋅ x2 +1
b x + 1g GH x x + 1 3b x + 1gJK
(d) The above working rule is applicable to the = 2
⋅ 2

composite exponential function f1 x af a f provided

f2 x
3

the function in the base is positive and for this reason F π

3. y = cos x , H − < x < K
πI
the above working rule is applicable to ef (x) since 2 2
e = 2.718 … > 0.
Solution: y = acos x f
1
Remarks: To take the logarithm of any quantity, we 2

have to be sure that it is positive.

1
Problems based on first type ⇒ log y = log cos x
2
Form 1: Problems based on irrational functions.

Solved Examples
⇒
1 dy 1
⋅ = ⋅
1
y dx 2 cos x
⋅ −sin x a f
Find the differential coefficient of the following. dy 1
⇒ = − ⋅ y ⋅ tan x
1. y = x dx 2

Solution: y = af
x = x
1
2 , defined for x > 0 =−
1
2
cos x ⋅ tan x
1
⇒ log y =
log x 4. y = 3 log x
2
1 dy 1 1
⇒ ⋅ = ⋅
y dx 2 x
Solution: y = log x a f 1
3 , defined for x > 0

1
dy y ⇒ log | y | =
log | log x |
⇒ = 3
dx 2 x
1 dy 1 1 1 1
dy x 1 ⇒ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ =
⇒ = ,x>0= , x > 0. y dx 3 log x x 3x log x
dx 2x 2 x
dy y
⇒ = ,x>0
x ⋅ x +1
2 dx 3x log x
2. y =
b x + 1g 2
3
Form 2: Problems based on product of two or more
than two differentiable functions.

| x| ⋅ x 2 +1 Solved Examples
| y| =
Solution:
b x + 1g 2
3 Find the differential coefficient of the following.
546 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

1. y = x 2 ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ sin 3x FG 1 + 1 IJ , x > 0
Solution: y = x ⋅ e
2 2x
⋅ sin 3x
= x ⋅ 3 log x ⋅
H x 3x log x K
Form 3: Problems based on quotient of two or more
⇒ | y | = x 2 ⋅ e 2 x | sin 3x | than two differentiable functions

⇒ log| y | = log x 2 + log e 2 x + log | sin 3x | Solved Examples

b
⇒ log | y | = 2 log| x | + 2 x + log | sin 3x | 3 log e = 1 g Find the differential coefficient of the following.
1 dy 2 3 cos 3x 4
⇒ ⋅ = +2+ 1. y =
y dx x sin 3x log x

dy F 2 I Solution: y =
4
⇒
dx H
= y ⋅ 2 + 3 cot 3x +
x K log x
,x>0

FG 2 IJ ⇒ log | y | = log 4 − log | log x |

H
= x 2 ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ sin 3x 2 + 3 cot 3x +
x K ⇒
1 dy
⋅ =−
1
x y dx x log x
2. y = e ⋅ log x
dy y 4 4
⇒ =− =− =−
x
Solution: y = e ⋅ log x , defined for x > 0 dx x log x x log x log x x log x a f 2

⇒ log| y | = log e x + log| log x | = x + log | log x | 4

=−
b3 log e =1g x ⋅ log x
2 ,x>0

log x
⇒
1 dy
⋅ =1+
1 2. y = ,x>0
x
y dx x log x

dy FG
1 IJ Solution: y =
log x
⇒
dx
= y 1+
H
x log x K x
⇒ log y = log log x − log x
x FG 1 IJ 1 dy 1 1 1 1 FG IJ
H
= e ⋅ log x 1 +
x log x K ⇒ ⋅
y dx
=
x log x
− = y⋅
x x log x
−
x H K
3. y = x ⋅ 3 log x log x 1 − log x FG
1 − log x IJ
= =
H 2
K
a f 1
x x log x x
Solution: y = x ⋅ 3 log x = x log x 3
,x>0 x −x
e −e
1 3. y = x −x
⇒ log | y | = log x + log | log x | e +e
3 x −x
e −e
1 dy 1 1 1 1 1 1 Solution: y = −x
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ ⋅ = + e +e
x
y dx x 3 log x x x 3x log x

dy 1 FG
1 IJ e
⇒ log| y | = log e x − e − x j e
− log e x + e − x j
⇒
dx
= y +
H
x 3x log x K
 Logarithmic Differentiation 547

1 dy e + e
x
e −e
−x x −x
⇒
1 dy
⋅ =2⋅
x LM a
+ log 1 + x f OP
⇒ ⋅ = x
y dx e − e −x
− x
e +e
−x y dx x+1 N Q
⇒
dy
=2⋅y⋅M
L x + log a1 + x fOP
=
ee x
+ej − ee − e j
−x 2 x −x 2
dx Nx + 1 Q
ee + e j ee − e j
x −x x −x
L x + log a1 + xfOP , x > –1
= 2 ⋅ a1 + x f ⋅ M
2x

Nx + 1 Q
F
e 2 x + e − 2 x + 2 − e 2 x − e −2 x + 2 I
dy
GH JK
1
∴ = y 3. y = x x
dx e 2 x − e −2 x
1
Solution: y = x x , defined for x > 0
x −x
e −e 4
= ⋅ 1
x
e +e
−x
ee −e
x −x
je x
e +e
−x
j ⇒ log y =
x
log x

1 dy 1 1 1 1 − log x
4 ⇒ ⋅ = − 2 log x + ⋅ =
= y dx x x 2

ee x
+e
−x 2
j x x

⇒
dy
= y
LM
1 − log x OP
Form 4: Problems based on exponential composite
functions. y = f (x)g (x) which is defined only when the
dx N x
2
Q
y = b1 + x g
base f (x) > 0. log x
Note: Whether the questions says or does not say 4.
about the base f (x) of the exponential composite
function y = f (x)g (x) to be positive, it is understood Solution: y = 1 + x a f log x
, defined for x > –1
always that the base f (x) > 0 since y = f (x)g (x) is ⇒ log y = log x ⋅ log 1 + x a f
a f
defined only when f (x) > 0.
1 dy log x log 1 + x
⇒ ⋅ = +
Solved Examples y dx 1 + x x
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
⇒
dy
= y⋅
log x
+
LM
log 1 + x a f OP
N Q
1. y = (sin x)sin x, sin x > 0
Solution: y = (sin x)sin x dx 1+ x x

⇒ log y = log sin x a f sin x

= sin x log sin x
a
= 1+ x f log x
⋅
LM log x + log a1 + x f OP
⇒
1 dy
⋅ = sin x ⋅
1
⋅ cos x + cos x ⋅ log sin x
N1 + x x Q
y dx sin x ex jx

5. y = x ,x>0
⇒
dy
dx
a
= y cos x + cos x ⋅ log sin x f ex j x

2. y = (1 + x)2x Solution: y = x ...(i)

Solution: y = (1 + x)2x, defined for x > –1
⇒ log y = 2 x log 1 + x a f ⇒ log y = x e j ⋅ log x
x

⇒ log y = x x log x ...(ii)

548 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
Again taking logarithm on both sides of the dz
equation (ii), we have log | log y| = log [(xx) | log x |] = ⇒ = z 1 + log x
x log x + log | log x |
dx

⇒
1 1 dy
⋅ ⋅
1
= x ⋅ + log x +
1
⋅
1 = x e j ⋅ a1 + log xf
x
...(iii)
log y y dx x log x x
Now on putting (iii) in (ii) , we have

e j FGH IJ
1 dy 1
= 1 + log x +
x log x dx
= y ⋅ xx ⋅
x
+ log x + log 2 x
K
dy 1 LM OP F1
⋅ x ⋅ G + log x + log xJ
I
⇒ = y ⋅ log y 1 + log x +
Hx K
x

N Q = xx x 2
...(iii)
dx x log x
Now, putting (i) and (ii) in (iii), we have Form 5: Problems based on the sum of two more

e j ⋅ log x LMN1 + log x + x log1 x OPQ

dy e x
x
j x
than two exponential composite (or, other) functions.
= x ⋅ x One should note that logarithmic differentiation of
dx the sum of two or more than two exponential
Remember: The operation of taking logarithm on composite functions are performed by using the
both sides of the equation defining y as a function of theorem of differential coefficient of the sum of two
x (i.e. y = f (x) may be performed more than once if we or more than two differentiable functions and the
go on having an exponential composite function just differential coefficient of each addend being the
before the differentiation and we differentiate the function of x is obtained seperately by using the rule
logarithmic function only when the occurrence of of logarithmic differentiation and lastly adding the
exponential composite function in any intermediate differential coefficient of each addend, we get the
step is over as a factor of logarithmic function or, differential coefficient of the whole function which is
alternatively we make the substitution for the given as the sum of two or more than two exponential
exponential composite function occuring in any composite functions.
intermediate step after differentiation which is Note: We should remember that while finding the
explained in the following way. differential coefficient of each addend being the
ex j
x function of x, we must make the substitution u, v, w, ...
y=x for each addend and then operation of taking logarithm
should be performed.
⇒ log y = log x a fe x
x
j e j log x
= x
x
...(i)
Solved Examples

⇒
1 dy
⋅
x 1
= x ⋅ + log x
d
x
x
e j Find the differential coefficient of the following.
y dx x dx
b g FG π IJ
H K
cot x
1. y = x tan x + tan x , 0<x<
dy 1 dF e jIK 2
H
x x
⇒ = y x ⋅ + log x ⋅ x ...(ii)
dx x dx Solution: y = xtan x + (tan x)cot x, defined for x > 0, tan
Now on supposing that z = xx, x > 0, we have x>0

log z = log x e j + x log x

x
⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
x
tan x
+ e j
d
dx
tan
cot x
ea f j ...(i)

Now, on letting u = xtan x, we have

1 dz 1
⇒ ⋅ = x ⋅ + log x ⋅ 1 log u = log (xtan x) = tan x · log x
z dx x
 Logarithmic Differentiation 549

1 du 1 2
log v = sin x log tan x
⇒ ⋅ = tan x ⋅ + log x ⋅ sec x
u dx x ⇒
1 dv
⋅ = sin x ⋅
1
⋅ sec 2 x + log tan x cos x b g
du tan x FG IJ v dx tan x
H K
2
⇒ =u + sec x ⋅ log x = sec x + cos x · log tan x
dx x

FG tan x + sec IJ ⇒
dv
a
= v ⋅ sec x + cos x ⋅ log tan x f
H x K
tan x 2
=x x ⋅ log x ...(ii) dx

Again, on letting v = (tan x)cot x, we have a f

= tan x
sin x
a
⋅ sec x + cos x ⋅ log tan x ...(iii) f
log v = log (tan x)cot x = cot x · log tan x Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have

⇒
1 dv cot x
⋅ =
v dx tan x
2 2
⋅ sec x − cosec x ⋅ log tan x
dy
dx
a f ⋅e1+ sec x ⋅ log sin xj + atan xf ⋅
= sin x
tan x 2 sin x

dv FG
cot x 2 2 IJ asec x + cos x ⋅ log tan xf
⇒
dx
= v⋅
H
tan x
⋅ sec x − cosec x ⋅ log tan x
K 3. y = x + asin x f , 0 < x <
sin x π 3
2

a f ⋅FGH cot I
2
⋅ sec x − cosec x ⋅ log tan xJ + asin x f
x 2 2

K
cot x
= tan x Solution: y = x
sin x 3
2
tan x

Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have

...(iii) ⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d
e x j + dxd asin xf
sin x
...(i)
3
2

dy FG
tan x tan x IJ a f Now on letting u = xsin x, we have

H K
2 cot x
=x + sec x ⋅ log x + tan x ⋅ log u = sin x · log x
dx x

FG cot x ⋅ sec x − cosec x ⋅ log tan xIJ

2 2
⇒
1 du
⋅
u dx
1
= sin x ⋅ + log x cos x
x
b g
H tan x K du sin x FG IJ
F πI
⇒
dx
=u
x H
+ cos x ⋅ log x
K
+ (tan x) , H 0 < x < K
FG sin x + cos x ⋅ log xIJ
2. y = (sin x) tan x sin x
2
H x K
sin x
=x ⋅ ...(ii)
Solution: y = (sin x)tan x + (tan x)sin x

⇒
dy d
=
dx dx
sin xa f
tan x
+
d
dx
tan x
sin x
a f ...(i) Again, on letting v = asin x f
3
2

= asin x f ⋅ cos x
Now, on letting u = (sin x)tan x, we have dv 3 1
⇒ 2

log u = tan x · log sin x dx 2

⇒
1 du
⋅
u dx
= tan x ⋅
1
sin x
⋅ cos x + log sin x sec 2 x b g ⇒
dv 3
dx 2
= cos x sin x ...(iii)

= tan x · cot x + sec2 x · log sin x Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have
FG IJ
e j
dy sin x sin x 3
⇒
du
dx
2
= u 1 + sec x ⋅ log sin x dx
=x
x H+ cos x ⋅ log x + cos x ⋅ sin x
2 K
4. y = (sin x)x + x sin–1 x, 0 < x < 1
= asin x f e j
tan x 2
⋅ 1 + sec x ⋅ log sin x ...(ii) Solution: y = (sin x)x + x sin–1 x
Again, on letting v = (tan x)sin x, we have
550 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
dy
=
dx dx
d x
sin x + a f d
dx
−1
x sin x e
...(i) j ⇒
1 du
⋅
u dx
1
= − x ⋅ + log x −1 = − 1 + log x
x
a f a f
Now on letting u = (sin x)x, we have
log u = x log sin x ⇒
du
dx
a
= − u log x + 1 f
1 du 1
⇒ ⋅
u dx
= x⋅
sin x
⋅ cos x + log sin x ⋅ 1
du 1 FG IJ blog x + 1g
x
⇒ =−
H K ...(ii)
a f
du dx x
⇒ = u x cot x + log sin x
dx 1
Again on letting v = x x , we have
= (sin x)x (x cot x + log sin x) ...(ii)
Again on letting v = x sin–1 x, we have 1
log v = log x + log sin–1 x log v = log x
x
1 dv 1 1 1
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ 1 dv 1 1 1 1 1
v dx x sin −1 x 2 ⇒ ⋅ = ⋅ − log x = 2 − 2 log x
1− x
F I
v dx x x x 2 x x
⇒
dv
=v⋅
1
+ GG 1
JJ a1 − log xf
dx x
H sin
−1
x 1− x
2
K =
x
2

F1 I a f
= x sin
−1
x GG x + 1
JJ ⇒
dv v 1 − log x
=
H sin K
2
−1 2 dx x
x 1− x

= sin
−1
x+
x
=
1
a
x x ⋅ 1 − log x f
2
2 ...(iii)
1− x x
Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have
Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have
F I a1 + log xf + x a1 − log xf
1

b g b g
x x
dy x dy 1
= sin x ⋅ x cot x + log sin x + sin −1 x +
H K
x
=−
dx 1− x 2 dx x 2
x

F I x
6. y = x2x + (2x)x, x > 0
1 1

5. y = H K + x ,x>0 Solution: y = x2x + (2x)x

x

a f
x
⇒
dy
=
d 2x
x +e j
d
2x
x

F 1I x
...(i)
1 dx dx dx
Solution: y = H K + x x

x Now on putting u = x2x, we have

log u = log (x2x) = 2x log x
d F 1I F I
x
1 du 2x
H K
dy d 1

dx dx H x K
⇒ = + xx ...(i) ⇒ ⋅ = 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ log x + = 2 log x + 2
dx u dx x

F 1I x ⇒
du
a 2x
= u 2 log x + 2 = 2 ⋅ x ⋅ 1 + log xf ...(ii) a f
Now on letting u =
H xK , we have dx
Again, on putting v = (2x)x, we have
F 1 I = x log e x j = − x log x −1
log v = log (2x)x = x log 2x
log u = x ⋅ log
H xK ⇒
1 dv
⋅ = x⋅
1
⋅ 2 + log 2 x = 1 + log 2 x a f
v dx 2x
 Logarithmic Differentiation 551

⇒
dv
dx
a x
fa fa
= v 1 + log 2 x = 2 x 1 + log 2 x f ...(iii) e j = log ee j
⇒ log x
y x− y

Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have ⇒ y log x = a x − y f log e = a x − y f a3 log e = 1f

dy 2x
a
= 2 ⋅ x 1 + log x + 2 x f a f ⋅ a1 + log 2 xf
x ⇒ y log x + y = x
dx
7. y = xlog x + (log x)x, x > 1 a
⇒ y log x + 1 = x f
Solution: y = xlog x + (log x)x x
⇒y=
⇒
dy
=
d log x
x e
+
d
j
log x
x
a f ...(i)
1 + log x

F 1I
dx dx dx
Now, on putting u = xlog x, we have
log u = log x · log x = (log x)2 dy d x FG IJ a1+ log xf ⋅1− x H 0 + x K
1 du 1
⇒ =
dx dx 1 + log x
=
H K a1+ log xf 2

⇒ ⋅ = 2 log x ⋅
u dx x
1 + log x − 1
=
⇒
du 1 2x
= 2u ⋅ log x ⋅ =
⋅ log x
log x
...(ii)
a1 + log xf 2

dx x x
Again on putting v = (log x)x, we have dy log x
⇒ =
log v = x log log x dx a
1 + log x f 2

1 dv x 1 1 2. If xm · yn = (x + y)m + n, x > 0, y > 0, show that

⇒ ⋅ = ⋅ + log log x = + log log x
v dx log x x log x dy y
= , nx ≠ my .
dv FG
1 IJ dx x
⇒
dx
=v
H
log x
+ log log x
K Solution: xm yn = (x + y)m + n

F 1 + log log xIJ ⇒ log x y e m

j = log a x + yf
n m+ n

= alog x f G
H log x K
x

⇒ m log x + n log y = am + nf log a x + y f

...(iii)

m n dy F m + n I F
J ⋅ 1 + dydx IK
Putting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we have
=G
y dx H x + y K H
⇒ + ⋅
a f ⋅ FGH log1 x + log log xIJK
log x x
dy 2 ⋅ x ⋅ log x
F m + n − n IJ ⋅ dy = m − m + n = mx + my − mx − nx
x
= + log x
⇒G
dx x

Form 6: Miscellaneous problems

H x + y y K dx x x + y x a x + yf
my + ny − nx − ny dy my − nx
Solved Examples
⇒
y x+ y a ⋅ =
f
dx x x + y a f
my − nx dy my − nx
1. If xy = ex− y , x > 0, x ≠
1
e
, show that
⇒
a ⋅ =
y x + y dx x x + yf a f
dy y
dy log x ⇒ = , since , nx ≠ my
=
dx a
1 + log x f 2 . dx x
Note: The result holds for x ≠ 0 , y ≠ 0 (shown later)
Solution: xy = ex – y
552 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

FG x IJ , x ∉ −1 , 0 , find its derivative. condition imposed on the independent variable x

af
3. If y = log
H1 + xK which makes f x ≠ 0 is given (or, not given), we
adopt the following working rule to find the differential
F x IJ ≠ log x – log (1 + x) for
y = log G
coefficient of the given problems by using logarithmic
Solution:
H1 + xK differentiation.
Step 1: Take the modulus on both sides of the
x ∉ −1 , 0 equation defining y as a function of x, i.e.

When x > 0 , x + 1> 1> 0 ⇒

x af
y= f x ⇔ y = f x af
> 0 which means
1+ x Step 2: Take the logarithm on both sides of the
equation defining modulus of y as modulus of f (x),
y is defined for x > 0.
i.e. log | y | = log | f (x) |
x Step 3: Differentiate the equation log | y | = log | f (x) |
Again when x < − 1 , x + 1< 0 ⇒ > 0 which
1+ x using the rule:
d 1 dy
means y is defined for x < –1. (i) log y = ⋅ ; y ≠ 0.
∴ y is defined for x ∈R − −1 , 0 = −∞ , − 1 a f dx y dx
bg bg
a f
∪ 0, ∞ (ii)
d
dx
bg
log f x =
bg
1
f x
⋅
d f x
dx
; f x ≠ 0.

f b xg ; f b x g ≠ 0 .
i.e. y is defined for x ∉ −1 , 0 dy d
(iii) = y⋅ log
dx dx
−∞ –1 0 ∞ Remember: (a) After taking logarithm, we are
required to use the following formulas.
dy d FG FG
x IJ IJ 1. log | u · v | = log | u | + log | v | ; u ≠ 0, v ≠ 0 .
Hence, =
dx dx
log
H H
1+ x KK 2. log
u
= log u − log v ; u ≠ 0, v ≠ 0.
LMb x + 1g ⋅ 1− x ⋅ 1OP b x + 1g L x + 1− x O
v

MM e1+ x j PP = x ⋅ MMN b1+ xg PPQ

x +1 3. log | uv | = log | u |v = v log | u | ; u > 0, v ∈ R .
= ⋅
N Q
2 2
x 2 n
4. log u n = log u = n log u , n ∈R , u > 0.

1 where u and v are functions of x.

=
a
x x +1 f
, x ∉ −1 , 0 (b) The above working rule may be remembered as
“MLAD” the letters being in order which means
Remark: M = take mod
FG x IJ ≠ log x − log L = take log
1. In the above problem log
H 1+ x K A = apply logarithmic formulas
D = differentiate.
(1 + x) since log x is undefined for x < 0 and also log (c) We take the modulus of given function only when
(x + 1) is undefined for x ≤ − 1 . the function may be negative because we can use
2. x ∉ −1 , 0 ⇔ x ∈R − −1 , 0 logarithmic differentiation only when the function
On working rule of problems belonging to second concerned is positive in its domain; i.e. the sign of
type absolute value is written only when the expression
When the interval or the quadrant in which f (x) = standing under the sign of logarithm may have a
given function of x is positive is not given or the negative value in its domain.
 Logarithmic Differentiation 553

(d) It should be noted that the derivative of any 1

⇒ log y = log
x +1 1 1
= log x + 1 − log x − 1 a f a f
function of y, say F (y), w.r.t. x is
d
dy
F y ⋅
dy
dx
i.e. af 2 x −1 2 2

1 dy −2 1
af
F′ y ⋅
dy
dx
obtained by the rule of differentiating a
⇒ ⋅ = 2
y dx 2 x − 1
=− 2
e
x −1 j e j
function of a function.
Problems based on second type dy y
⇒ =− 2
Form 1: Problems based on irrational functions.
dx x −1 e j
Solved Examples
FG x + 1IJ ⋅ −1 ,
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
=
H x − 1K e x − 1j 2
x >1

1. y = 3 1 − x
2
3. y = 3 cos x
e j
1
Solution: y = 3 1 − x = 1− x
b g
2 2 3
1
Solution: y = 3 cos x = cos x 3

e j e j
1 1

⇒ y = 1 − x2 = 1 − x2
3 3 1
⇒ y = cos x 3

⇒ log y =
1
3
log 1 − x 2 e j ⇒ log y =
1
3
log cos x

⇒
1 dy
⋅ =
−2 x 1 dy 1 − sin x 1b g
y dx 3 1 − x 2 e j ⇒ ⋅ = ⋅
y dx 3 cos x
= − tan x
3

−2 y ⋅ x dy 1 1
⇒
dy
= ⇒ = − ⋅ y ⋅ tan x = − ⋅ 3 cos x ⋅ tan x
e
dx 3 1 − x 2 j dx 3 3

1 − cos x
4. y =
dy 2 x 1 − x
3 2
2x 1 1 + cos x
⇒ = =− ⋅ , x2 ≠ 1
dx e
3 1 − x2 j 3
e1 − x j 2
2
3

F 1 − cos x IJ 1

y=G
2

FG x + 1IJ
Solution:
H 1 − cos x K
2. y =
H x − 1K ⇒ y =
1 − cos x 2
= tan
1
2 x
1
2
= tan
x
2 ⋅ 21
= tan
x
1 + cos x 2 2 2

Solution: y = G
F x + 1IJ 1
2

H x − 1K ⇒ log y = log tan

x
2

F I
1
x +12 1 dy 1 2 x 1
⇒ y =
x −1
⇒ ⋅ =
y dx tan x
⋅ sec ⋅
2 2 H K
2
554 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

x dy sin x + cos xa f
1
= ⋅
cos
2 ⋅ 1 = 1
⇒
dx
= −y⋅
cos x − sin xa f
a fa
2 x 2 x x x
sin cos 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2 =
− cos x − sin x ⋅ sin x + cos x
a
cos x − sin x f
, cos x − sin x ≠ 0 f
dy 1 1 − cos x
⇒ = y⋅ = ⋅ cosec x , x ≠ nπ Note: Differentiation of mod of a function can be
dx sin x 1 + cos x performed easily by logarithmic differentiation.
Form 2: Problems based on product of two or more
cos x − sin x
5. y = than two differentiable functions.
cos x + sin x

F cos x − sin x IJ
y=G
1
2
Solved Examples
Solution:
H cos x + sin x K 1
Find d.c. of y from the following.
1. xm yn = (x + y)m + n , nx ≠ my
cos x − sin x 2
Solution: xm yn = (x + y)m + n
⇒ y =
cos x + sin x
1 cos x − sin x
⇒ x ⋅y
m n
= a x + yf m+n

⇒ log y = log
2 cos x + sin x ⇒ x
m
⋅ y
n
= x+ y
m+ n

=
1 1
log cos x − sin x − log cos x + sin x a f
⇒ m log x + n log y = m + n log x + y

m n dy m + n F dy I
2 2
1 dy a
− cos x + sin x f a
cos x − sin x f ⇒ + ⋅ =
x+ y H
⋅ 1+
dx K
⇒ ⋅ =
a −
f a f
x y dx
y dx 2 cos x − sin x 2 cos x + sin x
F n m + n IJ ⋅ dy = m + n − m
⇒G −
=
b
− sin x + cos xg − bcos x − sin xg
2 2
H y x + y K dx x + y x
2 ecos x − sin x j
anx + nyf − amy + nyf ⋅ dy
2 2

y ⋅ a x + yf
⇒
−a1 + 2 sin x cos x f − a1 − 2 sin x cos x f
dx
−2
= =
2 cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x amx + nyf − amx + my f
x a x + yf
=
= –sec 2x
dy
⇒ = − y ⋅ sec 2 x nx − my dy nx − my
dx ⇒
a ⋅ =
f
y x + y dx x x + y a f
cos x − sin x
=− ⋅ sec 2 x dy y
cos x + sin x ⇒ = ; x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0
dx x
6. y = | cos x – sin x | 2
2. y = x (x + 1)
Solution: y = | cos x – sin x | Solution: y = x (x2 + 1)
⇒ log y = log cos x − sin x
⇒ y = x⋅ x +1 = x ⋅ e 2
j ex 2
j
+1
1 dy a
− sin x − cos x − sin x + cos x f a f
⇒ ⋅
y dx
=
a
cos x − sin x
=
cos x − sin x f a f ⇒ y = x ⋅ x +1 e 2
j
 Logarithmic Differentiation 555

e j
2 been used only to show that the procedure of
⇒ log y = log x + log x + 1 logarithmic differentiation is also applicable in that
case.
1 dy 1 2x 1 + 3x
2 5. y = sin x · sin 2x · sin 3x · sin 4x
⇒ ⋅ = + = Solution: y = sin x · sin 2x · sin 3x · sin 4x
y dx x x 2 + 1 x x 2 + 1
e j ⇒ y = sin x ⋅ sin 2 x sin 3x ⋅ sin 4 x
L 1+ 3x OP LM 1+ 3x OP
= y ⋅ MM
2 2
⇒ log y = log sin x + log sin 2 x + log | sin
e j M x ⋅ x +1 P
MN x e x + 1j PPQ
dy 2
⇒ = x ⋅ x + 1 ⋅
dx 2
MN e j PQ 2 3x | + log | sin 4x |
1 dy cos x 2 cos 2 x 3 cos 3x 4 cos 4 x
⇒
dy
dx
e
= 1 + 3x
2
j ⇒ ⋅ = +
y dx sin x sin 2 x
+
sin 3x
+
sin 4 x
dy
Note: The above problem (2) can be differentiated in ⇒ = y · (cot x + 2 cot 2x + 3 cot 3x + 4 cot 4x)
a much simpler way by using directly the product dx
formulas but above method has been used only to dy
⇒ = (sin x · sin 2x · sin 3x sin 4x) · (cot x +
show the procedure of logarithmic differentiation is dx
also applicable. 2 cot 2x + 3 cot 3x + 4 cot 4x)
3. y = x log x 6. y = x · | x |
Solution: y = x log x, x > 0 Solution: y = x · | x |
⇒ y = x log x = x ⋅ log x ⇒ y = x ⋅ x
⇒ log y = log x + log log x ⇒ log y = log x + log x
1 dy 1 1 log x + 1 1 dy 2
⇒ ⋅ = + = ⇒ ⋅ =
y dx x x log x x ⋅ log x y dx x

⇒
dy
= y⋅
LM
log x + 1 OP
= x log x ⋅
LM
log x + 1
= log x + 1
OP ⇒
dy y 2⋅x x
=2⋅ = =2 x
dx N
x log x Q N
x log x Q dx x x
4. y = x log y Precaution:
Solution: y = x log y 1. Whenever we have to find the differential
⇒ y = x ⋅ log y coefficient of mod of a function by logarithmic
differentiation, the operation of taking the modulus
⇒ log y = log x + log log y on both sides of the equation defining y as a function
1 dy 1 1 dy of x is not performed but directly the operation of
⇒ ⋅ = + ⋅ taking logarithm on both sides of the equation defining
y dx x y log y dx
y as a function of x is performed just before the
FG 1 − 1 IJ dy = 1 differentiation.
⇒
H y y log y K dx x 2. Whenever we have to find the differential
coefficient of a function using the mod of a function,

dy 1 F x log y ⋅ log y I alog y f

2 2 the operation of taking the modulus and logarithm on
= ⋅G J log y
dx x H log y − 1 K log y − 1 log y − 1
⇒ = = both sides of the equation just defining y as a function
of x must be performed respectively before the
Note: The problems (1) and (4) belong to problems differentiation.
of implicit function which can be done by using the
rule of implicit differentiation but above method has
556 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. Whenever we have to find the differential Solved Examples

coefficient of a logarithmic function (i.e. y = log f (x) or
Find the differential coefficient of the following.
log log log … f (x)), we have not to perform both the
operation of taking the modulus and logarithmic sin 3 x ⋅ x2 + 1
function of x but simply, we have to use the formula: 1. y =
af af e j
1

e4x ⋅ x 3 + 5
3
d
dx
af
log f x =
f′ x
f x af
, f x > 0.

Examples sin 3 x ⋅ x2 + 1
Solution: y =
e j
1
Find the differential coefficient of the following. e4x ⋅ x 3 + 5
3

1. y = | x |
Solution: y = | x |
⇒ log y = log x ⇒ log y = 3 log sin x +
1
2
2
e
log x + 1 − 4 x −j
1 dy 1 1
⇒ ⋅ =
3
log x + 5
y dx x 3
dy y x 2
⇒ = = ,x ≠0 ⇒
1 dy
⋅ =3
cos x
+
2x
−4−
3x
dx x
x
x y dx 2
sin x 2 x + 1 3
3 x +5 e j e j
2. y =
x F 2 I
x
⇒
dy
dx
= y ⋅ 3 cot x + 2 GH
x
x +1
−4− 3
x
x +5
JK
Solution: y = ,x ≠0
x
sin x ⋅
3
F
x +1
2 2 I
⇒ y =
x
x
= 1 ( 3 mod of a mod of a function =
e 4x
⋅ e x + 5j
3
GH 1
3
⋅ 3 cot x +
x
x +1
2
−4−
x
x
3 J
+ 5K
= mod of a function)
a
⇒ log y = log 1 = 0 3 log 1 = 0 f 2. y =
2 x − 1 ⋅ sin −1 x

ex j
3
2
+2 ⋅ 3 tan −1 2 x
2
1 dy
⇒ ⋅ =0
y dx
2 x − 1 ⋅ sin −1 x 1
⇒
dy
=0 Solution: y = ,x>
ex
j ⋅ tan 2 x
3
dx 2
+2
2 3 −1 2
3. y = log (x2 + 1)
= log a2 x − 1f + log sin
Solution: y = log (x2 + 1) 1 −1
⇒ log y x −
dy F 1 I
2
⇒ =G J ⋅ 2 x = 1 +2 xx
dx H x + 1K 2 2 3 2
e 1 −1
log x + 2 − log tan 2 x j
2 3
Form 3: Problems based on quotient of two or more
than two differentiable functions.
 Logarithmic Differentiation 557

a f e j ⋅ ex j
1 dy 2 1 5 7
⇒ ⋅ = +
b −
g e
3 2 3
x +1 ⋅ x +3
3
+7
j
4
y dx 2 2 x − 1 −
sin x 1 − x 2
1
4. y =
x ⋅ e x + 2j
4
3

3 ⋅ 2x 2
−
e
2⋅ x +2
2
j −1
3 tan 2 x 1 + 4 x e 2
j b x + 1g ⋅ e x j e j ,x>0
3
4 2
+ 3 ⋅ x3 + 7
5
3
7

F Solution: y =
x ⋅ e x + 2j
GG
4
3
dy 1 1 3x
⇒ =y ⋅ + − 2 −
dx 2x −1 −1
H
sin x 1 − x 2 x +2 e j = log a x + 1f + log e x + 3j +
I
3 5 2
⇒ log y
2 JJ 4 3

2 x e1 + 4 x j K e j
−1 2 1 4
3 tan 7 log x 3 + 7 − log x − log x +2
2 3
2 x − 1 ⋅ sin −1 x
2
1 dy 3 5⋅ 2 ⋅ x 7 ⋅ 3x
=
e x2 + 2 j
3
2
⋅ 3 tan −1 2 x
⋅k ⇒ ⋅ =
y dx 4 x + 1
+ 2
3 x +3 a+ 3
x +7
−
f e j e j
F 1 1
−
4

where k = G
1 3x 2x 3 e x +2 ⋅2 x j
GH 2 x − 1 + esin xj ⋅ −1
1− x
−
x +2
2
−

F
2

I
dy 3GG 10x 21x
2

Ha f e
⇒ = y⋅ + + 3 −
2 J dx 4 x +1 2
3x + 9 x +7 j e j
3 tan 2 x e1 + 4 x j JK
−1 2

I
1 2
J
j JK
−
3. y =
2
a
x ⋅ 2x + 1 f 2
2x 3 x ⋅ x + 2 e
x +1

dy a x + 1f ⋅ e x j ⋅ ex j
5 7

a f
3 2 3
+3
3
2 4
+7
x ⋅ 2x + 1
2
Solution: y = ⇒ = ⋅
x ⋅ e x + 2j
4
x +1 dx 3

1
⇒ log y = 2 log x + 2 log 2 x + 1 − log x + 1 a f a f F 3
GG 4 b x + 1g + 10x + 21x −
2 2

dy 2 4 1 FG IJ H e3x + 9j e x + 7j 2 3

⇒
dx
= y⋅ + −
x 2x + 1 2 x + 1H a fK I
⋅ a2 x + 1f F 2 1 I
1 2
2 x 3 x e x + 2j J
− J
K
2 2
⋅G +
a + 1fJK
dy x 4
⇒
dx
=
x +1 H x 2 x + 1
−
2 x

y=
a x + 1f ⋅ e ⋅ sin aax f
3
4
mx −1

5.
a x − 1f ⋅ a x + 2f
7
3
5
7
558 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a x + 1f ⋅ e ⋅ sin aax f
3 mx −1
FG 1 − 2 yIJ dy = 2 x − 1
H y K dx
4
y= ⇒
Solution:
a x − 1f ⋅ a x + 2f
7
3
5
7
x

⇒G
F 1 − 2 y I ⋅ dy = 2 x − 1
2 2

⇒ log y =
3
4
b
log x + 1 + mx + g H y JK dx x
a f a f y e2 x − 1j
2
−1 7 5
log sin ax − log x − 1 − x+2 dy
⇒ =
e j
3 7 2
dx x 1 − 2 y
1 dy 3 1⋅ a
⇒ ⋅ =
y dx 4 x + 1 b g
+ m+
−1
sin ax 1 − a 2 x 2
−
e b gj dy y
a f
2. If y = x sin y, show that dx = x 1 − x cos y .
7 5
a f a f
3 x −1
−
7 x+2
Solution: y = x sin y
⇒ y = x sin y = x ⋅ sin y
F ⇒ log y = log x + log sin y
dy 3 GG a

Hb g
⇒ =y⋅ +m+ −
dx 4 x +1 −1
sin ax 1 − a 2 x 2 e b gj ⇒
1 dy 1
⋅ = +
1
⋅ cos y ⋅
dy
y dx x sin y dx
7 5 IJ
a f a fK−
3 x +1 7 x + 2 ⇒
1 dy cos y dy 1
⋅ − =
y dx sin y dx x

dy a x + 1f ⋅ e ⋅ sin aax f FG 1 − cos y IJ dy = 1

3 mx −1
4
⇒ = ⋅
dx a x − 1f ⋅ a x + 2f7
3
5
7
⇒
H y sin y K dx x
F 3 I ⇒G
F sin y − y cos y IJ dy = 1
GG 4 ax + 1f + m + a
−
7
a f a fJJK
−
5
H y sin y K dx x
H sin aax f 1 − a x
−1 2 2 3 x −1 7 x + 2
dy y sin y y sin y
Form 4: Miscellaneous problems.
⇒ =
a =
f a
dx x sin y − y cos y x sin y − x sin y cos y f
y sin y
Solved Examples =
x sin y 1 − x cos y

1. If log | xy | = x2 + y2, show that

dy
=
y 2x − 1
.
e 2
j =
y
dx x 1 − 2 y 2 e j x 1 − x cos y
Problems belonging to type (1)
Solution: log | xy | = x2 + y2
(i): Problems based on irrational functions
⇒ log bx ⋅ y g=x 2
+ y
2

Exercise 13.1.1
2 2
⇒ log x + log y = x + y
Find the differential coefficient of each of the
1 1 dy dy
⇒ + ⋅ = 2x + 2 y ⋅ following.
x y dx dx
 Logarithmic Differentiation 559

2x − 1 xFG 2 x − 1IJ , x > 1

H 2 x + 1K 2
1 4. y = x
1. y = 2x + 1
, | x| >
2
Answers
b g y a2 x + 1f
3
2. y = x + 1 2 , x > – 1
2 x a x + 1f
1.
x+1
3. y =
L 2x O
3 , | x| ≠ 1
x −1
3y M 2 x 5 P
3 2

a fa f ,x >2
x x +1 x −2
2. M 2
+ 2 − 5 −
2 M x + 1 3x + 4 2 x − 3 x − 4 P
P 2
4. y = 3
e x + 1j a2 x + 3f
2 N Q
LM 1 + x − 2 OP
MN x x + 1 3a x + 1f PQ
Answers 3. y 2
2y
e4 x j
1.
L 4 O
2
−1
y M1 + log x + P
MN 4 x − 1 PQ
4. 2
3 y
2. ⋅
2 x +1 b g (iii) Problems based on exponential composite
−2 y functions

e
3. 3 x 2 − 1 j Exercise 13.1.3

y 1
+
LM 1
+
1
−
2x
−
2 OP Find the differential coefficient of each of the
4.
3 x MN
x + 1 x − 2 x2 + 1 2x + 3 PQ following.
1. y = xsin x, x > 0
(ii) Problems based on product and quotient of 2. y = (sin x)tan x, sin x > 0
functions 3. y = xlog x, x > 0
4. y = xx, x > 0
Exercise 13.1.2 5. y = (ax)bx, x > 0
6. xy = e y – x, x > 0
7. y = etan x
Find the differential coefficient of each of the
x
following. x
8. y = e ,x>0
1. y2 = x (x + 1) , x > 0
x
e
9. y = e
2 e x + 1j ⋅ a3x + 4f , x > 2
2 1
2
10. y = elog sin x, sin x > 0
2. y =
3

5 a2 x − 3f e x − 4j2 11. xy = ex – y, x > 0

1
xx
2 12. y = e ,x>0
x⋅ x +1
3. y = ,x>0
a x + 1f 2
3
Answers
LM sin x + cos x ⋅ log xOP
1. y
Nx Q
560 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. y ⋅ 1 + sec x ⋅ log sin x

2 a f
7. y = sin x
x −1
+ x sin x
Answers
3.
2y log x
FG IJ ⋅ b1 + log xg + x ⋅ FG 1 − log x IJ
1. − 1
x

HK H x K
1
x x
2

F I
x
4.
2 log x
x
⋅x ⋅ log x a f 2. x
tan x
⋅G
H x + sec x ⋅ log xJK + atan xf
tan x 2 cot x

5. b axa f bx
⋅ 1 + log ax , a > 0 cosec x ⋅ b1 − log tan x g
2

2 − log x
3 . asin x f ⋅ e1 + sec x ⋅ log sin x j + a tan x f
a1 − log xf
tan x 2 sin x
6. 2 ⋅

7. Find
bsec x + cos x ⋅ log tan xg
a f
x

4. 2 x ⋅ b1 + log x g + b2 x g ⋅ b1 + log 2 x g
x x
8. e ⋅ x ⋅ 1 + log x 2x x

F log x IJ + blog xg ⋅ FG 1 + log log xIJ

x

⋅G
e x
9. e ⋅ e
H x K
x

H log x K
log x
5. 2 x
10. cos x
F sin x + cos x ⋅ log xIJ + 3 cos x sin x
⋅G
H x K 2
y log x sin x

a f
6. x
11.
x 1 + log x

F e I ⋅ F x I ⋅ a1 − log x f 7. asin x f ⋅ a x cot x + log sin x f +

x −1
+ sin x ,
x
1

GH JK GH JK
x 1− 2 x
x 2
12. x
1− x
0 < x < 1.
(iv) Problems based on the sum of two differentiable (v) Miscellaneous problems.
functions
Exercise 13.1.5
Exercise 13.1.4
x dy x− y
Find the differential coefficient of each of the 1. If x = e y , show that = .
dx x log x
following.
F 1I
y=G J
x 2. If xp yq = (x + y)p + q, x > 0, y > 0, show that
H xK
1
1. + x ,x>0 x
dy x
= , qx ≠ py .
a f , 0 < x < π4
dx y
tan x cot x
2. y = x + tan x dy 1 − ey
3. If ex + y = ex + ey, show that = ey−x x .
y = asin x f + a tan x f
tan x π sin x
dx e −1
3. ,0< x <
2 dy log x
= ,x >0.
y = x + a2 x f , x > 0 b g
2x x 4. If xy = ex – y, show that 2
4. dx 1 + log x
+ alog x f , x > 1
log x x
5. y= x

+ asin x f , 0 < x <

sin x π 3
6. y= x 2

2
 Logarithmic Differentiation 561

Problems belonging to type (2) 6. Find

(i) Problems based on square root of functions 7. Find
8. Find
Exercise 13.2.1 9. Find
10. Find
11. Find
Find the differential coefficient of each of the
12. Find
following.
13. Find
1. y = a x + 1fa x + 2f (ii) Problems based on the product of two or more
than two differentiable functions
x+a
2. y =
x−a Exercise 13.2.2
2 2
a − x
3. y = 2 2 dy
a + x Find of each the following.
dx
3 2
4. y = 2ax 1. y = cos x · cos 2x · cos 3x · cos 4x

e j
1

a f FG x − 1IJ −1

H K
2 2 2
5. y = 5 − x
2
2. y = x − 3 ⋅ x+2⋅
3
6. y = 5 x
⋅ log e x x j
x x
2
3. y = tan x ⋅ x ⋅ e
7. y = x − 7x + 4
4. y = (sin–1 x) · (cos x)x

a f ⋅ FGH IJ ⋅ sin x
8. y = x2 − 9

K
x 2
9. y = x 5. y = sin x 1+ x

10. y = x 6. y = xx · log x · sin x

7. y = sin x · sin 2x · sin 3x · sin 4x
11. y = sin x
Answers
12. y = sin 3x 1. –cos x · cos 2x · cos 3x · cos 4x · (tan x + 2 tan 2x +
13. y = tan 3x 3 tan 3x + 4 tan 4x)
Answers (with proper restrictions on x) 2. b x − 3g 2
⋅ x+2 ⋅
1
2
e
⋅ x2 +1 j − 32
b g
⋅ 2x + x − 3
2
⋅
1 2x + 3
⋅
1.
2 b x + 1gb x + 2g FG IJ −1
1
a f x+2
a f
H K
2 − 12
x +1 ⋅ ⋅ x+2 + ⋅ 2 x −3
F a I ⋅F x +aI
2 2
x +1
2. GH a − x JK GH x − a JK
2 2
and simplify.
LM OP
2 3
3. y ⋅ 2 + log x + +
F a −x I N sin x 2 x log x Q
G J
2 2 2

3. 4
2a x
x − a GH a + x JK
4 2 2 LM OP
y⋅M + log cos x − x tan x P
1
4. Find 4.
MM FG IJ sin −1 PP
NH K
2
1− x
Q
5. Find x
562 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM
5. y ⋅ log sin x + x cot x +
x
+ cot x
OP LM 2 + x 12 x OP
MN 1+ x 2 PQ 3. y ⋅
MN 3a2 x + 3f x 2
+5
− 2
+ 1 PQ
LMFG1 + log x + cot x + 1 IJ x ⋅ log x ⋅ sin xOP
3x

LM 3 OP
x
6.
NH x log x K Q
7. sin x · sin 2x · sin 3x · sin 4x (cot x + 2 cot 2x + 2 cot 4. y ⋅ MM2 a3x + 4f 2 a2 − 3xf 3e x + 4j a2 − 3xf 3a4 x + 1f PP
−
3
+
2x
+
1
−
8

N Q
2

3x + 4 cot 4x)
(iii) Problems based on quotient of two or more than
a5 − 2 xf LM− 3 − 15 + 8 OP
3
2

a5 + 3x f ⋅a5 − 4 xf N 5 − 2 x 2 a5 + 3xf 5 − 4 x Q
two differentiable functions
5. 5
2
2

Exercise 13.2.3 1

6.
10 x ⋅ cot x 2 ⋅ x 3
sin 2 x
e
⋅ log e 10 − 4 x ⋅ cosec 2 x 2 +
1
3x
j
− 2 cot 2 x
dy
Find of each of the following. (iv) Problems based on exponential composite
dx
functions

1. y =
a
2 x − sin x f 3
2

x Exercise 13.2.4

2. y =
a x + 1f ⋅ x − 1 2
dy
a x + 4f ⋅ e 2 x Find
dx
of each of the following.

1. y = (sin x)sin x
a2 x + 3f ⋅ e x + 5j
1
1
3
2 2 2. y = (log x)x
3. y= 3. y = (tan–1 x)sin x
e3x + 1j 2 2
2
x
4. y = x
3x + 4 ⋅ a2 − 3x f ⋅ e x + 4j
1
1
2
2 3
5. y = (log x)log x
y= 6. xy = ysin x
4.
a2 − 3xf ⋅ a4 x + 1f 1
3
2
3 7. y = xx

a5 − 2 xf
−1
8. y = x
3 sin x
2
y=
5.
a5 + 3xf ⋅ a5 − 4 x f 5
2
2 9. y = (1 + x)log x
10. y = (sin x)tan 3x
1
x 2 x
10 ⋅ cot x ⋅ x 3 x
6. y = 11. y= x
sin 2 x
12. y = (tan x)sin x
Answers (with proper restrictions on x) 13. y = xy

1.
a2 x − 3x cos x + sin xf ⋅ ax − sin xf 14.
15.
y = (cos x)log x
ysin x = xsin y
x x
e j
1

LM 5x − 3 x + 6 OP
−1 x
16. y = cot x
ax + 1f ⋅ 2
x−1
2.
a x + 4f
⋅ MM 2 e x − 1j − x + 4 PP 17. ytan x = xtan y
N Q
2 x 2
⋅e 18. (sec x)y = (tan y)x
 Logarithmic Differentiation 563

19. y = (x log x)log log x

20. y = xtan x LM −1 OP
e j M
1

P
−1 x log cot x 1
cot x ⋅ − −
MN e j cot xP
x 16. −1
Q
y 2 2
21. y = x x x 1+ x
Answers
1. (sin x)sin x · [cos x · (1 + log sin x)] 2 1
sec x ⋅ log y −⋅ tan y
a f ⋅ LMN log1 x + log log x OPQ
2. log x
x
17. 2
x
1
sec y ⋅ log x − tan x
y
L OP
3. etan xj ⋅ MM tan sinx b1x+ xg + cos x ⋅log tan
−1
sin x
−1
x
PQ
log tan y − y tan x
N −1 2 18.
log sec x − x cosec y ⋅ sec y

x
2
a
⋅ x ⋅ 1 + 2 log x f b g log log x
⋅
LM log b x log xg + b1+ log xg⋅ log log x
4. x 19. x log x
MN x log x x log x

a f ⋅ 1x ⋅ a1 + log log xf
5. log x
log x
LM tan x O
x PQ
tan x 2

y L y − cos x ⋅ log y O
20. x
N ⋅ sec x ⋅ log x +

x MN sin x − y log x PQ F y I ⋅ FG log y IJ ⋅ FG 1 + x log x log y IJ

6. ⋅

7. xx · (1 + log x)
21.
H x K H log x K H 1 − x log y K
−1 LM log x sin x
−1 OP (v) Problems based on the sum of two or more than

MN PQ
sin x two exponential composite (or, other) functions
8. x +
2 x
1− x
Exercise 13.2.5

a
9. 1 + x f log x
⋅
LM log a1 + x f + log x OP
N x 1 + xQ
Find
dy
of each of the following.
10. (sin x)tan 3x · [3 sec2 3x log sin x + tan 3x · cot x] dx
1. y = x1 + x + log x
a f
x
x x
11. x ⋅ x ⋅ 1 + log x 2. y = xcos x + sin log x
3. y = xx + etan x
12. Find 4. y = log log x + 2sin x
2 5. y = xx + xsin x
y
13.
a
x 1 − y log x f 6. y = x + x
x
x
1

acos xf ⋅ LMN log xcos x − log x ⋅ tan xOPQ

7. y = xsin x + (sin x)x
log x
14. 8. y = xtan x + (sin x)cos x
9. y = xx + (log x)x
LM x log y cos x − sin y OP ⋅ y 10. y = xsin x = 107

N y log x cos y − sin x Q x

3
15. 11. y = e x sin x
12. y = xsin x + 5x2
13. y = (sin x)cos x + (cos x)sin x
14. y = (log x)tan x + (tan x)log x
564 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

15. y = xn · log x + x (log x)n

16. y = x3 + (log x)x
b g LMN xtanlogxx + blog log xg⋅ sec xOPQ + btan xg
14. log x
tan x 2 log x
⋅
Answers
LM 1 + xO 1 LMsec x ⋅ log x ⋅ cosec x + log tan x OP
x PQ x
1. x 1+ x log x +
N +
N x Q
cos x LM−sin x ⋅ log x + cos x OP + coslog x 15. x
n −1
⋅ an log x + 1f + alog x f ⋅ alog x + n f
n −1
2. x
N x Q x
L 1 + log alog xfOP
16. 3 x + alog x f M
a1 + log xf + e ⋅ sec x
2 x
3. x
x tan x 2
N log x Q
1 sin x (vi) Miscellaneous problems
4. + log 2 ⋅ cos x ⋅ 2
x log x
Exercise 13.2.6
x
a f sin x LM sin x + cos x ⋅ log xOP
5. x 1 + log x + x
N x Q 1. If sin y = x sin (a + y), show that

b
6. x 1 + log x + x x
x
g 1 −2
⋅ b1 − log x g dy sin a + y
=
2
a f
LM OP b g b gOPQ
dx sin a
sin x x
7. x sin x cos x ⋅ log x + + sin x ⋅ logsin x + x cot x
N x Q dy y

tan x LMsec x ⋅ log x + tan x OP + asin xf

2
2. If y ey = x, show that =
a
dx x 1 + y
.
f
N x Q
cos x
8. x ⋅
dy y
(cos x · cot x – sin x · log sin x)
3. If y = x ey, show that =
a
dx x 1 − y
.
f
x
a
9. x 1 + log x + log x f a f ⋅ FGH log log x + log1 x IJK
x
4. If y = a1 − xfa1 + xf , show that
sin x LM sin x + cos x ⋅ log xOP e1 − x j dydx + xy = 0
2

10. x
Nx Q 1− x
5. If y = , show that
esin x + 3x cos x j + (tan x) [log
3
11. e
x sin x 3 3 3 x 1+ x

tan x + x cot x · sec2 x] e1 − x j dydx + y = 0

2

sin x LM sin x OP
12. x
N
⋅ cos x log x +
x Q
+ 10x 1
6. If y = x x , show that
dy
dx
vanishes when x = e.

F cos x I
FG IJ
13. asin x f G − sin x log sin x + J + acos xf
2
cos x sin x
⋅
H sin x K H K;
2
− 1+ y 1− x
dy
7. If x = cos (xy), show that =
F cos x ⋅ log cos x − sin x I 2
dx
x 1− x
2

GH J
cos x K for 0 < xy < π .
 Logarithmic Differentiation 565

dy a
y 1 + xy f ⇒ 0 = c1 − 2c2 + 3c3 − ... + cn ⋅ n −1 a f n −1
which
8. If y = xexy, show that
dx
=
a
x 1 − xy
.
f is the required result. (Note: Positive and negative
are shortly written +ve and –ve respectively.
dy log x − 1
=
a f
9. If ex = xy, show that 2 .
Notes: (A): When the last term of the given equality
dx log x to be proved contains kn + r, where k, r and n are
positive integers, then one should note that (1) x is to
Problems on Binomial Coefficients replaced by xk on both sides of the given condition, k
being the coefficient of n. (2) the expression obtained
One can find many equalities with the help of a given after x being replaced by xk should be multiplied by
binomial expansion in terms of binomial coefficients. xr, where r is the addend in kn + r (3) the expression
Working rule: It consists of following steps: obtained in step (2) should be differentiated w.r.t.
Step 1: Differentiate both sides of the given condition x and lastly either the substitution x = 1, 2, 3, …etc or
(1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + … + cn xn w.r.t. x x = –1, –2, –3, … etc is made accordingly as whether
Step 2: Either put x = 1, 2, 3, … etc if each term is terms in the required equality to be proved are positive
positive in the required result or put x = –1, –2, –3, … or alternatively positive and negative.
etc. if term are for each term being alternatively positive (B): When the last term in the equality to be proved
and negative in the required result. has n2, one should multiply both sides of the equality
(obtained after differentiating the given condition)
Solved Examples by x.
1. (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + … + cn xn, show that c1 3. If (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + … + cn xn, show that
+ 2c2 + 3c3 + … + n cn = n 2n – 1 c1 + 22 c2 + 32 c3 + … + n2 cn = n (n + 1) 2n – 2
Solution: Given condition is (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 Solution: Given condition is (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x +
+ … + cn xn differentiating both sides of the given c2 x2 + … + cn xn whose last term is n2 cn.
condition w.r.t. x, we have n (1 + x)n – 1 (1 + 0)=0 + c1 · Now, differentiating both sides of the given
1 + c2 2x + … + n xn–1 cn 3 c0 = 1 a f …(i)
condition w.r.t. x, we get
n (1 + x)n–1 = c1 x + 2x c2 + 3 x2c3 +… + nxn–1 cn …(i)
Now, putting x = 1 in (i), we have Multiplying both sides of (i) by x, we get
a f
n 1+1
n −1
= c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 + ... + n ⋅ cn n (1 + x)n–1 · x = c1 x + 2x2 c2 + 3 x3c3 +… + nxn cn …(ii)
Again differentiating both sides of (ii), w.r.t. x, we
n −1
⇒n⋅2 = c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 + ... + ncn which is get
n [1 · (1 + x)n–1 + n (n – 1) (1 + x)n – 2 · 1] = c1 +
the required result.
22x c2 + 32 x2c3 +… + n2 xn–1 cn …(iii)
2. If (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + … + cn xn, show that Lastly, putting x = 1 (iii), we get
a f
c1 − 2c2 + 3c3 + ... + −1 − 1 ⋅ n ⋅ cn = 0
n 2 2
c1 + 2 c2 + 3 c3 + ... + n ⋅ cn
2

Solution: Given condition is (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2

+ … + cn xn differentiating both sides of the given =n 2
n −1
a
+ n−12 f n−2
=n⋅2
n−2
a2 + n − 1f
condition w.r.t. x, we have
a
n 1+ x f n −1
= 0 + c1 ⋅ 1 + c2 ⋅ 2 x + ... + nx
n −1
cn …(i) =n n+1 2a f n−2
which is the require result.
Now putting x = –1 in (i) ( 3 terms in the required Remark: On putting x = –1 in (iii), we get
result are alternatively +ve and –ve), we get 2 2 2
c1 − 2 c2 + 3 c3 − 4 c4 + ... + −1 a f n −1 2
a f
n cn = n 0 + 0 = 0
a f
n 1−1
n −1
= c1 − 2c2 + 3c3 + ... + cn ⋅ n −1 a f n−1
4. If (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + … + cn xn,
show that c0 + 2c1 + 3c2 + … + (n + 1) cn = 2n – 1 (2 + n).
566 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
Solution: Given condition is (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x +
c2 x2 + … + cn xn whose last term has (nk + r) = n + 1
for k and r = 1 multiplying both sides of the given
condition by x, we get
x (1 + x)n = c0 x + c1 x2 + c2 x3 + … + cn xn + 1 …(i)
Now, differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. x, we get
1· (1 + x)n x + n · (1 + x)n – 1 = c0 + 2x c1 + 3x2 c2 +
… + cn (n + 1) xn …(ii)
Putting x = 1 in (ii), we get the required result
2n + 1· n + 2n –1 = c0 + 2c1 + 3c2 + … + (n + 1) cn =
2 1 (2 + n)
n –
5. If (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + … + cn xn, show that
c0 + 3c1 + 5c2 + … + (2n + 1) cn = 2n (n + 1).
Solution: Given condition is (1 + x)n = c0 + c1 x +
c2 x2 + … + cn xn whose last term has (nk + r) = 2n + 1
for k = 2 and r = 1 on replacing x in each term of the
given condition by x2, we get
(1 + x2)n = c0 + c1 x2 + c2 x4 + … + cn x2n …(i)
on multiplying both sides of (i) by x (since additive
constant in 2n + 1 is 1), we get
x (1 + x2)n = c0 x + c1 x3 + c2 x5 + … + cn x2n + 1 ...(ii)
Now, differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. x, we
get
1 · (1 + x2)n + x · n · (1 + x2)n – 1· 2x
= c0 + c1 · 3 · x2 + c2 · 5 · x4 + ... + cn (2n + 1) x2n
…(iii)
Lastly, on putting x = 1 in (iii), we get the required
result c0 + 3c1 + 5 · c2 + … + (2n +1) cn
= 2n + n · 2n – 1 · 2 = 2n (1 + n)
Exercise 13.3
1. If (1 + x)n = 1 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + … + cn xn, show
that
(i) c0 + 2c1 + 2c2 + 4c3 + … + (n + 1) cn = (n + 2) · 2n – 1
(ii) c0 – 2c1 + 3c2 – 4c3 + … + (–1)n (n + 1) cn = 0
(iii) c1 – 2c2 + 3c3 – … + (–1)n – 1 · n cn = 0
(iv) c1 – 22c2 + 32c2 – 42c4 + … + (–1)n – 1 · n2 cn = 0
2. If (1 + x)n = 1 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + … + cn xn, find
the values of
(i) c0 + 2c1 x + 3c2 x2 + … + (n + 1) cn xn
(ii) c1 + 22c2 + 32c3 + 42c4 … + n2 cn
 Successive Differentiation 567

14
Successive Differentiation

Question: What do you mean by successive Remember:

differentiation? 1. If y be a function of x, the derived function f ′ x af
Answer: The process of finding derivatives of the will be in general itself a differentiable function of x
derivatives in succession is called successive except perhaps at those points at which derived
differentiation. af
function f ′ x becomes undefined.
af
2. Points at which f (x) or f ′ x are undefined are
af
Explanation: A function may be differentiated more
than once in the following way. knwon as points of discontinuities of f (x) or f ′ x
We know that differential coefficient of a function respectively.
f (x) in general is itself a function of x known as derived 3. Points of discontinuities of the function f (x) are
function of x or first derivative of the function f (x) also the points of discontinuities of the given
af
symbolised as f ′ x indicating f (x) has been af
function f ′ x .
af
differentiated the first time, the first derivative f ′ x
Question: How would you differentiated
can be differentiated to obtain the second derivative
af
of the function f (x) symbolised as f ′′ x indicating f successively y = x 6 ?
(x) has been differentiated two times. After the derived
af Answer: Q y = x
6
function f ′ x having been differentiated second
time, the second derivative f ′′ x af can be First derivative = y1 =
dy
= 6 x b 6 − 1g = 6 x 5
differentiated third time providing us again a function dx
of x knwon as third derivative symbolised as f ′′′ x af Second derivative
d dy F I d2y
= 6 × 5 × x b g = 30 x 4
H K
indicating f (x) has been differentiated three times. 5−1
= y2 = =
This process of getting a derived function may go on dx dx dx 2

bg
indefinitely and after the derived function f b n − 2 g x
Third derivative
F d yI = d y
b g f b gx
2 3
is differentiated n − 1 th derivative n −1

obtained which again can be differentiated providing

is = y3 =
d
dx
GH dx JK dx
2 3

= 30 × 4 × a x f a f = 120 ⋅ x
us again a function of x known as nth derivative symbo-
af 4−1 3
lised as f n x indicating f (x) has been differentiated
n-times. This process of differentiation of a function Fourth derivative
f (x) repeated more han one successively or the process
F d yI = d y
3 4
of finding derivatives one after the other from a given
function f (x) is known as successive differentiation.
= y4 =
d
dx
GH dx JK dx
3 4
568 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

= 120 × 3 × x a fa 3−1 f = 360 ⋅ x 2 fourth, fifth, and higher orders can be denoted by
any one of the following notations.
Fifth derivative
dy d 2 y d 3 y d 4 y dn y
F d yI = d y
4 5 1. , , , ,
4 ..., denoting that a
GH dx JK dx dx n
2 3
d dx dx dx dx
= y5 =
dx 4 5 af
function y = f x has been differentiated one time,
two times, three times, four times, ..., n times as well as
= 360 × 2 × a x fa f = 720 x
2 −1 1
= 720 x first, 2nd, 3rd, 4th derivative, ..., n th derivative of
af
some function y = f x . Hence to differentiate a
af
Sixth derivative
F d yI = d y
5 6
function y = f x n-times means to find n th
af
= y6 =
d
dx
GH dx JK dx5 6
derivative of the function y = f x
2 3 4 n
2. Dy, D y , D y , D y , ..., D y , (n being any + ve

= 720 × 1 × a x f a f = 720 x
1−1 0 integer) which is known as capital D - notion..

Seventh derivative
= 720 ⋅ 1 = 720
af af af af
3. f ′ x , f ′′ x , f ′′′ x ...... , f n x (n being any +

F d yI = d y = 0 ve integer)

GH dx JK dx
6 7
d 4. y ′ , y ′′ , y ′′′ , ...... , y n (n being + ve integer)
= y7 = 6 7
dx
5. y1 , y2 , y3 , ....... , y n (n being + ve integer)
Eighth, 9th , . . . . . . . nth derivative = 0
Question: How would you differentiate successively
af af af af
6. f a1f x , f a 2 f x , f a3f x , ...... f a n f x , (n being +
ve integer)
y = sin x ?
7. Dx y , Dx2 y , Dx3 y , ...... Dxn y (n being any + ve
Answer: Q y = sin x integer)
F π + xI
H2 K
∴ y1 = cos x = sin Nomenclature: Read as (Nomenclature)
Notation
Fπ I F π I
y = cos G + xJ = sin G 2 ⋅ + x J
dy
y2 = − sin x 2
H2 K H 2 K dx
dee wy over dee eks
or, dee wy by dee eks
F π I F π I d2 y
y3 = − cos x 3
H 2 K H 2 K
y = cos 2 ⋅ + x = sin 3⋅ + x
dx 2
dee two wy over dee eks two
y4 = sin x : or, dee two wy by dee eks squared
y5 = cos x :
3
d y
, dee three wy over dee eks three
y6 = − sin x : dx 3
y7 = − cos x : or, dee three wy by dee eks cubed
π F I M
y8 = sin x yn = sin n ⋅
2 H
+x
K dny
dee en wy over dee eks en
N.B.: We inspect (1) y1 , y3 ....., y2n + 1 = ± cos x , dx n
alternatively +ve and –ve (2) y2 , y4 ,....., or, dee en wy by dee eks en
y2 n = ± sin x , alternatively + ve and – ve provided dy d 2 y d 3 y dn y
y = sin x . Note: 1. The first notation , 2
, ,
3 ...,
dx n
af
Notation: If y = f x = a function of independent is in common use.
dx dx dx

variable x, then the differential coefficient (or,

derivatives or derived function) of first, second, third,
 Successive Differentiation 569

2. The capital D-notation or dash notation

F dy I n

ei.e; dy, d 2 3 n
y , d y ,...,d y or y ′ , y ′′ , y ′′′ ,..., y
n
j of function of x whereas H dx K means the nth power

of the first differential coefficient of function of x.

is used when the independent variable w.r.t which we
differentiate is understood. The capital D or dash Problems based on finding higher derivatives
notation has the disadvantage of not indicating the Examples worked out:
variable with respect to which the differentiation is
1. Differentiate y = x 3 + 5 x 2 − 7 x + 2 four times.
carried out. This is why it is convenient to use the
dy Solution: Q y = x 3 + 5 x 2 − 7 x + 2
symbol to mean the operation of finding the
dx ∴ y1 = 3x 2 + 10 x − 7
derivative with respect to x.
d2 y d F dy I = F d I ⋅ a yf = d y
2 2 y2 = 6 x + 10
3.
dx 2
=
dx H dx K H dx K dx 2 y3 = 6
... y4 = 0
...
F dI F I
x
n
dn d d 2. Differentiate y = e + log x three times.
H dx K = n ⇔
dx dx dx H K
(... upto n times) x
Solution: Q y = e + log x , x > 0
which requires the operand y = a function of an
af
independent variable x = f x put in the last of the ∴ y1 = e x +
1
operator. x
4. The derivative of a function of an independent 1
y2 = e x −
variable = First derivative of the given function of an x2
independent variable or simply first derivative.
2
Derivative of first derivative = second derivative y3 = e x + ,x>0
of the original function or simply second derivative. x3
Derivative of second derivative = third derivative 3. If y = log x find y 4 .
of the original (or, given) function or simply third
derivative. Solution: Q y = log x , x > 0
Derivative of third derivative = Fourthond 1
derivative of the original function or simply fourth ∴ y1 =
x
derivative.
1
... y2 = − 2
... x

b g
Derivative of n − 1 derivative = nth derivative y3 =
2
of the original function or simply nth derivative. x3
5. Second and higher order derivatives of a function 2.3 6
are called higher derivatives and the process of finding y4 = − 4
= − 4 ,x>0
x x
them is called successive differentiation.
4. If y = e mx , find y 2 .
d2y
6. Care must be taken to distinguish between Solution: Q y = e
mx
dx n

F dy I n
dny
∴ y1 = m e mx
and
H dx K · n means the nth differential coefficient
dx y2 = m ⋅ m e mx = m 2 e mx
570 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Working rule to find second derivative from the

equations of a curve given in parametric form:
af
x= x t ,y=y t af b g b
−a sin θ ⋅ a −sin θ − −a cos θ a cos θ gb g , θ ≠ nπ
=
dy
dy b −a sin θ g 3

1. Find = dt
dx dx 2 2 2 2 2
a sin θ + a cos θ a −1
dt = 3 3
= 3 3
= 3
− a sin θ − a sin θ a sin θ
d2y
=
d LM dy OP ⋅ dt
N dx Q dx
2. should be used Or, alternatively,
dx 2 dt
dy
dt 1 dθ a cos θ
3. Write = and simplify. dy
= = = − cot θ
dx dx ...(1)
dx dx − a sin θ
dt dθ

LM OP
Examples worked out on finding second derivative
of parametric equations of a curve d dy d dθ
2
d y dx dx
=
N Q
dθ
−cot θ ⋅
dx
Question: 1. Find provided
dx 2 2 1
= cosec θ ⋅
x = a cosθ dx
y = a sin θ dθ
Solution: 2 1
2
d x
=
d
2
aa cos θf = d dLM a
a cos θ fOPQ
= cosec θ ⋅
a −sin θa f
dθ
2
dθ
2
dθ dθN =
−1
, θ ≠ nπ
a sin 3 θ
d
= − a sin θ = − a cos θ
dθ ...(1) 2. If x = 2 cos θ − cos 2 θ , y = 2 sin θ − sin 2 θ ,

2
d y
=
d
2
aa sin θf = d LM a
d
a sin θ fOPQ find
d2y
.
dθ
2
dθ
2
N
dθ dθ
dx 2
Solution: x = 2 cos θ − cos 2 θ

=
d
− a cos θ = − a sin θ y = 2 sin θ − sin 2 θ
dθ ...(2)

dx d a cos θ a f
dx
dθ
= − 2 sin θ − sin 2θ × 2 = 2 sin 2 θ − sin θ ...(1) b g
= = − a sin θ
a f
...(3)
dθ dθ dy
= 2 cos θ − cos 2 θ ( 2 ) = 2 cos θ − cos 2 θ
Now, using the formula, dθ
...(2)
d 2 y dx d 2 x dy
⋅ − ⋅ dy
d2y
=
dθ 2
d θ d θ 2 dθ
dθ a
2 cos θ − cos 2 θ f
LM dx OP
dy
dx 2 3
dx
=
dx
=
2 sin 2 θ − sin θa[ using (1) and (2)]
f
Nd θ Q dθ
 Successive Differentiation 571

cos θ − cos 2 θ dy
=
sin 2 θ − sin θ dy d θ 3 a tan 2 θ ⋅ sec 2 θ tan θ
= = = = sin θ
3θ θ
dx dx 3 a sec 2 θ sec θ ⋅ tan θ sec θ b g
⋅ sin
2 sin
2 = tan 3 θ FG IJ dθ

H K
= 2
3θ θ 2 ...(3) ...(3)
2 cos ⋅ sin
2 2 2
d y d sin θ d θ 1
= ⋅ = cos θ ⋅
d y
2
F dy I = d F dy I ⋅ d θ
d dx
2 dθ dx dx
∴
dx
2 H dx K d θ H dx K dx
=
dx
dθ

d F 3θ I d θ cos θ cos 4 θ ⋅ cot θ nπ

=
dθH
G tan J⋅
2 K dx
=
a ⋅ 3 ⋅ sec 2 θ ⋅ sec θ ⋅ tan θ
=
3a
, θ≠
n

F 3θ I 1
= sec G J ⋅
3 a f
4. If x = a θ − sin θ y = a 1 − cosθ , Find a f d2y

H 2 K F dx I
2
dx 2
2
GH d θ JK Solution: x = a θ − sin θ a f
y = a 1 − cosθ a f
3 F 3θ I
= ⋅ sec G J ⋅
1
H K
2

2 asin 2 θ − sin θf [ using (1)] dx

a
dθ 1
f
= a 1 − cos θ ⇒ =
a f
2 2
dθ dx a 1 − cos θ ,
F 3θ I
H 2K
2
sec θ ≠ 2nπ ...(1)
3
2 2 asin 2 θ − sin θf
= ⋅
dy
= a sin θ ...(2)
dθ
F 3θ I
H 2K = 3⋅
2
sec (1) and (2)
3 1
= ⋅ , dy dy d θ a sin θ sin θ
4 2 cos 3 θ ⋅ sin θ 8 sin θ ⋅ cos2 3 θ
2 2 2 2
⇒ = ⋅
dx d θ dx
=
a 1 − cos θ
=
1 − cos θ a f a f
for θ ≠ 2nπ , 2n + 1 b g π3 ∴
d y
2
=
d LM sin θ
⋅
dθ OP
dx
2
d θ N
1 − cos θ dx Q
a1 − cos θf cos θ − sin θ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ 1
2
3 d y
3. If x = a sec 3 θ y = a tan θ find .
a a1 − cos θf
=
dx 2
a1 − cos θf 2

Solution: x = a sec θ 3

cos θ − 1 1
= =− , θ ≠ 2nπ
b g b g
3
y = a tan θ 3 2
a 1 − cos θ a 1 − cos θ
dx
dθ
= a ⋅ 3 ⋅ sec 2 θ sec θ ⋅ tan θ b g ...(1) a
5. If x = a cos θ + θ sin θ y = a sin θ − θ cos θ ,f a f
π d y sec θ 2 3
prove that 2 =
dy
dθ
2 2
= a ⋅ 3 ⋅ tan θ sec θ e j ...(2)
where 0 < θ <
2 dx aθ
.
572 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a
Solution: If x = a cos θ + θ sin θ f d2y d LM dy OP ⋅ dt = d LM1 OP ⋅ dt
a
y = a sin θ − θ cos θ f
Now,
dx 2
=
dt N dx Q dx dt N t Q dx
1 1
dx
dθ
b
= a − sin θ + θ cos θ + sin θ = a θ cos θ g =−
t 2
×
2 at

...(1) −1
= ,t ≠ 0
2at3
dy
dθ
b
= a cos θ − −θ sin θ + cos θ g = a θ sin θ
Problems based on showing that a given function
...(2) af
y = f x satisfies a differential equation
dy Question: What is a differential equation?
dy dθ a θ sin θ Answer: An equation containing one (or, more
(1) and (2) ⇒ = = = tan θ derived functions) is called a differential equation. or,
dx dx a θ cos θ
in more explicit form, an equation containing the
dθ
independent variable x, the function y and its

d2y d FG dy IJ ⋅ d θ = d b tan θg ⋅ d θ derivatives or differentials is called a differential

∴
dx 2
=
dθ H dx K dx d θ dx
equation.
Notation: A differential equation is symbolised as
follows.
F dy I = 0
2 1
= sec θ ⋅
dx
dθ
b g
1. F x , y , y ′ = 0 or F x , y ,
H dx K
F d yI = 0
F b x , y , y ′′ g = 0 or F G x , y ,
H dx JK
2
2 1
= sec θ ⋅ 2. 2
a θ cos θ
F dy , d y I = 0
F b x , y , y ′, y ′′g = 0 or F G x , y ,
H dx dx JK
2
3
sec θ 3.
= 2
aθ
4. F d x , y , y ′, y ′′, y ′′′, ...... y i = 0 . . . . . . etc
n
d2y
6. If x = at , y = 2 a t find 2 .
2
dx dy
Examples: 1. =5
Solution: x = at 2 dx
y = 2a t d2y dy
2. 4 2 + 7 −5=0
dx dx
dx
= 2 at ...(1) F I
dy dy
dt
dy
3. y H K
dx
+ 2x
dx
− y=0

= 2a ...(2) Note: 1. The general type of differential equation of

dt dy
the first order is + p y = Q where P and Q are
dy dx
dy 2a 1 given functions of x.
(1) and (2) ⇒ = dt = = , t ≠ 0 ...(3)
dx dx 2a t t 2. The general type of differential equation of the
dt
second order is
d2 y
dx 2
+a
dy
dx
+ by = f x af
 Successive Differentiation 573

Now we come to our main problem. and then putting the expressions obtained for y ′ and
af
If y = f x , then we are required to show that y ′′ in the left hand side of differential equation, we
1. F b x , y , y ′g = 0 b
show that F x , y , y ′, y ′′ = 0 g
F b x , y , y ′′ g = 0
3. If the differential equation is
2. b g af
F x , y , y ′, y ′′ = f x , then we find y ′ and y ′′ by
3. F b x , y , y ′′′g = 0 successive differentiation and then using various

F b x , y , y ′, y ′′g = 0
techniques, we show that L.H.S. = R.H.S.
4. af
4. If y = f x = a rational function, inverse circular
5. F b x , y , y ′, y ′′, y ′′′g = 0 function, a function containing inverse circular
We adopt the following working rule: function or logarithm of a function (i.e; a function
whose first derivative is a fractional expression in x
Working rule: We proceed from the given function
af
rational or irrational) and we are required to show
y = f x in general finding those all derivatives
b g
(i) F x , y , y ′ = 0
(ii) F b x , y , y ′′g = 0
appearing in the given differential equation by using
successive differentiation and using various
mathematical manipulations, we show that (iii) F b x , y , y ′, y ′′g = 0
b g
1. F x , y , y ′ = 0
(iv) F b x , y , y ′, y ′′, y ′′′g = 0
2. F b x , y , y ′′ g = 0 Then firstly we find first derivative and then in
3. F b x , y , y ′′′g = 0 most cases using the rule of cross multiplication, we

4. F b x , y , y ′, y ′′g = 0
change the quotient into product form so that the
rule of d.c. of product of two functions
5. F b x , y , y ′, y ′′, y ′′′g = 0 F i.e; d l f a xf ⋅ f a xfq = f a xf ⋅ f ′a xf + f a xf ⋅ f ′a xfI
or we show L.H.S = R..H.S H dx 1 2 1 2 2
K 1

should be applied. But this method is not always

About Mathematical Manipulation fruitful.
5. If the given differential equation
1. If the differential equations are
b g
(i) F x , y , y ′ = 0
b g b
F x , y , y ′, y ′′ = 0 or, F x , y , y ′, y ′′ = f x g af
does not contain radical sign and the first derivative
b g
(ii) F x , y , y ′′ = 0 of the given function contains the radical sign, then
(iii) F b x , y , y ′′′g = 0
both sides of the equation containing the first
derivative may be raised to the same*.
(iv) F b x , y , y ′′′′ g = 0 i.e; only one derivative, then *Power in any stage to remove the radical symbol
we find that derivative only by successive or sometimes rationalization is also fruitful device
differentiation and putting its value in the given provided the given function is irrational or the first
differential equation, we show that derivative of the given function is irrational.

b g
(i) F x , y , y ′ = 0 d |RSF dy I 2
|UV = 2 F dy I ⋅ d F dy I
b g
(ii) F x , y , y ′′ = 0
Remember: 1.
dx |TH dx K |W H dx K dx H dx K
(iii) F b x , y , y ′′′g = 0
2
dy d y dy
=2 ⋅ 2 in which
(iv) F b x , y , y ′′′′ g = 0
is regarded as a symbol
dx dx dx

b g
2. If the differentail equation is F x , y , y ′, y ′′ = 0 ,
z which is differentiated w.r.t. x which

then we find y ′ and y ′′ by successive differentiation ⇒

d
dx
b g
y1
2
= y1 y2 which is generally used when
574 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
f x = a rational function of x, inverse circular Type 1: To show that a given explicit function satisfies
function of x, a function involving inverse circular a given differential equation.
function of x, logarithm of a function of x.
af af
Examples worked out:
2. Whenever we have y × f x or y ′ × f x
d4y
we are required to square both sides provided given 1. If y = sin x , show that = y
differential equation to be proved does not contain dx 4
the square root symbol. Proof: y = sin x
3. Sometimes a modification in the form of a given
dy
function is also fruitful device before finding the first ⇒ = cos x
derivative to get the required differential equation. dx
dy 2
4. y1 = y ′ = d y
= − sin x
dx 2
dx
d2y
y2 = y ′′ = 3
dx 2 d y
3
= − cos x
... dx
dny
yn = y n = 4
dx n d y
= sin x
Ld y O af
4

5. M dx P
n
dx
fn a ,
N Q n
yn x = a,
yn a,
x = a, d4y
∴ = y
F d yI by g b g
dx 4
GH dx JK
n
or yn
n n x=a a etc. denotes the 2. If y = a cos n x + b sin n x , show that
x = a,

value of the nth derivative ( or, nth differential d2 y

coefficient) of the given function y = f x at (or, af dx 2
+ n2 y = 0
for) x = a . Proof: y = a cos n x + b sin n x
d2y dy F I
6. In general 2 = f x , y ,
dx dx H K ⇒
dy
= − n a sin n x + nb cos n x
F x , y , dy , d y I
dx
d3y
GH dx dx JK
2
= f d y
2
dx 3 2 2 2
= − n a cos n x − n b sin n x
2
... dx
...
n
F dy , d y , ... d y I 2 n−1
2
a
= − n a cos n x + b sin n x f
= f Gx, y,
H dx dx dx JK
d y
n 2 n −1 = − n2y
dx
are second, third, fourth . . . and nth differential d2y
∴ + n2 y = − n2 y + n2 y = 0
equation. dx 2
7. A given function y = f x is said to satisfy aaf d2y
differential equation if we can find (or, derive) that ∴ + n2y = 0
dx 2
differential equation by differentiating the given
af
function y = f x and using various mathematical
3. If y = a e mx + b e − mx , show that
d2y
− m2 y = 0
manipulations. dx 2
 Successive Differentiation 575

Proof: y = a e mx + b e − mx −x

⇒
dy mx
= a e ⋅m + b e
− mx mx
⋅ −m = m a e − b e a f
− mx
=
1 + x2
dx d x + 1i
2

a f
2
d y − mx
=m ae
mx
⋅m − b e ⋅ −m dy d2y
2 Putting the values of and 2 in the L.H.S of
dx dx dx
2 mx − mx 2 the differential equation,
=m ae +be =m y
dy x + 1
2
e 2
j
d2y e 2
x +1 j+ x
d y
= ⋅
−x
+
x
∴
dx 2
− m 2 y = m2 y − m 2 y = 0 dx
2
dx x 2 + 1
e j 2
x +1 1+ x
2

d2y
∴ − m2 y = 0 −x x
dx 2 = +
=0
1+ x 2
1 + x2
FG IJ ,
H K f a
2
4. If y = log x + 1 + x show that ax
5. If y = e sin b x + c show that

d i + da + b i y = 0
2
d2y dy d y
− 2a
dy 2 2
1 + x2 + x = 0. 2
dx 2 dx dx dx

F IJ Proof: y = e sin ab x + cf
y = log G x +
ax

H K
2
Proof: 1+ x
= a e sin bb x + cg + e b cos bb x + cg
dy
⇒ ax ax
dy 1 d LM OP dx
⇒
dx
=
x + 1+ x 2
⋅
dx
x + 1 + x2
N Q = a y + b e cos ab x + cf
ax

LM O
× 2 xP a f a f
1 2
1
=
MN
⋅ 1+
PQ
d y dy ax 2 ax
=a + b e cos bx + c − b e sin bx + c
x + 1 + x2 2 1 + x2 dx
2
dx

LM OP dy dy F I
=
1
× N
1 + x2 + x
Q =a
dx
+a
dx H
− a y − b2 y
K
x + 1 + x2 1 + x2
Q y=e
ax
a
sin bx + c f = given function
1
= dy
1 + x2 = 2a − a2 y − b2 y
dx

2
d y
−
1
2
×
2x
1 + x2
= 2a
dy
dx
− a2 + b 2 y d i
=
dx 2 FH 1 + x2 IK 2
Putting the value of
d2y
in L.H.S of the differential
dx 2
LM d F 1 I f ′ axf OP equation,
Q
dx
G f a x f
MN H K l f a xfq J =− 2
PQ
576 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2 d2 y
e j Now L.H.S. = x
d y dy 2 2 3
2
− 2a + a +b y dx 2
dx dx
F ax IJ
=G
a2 x 2 ⋅ a2
2

= 2a
dy
dx
2 2 2 2
e
− a + b y + a + b y − 2a
dy
dx
j e j = x ⋅ 3
x b a + bx g
=
ba + bx g H a + bx K 2 2

=0
L dy − yOP
R.H.S. = M x ⋅
2

a f
y
d y
2
F dy I 2 N dx Q
H K
3
6. If a + bx e x = x , show that x = x −y
L R| F x I a U| F x I OP
2
dx dx 2

= M x ⋅ Slog G J V − x log G
b g +
MN |T H a + bx K a + bx |W H a + bx JK PQ
y
Proof: We have a + bx ⋅ e x = x ...(1)

Now taking log of both sides of (1),

FG ax IJ 2

log a + bx ⋅b g
y
ex = log x
=
H a + bx K
Hence, L.H.S. = R.H.S
⇒ log a + bx b g y
+ log e = log x
x
b
7. If y = a + bx e − nx , show that g
d2y
b g
dy
x log a + bx + y ⋅1 + 2n + n2 y = 0
⇒ = log x dx 2 dx
x Proof: we are given y = a + bx ⋅ e − nx b g
⇒ x ⋅ log ba + bx g + y = x log x
∴
dy
b
= a + bx ⋅ − n ⋅ e − nx gd i + be − nx

⇒ y = x log x − x log ba + bxg dx

b
= − n a + bx e − nx + b e − nx g
= x log x − log ba + bxg ...(2)
= − n y + be − nx
...(1)
Now, differentiating both sides of (2) w.r.t. x,
Q y = a + bx e − nx b g
dy
dx
b g + x LMN 1x − a +bbx OPQ
= 1 ⋅ log x − log a + bx Now, differentiating (1) again w.r.t. x,
2
d y dy dy −n x dy
L a + bx − bx OP
2 2
+ 2n +n y=−n − bn e + 2n + n y
= log x − log b a + bx g + x M
2
dy dx dx dx dx
⇒
dx MN x ba + bx g PQ =n
dy
− bn e − nx + n 2 y
dx
⇒
dy
dx
= log x − log ba + bx g +
a
a + bx ...(3) d
= n − n y + b e − nx − bn e − nx + n 2 y i
=0
LM OP , show that
Again differentiating both sides of (3) w.r.t. x, n
8. If y = x + 1 + x
N Q
2
d2y 1 b ab
= − −
b g
e1 + x j ⋅ FGH dydx IJK
dx 2
x a + bx a + bx
2
2
2
2
= n2 y2 .
ba + bxg 2
b
− xb a + bx − x ab g 2

Proof: y = LM x + OP
a
= =
b g b g
n

N 1 + x2
Q
2 2
x a + bx x a + bx
 Successive Differentiation 577

dy 2LM OPa n −1 f d LM 2 OP d1 + x i ⋅ 2 dydx ⋅ ddx y + FH dxdy IK

2 2
⋅ 2 x = 2 m2 y ⋅
dy
N Q N Q
2
⇒ = n x + 1+ x ⋅ x + 1+ x 2
dx dx dx

LM OPb LMn−1
2x g OP ...(4)

N
= n x + 1 + x2
Q MN 2 1 + x PQ ⋅ 1+
2 Now, dividing the equation (4) by 2
dy
dx
we get

b g L
= n Lx + 1+ x O
PQ ⋅ MNx + 1 + x OPQ d1 + x i ⋅ ddx y + x ⋅ dydx = m y
2
n −1 1+ x 2 2 2

MN 2 2
2

LMQ y = F x + 1 + x I OP d i ddx y + x ⋅ dxdy − m y = 0

2
ny n ⇒ 1 + x2 ⋅ 2

N H KQ
= 2 2
1+ x 2

10. If y = A LM x + x − 1 OP + B LM x − x − 1 OP
n n

N Q N Q
2 2
dy
⇒ 1 + x2 ⋅ = ny
show that d x − 1i y + xy − n y = 0 .
dx 2 2
Now, squaring both sides, 2 1

d1 + x i ⋅ FH dxdy IK = n y Proof: y = A Lx + x − 1 O + B L x − x − 1O ...(1)

2 n n

NM QP NM QP
2 2 2 2 2

9. If y = LM x + 1 + x OP , show that
m Now, differentiating both sides of (1), we get
N Q
2

dy LM OPa n −1 f LM x
OP
MN P
2

d1 + x i ddx y + x dxdy − m y = 0 . =n A x+
N x −1
Q ⋅ 1+
2

− 1Q
2 2
dx 2
2 x

Proof: Q y = LM x + 1 + x OP
OP LM1 − OP
m

N Q LM
2
...(1)
x
Q MN P
2
Now, differentiating the given function (1) w.r.t x
+ nB x −
N x −1
2
− 1Q
LM OP
x
dy LM OPb m −1 g x
LM OP LM OP
dx N
= m x + 1 + x2
Q MN
. 1+
1 + x2 PQ N
nA x + x2 − 1
Q
n
nB x −
N x2 − 1
Q
n

= −
m Lx + 1+ x O
m x2 − 1 x2 − 1

=
MN PQ 2

LM OP n
LM OP n

1+ x 2
=
nA x +
N x2 − 1
Q − nB x −
N x2 − 1
Q
my x2 − 1
=
1 + x2 2 dy
⇒ x −1
dy dx
⇒ 1 + x2 ⋅
= my
LM OP LM OP
...(2) n n
dx 2 2
Now, squaring both sides of (2), we get
N
= n A x + x −1
Q − n B x − x −1
N Q ...(2)

d1 + x i ⋅ FH dxdy IK
2
Again differentiating (2) w.r.t x to get
2
= m2 y2
F dy I +
...(3)
d x dy
H dx K
2
Now, differentiating both sides of (3) again w.r.t x x −1⋅ ⋅
dx 2 dx
x −1
578 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2 LM 2 OP n
2 LM 2 OP n Now, differentiating both sides of (4) w.r.t x
OP LM
n A x+
N x −1
Q n B x−
N x −1
Q dy LM OPb m −1 g x
=
x −1
2
+
x −1
2
⇒
dx
=m x±
N x2 − 1
Q x − 1 PQ MN
⋅ 1±
2

LM b g Lx ± x − 1O
−1O
QP ⋅ MMN x − 1 PPQ
2
2 d y x dy m−1 2
⇒ x −1⋅ + ⋅
dx
2 2
x −1
dx = ±m x ±
N x2
2

2 LM 2 OP n
2 LM 2 OP n
LM −1O
m

=
n A x+
N x −1
Q +n B x−
N x −1
Q =±
m x±
N x2
PQ
2
x −1 x2 − 1

2 my
=±
e
⇒ x −1
2
j d y
dx
2
+ x ⋅
dy
dx x2 − 1
...(5)

Now, squaring both sides of (5)

L F IJ FG IO
= n MA Gx + − 1J P = n y
i FH dxdy IK
n n

MN H K H K PQ d
2 2 2 2 2
x −1 +B x+ x x2 − 1 = m2 y2 ...(6)

⇒ d x − 1i y
on differentiating (6) w.r.t. x
2
2 + x y1 = n 2 y

⇒ d x − 1i y e j dy d y dy
2
F I 2

H K
2
2
2 + x y1 − n 2 y = 0 ⇒ x −1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 + ⋅2x
dx dx dx
1 −1
11. If ym + y m = 2x show that 2 dy
=2m y⋅ ...(7)
d i
x 2 − 1 y2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
dx
dy
1 Now, Dividing (6) by 2 ⋅ ,
Proof: Let us suppose that ...(1) dx
ym =Z
d i ddx y + x dydx − m y = 0
2
−1 ⇒ x2 − 1 ⋅ 2
2
1
ym = ...(2)
⇒ dx − 1i ⋅ y + x y − m y = 0
z 2 2
2 1
Now, adding (1) and (2)
Note: In some cases the form of the function suggests
1
⇒ Z+ = 2x simplification. For these functions, we modify the form
Z of the function using mathematical manipulation
⇒ Z 2 + 1 − 2x Z = 0 before differentiation to save labour and time.
Now, we shall do harder and tricky problems on
2x ± 4x 2 − 4 the explicit functions having rational, trigonometric,
⇒ Z=
2 inverse trigonometric and logarithmic functions which
satisfy the given differential equation.
⇒ Z=x± x2 − 1 ...(3)
Examples worked out:

⇒ y= x± FH x2 − 1 IK m
...(4) 1. If y =
ax + b
, show that 2 y1 y3 = 3 y2 2
cx + d
 Successive Differentiation 579

Solution: y =
ax + b
,x ≠−
d a f af
⇒ cx + d y3 + y 2 c + 2 y 2 c = 0
cx + d c ⇒ b cx + d g y + 3 y c = 0
3 2 ...(2)
b
a cx + d − ax + b c g b g ad − bc Now, (1) ⇒ b cx + d g y = − 2 y c ...(3)
⇒ y1 = = 2 1

bcx + d g 2
bcx + dg 2
(2) ⇒ b cx + d g y = − 3 y c 3 2 ...(4)
− 2 c b ad − bc g Dividing (3) by (4),
⇒ y2 =
bcx + d g 3
bcx + d g y − 2 y1 c 2 y1
bcx + d g y = →
2
− 3 y2 c
6 c b ad − bcg
2 3 3 y2
⇒ y3 =
bcx + d g 4
⇒
y1
y2
2 y
= ⋅ 1
3 y2
Now, L.H.S = 2 y1 y3
⇒ 3 y2 2 = 2 y1 y3
b ad − bcg ⋅ 6 c bad − bcg 2
=2
bcx + d g bcx + d g F 1I x

H xK
2 4
2. If y = , show that y2 at x = 1 is equal to zero.

12 c b ad − bc g
F 1I , x > 0
2 2
x
=
bcx + d g 6
Solution: y =
H xK
R.H.S. = 3 y2 2
F 1I F 1I
⇒ log y = log G J = x log G J = x log 1 − log x
x

= 3⋅
b
4 c ad − bc
2
g 2
H xK H xK
bcx + d g 6
⇒ log y = x 0 − log x = − x log x ...(1)
12 c b ad − bc g
2 2 Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
=
bcx + d g 6 1 dy
⋅
1
= − log x − x ⋅ = − log x − 1
y dx x
Hence, 2 y1 y3 = 3 y2 2
Second method: ⇒
dy
a
= − y log x + 1 f
b g b g
ax + b dx
⇒ y = − y alog x + 1f
y= ⇒ cx + d y = ax + b
cx + d 1

⇒
d
dx
acx + d f y = dxd aax + bf ⇒ y = − y alog x + 1f − y ⋅
2 1
1
x
⇒ acx + d f y + y c = a L 1O
= M− y a1 + log x f − y ⋅ P
1

⇒
d
a cx + d f y + y c =
d
aa f
∴ y 2 x =1
N 1
xQ x =1
...(2)

L 1O
1
dx dx
⇒ a cx + d f y + y c + y c = 0 But M− y a1 + log x f − y ⋅ P
2 1 1 N 1
xQ x =1
⇒ b cx + d g y + 2 y c = 0
LM y OP
...(1)
a f
2 1

⇒
d
dx
acx + d f y + 2 y c = 0 2 1
= − y1 x =1
⋅ 1 + log x x =1
⋅
NxQ x =1
580 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

− y1 b g
= − − y log x + 1 LM FG IJ OP ×
N H KQ
2
x=1 x =1 = 2 log x + 1 + x
= b y g ⋅ blog x + 1g
LM FG x + 1 + x IJ OP
x =1 x =1

= 1 b 0 + 1g = 1 H KP
2
...(a)
MM F 1
I ×
PP
a1+ log xf = a1+ log1f = a1+ 0f = 1 MN GH x + x + 1JK
2
1+ x
2
x =1 ...(b)
Q
LM y OP = b yg = 1
NxQ x =1 ...(c) L F
= 2 Mlog G x + 1 + x J P ⋅
IO 1
H KQ x + 1
2
x =1

Putting the values of (a), (b) and (c) in (2) , we

N 2

have Now we square both sides to get

by g z x =1 = 1⋅1 − 1= 0
LM F IK OP ⋅ 1
2

d2y F x , y , dy I and we are required

y12 = 4 log x +
N H x2 + 1
Q e x + 1j 2

Note: If
dx 2
= f
H dx K
4y
d2y = 2
to find out the value of
dx 2
at a point x = a, we are 1+ x

required to find the value of (i)

dy
dx
at x = 1 (ii) The d
⇒ 1 + x 2 y1 2 = 4 y i ...(1)
value of y at x = 1 (iii) The value of function of x at Now differentiating again to get the second
2
d y derivative from (1), we have

d i b g
x = 1 i.e; the value of each term of at x = a d d
dx 2 1 + x 2 y12 = 4y
LM FG IJ OP 2 dx dx

N H KQ
2
y = log x + 1 + x
d i dydx + y ⋅ dxd d1 + x i = 4 ⋅ dydx
2
3. If show that ,
⇒ 1 + x2 1
1
2 2

d1 + x i y
2
2 + x y1 = 2
⇒ d1 + x i ⋅ 2 y ⋅
2 dy
+ y ⋅ 2x = 4 ⋅
dy 1 2

LM FG IJ OP 2 dx
1
dx
1

N H KQ
2
⇒ d1 + x i ⋅ 2 y ⋅ y + y ⋅ 2 x = 4 y
Proof: y = log x + 1 + x 2 2
1 2 1 1
dy Now, dividing both sides of (2) by 2 y1 we have
⇒ = y1
dx
L F I O d LMlog FG x + 1+ x IJ OP d1 + x i y
2
+ x y1 = 2
= 2 Mlog G x + 1 + x J P ⋅
2

H K Q dx N H KQ FH IK
2 2

N 4. If y 1 + x = log x + 1 + x
2 2
show that
L F IO
= 2 Mlog G x + 1 + x J P ×
1
e1 + x j y + x y = 1
H K
2

N Q FG x + x + 1IJ ×
2
1

H K
2

Proof: y 1 + x = log x + 1 + x
2 2 FH IK ...(1)
LM O
× 2 xP
1 Now differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. x , we
MN 2 x + 1 PQ
1+
2 have
 Successive Differentiation 581

Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we

dy FG I d 1+ x × y
1+ x J +
2
have
H K
2
×
dx dx 1 dy −1
⋅ =
L OP 1 − x2
y dx

⋅ M1 +
1 2x
=
FG x + 1 + x IJ MN 2 1 + x PQ ⇒
dy
1 − x2
=−y ...(2)
H K
2 2
dx
Now squaring both sides of (2), we have

FH IK + d i FH dydx IK
2
dy xy 1 1 − x2 ⋅ = y2
⇒ ⋅ 1+ x 2
= ...(3)
dx ...(2)
1+ x 2
1+ x 2
Again differentiating (3) w.r.t. x ( to get second
Now multiplying both sides of (2) by 1 + x 2 we derivative)
have LM OP ⋅ d1 − x i + F dy I b − 2 xg = 2 y ⋅ dy
d dy
2 2

N Q H dx K
2

e1 + x j ⋅ dydx + x y = 1
2 dx dx dx

dy d F dy I F dy I
⋅ e1 − x j − 2 x ⋅
2

dx dx H dx K H dx K
2
⇒ 2⋅ ⋅
⇒ e1 + x j ⋅ y + x y = 1
2
1

5. If y = a sin log x , show that x 2 y2 + x y1 + y = 0 = 2y ⋅

dy

a f
Proof: y = a sin log x
dx
d
⇒ 2 y1 ⋅ y2 1 − x 2 − 2 x ⋅ y1 2 = 2 y y1 i ...(4)
= a cos a log x f ⋅
dy 1
⇒
dx x Now, dividing both sides of (4) by y1 , we have

⇒ x⋅
dy
= a cos log x a f ...(1)
d
2 y2 1 − x 2 − 2 x y1 = 2 y i
dx
Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get d
⇒ 1 − x 2 y2 − x y1 = y i
d F dy I + dy ⋅ dx = a a−sin log xf ⋅ 1 a f
7. If y = sin sin x , show that
⇒ x⋅
dx H dx K dx dx x
d y
2
dy 2
2 2
+ tan x ⋅ + y cos x = 0 .
d y dy − a sin log x dx dx
⇒ x⋅ + =
dx
2
dx x b g
Proof: y = sin sin x ...(1)

= cos a sin x f ⋅ cos x = cos x ⋅ cos asin x f ...(2)

2
d y dy dy
⇒ x2 ⋅ 2
+ x⋅ =− y ⇒
dx dx
a f
dx
Q a sin log x = y
a f a fa f
2
d y
⇒ = cos x − sin sin x ⋅ cos x + cos sin x ⋅ − sin x
⇒ x y2 + x y1 + y = 0
2
2
dx

a f
6. If x = cos log y , show that 1 − x e 2
jy 2 − x y1 = y 2
a f
= − cos x sin sin x − sin x cos sin x a f ...(3)

Proof: x = cos log y a f ∴ L. H.S =

2
d y
+ tan x ⋅
dy 2
+ y cos x
−1 2
dx
⇒ log y = cos x ...(1) dx
582 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2
a f
= − cos x sin sin x − sin x cos sin x + a f Proof: y = sin m sin e −1
x j
sin x
a f
2
cos x ⋅ cos sin n + y cos x dy d −1 LM e jOPQ
cos x ⇒ =
dx dx
sin sin x
N
2
a f a f
= − cos x sin sin x − sin x ⋅ cos sin x +
e
= cos m sin
−1
j
x ⋅m⋅
1

sin x ⋅ cos bsin x g + y cos x

2
2
1− x

= − cos x sin a sin x f + y cos x

e j
2 2
2 dy −1
⇒ 1− x ⋅ = m cos m sin x
bQ y = sin asin xfg dx

= 0 = R.H.S LM 1 − x ⋅ dy OP 2
2
2 2
em sin xj −1

8. If a f
y = a cos log x + b sin log x , show thata f
⇒
N dx Q
= m cos

x 2 y2 + x y1 + y = 0 ⇒ e1 − x j ⋅
F dy I 2
LM e −1
jOPQ
H dx K N
2 2 2
= m 1 − sin m sin x
a
Proof: Q y = a cos log x + b sin log x f a f ...(1)

⇒ d1 − x i ⋅ F I d i
Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t x, we have 2
dy
H dx K = m2 1 − y2
2
...(1)
dy
dx
1
a f
= − a sin log x ⋅ + b cos log x ⋅
x
1
x
a f ...(2)
Now again differentiating both sides of equation

a f a f
(1) to get second derivative,
dy
⇒ x = − a sin log x + b cos log x
e1 − x j ⋅ 2 dydx ⋅ dxd ⋅ FH dydx IK + FH dydx IK a− 2 xf
...(3) 2
dx 2
Again differentiating the equation (3) ( to get

F dy I
second derivative), we have,
d F dy I + dy ⋅ dx = − m 2y
H dx K
2

x
dx H dx K dx dx
⇒ d1 − x i 2 y ⋅ y − 2 x y = − m 2 y y
2 2 2

= − a cos alog x f ⋅ + b b −sin a log x fg ⋅

1 2 1 1
1 1
x x ⇒ 2 d1 − x i y − 2 x y = − m 2 y
2
2 1
2

a f a f ⇒ d1 − x i y − x y = − m y
2
2 d y dy 2 2
⇒x 2
+x ⋅ = − a cos log x − b sin log x 2 1
dx dx
−1
10. If y = tan x prove that
2
⇒ x y2 + x y1 = − a cos log x + b sin log xa f a f
d1 + x i y
2
2 + 2 x y1 = 0 .
⇒ x 2 y2 + x y1 = − y
−1
Proof: Q y = tan x ...(1)
⇒ x 2 y2 + x y1 + y = 0
Now differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. x, we
9. If y = sin m sine −1
j
x prove that
have,
dy 1
=
e1 − x j y
2
2
2
− x y1 + m y = 0 .
dx 1 + x 2

d
⇒ 1 + x2 i dydx = 1
 Successive Differentiation 583

Again differentiating (2) w.r.t.x to get the second

L O
j MM2 ⋅ dydx ⋅ ddx y PP +
2
derivative,
e
⇒ 1+ x
2 2

d i FH dydx IK + dxdy ⋅ dxd d1 + x i = 0

1 + x2
d 2 N Q 2

F dy I L4 x e1 + x jO = 4 ⋅ dy
dx 2

H dx K MN PQ dx
2

⇒ d1 + x i ⋅
2 ...(3)
d y dy
2
+ ⋅ 2x = 0 2
dx dx
⇒ d1 + x i ⋅ y + 2 x y = 0
dy
2 Now dividing equation (3) by 2 we have
2 1 dx

11. If y = e tan x j show that e1 + x j e j

−1 2
2 2 d 2y dy
2
+ 2x 1 + x2 =2
dx dx

d1 + x i
2 2 d2y
dx 2
+ 2 x 1 + x2
dy
dx
=2 d i d
⇒ 1 + x2 i 2 d 2y
dx 2
+ 2x 1 + x 2
dy
dx
=2 d i
e j
−1 2 –1
12. If y = e
m sin x
Proof: y = tan x , prove that

d1 − x i y
2
− x y1 = m 2 y
e j
2 2
dy d −1
⇒ = tan x –1
dx dx Proof: y = e
m sin x

−1 −1 –1
−1 d tan x 2 tan x dy d e m sin x
= 2 tan x⋅ = 2 ⇒ =
dx 1+ x dx dx
m×1
e j dydx = 2 tan x my
2 −1 −1
⇒ 1+ x ...(1) = e m sin x
⋅ =
1− x 2
1 − x2

⇒ e1 + x j ⋅
F dy I = 4 e tan x j
2 2
2
−1 2

H dx K
dy
⇒ 1 − x2 ⋅
= my ...(1)
dx

F dy I = 4 y
(We square both sides of (1) so that square root
⇒ d1 + x i ⋅
2

H dx K
2 2 symbol may be removed)
...(2)

d1 − x i ⋅ FH dxdy IK
2
Now again differentiating both sides of (2) w.r.t. x, 2
= m2 y2 ...(2)
we have
L OP + F dy I L d 1 + x O Again differentiating both sides of (2) to get
e1 + x j MMN dxd FH dydx IK PQ H dx K MN dx e j PQ
2 2
2 2 2 2 second derivative,
L OP + F dy I
e1 − x j ⋅ dxd MMFGH dydx IJK PQ GH dx JK e j
2 2
d
2
⋅ 1 − x2
d a4 y f N dx
=
dx
L dy ⋅ d F dy I OP +
⇒ e1 + x j ⋅ M2 ⋅
=
d
em y j 2 2

N dx dx H dx K Q
2 dx

e j ⋅ 2 dydx ⋅ dxd FH dydx IK + FH dydx IK × a − 2 xf

2
2

F dy I L2 e1 + x j ⋅ 2 x O = 4 dy
2 ⇒ 1− x
H dx K MN PQ dx
2
584 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

=m
dy 2
2
a f
Q x y1 = x cos log x + y + x from (4)
dx ⇒ x y1 − y − x = x cos log x a f
j ⋅ 2 dydx ⋅ ddxy − 2 x FH dydx IK
2

e
2
⇒ 1− x
2 2
a f
⇒ x y 2 = − y − x log x + x y1 − y

2 dy Q y = x log x + x sin a log x f from (1)

= m ⋅2y
dx ⇒ y − x log x = x sin a log x f
d i
⇒ 2 1 − x 2 ⋅ y1 y 2 − 2 x y1 2 = 2 m 2 y
2
⇒ x y2 = x log x − y + x y1 − y
⇒ 1+ xd 2
iy 2 − x y1 = m y
2
2
⇒ x y2 = x log x + x y1 − 2 y
a
13. If y = x sin log x + x log x , Show that f 2
⇒ x y2 − x y1 + 2 y = x log x
2
d y dy
FG x IJ , prove that
2
x 2
− x + 2 y = x log x x
dx
14. If y = log
H a + bx K
dx
a
Proof: We are given y = x sin log x + x log x ...(1) f
x y =ay − x y f .
3 2
Now differentiating each terms of both sides w.r.t. 2 1
x of (1), we have
LM a f a fOPQ + Proof: y = log G
F x IJ , defined for x > 0 x

H a + bx K
dy 1
dx N
= x cos log x ⋅ + sin log x
x a + bx

LMx ⋅ 1 + log xOP ⇒ y = x log G

F x I
N x Q H a + bx JK
⇒ y = cos alog x f + sin a log x f + 1 + log x
1 ...(2)
L 1 b OP
⇒ y = log | x | − log b a + bx g + x M −
N x a + bx Q
Now, multiplying both sides of (2) by x, we have 1

a f
x y1 = x cos log x + x sin log x + x + x log x a f
...(3) x
+xM
L a + bx − bx OP
N x aa + bxf Q
⇒ y = log
a f
⇒ x y1 = x cos log x + y + x , (by using (1) in
1
a + bx
(3) ) ...(4)
x a
Now, differentiating again both sides of (4) w.r.t x
to get y 2 ,
= log
a + bx
+
a + bx a f
x y 2 + y1 = − x sin log x ⋅ bg 1
x
b g
+ cos log x + y1 + 1 =
y
x
+
b
a
a + bx g
⇒ x y2 = − sin log x + cos log x + 1 a f
...(5)
⇒ x y1 = y +
ax
Now multiplying both sides of (5) by x, are get a + bx
2
a f
x y2 = − x sin log x + x cos log x + x a f ...(6) ⇒ x y1 − y =
ax
...(1)
a + bx
= − x sin alog x f + xy − y − x
2
⇒ x y2 1 + x
 Successive Differentiation 585

Again differentiating (1) to get y2

a1 − 2 xf
−1

ba + bx g a − ax ⋅ b
tan x
e
=
x y2 + y1 − y1 =
ba + bx g 2
e1 + x j 2 2

∴ L.H.S. = d1 + x i y + b2 x − 1g y
a2
⇒ x y2 =
2

b a + bxg 2 ...(2) 2 1

e1 + x j ⋅ e a1 − 2 xf + a2 x − 1f ⋅ e
−1
Now squareing (1), we get 2 tan x −1
tan x

bx y g = bax+ bxa g = x x y [from (2)] =

2 2

e1 + x j
2
1 −y 2
2
2 2 2 1+ x
2

= b x y − yg Which was required to be

2
⇒ x 3 y2
a1 − 2 x f + a2 x − 1f ⋅ e
−1 −1
1 tan x tan x
e
proved. = 2 2
1+ x 1+ x
e j a f
−1
tan x 2
15. If y = e show that 1 + x y2 + 2 x − 1 y1 = 0

a1 − 2 x f − a1 − 2 xf ⋅ e
−1 −1
−1
tan x tan x
tan x e
Solution: y = e = 2 2
1+ x 1+ x
−1
tan x

e j
−1
dy tan x d −1 e =0
⇒ =e ⋅ tan x = 2 = R.H.S
dx dx 1+ x
N.B.: The first method is more convenient in

e j dydx = e
2 tan − 1
comparision to the second method.
⇒ 1+ x x= y ...(1) Type 3: Problem based on finding a differential
equation when the given function is in the implicit
b g
Differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we have
form f x , y = c (where c = any constant and c = 0
d
1 + x2 i d 2 y dy
dx 2
+
dx
⋅ 2x =
dy
dx
in particular) or givin a function having the form
x = f1 f2 y af
d i ddx y + b2 x − 1g dxdy = 0
2
Working rule: Proceed as usual i.e finding the
⇒ 1 + x2 2 derivatives involved in the given differential equation
⇒ d1 + x i y + b 2 x − 1g y = 0
2 to be satisfeid by the given function .
2 1
Example worked out:
Second method after having
−1
b g
1. If x = sin log y show that

d1 − x i y
tan x
dy e 2
− x y1 = y
= 2
dx 1 + x 2
We may straight way (or, directly), find
Proof: Q x = sin log y b g
⇒ log y = sin −1 x
F 1 I −e ...(1)

e1 + x j ⋅ e GH 1 + x JK
−1 −1
2 tan x tan x
⋅ 2x 1 dy 1
2
d y
2
⇒ ⋅ = (on differentiating (1)
= y dx 1 − x2
e1 + x j
2 2 2
dx
w.r.t. x)
586 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

⇒
y1
=
1
=
1
b g
× − 24 =
− 24
y 1− x 2
b x + 4g 3
b x + 4g 3

⇒ y1 1 − x 2 = y ...(2) 12 −24
Note: y = 3 − ⇒ y2 =
⇒ y1 b g d1 − x i = y
2 2 2
(on squaring both sides
x+4 x+4 b g 3

of (2) ) a f
3. If log y = log sin x − x 2 , show that

b y g d1 − x i = dydx
2

+ d 4 x + 3i y = 0
d 2 2
⇒ 1
2 d y
+ 4y
dy 2
dx dx 2
dx
⇒ y b − 2 x g + 2 y y d1 − x i = 2 y y
Proof: log y = log asin x f − x
2 2
1 1 2 1 2

⇒ − x y + d1 − x i y = y 2

⇒ log y = log a sin x f − log e

2
1 2 x

⇒ d1 − x i y − x y = y
e
2
2 1 2
Q log e e x = x 2 log e e = x 2 ⋅ 1 = x 2
2
d y
2. If x y + 4 y = 3 x find
dx 2 LM sin x OP
Proof: x y + 4 y = 3 x ⇒ log y = log
Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t x
...(1)
MN e PQ x
2 ...(1)

dy dy
x⋅ + y ⋅1 + 4 ⋅ =3 sin x
dx dx Now, taking anti log of both sides of (1) y = 2
x

⇒ x+4 ⋅ b dy
dx
=3− y g ...(2)
⇒ y⋅e
x
2

= sin x
e
...(2)
dy 3− y b g [N.B.: Product rule of derivative is easier than the
⇒ y1 =
dx
=
x+4 b g ...(3) quotient rule. This is why we cross multiply]
Now considering (2), Now differentiating (2) w.r.t x to find y1,

b g af
2 2
d 2 y dy dy e x ⋅ y1 + 2 x e x ⋅ y = cos x ...(3)
x+4 2
+ ⋅ 1 =−
dx dx dx Again differentiating (3) w.r.t x to find y 2
⇒ b x + 4g ⋅ y + y1 + y1 = 0 2 2 2 2 2
2 e x y2 + 2 x e x y1 + 2 x ⋅ e x y1 + 2 x 2 e x y + e x y
⇒ b x + 4g ⋅ y 2 + 2 y1 = 0
b g
2
x
− 2 y1 −2 3− y = − sin x = − e y (from (2) ) ...(4)
⇒ y2 =
x+4
=
x+4
×
b
x+4
(by using
g b g b g Now dividing the equation (4) by e x and then
2

(3) ) transposing,
2y − 6 LM FG 3x IJ − 6OP 1 y2 + 2 x y1 + 2 x y1 + 4 x 2 y + 2 y + y = 0
=
b x + 4g b x + 4g N H x + 4 K Q
2
= 2
⋅ 2
⇒ y2 + 4 x y1 + 4 x 2 + 3 y = 0 d i
=
b x + 4g
1
⋅ 6 x − 6 x − 24 −1 F y I = log F x I n
3 4. If cos
H b K H nK , show that
 Successive Differentiation 587

x 2 y2 + x y1 + n 2 y = 0 . dy
directly from according to the need of the problem
dx
FG y IJ = log FG x IJ since x > 0 n of differential equation. Lastly by simplification,
Proof: cos −1
H bK H n K n
cancellation, transposition and using axioms of an
equation, we arrive at our target (i.e., we find the
FG y IJ = n log FG x IJ = n clog x − log n h required differential equation)
⇒ cos−1
H bK HnK Examples worked out:
1. If y = sin pt , x = sin t , show that
...(1)

d1 − x i ddx y − x
Now differentiating the equation (1) w.r.t. x 2
dy
2
2
+ p2 y = 0 .
1 y1 n dx
− ⋅ =
F yI 2 b x Proof: y = sin pt
1−
H bK x = sin t

y1 b n dy
⇒ − = ...(2) dy p cos pt
b ⋅ b2 − y 2 x ⇒ = dt =
dx dx cos t
Now on cross multiplying the equation (2) and dt
then squaring, we get
x 2 y12 = n 2 b 2 − y 2 d i ...(3) F dy I 2 2
p cos pt
2
2
e
p 1 − sin pt
2
j
Now, again differentiating the equation (3) w.r.t x
⇒
H dx K =
cos t
2
=
e1 − sin t j2

d
d
x 2 y12 =
d
i
n2 b2 − y2 d i
dx
2
dx
⇒ x ⋅ 2 ⋅ y1 ⋅ y2 + 2 x y1 = − 2 n y y1 2 2
...(4) =
e
p2 1 − y 2 j for x ≠1
1− x 2
Now dividing (4) by 2 y1 , we get
x 2 y2 + x y1 + n 2 y = 0
d i FH dxdy IK
d i
2
⇒ 1 − x2 = p2 1 − y2
Type 4: Problems based on finding a differential
d L F dy I OP = d p d1 − y i
equation when the given function is in parametric
Md1− x i⋅
2

R
form S
x = f1 (t ) ⇒
dx MN H dx K PQ dx
2 2 2

T y = f at f
F dy I
2

⇒ e1 − x j 2 ⋅ + b− 2xg G J
2 2
dy d y
⋅
H dx K
Working rule: We proceed directly for finding the 2
2
dx dx
dy
dy
= dt and then F dy I
= p ⋅ G− 2 y J
first derivative using the formula
H dx K
2
dx dx
dt
dy
we find other derivatives (2nd , 3rd , .... etc) involved Dividing by 2 , we have for x ≠ 1 , y ≠ 1;
in the given differential equation using various dx

d1 − x i ddxy − x dxdy + p
2
dy
mathematical manipulation performed on or 2 2
y = 0 proved.
dx
588 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
2. If x = a cos θ + θ sin θ and y = a sinθ − θ cos θ a f y = log t ⇒
dy 1
=
dt t

b g e j
3

1 + y12
2
π −1
where 0 < θ < prove that tan y1 = dy 1
2 a y2 dy 1
∴ = dt = t = − ...(i)
dx dx − sin t t sin t
a
Proof: x = a cos θ + θ sin θ ⇒
dx
dθ
f dt

a f d F dy I = d FG − 1 IJ
= a − sin θ + 1 ⋅ sin θ + θ ⋅ cos θ = a θ cos θ ...(1) ⇒
H dx K dx H t sin t K
a f
dx
y = a sin θ − θ cos θ

b g b g
d2y 1 dt
⇒
dy
dθ
c
= a cos θ − 1 ⋅ cos θ − θ − sin θ = a θ sin θ b gh ⇒
dx 2
=
t sin t
2
⋅ sin t + t cos t ⋅
dx

sin t + t cos t F 1 I
...(2)
⋅G
dy
= 2
t sin t
2
H −sin t JK
dy dθ a θ sin θ
− a sin t + t cos t f
Now, = = = tan θ ...(3)
dx dx a θ cos θ
=
dθ 2
t sin t
3 ...(ii)

Differentiating both sides of (3) w.r.t. x, we get Now, squaring both sides of (1) , we get
d F dy I = d atan θf F dy I
H dx K dx
2
1
dx H dx K =+ 2
t sin t
2 ...(iii)
2
d y 2 dθ 2 1 Adding (ii) and (iii), we get
⇒ = sec θ ⋅ = sec θ ⋅
a θ ⋅ cos θ
F I asin t + t cos t f +
2
dx dx 2 2
d y dy 1
FGQ dx = a θ cos θIJ dx
+
dx H K =− 2
t sin t
3 2
t sin t
2

H dθ K
LM d y + F dy I OP
2 2
∴
MN dx H dx K PQ
2 3
d y sec θ 2
⇒ = t=
π
dx
2
aθ 2

e1 + tan θj 2
3
2
e1 + y j hence the result.
2
3
2
=M
L − asin t + t cos t f + 1 OP
MN t sin t t PQ
1
= =
a tan b y g
2 3 2 2
−1 t sin π
aθ 1 t=
2

3. If x = cos t , y = log t , show that

LM O
1 P
F I =M
MN π42 π42 PPQ
−1
π
2
d2 y dy +
dx 2
+
dx H K =0 at t =
2
.

dx =0
Solution: x = cos t ⇒ = − sin t
dt
 Successive Differentiation 589

Type 1: Problems based on finding second derivative

−1 3 4a
(A) Algebraic functions 6.
4x x
7.
4x 2
x b
8. a + x
g 3

Exercise 14.1 3
6 x3 − 8
10. − 9 x 2 − 9 e j −
2

dx i
9. 3
2
2
+4
d y
Find of the following functions.
dx 2
b g
8 4
−
11. − 2x + 3 3
1. y = 2x − 3 9
b
12. 6 x 7 x + 1 g 2
b
+ 84 x 2 7 x + 1 + 98 x 3 g
d i
2
2. y = x − 2 x + 3
2 3
13. Find
1 Type 1: (continued)
b
3. y = 3x − 4
g (B) Trigonometric function:
1
b g
4. y = a − x Exercise 14.2

y = b3 − 2 x g
− 12
5. d2y
Find of the following functions.
dx 2
6. y = x
1. y = sec 2 x
1
7. y =
x 2. y = cosec x − 3 e 2
j
a−x
8. y = 3. y = sin 3x ⋅ cos x
a+x
4. y = sin 4 x ⋅ cos2 x
1
9. y = 2
x +4 sin x + 2
5. y =
2 cos x + 3
10. y = x2 − 9 Answers:

b g e j
2
1. y ⋅ 2 sec 2 x + tan 2 x
2 2
11. y = 2 x + 3 3

12. y = x 3 7 x + 1 b g 2
L O
2. 2 y M2 x cot e x − 3j + 2 x y − cot e x − 3jP
N Q
2 2 2 2 2 2

3x + 4
13. y = 3. − b8 sin 4 x + 2 sin 2 x g
x
4. b cos 2 x + 8 cos 4 x − 9 cos 6 x g
Answers: 1

1. −
1 d i
4 x2 − 2x + 7
8
2. 8 cos2 x + 16 sin 2 x + 12 sin x cos x + 12 cos x − 10 sin x
b2 x − 3g 9 d x − 2 x + 3i
3 4

b2 cos x + 3g
2 2 3
5. 3

b g
18 2 −5
3.
b3 x − 4 g 3 4.
ba − xg 3 5. 3 3 − 2 x 2
590 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Type1: (continued) Answers:

(C) Inverse Trigonometric functions: 1. 4 y

Exercise 14.3
e
2. y cos 2 x − sin x j
m y + x y1
2
y2 =

Find
d2y
of the following functions
3.
d1 − x i 2

dx 2 Type 1: (continued)
−1
1. y = sin x
(E) Logarithmic functions:
−1
2. y = tan 2 x
−1 Exercise 14.5
3. y = sec x

4. y = 1 − x 2 ⋅ sin −1 x d2y
Find of the following functions
Answers: dx 2

x a
1. y = log 2 x + 3 f
1.
2. y = log sin x
d1 − i
3
x2 2
3. y = log cos x
− 16 x
4. y = log la2 x + 3f a3 − 5xfq
d1 + 4 x i
2.
2 2

F a + x IJ
y = log G
− e2 x − 1j x
2
5.
H a − xK
3.
x e x − 1j FG ax + b IJ
3
3 2 2
6. y = log
H cx + d K
− x 1 − x 2 − sin −1 x Answers:
4. 4
e1 − x j
3
1. −
2 2
b2 x + 3g 2

Type 1: (continued) 2. −cosec 2 x

(D) Exponential functions:
3. −sec 2 x
Exercise 14.4 Type 1: (continued)
(F) Implicit functions:
d2y
Find of the following functions.
dx 2 Exercise 14.6
1. y = e 2 x + 3
2. y = e
sin x d2y
Find of the following functions.
−1
dx 2
m sin x
3. y = e 1. x 2 + x y + y 2 = a 2
 Successive Differentiation 591

2. x 2 + y 2 + 3xy − 7 = 0 3t
2. x =
3. x + y = a 1 + t3

4. cos x ⋅ cos y = c 3t 2
y=
5. y = tan x + y a f 1 + t3

3. x = a t
2
6. y + 3 x = 25
2

y = 2 at
x2 y2
7. + =1 4. x = a cosθ
a2 b2
Answers: y = b sin θ
− 6a 2
a
5. x = a θ + sin θf
1.
b x + 2 yg 3
y = a a1 − cosθf

10 e x + 3x y + y j
2 2
6. x = a sec 2 θ
2.
b 2 y + 3x g 3
y = a tan θ
3

1 a 7. x = 3 cos θ − cos3 θ
3.
2 x3
3
y = 3 sin θ − sin θ
tan x + tan y + 2 tan x ⋅ tan y
2 2 2 2
4. − 8. x = t 2
tan 3 y
b g
y = t −1
2

5. −2 ⋅
a x + yf
cot
3
1
sin a x + y f 9. x =
2
t

6. − ⋅ b 25 − 3 x g
3 1
9 − y=
4
2
t +1

−b 4
10. x =
d
a 1 − t2 i
7. 2 3
a y 1+ t 2

Type 1: (continued) 2 at
y=
(G) Parametric functions: 1 + t2
11. x = a cos t
Exercise 14.7 y = a sin t

d2y
12. x = a sin 2t + 3 a f
Find
dx 2
of the following functions. y = a cos 2 t + 3 a f
1. x = a cos θ
3 a
13. x = 2 1 − sin t f
3
y = 4 cos t
y = b sin θ
592 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

14. x = a cos θ
2 a
1. x = a θ + sin θ f
y = a a1 − cosθ f at θ =
2 π
y = a sin θ
2
15. x = a cos3 θ 2. x = a a1 − cos 2 θf

y = a a 2 θ − sin 2 θf at θ =
3 π
y = a sin θ
4
16. x = a tan θ
3. x = 2 cos t − cos 2 t
1 2
y = a sin θ π
2 y = 2 sin t − sin 2 t at θ =
2
17. x = a cosecθ
4. If x = t 2
y = a cot θ
Answers: y = t 3 at t = 1
1
b e j
2 1 + t3
4
5. If x =
t3
sec 4 θ ⋅ cosec θ 2.
3 e1 − 2 t j
1. 3 3 1
3a 2
y = t 2 at t =
2
−1 1 4 θ FG IJ Answers:
H K
b
4. − cosec θ 5. 4 a sec 2
3
3.
2a t 3 a 1 1 3 3 5
1. 2. 3. − 4. 5.
a a 2 4 1152
3
6. cot θ 7. − cot 2 θ ⋅ cosec 5 θ Type 3: To show that a given function satisfies a
4a
differential equation
1 −2t3
−
e1 + t j 2 3 (A) Problems based on showing that an algebraic
8.
2 t3
9.
b1 + t g 3 10.
8a t 3 function satisfies a differential equation

11. −
cos ec 3 t
12. −
sec 3 2 t + 3 b g Exercise 14.9

a a
sec 4 θ ⋅ cos ec θ 1. If y 2 = 2 x 2 + 3 x + 5 , show that
13. − sec t 14. 0 15.
3
3a d2 y 31
=
d i dx 2
d i
3
cos 4 θ 4 cos 2 θ − 3 tan 3 θ 4 2 x 2 + 3x + 5 2
16. 17. −
a a
d 2 y 2x 2
Type 2: Problems based on finding the value of at 2. If x 3 + y 3 = 3x 2 , show that + 5 =0
the indicated points dx 2 y
3. If x 2 − xy + 2 y 2 − 5 = 0 , show that
Exercise 14.8

=
2
d
d 2 y 14 x − xy + 2 y
2
i
Find
d y 2
at the indicated points for the following
dx 2 x − 4y
3
b g
dx 2
functions.
 Successive Differentiation 593

4. If y = x 2 − 3x + 5 , show that 15. If ax 2 + 2h xy + b y 2 = 1, show that

d2y 2 FG dy IJ 3
d2y h 2 − ab
b g H dx K
= ⋅ =
dx 2
2x − 3
3
dx 2 b
hx + by
3
g
5. If y = FH x − 1 + x IK , show that d i
3 3
2
16. If y = 1 − x 2 2 , show that

d
1 + x2 i d2 y
+x
dy
− 9y = 0
d1 − x i y
2
2 + xy1 + 3 y = 0
dx 2
FG IJ FG IJ
dx m n

H K H K
2 2
6. If 2 y = x + 1 + x − 1 , Show that 17. If y = A x + x − 1 +B x − x −1 ,

d i ddx y + 4 x dxdy − y = 0 d i
2
4 x2 − 1 2 show that x − 1 y2 + xy1 − n y = 0
2 2

7. If y m + y − m = 2 x , show that 18. If y = ax +

b
, show that x 2 y2 + x y1 − y = 0
x
dx i ddx y + x dxdy − my
2
2
−1 2 2
=0 19. If y = ax 2 + b , show that y2 y 3 = ab

8. If y = 2 x + 1 + 2 x − 1 , show that ax + b
20. If y = , show that 2 y1 y3 = 3y 2 2
cx + d
d4 x i ddx y + 4 x dydx − y = 0
2
2
−1 ax − b
21. If y =
2
, show that 2 y1 y3 = 3y 2 2
a − bx
9. If x 3 + y 3 = 3 a x y , show that
ax 2 + bx + c
a xy 3 22. If y = , prove that
y2 = − 2 ⋅ 1− x
dy − axi 2 3

b1 − xg y 3 = 3 y2

10. If y = FH x + 1 + x IK , show that

n
2 ax + b
23. If y = , show that 2 y1 y3 = 3y2 2
a + bx
d1 + x i y + xy − n y = 0
2
1
2

24. If y = 2ax +
3b
, show that x 2 y2 + x y1 − y = 0
11. If y = FH x + x − 1 IK show that
m x
2

25. If y = ax 2 + 2b , show that y2 y 3 = 2ab

d x − 1i y + xy − m y = 0
2
2 1
2
ax − b
1
−
1 26. If y = cx − d , show that 2 y1 y 3 = 3 y2 2
12. If y5 +y 5 = 2 x , show that

d x − 1i y
2
2 + xy1 − 25 y = 0 27. If y =
ax − b
2a − bx
, show that 2 y1 y 3 = 3 y2 2
2
1 4 d y 3 dy d2y
13. If Z = , show that x + 2 x = − ax 2 + bx + c
x dx 2 dx dZ 2 28. If y= , prove that
1− x
2
y − x = c , show that y2 = 2
14. If x+ y +
c b1 − xg y 3 = 3 y2
594 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

29. If y =
4ax + b
, show that 2 y1 y3 = 3y2 2
a
10. If y = 2 cos log x + 3 sin log x , show that f a f
2a + bx d2y dy
x2 ⋅ +x +y=0
b
30. If x = sin log y , show that g dx 2 dx

e1 − x j y2
2 − xy1 = y 11. If y = tan
−1
d
x , show that 1 + x 2 y 2 + 2 xy1 = 0 i
2 2 2
Type 3: (continued) 12. If y = 4 cos x + 9 sin x , show that
(B) Problems based on showing that a trigonometric
function satisfies a differentiatial equation d 2 y 36
y+ = 3
dx 2 y
Exercise 14.10
13. If y = A cos mx + B sin mx , show that
1. If y = sin (ax + b) show that y2 + m 2 y = 0
2
d y
=
2
a
sec ax + b tan ax + bf a f 14. If y = sin
−1
x , show that 1 − x y2 − xy1 = 0
2
d i
2
a
e j
dx −1 2
15. If y = sin x , show that
2
d y
2. If y = 2 sin 3x – 5 cos 3x, show that
dx
2
+ 9y = 0
d1 − x i y
2
2 − x y1 = 2

j e
3. If y = sin (m cos–1 x), show that −1 2
16. If y = tan x , show that
2

e1 + x j dx
2 d y
2
− x
dy
dx
2
+m y=0
d x + 1i y + 2 x d x + 1i y = 2
2 2
2
2
1
4. If y = a sin (log x), show that
17. If y = e cos x j , show that
−1 2
2
x y1 + xy1 + y = 0
5. If y = a cos (log x), show that
2
d1 − x i y = xy + 2
2
2 1
x y1 + xy1 + y = 0 2 2 2 2 2
6. If y = sin (sin x), show that 18. If p = a cos θ + b sin θ , show that

y2 + y1 tan x + y cos x = 0
2 d 2 p a2 b 2
p+ =
7. If y = cos (m sin–1 x), show that d θ2 p3
19. If y = P sin 2 x − Q cos 2 x , where P and Q are
e1 − x j y2
2 − xy1 + m y = 0
2

d2y
8. If x = sin (log y), show that constant, show that + 4y = 0
dx 2
e1 + x j y2
2 − xy1 = y
20. If y = a sin x + b cos x show that
d2y
+ y=0
a
9. If x = cos log y , show that f a a
dx 2
21. If y = a cos log x + b sin log x f f show that
d1 − x i y2
2 − xy1 = y
x 2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
 Successive Differentiation 595

−1 FG IJ
H K
2
22. If y =
sin x
show that 8. If y = log x + x + 1 , show that
2
1− x
d1 + x i ddx y + x dydx = 0
2

d1 − x i y
2
2
2 − 3 xy1 + m y = 0 2 2

e −1
j
2
L F
9. If y = Mlog G x + x
IJ OP 2

N H KQ
2
23. If y = sin m sin x show that +1 show that

d1 − x i y 2
2 − xy1 + m 2 y = 0
d1 + x i ddx y + x dydx = 2
2
2

2
Type 3: (continued)
−1
a sin x
(C) Problems based on showing that an exponential 10. If y = e , show that
or a logarithmic function satisfies a differential
d1 − x i ddx y − x dxdy = a y
2
equation 2 2
2

Exercise 14.11 11. If y = log a sin x f ,

show that y + b y g + 1 = 0
2
− nx ,
2 1
1. If y = A e nx
+ Be show that y2 = n y 2

F I
y = log G x + a + x J ,
H K
2 2
2. If y = 2 e − 3x − 2 x , Show that
+ 3e 12. If Show that
d2y
dx 2
+ 5⋅
dy
dx
+ 6y = 0 da + x i y + xy = 0
2 2
2 1

−1 Type 3: (continued)
2 sin x
3. If y = e show that
(D) Problems based on showing that parametric

e1 − x j ddx y − x dydx − 4 y = 0
2 functions satisfy differential equations
2
2
Exercise 14.12
d y 4 x+ y 2
b g
4. If x + y = e x − y , show that dx 2 =
x + y+1 b g 2
a f
1. If x = a θ + sin θ y = a 1 + cosθ , show that a f
−1

5. If y = e
m tan x d2y a
show that
2
=− 2.
dx y
d1 + x i ddx y + b2 x − mg dxdy = 0
2
2
2 2. If x = 2 cos θ + 3 sin θ y = 2 sin θ − 3 sin θ show
−1 d2y 13
6. If y = e
tan x
show that that 2
=− 3.
dx y
dx 2
i
+ 1 y2 + 2 x − 1 y1 = 0 b g a f y = a asin θ − θ sin θf ,
3. If x = a cos θ + θ sin θ

7. If y = e
tan x
F 0 < θ < π I show that d y = sec θ 2 3
, show that
H 2K dx aθ 2

ecos xj y − a1 + sin 2 xf y = 0
2
1
596 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F1 − t I F 2t I d2 y
GH 1 + t JK show
2 −1 2
4. If x = cos
−1
GH 1 + t JK
2
y = sin
−1
2
2. If y = x ⋅ tan x show that
dx 2
=
d1 + x2 i 2

d2y
that is independent of t. −
x
F v3 v3 I
dx 2 y=e
H
⋅ a cos x + b sin
K
2
3. If x , show
F 1 − t I = 2 tan
2
2 2
Hint: If x = cos
−1
GH 1 + t JK
2
−1
t
that
d 2 y dy
+ + y = 0.
dx 2 dx
F 2t I = 2 tan t
−1
GH 1 + t JK −1
b g
y
y = sin 2 4. If x = a + bx ⋅ e x show that

5. If x = cos t y = log t show that d2 y dyF I 2

x3 ⋅ = x
H−y
K
d2 y F I
dy
2
= 0 at t =
π dx 2 dx

dx 2
+
H K
dx 2 ax
5. If y = e ⋅ cos bx show that
Type 3: (continued)
(E) Problems based on showing that product of any
i d
y2 − 2 a y1 + a 2 + b 2 y = 0

6. If y = A e ⋅ cos abx + cf
two functions satisfy a differential equation − ax
show that
Exercise 14.13 y + 2 a y + da + b i y = 0
2 1
2 2

n −1
1. If y = x ⋅ sin x Show that 7. If y = x ⋅ log x show that

d
x 2 y2 − 2 xy1 + x 2 + 2 y = 0 i b g
x 2 y2 + 3 − 2n x y1 + n − 1 y = 0 b g 2
 L’Hospital’s Rule 597

15
L’Hospital’s Rule

Question: What is L’Hospital’s rule?

bg
f x
F bxg
Answers: L’Hospital’s rule is a rule permitting the Proof: lim
evaluation of an indeterminate quotient of functions x→a

as the quotient of the limits of their derivatives. f b x g − f ba g

sin x x−a
Example: 1. lim
F b x g − F ba g
x→0 x
is an indeterminate of the = lim
x→a
0 cos x
form but it can be evaluated as lim =1 x−a
0 x→0 1
[Since f (a) = F (a) = 0]
Indeterminate Forms f′ab g , F ′ bag ≠ 0
F ′ba g
=
There are eight indeterminate forms involving
difference, product, quotient or power of 0 and ∞ ( in
e.g. If f a x f = e x − 1j
2
connection with finding limit) which we face in practice
0 ∞
which are (1) (2) (3) 0 × ∞ F (x) = (x – 1)
0 ∞
∞ a=1
(4) ∞ − ∞ (5) 0 ∞ (6) ∞ (7) 00 (8) 1 which we face
0

in practice are the expressions known as indeterminate af

f a 0 af
f′ x 2x
forms of the given functions for the limit. then
af
F a
=
0 and
lim
x →1 af
F′ x
= lim
x → 1 1
=2

∞
Remember: 1 0 = 1,
0
∞
= 0 or = ∞ is the e x − 1j .
2

ax − 1f
0 which is lim
determinate form having a meaning for the given x →1
expression for the limit.
Method of Evaluating Limits in
Statement of L’Hospital’s Rule
Indeterminate Forms

bg bg af
f′ x
If lim f x = lim F x = 0 and
x→a x→a af
F′ x
, where
1. Evaluation of
0
0
and
∞
∞
forms:
f ′ and F ′ are the derivatives of f and F, approaches
af f xaf0 f x ∞ af
af af
f x = or, lim =
af
a limit as x approaches a, then approaches the If lim
F x x→a g x 0 x → a g x ∞
same limit. then we adopt the following working rule:
598 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Working rule: 1. Go on differentiating numerator and The above types of indeterminate forms and the
denominator separately till we get a definite value at working rule for these indeterminate forms may be
x = a. This working rule may be expressed in the put in the chart form in the following way.
symbolic form in the following way
af
f x f′ x af f ′′ x af Types of indeterminate working rules
lim
x→a af
g x
= lim
x → a g′ x af
= lim
x → a g ′′ x af froms at x = a

af
f ′′′ x f 0
= lim
f f′
= lim = lim
f ′′
= lim
af= ... = a definite value 1. lim
g g′ g ′′
x→a g ′′′ x g 0
f ∞

N.B.: Any one of the M

L f ′ axf OP , LM f ′′ axf OP , 2. lim =
g ∞
= lim
f ′′′
g ′′′
= ... then any one of

N g ′ axf Q N g ′′ axf Q
x=a x=a these which is not meaningless

LM f ′′′ axf OP , ...etc which first provide us a at x = a will give the required
answer.
N g ′′′ axf Q x=a
f g
definite value (i.e.; not meaningless form) will give us 3. lim f ⋅ g = ∞ ⋅0 lim or and then use
1 1
the answer.
g f
2. Working rule to evaluate 0 ⋅ ∞ at x = a L’Hospital’s rule
FG lim f b xg ⋅ g b xg = 0 ⋅ ∞IJ
Hx→a K For this indeterminate
f
4. lim f
g ∞
=1 lim
log f
1
or lim
g
1
then
form, we are required to change f ⋅ g = which g log f
1g
a f
⇒ lim f ⋅ g should be changed into lim
f
1g
or
g 0
use L’Hospital’s rule. If
5. lim f =0 L’Hospital’s rule. If L’Hospital’s
g
to lim , then apply L’Hospital’s rule. rule applied to one of these give
1 f
afaf
g 0
g x 6. lim f =∞ 'b' = a finite value for the limit,
3. Working rule to evaluate lim f x which
x→a then answer to the original
∞ 0 0 problem in exponential form is eb.
provides us 1 , 0 , ∞ at x = a .
For these indeterminate forms, we are required to 1 1
−
FG log f IJ FG g IJ
H 1g K a f
7. lim f − g = ∞ − ∞ lim
g f
eH
1 log f K
, then use
g 1 1
change f into e or , then we apply ⋅
g f
L’Hospital’s rule.
4. lim
x→a
b f a xf − g a xfg = ∞ − ∞ form: L’Hospital’s rule which will
directly give us the answer.
Working rule to evaluate a∞ − ∞f . Remember: 1. Some times L’Hospital’s rule may fail
For this indeterminate form, we write to lead to any fruitful result. In such situation, we use
FG 1 − 1 IJ the usual method of finding limit of the given
Hg f K function.
f −g=
FG 1 ⋅ 1 IJ and then we use L’Hospital’s af
f x x
H f gK Example: Let
af
g x
=
1+ x
2
as x → ∞

rule which provide us the required answer.

 L’Hospital’s Rule 599

af
f x x a f
can be reduced to the indeterminate form 0 × ∞
Here , lim
af = lim =1
which can be further reduced to F I or F I form.
x→∞ g x x→∞ 1
1+ 0 ∞
x
2
H 0K H ∞ K
f a xf
But L’Hospital’s rule gives us
f′ x bg 1 1 + x2 7. The students must not differentiate
g axf
as a
g′ x bg
=
x
=
x fraction. The numerator and the denominator have to
1+ x 2
be differentiated separately.
8. Differentiation of numerator and denominator is
af
f ′′ x x 1+ x
2
x f x af performed w.r.t. the variable which converges
af
g ′′ x
=
1
=
1+ x
2
=
g x af 9. L’Hospital’s rule involves differentiating the
functions. This is why it is useful only when the
= original function which ⇒ limiting value can functions are easily differentiable.
10. L’Hospital’s rule may be applied repeatedly till we
not be obtained by L’Hospital’s rule.
2. Generally, functions involving surds should be get a definite value value at x = a or when x → a
avoided for application of L’Hospital’s rule. (i.e.; lim x = a).
N.B.: 1. To evaluate limit of a function whose value
0 ∞
x−a +
2
x −a
2
at x → a is 00 , ∞ or 1 (in exponential form), we
For example, to evaluate lim , are required to take the logarithm first and then
x→0 3x + a − 2 x + a
proceed.
we first go for rationalization instead of L’Hospital’s
0 e
e.g. lim x x = 00 form
x→0
j
rule though it has the form .
0
x log x
3. L-Hospital rule is applicable only when the 3 y = x ⇒ log y = x log x =
0 ∞ 1
indeterminate expression has the form or in x
0 ∞
the limit. 1
log x
4. If the indeterminate expressions of the given ⇒ lim log y = lim = lim x
F 0 I or FH ∞ IK ,
x→0 x→0 1 x→0 1
− 2
H 0K ∞
functions as x → a do not assume x x
F 0 I or
H 0K
x 0
we are required first to change that form into = − lim x = 0 which ⇒ lim x = e = 1
F ∞ I by simplification or using any mathematical
x→0 x→0

H ∞K 2. lim + log x = − ∞ , lim e = + ∞

x→0 x → +∞
x

manipulation.
a f
x
log 1 = 0 , lim e = 0
5. The two indeterminate forms 0 × ∞ and
a
x → −∞
f
∞ − ∞ can be easily evaluated by reducing them
lim log x = ∞
F 0I or F ∞ I . x → +∞
to the form
H 0K H ∞ K 3. log a m = log b m ⋅ log a b
6. The three indeterminate exponential forms 00,
∞ 0 1
1 ,∞ can easily be evaluated by first taking = logb m ⋅
logarithm. By taking logarithm, all these three forms logb a
600 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
log b m d
= x sin a − a sin x
logb a 3 log b a ⋅ log a b = 1 dx
= lim

=
log m
( 3 when the base is same in numerator
x→a d
dx
x−a a f
log a
and in denominator, the base may be omitted for sin a − a cos x
= lim
easiness of computation) x→a 1
This formula may be remembered by the equality:
= sin a − a cos x x=a
= sin a − a cos α
m
m x sin a − a sin x
= b ∴ lim
a a x→a x−a
b
= sin a − a cos α
(This formula is known as changing into the same
base formula or base changing formula) tan x − tan y
3. Evaluate lim
F 0I . x→y x− y
Type 1: Problems based on indeterminate form
H 0K tan x − tan y 0 F I
Examples worked out:
Solution: 3 lim
x→y x− y
=
0
form
H K
1. Evaluate lim sin x d
x→0 x tan x − tan y
tan x − tan y dx
sin x 0 F I ∴ lim
x− y
= lim
a f
H K
x→y x→y d
Solution: 3 lim = form x− y
x→0 x 0 dx

d 2
sin x sec x − 0 2
sin x dx cos x = lim = lim sec x
∴ lim = lim = lim x→ y 1 x→y
x→0 x x→0 d
dx
x bg
x→0 1
2 2
sec x = sec y
x=y
= cos x x=0
= cos 0 = 1
tan x − tan y
∴ lim = sec 2 y .
sin x x→y x− y
∴ lim = lim cos x = 1
x→0 x x→0 -1 -1
sin x − tan x
4. Evaluate lim
x sin a − a sin x x→0
x
3
2. Evaluate lim .
x→a x−a

F I sin x − tan x
-1 -1
F 0 formI
Solution: 3 lim
x→a
x sin a − a sin x
x−a
=
0
0
form
H K
Solution: 3 lim
x→0
x
3
=
H0 K
-1 -1
x sin a − a sin x sin x − tan x
∴ lim ∴ lim 3
x→0
x→a x−a x
 L’Hospital’s Rule 601

d -1 -1
sin x − tan x LM sin x − x + x OP 3

Solution: 3 lim M 6 P = F 0 formI

dx
= lim
x→0 d
x
3
e j x→0 MM x PP H 0 K
5
dx
N Q
1
−
1
F sin x − x + x I 3

1− x
2
1+ x
2
F 0 formI ∴ lim G
G J
6 J
= lim
x→0
3x
2
=
H0 K x→0 GG x 5
JJ
H K
LM OP d F x I
3

G J
d 1 1
dx MN 1− x
2
1+ x
− 2 PQ dx H
sin x − x +
6K
= lim = lim
x→0 d
dx
3x
2
e j x→0 d
dx
ex j 5

1 2
2x 2x cos x − 1 + x 0 F I
+
H K
= lim 2 =
e j e1 + x j
form
2 32 2 2 x→0 4
2 1− x 5x 0
= lim
x→0 6x
F 1 2 I
H K
d
cos x − 1 + x
LM OP = lim
dx 2

= lim
1
MM 1 + P 2
x→0 d
5x
4
e j
e1 + x j PQ
dx
N e1 − x j
x→0 6 2 32 2 2

F - sin x + x I = F 0 formI
= lim G
L OP x→0
H 20 x JK H 0 K
3

1 M
= M
1
+
2
P a- sin x + x f
6 M
e1 + x j PQ
d
N e1 − x j
2 32 2 2
dx
x=0 = lim

1 3 1
x→0 d
dx
e20 x j 3

= × 1+ 2 = =
− cos x + 1 F 0 I
6 6 2

which ⇒ lim
sin -1 x − tan -1 x
=
1
= lim
x→0
60 x
2
=
H 0
form
K
x→0 x3 2

LM sin x − x + x OP 3
d
dx
a
- cos x + x f
= lim
Evaluate lim M 6 P
e j
x→0 d 2
5.
MM x
x→0 PP 5 dx
60 x

N Q sin x 0 F I
= lim
x→0 120 x
=
0
form
H K
602 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

d − cos x
= lim
dx
sin x
cos x cos x LM OP x→0 2 cos x + 1 ⋅ cos x − x sin x
= lim
x→0 d
120 xa
= lim
x → 0 120
f
=
120 N Q x=0
LM − cos x OP = − 1
=
N 3 cos x − x sin x Q
dx
3
x=0
cos 0 1
=
120
=
120
which ⇒ lim M
L x cos x − sin x OP = − 1
F sin x − x + x I 3
x→0MN x sin x PQ 3
2

which ⇒ lim G
G 6 J = 1
JJ 120 N.B.: In practice, differentiation of numerator and
x→0
GH x K
5 denominator is done separately mentally as below
just for saving time.
F x cos x − sin x I
6. Evaluate lim G
F x cos x − sin x I lim GH x sin x JK
H x sin x JK
x→0 2
x→0 2

1 ⋅ cos x − x sin x − cos x

Solution: 3 lim G
F x cos x − sin x I = F 0 formI = lim

H x sin x JK H 0 K
x→0 2
2 x sin x + x cos x
x→0 2

− sin x
= lim
∴ lim G
F x cos x − sin x I x→0 2 sin x + x cos x
x→0
H x sin x JK 2
= lim
− cos x
x→0 2 cos x + cos x − x sin x
d
dx
a
x cos x − sin x f − cos x 1
= lim = lim =−
3 cos x − x sin x
x→0 d 2
x sin x e j x→0 3
dx
F ∞I .
1 ⋅ cos x − x sin x − cos x F0 I
Type 2: Problems based on indeterminate form
H ∞K
= lim
x→0
2 x sin x + x cos x
2
=
H0 form
K Examples worked out:

a− x sin x f 1. Find lim

log x
= lim
a f
x→0 cot x
x→0 x 2 sin x + x cos x

F I
log x ∞ F I
− sin x 0
H K
Solution: y = =
∞
form
H K
= lim
a
x → 0 2 sin x + x cos x
=
f
0
form cot x
1
log x
d
dx
a− sin xf ⇒ lim y = lim
x→0 x → 0 cot x
= lim
x→0
x
2
− cosec x
= lim
x→0 d
b2 sin x + acos xf ⋅ a xfg e− sin xj = F 0 formI
2

H0 K
dx
= lim
x→0 x
 L’Hospital’s Rule 603

= lim
− 2 sin x cos x 0
= =0 e −e
x
F 0 formI
a

ax − af H 0 K
x→0 1 1 = lim x
=
x→a
e
2
log x x a
2. Find lim e e
= lim = =1
a f
x→0 2
cot x x→a x x a
e ⋅1 + x − a e e +0

log x
2
F ∞ formI F π I
Solution: y =
cot x
2
=
H∞ K 4. Find lim
log x −
H 2 K
π tan x
x→
2 2
log x
⇒ lim y = lim
x→0 x→0 2
FG π IJ
cot x log x −
H 2 K = FG ∞ formIJ
FG 1 IJ ⋅ b2 xg Solution: limπ
tan x H∞ K
Hx K
x→
2 2
= lim
x→0
e − cosec x j ⋅ b2 xg
2 2
FG π IJ
⇒ lim
log x −
H 2 K
e − sin x
2 2
j = F 0 formI x→
π
2
tan x
= lim
x→0
x
2 H0 K 1
F x − πI
e− 2 sin x 2
⋅ cos x ⋅ 2 x
2
j H 2 K = F ∞ formI
= lim
x→0 2x
= lim
x→
π
2
sec x H∞ K2

e
= lim − 2 sin x ⋅ cos x
2 2
j = a− 2f ⋅ a0f ⋅ a1f = 0 cos x
2
F 0 I
= lim
F I H =
K
x→0 form
π π
a f H K
0
x→ x−
log x − a 2
2
3. Find lim
x→a
log e − e e j x a

= lim
2 cos x ⋅ a− sin xf
= lim
a− sin 2 xf = 0
π π
log a x − a f F ∞ formI x→ 1 x→ 1
2 2

log ee − e j H ∞ K
Solution: y = = x a 5. Find lim sin x ⋅ log x
x→0

log b x − a g
log x
Solution: y = sin x ⋅ log x =
⇒ lim y = lim
log ee − e j
cosec x
x→a x→a x a

log x ∞ FG IJ
FG 1 IJ
⇒ lim y = lim
x →0 x →0 cosec x
=
∞
form
H K
H x − aK F ∞ I F 1I
= lim
x→a F 1 I ⋅ e = H ∞ formK H xK
GH e − e JK
x a
x
= lim
x →0 a− cosec x ⋅ cot xf (by L-Hospital rule)
604 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM sin x OP 2 bg b
⇒ lim y = lim x log x = 0 × ∞ form
x→0 x→0
g
= lim −
x →0MN x ⋅ cos x PQ log x F ∞ I
F sin x IJ ⋅ atan xf
= lim
F I =
H ∞
form
K
= lim a− 1f ⋅ G
x→0 1
x →0 H x K H xK
= a− 1f ⋅ a1f ⋅ a0f = 0 1

atan 2 xf FG − IJ = lim a− xf = 0
= lim x
6. Find lim log tan x x→0 1 x→0

H xK
x →0
2

a
Solution: y = log tan x tan 2 x = f log tan 2 x
log tan x F 1I
LMby base changing formulaOP
2. Determine lim x ⋅ tan
x→∞ H xK
MN log m = log m
PQ F 1I
Solution: y = x ⋅ tan G J
H xK
b
a
log a b

log tan 2 x ∞ F I F 1I
⇒ lim y = lim x ⋅ tan G J = b0 × ∞ formg
⇒ lim y = lim
x→0 x→0 log tan x
=
∞
form
H K x→∞ x→∞ H xK
FG 1 ⋅ sec 2 x ⋅ 2IJ F 1I
H tan 2 x K [by L- Hospital rule]
2 tan
H x K = F 0 formI
= lim
H0 K
= lim
FG 1 ⋅ sec xIJ x→∞ 1
x→0

H tan x K
2
x
F 1 I ⋅ FG − 1 IJ
H xK H x K
2
sec
FG 2 IJ
2

H sin 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x K = lim 2 sin x cos x

= lim
x→∞ FG − 1 IJ
= lim
x→0 FG 1 IJ sin 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x
x→0
H xK 2

H sin x cos x K F 1I = 1
H xK
2
= lim sec
x→∞
2 sin 2 x F 0 I
H 0 formK 3. Determine lim a1 − x f tan FG IJ
= lim = πx
x→0 sin 4 x
x →1 H2K
2 cos 2 x ⋅ 2 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2
= lim = =1
Solution: y = b1 − x g tan G
F π x IJ
x → 0 cos 4 x ⋅ 4 1⋅ 4
H2K
Type 3: Problems based on the indeterminate form
⇒ lim y = lim b1 − x g tan G
F π x IJ = b0 × ∞ formg
a0 × ∞ f . x→1 x→1 H2K
Examples worked out:
F π x IJ
tan G
FG sec π x IJ ⋅ FG π IJ
H2K H 2 K H 2K
2
1. Determine lim x log x
x→0
= lim = lim
x →1 1 x →1 1
Solution: y = x log x
b1− x g b1 − xg 2
 L’Hospital’s Rule 605

a1 - xf ⋅ FH π2 IK F 0 I x sin x 0 F I
2 = lim
x→0 x cos x + sin x
=
0 H
form
K
= lim
x →1 F π x I = H 0 formK asin x + x cos x f
H2K
2
cos 0+0 0
a− x sin x + 2 cos x f
= lim
x→0
= = =0
0+2 2
F πI
2 b1 - x g ⋅ b− 1g ⋅ G J F cot x − 1 I
H 2K G xJ
= lim
FG 2 cos π x IJ ⋅ FG − sin π x IJ ⋅ FG π IJ 3. Evaluate lim G JJ
x →1
H 2 K H 2 K H 2K GH
x→0 x
K
2 a1 - x f a− 2f FG cot x − 1 IJ
= lim
x →1 sin π x
= lim
aπf acos π x f
x→1
Solution: y=
H xK
x
−2 2
=
a fa f
π -1
=
π F cot x − 1 I
Type 4: Problem based on the indeterminate form ⇒ lim y = lim
H xK

a∞ − ∞f .
x→0 x→0 x

FG x cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ FG x IJ
Examples worked out:
a
1. Evaluate lim cosec x − cot x f
= lim
x→0 H x 3
K H sin x K
x→0

= lim G
F x cos x − sin x IJ ⋅ 1 = F 0 formI
H x K H0 K
Solution: y = (cosec x – cot x)
b g b g x→0 3
⇒ lim y = lim cosec x − cot x = ∞ – ∞ form
a− x sin xf = lim a− sin xf = F 0 formI
x→0 x→0

a1 − cos x f = F 0 formI = lim

H0 K
H0 K
2
= lim x→0
3x x→0
3x
x→0 sin x
− cos x 1
sin x 0 = lim =−
= lim = =0 x→0 3 3
x → 0 cos x 1

2. Evaluate lim F − cot xI

Type 5: Problems based on indeterminate form
1
x→0 Hx K 0 ∞
∞ , 1 , 0 etc.
0

F1
Solution: y = G − cot xJ
I Examples worked out:

Hx K 1. Find lim sec x

π
a f cot x

x→
F1 I
⇒ lim y = lim G − cot xJ = b∞ − ∞ formg
2

Hx K FG π IJ
H K
x→0 x→0
Solution: Let y = (sec x)cot x = ∞ 0 form as x →

= lim G
F sin x − x cos x IJ = F 0 formI ∴ log y = cot x ⋅ log sec x
2

x→0 H x sin x K H 0 K ⇒ lim log y = lim cot x log sec x

π π
x→ x→
2 2
606 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

log sec x sec x ⋅ tan x sec x log sin x − log x

= lim = lim ⇒ lim log y = lim
π π 2
x→ tan x x→ sec x x→0 x→0 x2
2 2
(by L’Hospital’s rule) 1
cot x −
tan x sin x 2 ⇒ lim log y = lim x
= lim = lim ⋅ cos x x→0 x→0 2x
π 2 π cos x
x→ sec x x→
2 2
1 1
= lim sin x cos x = 0 −
π tan x x
x→ ⇒ lim log y = lim
2 x→0 x→0 2x
F I
⇒ log GG lim JJ
y = 0 = log 1 = lim
x − tan x
= lim
x − tan x
⋅
x

H K
π x→0 2 x→0 3
x→ 2 x tan x 2x tan x
2

as log x a is continuous function for x > 0. 2

x − tan x 1 − sec x
= lim ⋅ 1 = lim
⇒ lim y = 1 x→0 3 x→0 2
x→
π 2x 6x
2

a f − tan 2 x FG − 1 IJ FG tan x IJ 2
1
2. Find lim 1 + sin x
H 6K H x K
cot x
= lim = lim =−
x→0 x→0 6x 2 x→0 6
Solution: Let y = (1 + sin x)cot x
∴ log y = log (1 + sin x)cot x = cot x log (1 + sin x) 1
which ⇒ lim log y = −
a
log 1 + sin x f x →0 6

tan x
F I 1 −
1

cos x H
⇒ log lim y = −
x →0 K 6
⇒ lim y = e 6
x →0

a1 + sin x f =1
F sin x IJ = e
1
⇒ lim log y = lim 1

⇒ lim G
−

H x K
2 2
x→0 x→0 x 6
sec x
x →0
⇒ lim log y = log e
4. Find lim acos θf
x→0 cos θ

F lim yI = log e ⇒ lim θ→

π

⇒ log
H K y=e
2
x→0 x→0

b g cos θ FG π IJ
FG sin x IJ
1
Solution: y = cos θ
H
= 00 from as θ →
2 K
H x K
2

a f = cos θ log cos θ

x
3. Find lim cos θ
x→0 ⇒ log y = log cos θ

lim acos θ log cos θf

F sin x IJ ⇒ lim log y =
1

y=G e j
x2 π π

H x K
∞ θ→ θ→
Solution: = 1 form as x → 0 2 2

⇒ lim log y = lim cos θ log cos θ

π π
F sin x IJ
1 θ→ θ→
⇒ log y = log G
x2 1 sin x 2 2

H x K = 2 log
x x
 L’Hospital’s Rule 607

log cos θ ∞ F I e
Solution: y = x b1 − x g = 1∞ form, as x → 1
1

j
= lim
θ→
π sec θ
=
∞
form
H K
2
UV = 1 ⋅ log x
RS
⇒ log y = log x b1 − x g
1

− tan θ 1 LM OP TW b1 − x g
= lim
θ→
π
= lim −
sec θ ⋅ tan θ θ → π sec θ N Q log x F0 I
a1− xf = H 0 formK
2 2
⇒ lim log y = lim
x →1 x →1
= lim − cos θ = 0
π
θ→
1
F I
2
1
⇒ log lim y = 0 ⇒ lim y = e = 1
π
θ→ θ→
π
0
x → 1 −1 a f
⇒ lim x = lim −
x →1 x
= −1
H K
F I a f
2 2

H K
−1
1 ⇒ log lim y = −1 which ⇒ lim y = e = 1
5. Find lim cos x
x→0
a f x
2 x →1

x
x →1 e

7. Find lim x
x →0

b g
1
Solution: y = cos x x2
e
= 1∞ form as x → 0 j Solution: y = xx = (00 form in the limit)
⇒ log y = log xx = x log x = ( 0 × ∞ form ) a f
f a
1

⇒ log y = log cos x a f x

2
⇒ lim log y = lim x log x
x→0 x→0

=
1 log x F ∞ I
F 1 I = H ∞ formK
log cos x = lim
x2 x→0

FG 1 log cos xIJ = b0 × ∞ formg H xK

⇒ lim log y = lim
x→0 Hx x→0 K 2
1
log cos x F 0 I
H K FG − IJ (by L-Hospital rule)
= lim x
= lim = form
x→0 0 2 x→0 1
H xK
x
F − tan x IJ = F 0 formI
2

= lim G
x→0 H 2x K H0 K = lim a− x f = 0
x→0

8. Find lim F1 + I
2
− sec x 1 a
x
= lim =−
x→0 2 2 x→∞ H xK
F lim yI = − 1 F aI
Solution: y = G1 + J = e1 form in the limit j
x
⇒ log
H K 2
x→0 H xK
∞

−
1
FG a IJ x
FG a IJ = b0 × ∞ formg
⇒ lim y = e ⇒ log y = log 1 +
H xK = x log 1 +
H xK
2
x→0

1
LM F a I OP
H KQ
−
6. Find lim x 1 x
x →1
⇒ lim log y = lim x log 1 +
x→∞ x→∞ N x
608 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F aI Solve the simultaneous equations involving

H x K = F 0 formI
log 1 + constants.

F 1I H 0 K
= lim 5. That the given limit is finite may give a relation
x→∞
H xK
between the constants.
Examples worked out:

1 F −a I
⋅G J
1. Find the values of a and b such that
b g
F1 + I H x K 2 x 1 + a cos x − b sin x
=1
H xK
a lim
x→0 2
x
= lim
x→∞ FG − 1 IJ a f
1 + a cos x + x − a sin x − b cos x
H xK 2 Solution: Limit = lim
x →0
3x
2

[by L-Hospital rule]

a This limit = ∞ if 1 + a − b ≠ 0
= lim
x→∞ F1 + a I
H xK But limit = 1 (given)
∴1 + a ⋅ b = 0 …(i)
=a
1 + a cos x − b cos x − ax sin x F 0 formI
F I ∴ limit = lim =
H0 K
H K
x→0 2
⇒ log lim y = a 3x

a f
x→∞
1 + a − b cos x − ax sin x
a = lim
⇒ lim y = e x→0
3x
2
x→∞

Type 6: Problems based on finding the values of

= lim
a f
0 − a − b sin x − a sin x + x cos x a f [by
constants occuring in f (x) from the known limiting x→0 6x
value. using L-Hospital rule]
Working rule: To find the values of the constants
= lim
LM ab − a f ⋅ sin x − a ⋅ sin x − a cos x OP
N 6 x 6 x 6 Q
from the given finite limit, we adopt the following
x→0
working rule:
1. find the limit using L’Hospital’s rule for the given
function in case of indeterminate form. =
ab − a f − a − a = ab − 3a f
2. Equate the limit of the given function determined 6 6 6 6
by using L’Hospital’s rule to the given value of the
limit of the given function and form an equation which ⇒ limit =
ab − 3a f …(ii)
6
involving constants only.
But this limit is given to be equal to 1 …(iii)
3. Observe whether limit should assume
Equation (ii) and (iii), we get
indeterminate forms
0 ∞
a ∞
f 0 0 0
, , 0 ⋅∞ , ∞ − ∞ , 0 , ∞ , 0 , 1 etc or not.
ab − 3a f = 1 ⇒ ab − 3af = 6 …(iv)
0 ∞ 6
0 ∞ solving (i) and (iv) ⇒ 1 + a − b = 0
4. If the limit is , , ... etc., we have a relation
0 ∞ b − 3a = 6
between the constants we again use L’Hospital’s rule
1 − 2a = 6
and find the limit which is equatied to given limit of
the given function and form another equation ⇒ − 2a = 6 − 1
involving constants.
 L’Hospital’s Rule 609

⇒a=−
5
2
...(v)
3. lim
ex 2
je
− 5x + 6 x − 3 x + 2
2
j
x→2 3 2
5 x − 3x + 4
Now, putting a = − in (1),
2
2
x −9
5 4. lim
⇒1− − b = 0 x→3 x−3
2

⇒b =1−
5
=−
3
5. lim
b1 + xg − 1 5

2 2 x→0 3x + 5x 2
5 3
Thus, a = − ,b = − 2
2 2 x − x−2
6. lim 2
Note: The following argument to have 1 + a – b = 0 is x →2
x + x−6
wrong.

Limit = lim
a
1 + a cos x + x − a sin x − b cos x f 7. lim
a + 2x − 3x
b
; a>0 g
x→0
3x
2 x→a 3a + x − 2 x
[using L’ Hospital rule] Answers:
1+ a −b 3 3 1
= …(i) 1. 2. 3. − 4. 6
0 7 4 3
but this limit is given to be equal to 1 …(ii)
5 3 2
equating (i) and (ii), we get 5. 6. 7.
3 5 3 3
1+ a −b
=1 Type: continued
0
Problems based on a combination of algebraic and
⇒1+ a − b = 0×1
trigonometric functions
⇒ 1 + a − b = 0 (inaccurate reasoning)
Exercise 16.2
0 ∞
Type 1: Form: and
0 ∞ Evaluate (using L-Hospital rule)
Problems based on algebraic functions 1 − cos x
1. lim 2
x →0
Exercise 16.1 x
sin x − cos x
Evaluate (using L’Hospital’s rule) 2. limπ π
x→ 4
x−
3 2 4
3x + 4 x + 5
1. lim
x→∞ 3
7 x − 5x + 7 tan 2 x − x
3. lim
x →0 3x − sin x
2
3n + 4n + 5
2. lim 2
cos x − 1
n→ ∞
4n + 6n − 7 4. lim 2
x →0
x
610 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

5. lim
x →0
tan x − x
3 19. lim
ba + hg 2
b g
sin a + h − a 2 sin a
x h→0 h
x − sin x 1 − cos 2 x
6. lim 3 20. lim
x →0 2
x x →0
x
tan x − sin x cos x
7. lim 3 21. limπ
x →0
sin x x→ 2 π − 2x
2 −1
x cos y
8. lim 22. lim
x →0 1 − cos x y →1 y−1

x sin α − α sin x sec 2 x − 2 tan x

9. lim 23. limπ ⋅x
x →0 x−α x→ 4 1 + cos 4 x
tan x − sin x x + sin π x
10. lim 3 24. lim
x →0
x x →0 x − sin π x
−1
2 x − sin x sin x
11. lim −1
25. lim
x →0 x →0 x
2 x + tan x

sin x
−1
26. lim
a
sin π − x f
12. lim x→π π− x
x →0 x
Answers:
−1
tan x 1 1 1 1
2 3. 2 4. − 2 5. 3
13. lim 1. 2.
x →0 x 2
2 1 1
sec x − 2 tan x 6. 7. 8. 2 9. sin α − α cos α
14. limπ
x→ 4 1 + cos 4 x 6 2
1 1 1
x − sin x 10. 11. 12. 1 13. 1 14.
15. lim 3
2 3 2
x →0
x
1 1 1
tan x − x 15. 16. 17. 18. ∞
16. lim 6 3 4 2
x →0 2
x tan x
19. 2 a sin a + a 2 cos a 20. 2
2 − cos θ − sin θ 1 π
17. θlim
→π 4 b4 θ − π g 2 21.
2
22. − ∞ 23.
8

x b1 + a cos x g − b sin x 1+ π
18. lim , ba > b − 1g 24.
1− π
25. 0 26. 0
x →0 x3
 L’Hospital’s Rule 611

Type 1: Continued.
Problems based on a combination of algebraic, 11. xlim
x log 1 + x a f
→0 1 − cos x
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric or inverse
trigonometric functions
12. lim
x
x e − log 1 + x a f
x →0 2
Exercise 16.3 x

Evaluate (using L’Hospital’s rule) 13. xlim

x cos x − log 1 + x a f
→0 2

1. lim
x e x − log 1 + x b g x
1 3
x →0 x2 sin x − x + x
a f 14. lim 6
x cos x − log 1 + x x →0
x
5
2. xlim
→0 2
x x −x
e + e − 2 cos x
x −x 15. lim
e − 2 cos x + e x →0 x sin x
3. lim
x →0 x sin x
x −x
e −e
x −x 16. lim
e − 2 cos x + e x →0 sin x
Hint: lim
x →0 x sin x

x −x
F x IJ e
x 1−e
αx
j
⋅G
e − 2 cos x + e 17. lim
lim
x →0
x
2
H sin x K x →0

Answers:
cos α x − 1

4. lim
a
log x + h − log x f 3 1 1 1
h→0 h 1. 2. 3. 2 4. 5. 6. 1
2 2 x 2 5

5. lim
x+4 − 5
F aI
h →1 x −1 7. log a 8. log
H bK 9. 2 k 10. 1 11. 2

log x
6. lim
x →1 ax −1 f 12. 2 13.
1
2
14.
1
120
15. 2 16. 2 17.
2
α
x
a −1 Type 1: Continued
7. lim
x →0 x
∞
x x Problems based on only on the form:
a −b ∞
8. lim
x →0 x
Exercise 16.4

9. lim
log 1 + k x e 2
j
x →0 1 − cos x Evaluate

e −e
x −x
−2 1. lim
log x − a a f
10. lim
x →0
x
2
x →a
e
log e − e
x a
j
612 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F π I Type 2: Continued
b g
2. limπ
log x −
H 2 K Problems based on the form: ∞ − ∞
x→ 2 tan x
Exercise 16.6
2
log x
3. lim 2
Evaluate
x →0

LM 1 − 1 OP
cot x

4. lim
x −2
2 1. lim
x →0 MN x sin x PQ
2 2

L 1 − 1 OP
x →∞ 2
3x + 1
lim M
e
x
2.
x →0 MN sin x x PQ
2 2

5. lim
L1 O
x →∞ 8
x
lim M − cot x P
Answers: 3.
x →0 Nx Q
1. 1 2. 0 3. 0 4.
1
5. ∞ L x − 1 OP
lim M
N x − 1 log x Q
3 4.
Type 2: Form: 0 ⋅ ∞ and ∞ − ∞ a f x →1

Problems based on the form: 0 ⋅ ∞ 5. limπ sec θ − tan θ

θ→ 2

Exercise 16.5 6. lim cosec θ − cot x

x →0

LM a − cot x OP
Nx aQ
Evaluate 7. lim

a f FG π x IJ x →0

1. lim 1 − x ⋅ tan
H2K L 1 − x OP ⋅ FG x − 2 IJ
8. lim M
x →1

2. lim x log x
x →0
N log x x − 1Q H x K
x →1

F 1I 9. lim M
L 1 − 2 x OP
3. lim x ⋅ tan
x →∞ H xK N log 2 x 2 x − 1 Q
x → 21

lim a1 + cos π x f ⋅ cot

L 2 − 1 OP
10. lim M
2
πx
MN x − 1 x − 1 PQ
4.
x →1 x →1 2

2 −2 x
5. lim x e
x →∞ L
11. lim M x − x − 1P
O 2

6. lim x ⋅ e
−x x →∞N Q
x →∞
L
12. lim M x − x log 1 +
F 1 I OP
H xKQ
2
Answers:
2 1
x →∞N
1. 2. 0 3. 1 4. 5. 0 6. 0 Answers:
π 2
1 1 1
1. − 2. 3. 0 4. 5. 0 6. 0
3 3 2
 L’Hospital’s Rule 613

7. 0 8.
1
2
9. −
1
2
10. −
1
2
11. 0 12.
1
2
a f
6. lim cos x
x →0
cot x
2

∞ ∞
F tan x IJ
0 0
Type 3: Problems based on the form: 0 , ∞ , 0 , 1
lim G
1

H x K
x

7.
Problems based on the form : 0 ∞ , ∞ 0 , 0 0 x →0
(exponential form of 0 and ∞ )
lim asec x f
cot x
8.
x → π2
Exercise 16.7
lim a tan x f
cos x
9.
x → π2
Evaluate
F 1I tan x
af
H xK
1
x −1
1. xlim 10. lim x
→0 x →1

lim acosec x f lim a1 + sin x f

1 1
x
2. log x 11.
x →0 x →0

lim a1 + x f lim acosec x f

1 sin x
3. x 12.
x →∞ x →0

lim e1 − x j lim acos x + a sin b x f

a f
1
2 log 1 − x 1
4. 13. x

x →1 x →0

lim F a − 1I F xI
x m

H K
1

H mK
x
5. 14. lim cos
x →∞ m→∞
Answers:
1
lim G
F tan x IJ 1
2

H xK
x
1. 1 2. 3. 1 4. e 5. log a 15.
e x →0

Type 3: Continued a f
lim M
L 3x − 4 O
x +1

N 3x + 2 PQ
∞ 0
Problems based on the form: 1 , ∞
3

16.
x →∞
Exercise 16.8

lim M
L x − 2 x + 1 OP
2 x

Evaluate 17.
x →∞ MN x − 4 x + 2 PQ
2

a f
1. limπ sin x
tan x

lim acos x f
x→ 2 cot x
18.
lim acot x f x → π2
1
2. log x
x →0

F 2 x + 1IJ 1 19. lim log x

x →1
a f sin π x

lim G
x

3.
x →0 H x +1K 20. lim acot x f
x →0
sin x

F 1I x
lim acos x f
H xK
cot x
4. lim cos 21.
x →∞ x →0

lim G
F sin x IJ 1

lim G
F sin x IJ 1

H xK
2

H xK
x x
5. 22.
x →0 x →0
614 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a
23. lim 1 + sin x
x →0
f 1
x
2. If lim
ae + 3e
x 2x
−b
= 8 , find a and b.
x →0 x
F1I
lim G J
tan x
a
x 1 + a cos x + b sin x f = 1 , find a relation
24.
x →0Hx K 2
3. If lim
x →0
between a and b.
2x

lim alog x f
a f F I
1
1 − log x
25.
x 1 + a cos x + b sin x 0
H K
x →0
Hint: Limit = lim = form
e j
x
1
x
x →0 2x 0
26. lim a + x
x →0
1 + a cos x − ax sin x + b cos x
Answers: = lim
x→0 2
1
3. e 4. 1 5. 1 6. e − 12 7. 1 8. 1 9. 1
a f
1. 1 2. 1
e 1
= 1+ a +b
ab 3 ...(i)
10. e 11. e 12. 1 13. e 14. 1 15. e 2
− 23
16. e 17. e2 18. 1 19. 1 20. 1 21. 1 But this limit = 1 (given) ...(ii)

22. e
− 16
23. e 24. 1 25. 1 26. a · e sin 2 x + a sin x
4. If lim 3
be finite, find the value of
x →0
x
Type 4: Problems based on finding the values of the
constants from the given limit of the function of ‘a’ and the limit.
independent variable. 5. Find the values of a, b and c so that
x −x
ae − b cos x + ce
Exercise 16.9 lim =2
x →0 x sin x
Evaluate Answers:
1. a = 1 2. a = 2 and b = 5 3. a + b = 1
tan x − a sin x 4. a = – 2 and limit = – 1 5. a = 1, b = 2 and c = 1
1. If lim 3 be finite, find a.
x →0
x
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 615

16
Evaluation of Derivatives for
Particular Arguments

Evaluation means to find the value of or to fix the

af LM dy OP F dy I af a f
value of a quantity, e.g.
1. to evaluate 8 + 3 − 4 means to reduce it to 7.
f′ x x=a
=
N dx Q x=a
=
H dx K x=a
= f ′ a , a ∈D f ′

2. to evaluate x 2 + 2 x + 2 for x = 3 means to Question: How to find f ′ x af x=a ?

replace x by 3 and collect the result which is 17.
Answer: To find the derivative values ( or, the values
2
3. to evaluate lim x means to find the limit of x 2 af
of the derivative) at x = a (i.e. f ′ a ), we must first
x→2
differentiate the given function f x by using the af
as x → 2 which is 4.
z f axf dx means to carry
formulas to get the derived function (or, derivative)
4. to evaluate an integral af af
f ′ x and then put x = a in f ′ x if 'a' belongs to the
out integration. af
domain of f ′ x obtained by using general formula

5. to evaluate a definite integral z f a x f dx means to

b or, in other words, to find f ′ a , we adopt the af
following working rule.
a
carry out integration and then substitute the limits of 1. Find the derived function f ′ x by using the af
formulas
af af
integration a and b. Now we shall learn the process
of finding the value of a derived function at a given 2. Put x = a in f ′ x provided f ′ a is not undefined
number or point x = a F i.e; a , 0 I
Defination of a derived function of an independent
variable x: The derivative of a function f (x) is a
H 0 0 K
, etc. and lastly simplify to get the

af
function of x represented as f ′ x which is derived required answer.
from the original function f (x) through a limiting af
3. If f ′ a cannot be obtained thus then we should
process or various techniques. In this sense, the af
find f ′ a directly from the defination [ provided
af
derivative f ′ x is called the derived function and af
f a is defined i.e. a ∈ D f ] af
f ba + hg − f ba g
the graph representing it is called the derived graph.
Notation for the value of the derived function bg
f ′ a = lim bif existsg.
af
f ′ x at x = a. h→0 h
af af
Note: The process of finding f ′ a by differenting a
af
Just as the value of f x for (or, at) x = a is
af af
symbolised as f x x = a = f a , a ∈ D f af function y = f x with the help of known formulas
af
and then putting x = a in f ′ x is fruitful and gives
af
The value of a derivative (or, derived function)
f ′ x for ( or, at) x = a is symbolised as
af
right answer when f ′ x is continuous at x = a.
616 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

R| 2 F 1I , x ≠ 0
H xK
af af
D a ⋅ N ′ a − N a ⋅ D′ a af af
f a xf = S
=
af
x sin
2

|T
Let 0 , x=0 D a
af
Where N x means a function of x in Nr and

af F 1 I FG − 1 IJ + sin F 1 I a2 xf af
D x means a function of x in Dr
H xK H x K H xK
2
Now f ′ x = x cos 2
L d f a xf OP
6. M
F 1 I + 2 x sin F 1 I and lim f ′ a xf N dx Q x=x
= The value of the derivative at a
= − cos
H xK H xK x→0 general point x ∈D f ′ a f
F F 1 I + 2 x sin F 1 I IJ does not exist
= lim G −cos LM d f a x f OP
H H xK
x→0 H xKK 7.
N dx Q = The value of the derivative, not at

F 1 I does not exist ) , so f ′ a x f is

x=a

(because lim cos

x→0 H xK a general point x, but at some definite point namely
a ∈D f ′ a f
not continuous at x = 0. It is not possible to find
af
f ′ 0 by putting x = 0 in f ′ x
However
af 8. Letting F x = a f gf aaxxff where F axf and g a xf are
FG 1 IJ − 0 any two differentiable functions, the derivative of

bg bg bg
f h −f′ 0
h 2 sin
H hK such a function is another function of x as
f ′ 0 lim =
h→0 h
= lim
h→0 h a f a f a f a f and this derivative exists
g x f ′ x − f x ⋅ g′ x

F 1I = 0 lg a x fq 2

lim h sin
H hK at x = 0 provided that denominator is not zero at x = 0
h →0
af
i.e., g 0 ≠ 0
Remember:
a f a f has no derivative at the
9. In general f x = g x
a f point where g a x f = 0 , e.g.
1. To substitute specific values ( or, particular values)

(i) f a x f = x − 1 ⇒ f ′ a1f does not exist

for x = 1, 2, 3, . . . a etc. into the original function f x

(ii) f a x f = 1 + sin x ⇒ f ′ aπ f does not exist

before differentiation is not permissible.

10. If F b x g = f b x g ⋅ g b x g then F ′ ba g may exist

2. Original (or, given function) is also termed as
af
primitive function denoted as f x without dash.
even if f ′ ba g or g ′ ba g does not exist.
LM d b f a xf ± f a xfgOP = LM d f a xf OP
N dx Q N dx Q
1

e.g.: f b x g = x −
3. 1 2 x
x=a x=a cos x

±M
L d f a xf OP = f ′ aaf ± f ′ aaf 2

N dx Q
2
F π + hI − π cos F h + π I
F +I = lim + H 2 K 2 H 2 K
2

π
LM d b f a xf × f a xfgOP ⇒ f′
H2 K
N dx Q
4. h h→0

F I=0
1 2
x=a π
= f ′ba g ⋅ f ′ ba g + f ′ ba g ⋅ f ′ ba g
1 2 2 1
= lim cos h +
H 2K h→0

LM d f b x g OP = LM d N b xg OP F πI
F π I H 2K = 0
h cos h +
MN dx f b xg PQ MN dx D b xg PQ
1

H 2 −K = lim −
5.
and f ′
2 x=a x=a h h→ 0
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 617

F π + I = f ′ F π −I = 0 ⇒ f ′ F π I = 0 ∴
dy
= 5cos x
Hence, f ′
H2 K H2 K H 2K dx
LM OP
dy π
11. lim f ′b x g = ± ∞ ⇒ f b x g is not differentiable at N Q
⇒ = 5 ⋅ cos = 5 × 1 = 5
x→a
dx x = π 2
x = a, where ‘a’ is the root of f b x g = 0 ⇒ f ′ba g
2
dy
does not exist. 4. Find at x = t when y = 2 + tan x
dx
bg b
e.g.: f x = 2 x − 1 g 1
2
Solution: 3 y = 2 + tan x
dy
bg
2
1 ∴ = 0 + sec x
⇒ lim + f ′ x = lim + = +∞ dx
x→ di
1
2
x→ di
1
2
2x − 1
LM OP
dy 2

⇒ f (x) is not differentiable at x =

1
2
⇒
N Q
dx x = t
= sec t

π
1FG IJ 5. Find
dy
at x =
2
when y = x + cos x +
⇒ f′
2 HKdoes not exist.
1
log x
dx 2
Type 1: To find the value of the derived function 2
(obtained by using the power, sum, difference, 2 1
product or quatient rule of d.c.) at the indicated point. Solution: 3 y = x + cos x + log x
2
Examples worked out:
dy 1
∴
dy
dx
1 1
= 2 x − sin x + ⋅ ; x > 0
2 x
b g
at x =
1. Find
dx 2
if (or, when or, for)
LM dy OP = 2 ⋅ π − sin π + 1 × 2
y = 3x + 2 x
2
⇒
N dx Q x=
π
2
2 2 2 π
Solution: 3 y = 3 x 2 + 2 x
L dy O = π − 1 + 1
⇒ M P
∴
dy
= 6x + 2 N dx Q x=
π π
F 3I
dx 2

LM dy OP 6. If f a x f = 5 sin x − 3 cos x , find f ′ G 2 J

−1 −1
⇒
N dx Q x=
1
= 6x + 2 x=
1
2 H K
Solution: 3 f a x f = 5 sin x − 3 cos x
2 −1 −1

d f b xg
1
=6× +2= 3+ 2=5 5 3 8
2 ∴ = + = ; x < 1. 2

dy dx 1− x 2
1− x 2
1− x 2
2. Find at x = 2 when y = x 3 + 2 x + 3
dx
Solution: 3 y = x + 2 x + 3
3
⇒
LM d f a xf OP =
8

∴
dy
= 3x 2 + 2
N dx Q x=
v3
2 1−
3
dx 4
LM OP
dy =
8
=
8
=
8 8 2
= × = 16
⇒
N Q
dx x = 2
= 3x 2 + 2
x=2
= 3 × 4 + 2 = 14 4−3
4
1
4
1 1 1
2

a f LMNi.e. d dxf a xf OPQ

dy π
3. Find at x = when y = 5sin x
dx 2 7. Find the derivative of f x
Solution: 3 y = 5sin x
1
=
x − 2 at x = 1 and x = 3.
618 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: 3 f x = af 1
x−2
af
Now, f ′ a =
a
=
a
=
1
a
if a > 0 f
b g
2 2 a 2 v2
a +a
af b
⇒ f′ x = −1 x − 2 g −1−1
×
d x−2
dx 9. Find the derivative of f x = af 2 x − 3 at x = 2
= − 1 b x − 2g
−2
×1
af b g
1
Solution: 3 f x = 2x − 3 = 2x − 3 2
−1
=
b x − 2g
, x ≠ 2.
af 1 1 F x ≠ 3I
2x − 3 H 2K
2
⇒ f′ x = ×2=
2 2x − 3

Now, f ′ a1f =
−1 −1
af
1
= = − = −1
b+ 1 − 2g b− 1g 1
1 1 1
2 2 ⇒ f′ 2 = = = =1
2×2−3 4−3 1

f ′ b3g =
−1 −1 x + cos x
= = −1 dy
b3 − 2g 1 2 10. Find
dx
at x = 0 when y =
1 + cos x

Note: While applying the result

d
dx
f x =
n
af Solution: 3 N = x + cos x
∴ N ′ = 1 − sin x
derivative of a power function rule to a radical or to
the reciprocal of a function, it is useful to put the and D = 1 + cos x
radical or reciprocal function into a power function ∴ D ′ = 0 − sin x = − sin x
whose index is negative or fraction as we require. e.g.
dy DN ′ − ND ′
1
−
5 ∴ = 2
1. should be put into the form 2 dx D
x5 x
a1+ cos xf a1− sin xf − a x + cos xf a0 − sin xf
b g
1 −1 =
2.
x+a
should be put into the form x + a and
a1+ cos xf 2

then apply the power function rule

L d b f a x fg OP af ⇒
dy 1 + cos x − sin x + x sin x
=
b g
⇒ M
PQ = n f a x f
n
n −1 df x dx 1 + cos x
2

MN dx ⋅
dx
LM dy OP 1+1 1
8. Find the derivative of f x = af x 2 + a 2 at the
⇒
N dx Q x=0
=
b1 + 1g 2
=
2
point x = a

Solution: 3 f x = af x +a = x +
2 2
d 2
i
1
a2 2 dy log x e e j x

11. Find at x = 1 when y = x

dx x+e
a f 12 d x + a i × d d x dx+ a i
1 2 2
2 2 −1
⇒ f′ x =
e j
2
log x e x
Solution: y =
⇒ f ′ a xf =
1 x + ex
× 2x

x
2 x2 + a2
Now, N = log x e e j = log x + log e
x x

= = log x + x log e e = log x + x

x + a2
2
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 619

1 1 dy 1 1
⇒ N′ = +1 ⇒ ⋅ = + 1+
x
Again, D = x + e x
y dx 2 x 2 + x 2 x 2− e j
e 2j
L1 × e2 − x j + 2 x b4 − x g + e2 + x j OP
= yM
⇒ D′ = 1 + e x dy

∴
dy
=
DN ′ − ND ′
⇒
dx MMN 2 x e2 + x j e2 − x j PPQ
dx D2

F 1 + 1I − log e x e j e1+ e j dy L 2 + x O
=M ⋅e ⋅M
L 4 + 2 x b4 − xg OP
dy e x +e j
Hx K
x x x
⇒
dx MN 2 − x PQ
P MN 2vx b4 − xg PQ
x

⇒ =
dx
e1+ e j x 2

L dy O = 2 + 1 ⋅ e × LM 10 OP
Hence, M P
x N dx Q 2 − 1 MN 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ b4 − 1g PQ
x =1

dy
1+
e x
+ x + e − log x + x 1 + e
x
e j L 10 OP = 5e
= ⋅e⋅M
⇒ = x 3
dx
1+ e
x 2
e j 1 N 2 × 3Q
13. If f ( x ) = x , find f ′ a0 f
1
x 3
e x x x
1+ + x + e − log x − x − e log x − e ⋅ x
dy
af
x 1
⇒ =
dx
e1+ e jx 2 Solution: 3 f x = x3

bg
∴ f′ x =
1
, x ≠ 0.
L dy O = 1+ e + 1+ e − 0 − 1− e ⋅ 0 − e
Hence, M P
2

N dx Q x =1 a1+ ef 2
3x 3
1
b1 + eg = 1 Since 0 does not belong to the domain of 2
,
3x 3
=
b1 + eg b1 + eg
2
bg
we find f ′ 0 using definition of derivative at x = 0.

f a0 + hf − f a0f
∴ f ′ a0f = lim
dy 2+ x
12. Find at x = 1 when y = ⋅ ex
dx 2− x h→0 h

Solution: 3 y =
2+ x
⋅ ex = lim
a0 + hf 1
3 −0
2− x h→ 0 h
Taking log ,
1

e
log y = log 2 + j
x + log e x − log 2 − e x j lim
h 3 −
= lim h 3 = lim
2
1
=∞
h→ 0 h h→0 h→ 0 3 2
1 dy 1 1 1 h
⇒ ⋅ = × + x × ex −
y dx 2 + x 2 x e Remember: The use and meaning of the expression

FG IJ
a
1 1 must become clear in the mind of ours.
× −
H xK
0
2− x 2
620 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
1. If a function f x is an infinitesimal as x → a Working rule:

F i.e; if a f IK
1. Find the differential coefficient (i.e. d.c.) of a
1
H lim f x = 0
x →a af
then the function f x is
composite of two or more than two functions by using
the chain rule.
2. Put x = a in the derived function and see whether
af
infinitely large which is symbolically represented as
1 f ′ a is defined or undefined.
af
∞ and we say that f x has no limit or infinite limit af
3. If f ′ a is defined, then simplify to get the required
af
answer and if f ′ a is undefined, then we should
as x → a i.e., lim
x→a
1
af
f x
= ∞ (no limit or infinite af
find f ′ a directly from the defination provided f a af
is defined.
af
limit) if lim f x = 0 . Examples worked out:
af a f af
x→a
1. If f x = log x log x , find f ′ x at x = e
a
2. The expression is undefined since division by
Solution: f b x g = log blog x g = ; b x > 1g
0 log log x e
a x x
zero is not allowed in mathematics. The expression log e
0

af af
a log log x
always should be written as = undefined for the ⇒ f x = (3 f x is defined only
0 log x
a
value of the expression for x = 0 which provides for x >1 )
x
us the following sense.
af
If a function f x is zero for any value of x, then Now,
dy
=
df x
= f′ x
af af
dx dx
1
af
the function f x is undefined or meaningless for 1 1 1
× × log x − ⋅ log log x a f
that value x at which f x = 0 af =
log x x x
a
Thus = undefined should be used in the sense
alog xf 2

0
1 1
of the actual value (or, simply value) of the function − log log x
af
f x at a point at which f x = 0 and af = x x
log xa f
2

lim
x→a
a
f x
a
af
0 x→a
af
= = ∞ if lim f x = 0 in the sense
1 − log log x
=
1 a f 2

af
x log x
of limiting value of f x as x → a , e.g.,

1. The symbols , lim tan x = + ∞ L dy O = LM1− log log x OP

Hence, M P
x→
π−
2 N dx Q MN x alog xf PQ
x =e
2
x =e
lim tan x = − ∞
π+
x→ 1 − log log e
=
a f
2
2
π e log e
tan x x=
π = tan
= undefined.
2 2
1− 0 1
Type 2: To find the value of the derivative of a = =
composite of two or more than two functions at the bg
e 1
2
e
indicated point.
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 621

af
Note: Derivative of a function of the form Type 3: To find the value of d.c of mod of a function
log f a x f g x is alwasy obtained by first changing at x = a working rule:
af af
a f g a x f into
1. Find d.c of f x
log f x
log e g x
af and then we use the af
2. Put x = a in the d.c of f x and see whether
log e f x
af
f ′ a is defined or undefined.
quotient rule to find the d.c.
af
3. If f ′ a is defined, then put x = a in f ′ x to get bg
2. If y = a +
x 1+ x af
the required answer and if f ′ a is not obtained thus,
1− x
, find d.c. at x = 0
af
then we should find f ′ a directly from the defination.
1+ x af
Provided f a is defined.
Solution: 3 y = a x +
1− x d
af
f x af afb af g
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we obtain
Remember:
dx
f x =
f x af
× f ′ x ; f x ≠0

dy d a x F 1+ x I Examples worked out:

= +
d
GH JK F 3πI
dx dx dx 1− x
af
1. If f x = cos x , find f ′ H 4K
d ax d LM 1+ x OP bg
Solution: f x = cos x
Now,
dx
= a x log a and
dx N 1− x Q
L OP LM bg d cos x
b g
a fOPP
∴f′ x = cos x = × − sin x , cos x ≠ 0
1− x M
1 1 dx cos x
− 1+ x −1
=
MN 2 1+ x PQ 2 1− x MN Q F 3π I
e 1− x j 2
3π FG IJ cos
H 4 K × FG −sin 3 π IJ
∴ f′
4
=
H K cos
3π H 4K
L
1− 0 M
1 O
P L
− 1+ 0 M
1
−1a fOPP
4

=
MN 2 1 + 0 PQ MN 2 1− 0 Q;
1
v2 1 FG IJ
e 1− 0 j 2 =
−
1
⋅ −
v2 H K
v2
for x = 0
1
1 1 =
+ v2
1
= 2 22 = = 1
af af F πI
1 1 2. If f x = cos x − sin x , find f ′ H 2K
LM dy OP = a log a x
af
Solution: 3 f x = cos x − sin x
Hence,
N dx Q x =0 x =0
+1

L dy O = a log a + 1 a f acos
∴ f′ x =
x − sin x d
cos x − sin x f dx
× acos x − sin x f
⇒ M P
N dx Q
0

⇒ f ′b x g =
bcos x − sing b− sin x − cos xg
x=0
cos x − sin x
L dy O = log a + 1
⇒ M P
N dx Q x=0
for x ≠ n π +
π
4
622 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

π π sin 3h
π F I − sin cos
π π LM OP = lim
h→ 0
H K F
2 2 h
∴f′ =
π π
⋅ − sin − cos
I N Q
H K
2 2 2
cos − sin
2 2
h→0
e
= lim sin 2 h ⋅ j sin h
h

b g b g
0−1 = 0.1
= × −1− 0 =0
0 −1
Type 4: To determine the value of d.c of implicit
b g
b− 1g × b− 1g
−1 function defined by f x , y = c at x = a ; y = b
=
Working rule:
=1
2 dy
1. Find
dy
dx
from f x , y = cb g
3. If y = x − 4 x + 2 , find
LM OP
at x = 3
dx dy
N Q
x=a dy
Solution: 3 y = x
2
−4 x +2 2. Put y=b in to find dx x = a
dx y = b

dy d 2 Remember: In the derived function of y in

∴ = −4 x +2
dx dx
x
b g
f x , y = c , x - coordinate and y - coordinate both

=
d x
2
−4
d x
+
af
d 2 may be provided at which we require the value of
derived function obtained from the given implicit
dx
x 2
dx dx
b g
function f x , y = c
dx 2
= −4 +0 3 x =x 2
Examples worked out:
dx x
1. Find d.c. of y from xy + 4 = 0 , at x , y = 2 , − 2 b g b g
x Solution: xy + 4 = 0
= 2x − 4 ,x≠0
x dx dy
⇒ y +x =0
LM dy OP 4 3 dx dx
∴
N dx Q x=3
=2⋅3−
3
⇒ y+x
dy
=0
=6−4 dx
=2 dy y
⇒ =−
bg
4. f x = sin 3 x , find f ′ x at x = 0 bg dx x

⇒
LM dy OP =
LM − y OP =
b g =1
− −2

Solution: f ′ x = bg
3
sin x
⋅ cos x for x ≠ n π
N dx Qb g b
x , y = 2, −2 g N x Qb 2, −2 g 2
sin x
dy
∴ This formula can not give us the value of 2. Find for x = y + a at (a, 0)
dx
bg
f ′ x at x = n π and so at x = 0. Solution: y + a = x
Hence we find this value by definition:

bg
f ′ 0 = lim
f h − f 0 bg bg ⇒ y= x − a

h→ 0 h dy d x d a
⇒ = −
dx dx x
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 623

dy 1 Solution: Given function is x 2 + xy − y 2 = 1

⇒ = , x > 0.
dx 2 x Now, differentiating both sides of the equation

LM 1 OP
w.r.t x, we get,
LM dy OP = =
1 dy dy
⇒
N dx Qb g b g
x , y = a, 0 MN 2 x PQb a,0 g 2 a
2x + y + x
dx
− 2y ⋅
dx
=0

N.B.: Since y does not appear in the derived function ⇒

dy
b
x − 2y = − 2 x − y g
b g
of f x , y = c , there is no question of putting dx
y = 0 in the derived function. dy − 2 x − y 2x + y
dy
for x 2 = y at the point (1, 1)
⇒
dx
=
x − 2y
=
2y − x b g
LM dy OP
3. Find
dx 2×2+3 7
Solution: y = x 2
∴
N dx Q b 2, 3 g
= =
2×3−2 4
dy (1, 2) does not satisfy the given equation and so
⇒ = 2x
dx dy
LM dy OP the question of finding
dx
at (1, 2) does not arise.
⇒
N dx Qb 1, 1g
= 2x b 1, 1g = 2 ×1= 2
Type 5: To find the value of differential coefficient
of a given function w.r.t. another given function at
dy x=a
4. Find when x 2 − xy + y 2 = 3 and find its
dx Working rule: To find the value of differential
b
value at 1 , − 1 g coefficient of a given function w.r.t. another given
function at a point x = a, we adopt the following
Solution: x − xy + y 2 = 3
2
working rule:
Now, differentiating both sides of the equation
w.r.t x, we get,
af
d
f1 x af af
d f1 x
af = dx
f′ x
= 1
af af
af
dy dy 1. where f1 x =
2x − y − x + 2y =0 d f2 x d
f2 x f2′ x
dx dx dx
⇒
dy
dx
b
2y − x = y − 2x g the function whose differential coefficient is required
af
and f2 x = the function with respect to which
dy y − 2 x differential coefficient is required.
⇒ =
dx 2 y − x af
f1′ x

Now, the value of

dy
at
2. Put x = a in
af
f 2′ x
dx Examples worked out:

b1 , 1g = LMN dydx OPQ =

−1× − 2×1
1. Find d.c. of sec
−1 1 2
w.r.t 1 − x at x =
1
b g b g − 2 ×1× −1
x , y = 1 , −1 2
2x −1 2

L dy O = − 3 = 1
⇒ M P F 1 I
N dx Qb g − 3
1, − 1 Solution: Let f 1 x = sec af −1
GH 2 x − 1JK
2

dy
5. Find
dx
when x 2 + xy − y 2 = 1 at (2, 3) and at
af
and f 2 x = 1 − x 2
(1, 2)
624 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af F I dy
∴
d f1 x
dx
=
d
dx
sec
−1
2
1
2x − 1
GH JK 3. Divide
dy
by
dx
to have
dy
= dt
dt dt dx dx

F I
dt
=
1
×
d
GH 1
JK LM OP
dy
F 1 I⋅ F 1 I 2 dx 2 x 2 − 1
N Q
4. Find dx
GH 2 x − 1 JK GH 2 x − 1JK
2 2
−1
Examples worked out:
x=a

a
1. If x = a θ − sin θ f a
y = a 1 − cosθ , Find f dy

=
e2 x − 1j
2 2

×
−1
× 4x
dx
π
4x2 − 4 x4 e2 x 2
j
−1
2
when θ =
2
.

=
− 4x Solution: y = a 1 − cosθ a f ...(1)
4x 2 − 4 x 4 a
x = a θ − sin θ f ...(2)
d f2 x af
=
1 × − 2x b g (1) ⇒
dy
a
= a 0 − −sin θ = a sin θ f ...(3)
dx 2 1 − x2 dθ

−x dx
= (2) ⇒ = a 1 − cos θ ...(4)
1− x 2 dθ

d f1 x
d
af
f1 x 4 1 − x2 af dy
dθ a sin θ sin θ
= dx
af = dy
af b g b g
Hence, ∴ = = =
d f2 x d 4x 2 − 4x 4
f2 x dx dx a 1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ
dx dθ
2 1 − x2
= π
x 1 − x2 L dy O
Hence, M P =
sin
2 =
1
=1
=
2 N dx Q θ=
π
2 1 − cos
π 1
x 2

LM d f a xf OP 2LM 2 OP 2. If a
x = a 1 − cos t f a
y = a t + sin t f Find
N d f axf Q
∴ 1
= =4 =
2 x=
1
2
x=
1
2
1
2
NxQ dy
at t =
π
dx 2
Type 6: To find the value of differential coefficient of
parametric equations at a particular value of the given
Solution: y = a t + sin t a f ...(1)

b
parameter t or , θ = a . g a f
x = a 1 − cos t ...(2)

= a a1 + cos t f
Working rule: dy
af
1. Let x = x t and y = y t af (1) ⇒
dt
...(3)

2. Find
dx
dt
and
dy
dt (2) ⇒
dx
dt
a
= a 0 + sin t f
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 625

= a sin t ...(4)
e
= 3 cos θ 1 − 2 sin θ
2
j
∴
a
dy a 1 + cos t
=
f
dy
dx a sin t ⇒ = 3 cos θ ⋅ cos 2 θ ...(3)
dθ
FG π IJ
L dy O
Hence, M P =
a 1 + cos
H 2 K , t ≠ nπ . (2) ⇒
dx 2
= − 3 sin θ − 6 cos θ −sin θ a f
N dx Q t=
π
2 a sin
π dθ

e j
2 dx 2
⇒ = − 3 sin θ 1 − 2 cos θ

=
a f
a 1+ 0 a
= =1
dθ

a ⋅1 a
e
= 3 sin θ 2 cos θ − 1
2
j
3 3 dy
3. If x = a cos θ y = a sin θ Find when dx
dx ⇒ = 3 sin θ cos 2 θ ...(4)
π dθ
θ=
4 dy 3 cos θ cos 2 θ
∴ = = cot θ
Solution: y = a sin θ 3
...(1) dx 3 sin θ cos 2 θ
3 when sin θ ≠ 0 , cos2 θ ≠ 0 .
x = a cos θ ...(2)
π
dy 2
= 3 a sin θ cos θ
Hence we cannot put θ= to have
(1) ⇒ ...(3) 4
dθ
LM dy OP = cot
π
= 1 (an erroneous process since
(2) ⇒
dx
dθ
= 3 a cos2 θ − sin θ b g N dx Q θ= π
4
4

for θ = π , cos2 θ ≠ 0 )
2
= − 3a sin θ ⋅ cos θ ...(4) 4
However applying L’Hospital’s rule we have
∴
dy
=
3a sin 2 θ cos θ
= − tan θ , θ ≠
nπ
FG dy IJ ∆y
dx −3a sin θ cos2 θ 2 . =
H dx K θ= π
= limπ
θ→ 4 ∆x
LM dy OP LM OP
4

π
N dx Q N Q b g FGH π4 IJK
Hence, = − tan = −1
π
x= 4 y θ − y
4
= lim
F πI
x bθg − x G J
H 4K
3 3 θ→ π
4. If x = 3 cos θ − 2 cos θ , y = 3 sin θ − 2 sin θ 4

dy π
Find
dx
when θ = .
4 y′ θb g = lim cot θ = 1
x ′ bθ g
= lim
3
Solution: y = 3 sin θ − 2 sin θ ...(1) θ→ π
4
θ→ π
4

3
x = 3 cos θ − 2 cos θ ...(2) Type 7: To determine the value of d.c of a function
found by taking first logarithm at a point x = a
dy 2
(1) ⇒ = 3 cos θ − 6 sin θ cos θ
dθ
626 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Working rule:
dv 1 πx LM 2 πx 4 πx FG IJ OP
1. APPLY the rule “GLAD” to find derived function.
2. Put x = a in the derived function .
⇒
dx
=v
x
⋅ cot
4
⋅ sec
MN −
4 π x2
log tan
4 H K PQ
Remember: Derivative of a function raised to the
power another function as y = f x a f is found af LM dv OP LM OP ⋅ LM1 cot π ⋅ sec πO
4
g x π π 4
− log tan P
π 2

only with the help of logarithmic differentiation.

∴
N dx Q x =1
= tan
N 4 Q N1 4 4 π 4Q

Examples worked out: 3 y=u+v

L π x OP
dy du dv
L OP ∴ = +
4
log 2 x 2 x
1. If y = M2 + M tan
πx dy
N Q N 4Q Find at x = 1 dx dx dx
dx
LM dy OP LM du OP LM dv OP
Solution: Let u = LM2
a fO 2x
Hence,
N dx Q x =1
=
N dx Q x =1
+
N dx Q x =1
N QP
log2 x
...(1)
=2+2
log a N =4
⇒ u = x2x 3 a = N
Type 8: To find the value of x for which d.c of a
Now taking the log of both sides, we get function is a constant:

log u = log x
2x Working rule:
1. Find d.c of the given function f x af
⇒ log u = 2 x log x
Now, differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
af
2. Write f ′ x , i.e. d.c. of the given function = The
given constant
1 du 1 LM OP a f af
3. Solve f ′ x = the given constant. This provides
⋅
u dx N
= 2 x ⋅ + 1 ⋅ log x = 2 1 + log x
x Q us the required value or values of x.
Examples worked out:
⇒
du
dx
2x
= 2 x 1 + log x 3 u = x
2x
e j af
1. If f x = x − 4 x + 3 , Find the value of x for
2

LM du OP
which the derivative is 2.
∴
N dx Q = 2 ⋅ 1 1 + log 1 = 2 ⋅ 1 1 + 0 = 2 a f af
Solution: f x = x 2 − 4 x + 3
⇒ f ′ axf = 2x − 4
x =1

∴ f ′ axf = 2 ⇒ 2x − 4 = 2
L π x OP
4

Again, let v = M tan

πx

N 4Q ⇒ 2x = 2 + 4
6
Now, taking log of both sides, we get ⇒ x= =3
LM OP
2
log v =
4
πx
log tan
πx
4 N Q af
2. If f x = x − 3x + 2 Find the value of x for
2

which the derivative is zero.

Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
Solution: 3 f x = x − 3x + 4
2
af
1 dv
⋅ af
∴ f ′ x = 2x − 3
∴ f ′ axf = 0
v dx
4 1 FG
πx π 4 πx IJ FG IJ FG − 1 IJ ⇒ 2x − 3 = 0
=
πx
⋅
tan
πx
sec 2
H
+ log tan
4 4 π 4 K H KH x K 2
⇒ 2x = 3
4
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 627

Remember:
af af af
3
⇒ x= 1. f ′ a exists ⇔ f −′ a = f+′ a = a a finite
2
Type 9: Problems based on existance of a derived number.
function at a point x = a af af af
2. f ′ a does not exists ⇔ f −′ a ≠ f +′ a ≠ a a
Whenever we say that something exists, we mean finite number.
that it (something) has a finite value in the world of af
or f ′ a does not exist
mathematics which implies that whenever we say that
af af
f x or f ′ x at x = a exists, we mean that f a or af af af
⇔ f−′ a = f +′ a = ∞ , − ∞ ;

f ′ aa f has a finite value and whenever f a x f

af
or f ′ a does not exists
x=a or
af af
⇔ f−′ a = + ∞ and f+′ a = − ∞
LM dy OP has an infinite value or meaningless or
N dx Q
x=a
Examples worked out:
2x − 3
F a 0 I
dy
1. If y = , examine the existance of at
3x − 4
undetermined value H i.e; , , etcK we say that dx
0 0
f axf f ′ axf
4
at x = a or at x = a does not exist. x=−
3

af
Question: How to guess the existance of a derived 2x − 3
function at a point x = a ? Solution: Let f x =
Answer: A simple rule to guess the existance of f ′ x af F− 4I − 3
3x − 4

at x = a is the following :
af F 4 I = H 3K2×
1. Differentiate the given function f x w.r.t the
H 3K 3 × F − 4 I − 4
∴ f −
independent variable x by using the formulas of d.c.
of a power function, sum, difference, product, quotient,
H 3K
function of a function etc. −8
2. Find f ′ x af x=a = 3
− 3 −8 − 9
= =
17
af af
3. If f ′ a is finite, we expect that f ′ x exists at
−4 − 4 −8 × 3 24
af
x = a and if f ′ a is undefined, we expect that f ′ x af F −4 + hI − 3
does not exist at x = a F 4 I 2
H3 K
H 3 K 3 F −4 + hI − 4
f − +h =
H3 K
Question: How to test that existance of a derived
af
function f ′ x at a point x = a ?
Answer: Whenever we are required to test (or, −8 −17
af af
examine) whether f ′ x exists at x = a or f ′ x does 3
+ 2h − 3
3
+ 2h
not exist at x = a , we adopt the following working =
F−4 I =
−4 + 3 h − h
rule.
af
1. Find the left hand derivative = f −′ a = L1 = a
3
H 3
+h −4
K
where ‘a’ is a fininte number and the right hand − 17
af
derivative = f +′ a = L2 = a where ‘a’ is a finite = 3
+ 2h

number. − 8 + 3h
af
2. If L1 = L2 , then f ′ a is said to exist (or, we say
af af
that f ′ x exists at x = a ) and if L1 ≠ L2 , then f ′ a
F 4 I F 4I =
− 17
+ 2h
af
is said not to exist ( or, f ′ x is said not to exist at H 3 K H 3K
∴ f − +h − f − 3 −
17

af
x = a or we say that f ′ x does not exists at x = a )
− 8 + 3h 24
628 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

− 17 + 6 h 17 − 17 + 6 h 17 h −0
=
b
3 − 8 + 3h
−
24 g = −
− 24 + 9 h 24
= lim
h→0 h
b g
24 − 17 + 6h − 17 × − 24 + 9h b g h
=
b
− 24 + 9h × 24 g = lim
h→0 h
− 408 + 144 h + 408 − 153 h =1
=
b
− 24 × 24 + 9 × 24 h g af
f −′ 0 = lim
a f
f 0−h − f 0 af a
; h>0 f
h→0 −h
144 h − 153 h −9 h
= =
−24 × 24 + 9 × 24 h −24 × 24 + 9 × 24 h −h − 0
= lim
F −4 + hI − f F −4 I h→0 −h
F −4 I = lim f
H 3 K H 3 K ; a h > 0f
H 3K
∴ f +′ h
= lim
h→0 h h→0 −h
= –1
−9 h
−24 × 24 + 9 × 24 h
af
∴ f +′ 0 = f −′ 0 af
= lim
h→ 0 h af
Hence, f x = x is not differentiable at x = 0 i.e;
dy
−9 h does not exist at x = 0
= lim
a
h→ 0 h −24 × 24 + 9 × 24 h f dx

−9 1
af
To find f ′ a or some special types of functions:
= = Type 1: When a function is defined in the following
− 24 × 24 64
af
way y = f1 x , x ≠ a ; = c , x = a then for finding
Similarly,
af
f ′ a we have to calculate the derivative at
4F −4 I F I x = a directly from its defination.
4F I H
f − −h − f
K H K
H K
3 3
∴ f −′ − = lim Examples worked out:
3 h→ 0 −h
R|x sin F 1 I for x ≠ 0
S| H x K
2

=
1 1. If y =
64 T0 for x = 0
F 4I = f ′ F − 4I = 1 Solution: For x ≠ 0 the derivative may be calculated
H 3 K H 3 K 64
∴ f+ − −
by the formulas and the rules of differentiation (as y

Hence, f ′ a x f , i.e;
dy 4 is the product of two differentiable functions)
exists at x = −
dx 3
af d F 1 I
H K
2
∴ f′ x = x sin
dy dx x
2. If y = x examine the existance of at x = 0

af
dx
dx 2 1 d FG
1 IJ
Solution: 3 f x = x =
dx
⋅ sin + x 2
x dx
sin
H
x K
af
f +′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0
;h >0
f af F 1 I − cos F 1 I
h→0 h = 2 x ⋅ sin
H xK H xK for x ≠ 0
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 629

[we can not use the expression for x = 0. At the af af

1. f x = f1 x , when x < a
point x = 0, we can calculate the derivative using the af af
f x = f2 x , when x ≥ a and we are required to
defination of the derivative]
af
find f ′ x and f ′ ( a)

af
∴ f +′ 0 = lim
a
f 0+h − f 0 f
, h>0
af a f Working rule:
h →0 h af af
1. Find f1′ x , f2′ x , ... etc. by using the formulas
1 of d.c. of a power function, sum, difference, product,
= lim h ⋅ sin =0 quotient etc and retain the same intervals (or,
af af
h→ 0 h
restrictions or, conditions) against f1′ x , f2′ x ...
[ 3 The product of an infinitesimal function and
a bounded function is an infinitesimal] af af
etc. This provides us f1′ x , f2′ x , ... etc. in various

af
f −′ 0 = lim
a
f 0−h − f 0 f
, h>0
af a f
given intervals.
af
2. Find left hand derivative = f −′ a = L1 and right
h→0 −h af
hand derivative = f+′ a = L2 by using the
1 defination.
= lim h sin
h→ 0 h
=0
af a f
3. If L1 = L2 , then f ′ a = L1 or, L2 3 L1 = L2
af
∴ f −′ 0 = 0 Examples worked out:
Hence f ′ b0g = 0. af
1. If f x = 2 x 2 + 3 x when x < 0 , = 3 x − x 2 ,
when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 = x + 1 , when x > 1 Find
F 1 IJ , x ≠ 1 , = 0 , when
2. If y = a x − 1f ⋅ sin G
af af
f ′ x , f ′ 0 and f ′ 1 . bg
H x − 1K af
2
Solution: (1) To find f ′ x

x = 1 Find f ′ a1f .
When x < 0 ,

Solution: f ′ a1f = lim

f a1 + hf − f a1f
; ah > 0f
af
f′ x =
d
dx
2
2 x + 3 x = 2 ⋅ 2 x + 3 ⋅1 = 4 x + 3 ...(i)
+
h→0 h
When, 0 < x < 1

a1 + h − 1f FG 1 IJ − 0 bg d
H 1 + h − 1K
2
⋅ sin f′ x = 3 x − x 2 = 3 ⋅1 − 2 x = 3 − 2 x ...(ii)
dx
= lim
h→ 0 h When, x > 1 ,

F 1I af
f′ x =
d
b
x +1 =1 g
H h K = lim h sin 1 = 0
2 ...(iii)
h sin dx
= lim
h→0 h h→0 h
af
(2) It remains to find f ′ 0 and f ′ 1 af
[ 3 The product of an infinitesimal function and af
f −′ 0 = lim
f a− hf − f a0f
= lim
e2h 2
− 3h − 0 j
a bounded function is an infinitesimal] h →0 −h h→0 −h
af
Similarly, f −′ 1 = 0 a
= lim −2 h + 3 = 3 f
bg
∴ f′1 =0
h→0

Type 2: When a function is defined on both sides of

x = a by different formulas in various intervals of its af
f +′ 0 = lim+
af af
f h −f 0
= lim
3h − h − 0 e 2
j
h→ 0 h h→0 h
domains of defination and we are required to find
af
f ′ x and f ′ ( a) , e.g.,
630 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
= lim 3 − h = 3 af
A function f x is undefined at a point x = a
h→ 0 af
⇒ The function f x is discontinuous at x = a
af
∴ f′ 0 = 3 ...(iv) af
⇒ The function f x is not differentiable at
the same point x = a
a
3 1− h − 1− h f a f − a3 − 1f
2
af
⇒ f ′ x does not exist at the same point x = a
af
f −′ 1 = lim
h→ 0 −h af
⇒ f ′ x can not be obtained at x = a finitely.
Note:
2
3 − 3h − 1 − h + 2h − 2 1. We should remember that evaluating indeterminate
= lim form means finding its limits or showing that its limit
h→0 −h does not exist.
2 2. The derivative is not defined at the points of
3− h −1− h −2 discontinuities of the function.
= lim
−h af
3. When the function y = f x is not defined for
af
h→0
(or, at or when) x = a , this function f x can not
2−h−h
2
−2 be said to take any value at x = a . Therefore its
= lim
h→0 −h
af
derivative f ′ x also can not be said to take any
value at x = a

= lim
a
−h 1 + h f
= lim 1 + h = 1 a f F 1 I , cos F 1 I and tan F 1 I are
h→ 0 −h h→0 4. The function sin
H xK H xK H xK
af
Again f +′ 1 = lim+
a
f 1+ h − f 1 f af undefined at x = 0
h→ 0 h Examples worked out:

a1 + hf + 1 − af 1 − cos x π F I
= lim
h→ 0 h
3−1 1. If f x =
1 − sin x
, does f ′
2 H K
exist ?

= lim
h→ 0
h
h
Solution: 3 f x = af 1 − cos x
1 − sin x
= lim 1
F πI
H 2K 1 − 0 1
h→ 0
F πI
1 − cos
=1
af af
∴ f
H 2 K = 1 − sin F π I = 1 − 1 = 0 =
∴ f −′ 1 + f +′ 1 = 1
∴ f ′ a1f = 1 ...(v)
H 2K
Hence f ′ a0 f = 3 and f ′ a1f = 1
undefined

Type 3: To examine the existance of a derived function fa x f is undefined at x = π2

af
f ′ x at a point at which the given function f x af
⇒ f a x f is discontinuous at x =
π
is undefined.
Working rule: Regarding derivative f ′ x at a point af 2

x = a at which the given function f x is af ⇒ f ′ a x f does not exist at x =

π

F i.e; a , 0 , ∞ , etc.I
2
undefined H 0 0 ∞ K we use the
2. If y =
x−4
2 x
, does
dy
dx
at x = 0 exist ?
following facts:
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 631

Solution: Let f x = af x−4

2 vx
12. y = 5 sin x at x =
π
2

a f 02 − 04 = −04 = undefined.
∴ f 0 =
13. y = 2 + tan x at x = t

3
∴ f b x g is undefined at x = 0
14. y = cos −1 x − cot −1 x at x =
2
⇒ f a x f is discontinuous at x = 0 2
⇒ f ′ a x f does not exist at x = 0 15. y = 2x3 + − 4 at x = 4
x3
Type (1) , (2) , (3) and (4) x + cos x
dy 16. y = 1 + cos x at x = 0
Problems based on evalution of at x = a
dx
e j at x = 1
log x e
x

Exercise 15.1 17. y = x

x+e
dy
Find at the indicated points if 2+ x
dx 18. y = ⋅ e x at x = 1
2− x
1
1. y = at x = 2
x+5
a
19. y = tan x f sin x
at x =
π
4
1
2. y = at x = 1
x +3
b4 x + 1g
2 3
4
20. y = at x = 12
d
3. y = x 3 + x + 1 i 5
at x = − 1
2 + 5 x ⋅ b2 x − 3g
5
3
3
4. y = cos x at x = c 2 x+4
21. y = 2x − + at x = 2
3 2 2 x 4− x
5. y = x − 2 x y + 4 xy − 8 xy + 6 x − 3 at y = 2
4 4+ x
6. y = x 3 y + xy 3 − x at x = 1 22. y = 4x − + at x = 4
4−
F π I at x = π
x x

H 2K
7. y = cos 2 x +
3 −1 cos x
23. y = tan 1 + sin x
at x = 0

y = cos esin x j at x =
π 2
8.
2 −1 RSx ⋅ 2 UV at x = 1
π
24. y = sin
T 1− x
W 2
9. y = sin 4 x 2 + cos4 x 2 at x = 0,
2 3
−1 3x − x
25. y = tan at x = 1
e j π
7 2
2
10. y = cosec x + tan x + cot x at x = 1 − 3x
4
4 4 π 26. x + y = 3 at x = 1 , y = 4
11. y = sec x − tan x at x =
3 27. x 2 + y 2 = 10 at 1 , 3 b g
632 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3a 3a 2 x
28. x − 3a xy + y = 0 at x = ,y= y = x + 16 w.r. t at x = 3
3 3
2 2 x −1
dy 1 π 2. Find differentiation of
if y =
F 1 I
29. Find at a =
da cos x + x cos a 2
dy
y = sec
−1
GH 2 x − 1JK
2
w.r. t 1− x
2
at x =
1
2
.
30. If y = cos x , find at x = π
dx
dy Answers:
31. If y = sin x , find at x = 0
dx 12
1. − 2. 4
af
32. If f x = 3 tan
−1
x − 2 cot
−1
af
x , find f ′ 2
5
Type 6: Evalution of d.c. of parametric equations (or,

bg F 2I
x , find f ′ G
functions) at a point (or, parameter t , θ or θ etc)
H 2 JK
−1 −1
33. f x = 2 sin x + cos
Exercise 15.3

bg F 1I
x , find f ′ G J
H 2K
−1 −1
34. f x = 4 sin x + cos dy
Find for the parametric equations at the indicated
35. If f b x g = tan f ′ e 3j
−1
dx
x , find points.
Answers: F θ I U|
H
x = a cos θ + log tan
K V at θ = π3
1. −
1
49
1
2. − 3. 20 4. −3 cos2 c sin c
8
1.
y = a sin θ
2
|W
5. Find 6. – 1 7. 1 8. 0 9. 0, 0 10. – 114688 x = 2 cos θ − cos 2 θ UV at θ = π
W
10 2.
11. 16 3 12. 0 13. sec t 14. −
2 y = 2 sin θ − sin 2 θ 2
7
x = a acos θ + θ sin θfU
15.
189
64
⋅ 2 16.
1
2
17.
1
1+e
18. 5e 3.
y = a asin θ − θ cos θfW
V at θ =
π
4

3 at U
77 11 9 1
2 20. − 16 21. 4 22. 8 23. − 2
| 1
19.
x=
1+ t |
3

24.
4
25.
3 1
26. –2 27. − 28.
4 4.
3 at |
V at = 2
2

1+t |
39 2 3 5 y=
29. x sec 2 x 30. 0 31. does not exist 32. 1 W 3

33. 2 34. 2 3 35.

1
x = 2 cos θ − 2 cos θ| UV at θ = π
3

y = 2 sin θ − 2 sin θ | W
4 5. 3
Type 5: To find the value of d.c of a given function 4

x = a cos θU
w.r.t another given function at x = a
|V at θ = π
3

y = a sin θ | W
Exercise 15.2 6. 3
4

1. Find differentiation of
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 633

a
x = a cos t + t sin t fUV at t = π bg 4+
af
x
7.
a
y = a sin t − t cos t fW 3
8. If f x =
4− x
, evaluate f ′ 1

x = a at + sin t f U af d i af
3

8.
y = a a1 − cos t fW
V at t =
π 9. If f t = t m + t n , evaluate f ′ 1

L x − 1OP , evaluate f ′ e 3j
2
2

x = a aθ − sin θfU 10. If y = M

9.
y = a a1 − cos θfW
V at θ =
π
2
N x + 1Q
2

b3x − 1g , evaluate f ′ e 3j
3x
x = a a1 − cos t fU 11. If y =
V at t = π2
3

y = a at + sin t f W
10.
12. If f a x f = d x − 1i ⋅ x + 1 , evaluate f ′ e 3 j
2 2

x = at U|V at t = 2 13. If f auf = 2 + 2u , compute f ′ a2 f

2

11.
y = 2at W|
14. If f a x f = 5 x + 2 x + 1 , compute f ′ b − 1g
2
Answers:
1 + ax
1.
5
3 2. – 1 3. 1 4. 4 5. Find 6. – 1 15. If y =
1 − ax
, compute f ′ e 5j
1
7. 3 8. 1 9. 1 10. 1 11. 2 af
16. If f z =
4 + z2
z
, compute f ′ e 5j
Miscellaneous problems on evaluation:
af
17. If f x =
x3
, compute f ′ 1 af
Exercise 15.4 8 + x3

1. If y =
x +1
af
, evaluate f ′ 1 if possible.
af
18. If f x =
x −1
x −1
, evaluate f ′ 4 af
x −1

af
2. If f x =
x3 + 1
, evaluate f ′ 1 af af
19. If f x
=
x
, evaluate f ′ e 3j
x x + 1 + x2

af
3. If f x =
x3 + 1
x2 + 1
, evaluate f ′ 0 af bg
2 8
20. If f x = x − x + 3
6
2
+ 2 x + 6x 2 x ,
x

bg
4. If f x =
1
, evaluate f ′ 0 af af
find f ′ 1
x 2 + 3x + 2
21. If f a x f = d x 2
−2 i x 2 + 1 , find f ′ e 3j
5. If s = t + 3 t ,evaluate f ′ 4 af
6. If y =
2
−
3
,evaluate f ′ a 4f
a f 9Z , find f ′ e2 2 j
22. If f Z =
x 3
x Z +1 2

23. If f a x f =
1 3 4
+ − + 3x − 2 x 2

bg
x,
7. If f x =
x +1
af
, evaluate f ′ 4 x2
2 x x 3 2

find f ′ a1f
x
634 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af d
24. If f u = u 2 + 3 ⋅ u 2 − 1 , find f ′ i e 2j Exercise 15.5

25. If f a x f = e 3j
x
, find f ′
a f ⋅ sin FH 1x IK , when x ≠ 0 , f a0f = 0 ;
1
−
1− x2 + 1
2
1. If f x = e x

af
26. If f x = e
2x 2
log x , find f ′ 1 af find f ′ a x f at x = 0 and x ≠ 0 .

f axf =
x 2
, find f ′ a1f 2. If f a x f = sin
F 1 I , x ≠ 0 , f a0f = 0 find f ′ a x f at
27. If e ⋅ log x
H xK
Answer: x = 0 and x ≠ 0
1. Does not exist 2. 1 3. 0 4. −
3
af a f FG 1 IJ , when x ≠ 1, = 0
H x − 1K
2
4 3. If f x = x − 1 sin
LMF 1 I t FG 1IJ t OP af
5. MGH 2 JK
1 2
− − when x = 1 ; find f ′ x at x = 1 and at x ≠ 1
N
2 +
H 3K 3
PQ t=4
af
4. If f x =
1
⋅ sin 2 x for x ≠ 0 , = 1 for x = 0 find
LM x − x
−
4
−
3 OP af
x
f ′ x at x = 0 and at x ≠ 0
MN PQ
3 2
6.
x=4
af F 1I , af
7. −
1 4 5. If f x = x sin
H xK x ≠ 0 , f 0 = 0 ; find
16
8.
9
9. 12 (m + n)
af af
f ′ x at x = 0 if derivative of f x exists and f ′ x af
LM 4 b x − 1g OP LM − 9 x OP
2 at x ≠ 0
10. MN b x + 1g PQ
3
x= 3
11. MN b3x − 1g PQ
3
x= 3
6. If af
f x =
1
1 af
, x ≠ 0 , f 0 = 0 ; find
−
1− e x

12. 18 3 13.
1
8
14. – 2 af
f ′ x at x = 0 and f ′ x at x ≠ 0 af
LM a b1 − axg −
3
OP af
7. If f x =
−
e x
1
af
, when x ≠ 0 , f 0 = 0 ; find
15. M PP af af
2
4
NM b1 + axg
16. − f ′ x at x = 0 and f ′ x at x ≠ 0
Q
1
−
5
F 1 I , for x ≠ 0 , f a0f = 0 ; find
2
x = v5

8. If f a x f = x cos
17.
17
18.
v3
19.
7 − 4 v3
20. 15
H xK
f ′ a x f at x = 0 and f ′ a x f when x ≠ 0
18 36 2
9 v3 1
21. 22. 23. – 3 24. 7 v 2 Type 2: Problems based on the function defined on
2 3
both sides of x = a by various formulas in different
1 intervals of its domains of definition and we are
26. 2 e 2 27. 2 e
af af
25.
2 required to find f ′ x as well as f ′ a . Exercise set:
Special types of functions:
Type 1: Problems based on finding the derivative of Exercise 15.6

af
function having the form:
af
y = f1 x , when x ≠ a 1. If f x = 3 x − 4 , when x ≤ 2
af b af
= c , when x = a g
f x = 2 2 x − 3 , when x > 2 , Find f ′ 2
 Evaluation of Derivatives for Particular Arguments 635

af
2. If f x = 2 x − 1, 0 ≤ x < 1
af
af af
1
f x = 2 − x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 Find f ′ 1 6. Prove that the function f x = − tan x has
cos x
af
3. If f x =
x
1+ x
, when x ≥ 0
no derivative at x =
π
.
af
f x =
x
, when x < 0 Find f ′ 0 af
2

af
1− x
4. If f x = 2 x 2 + 7 x , when x < 0
af
7. Prove that the function f x =
x 2 − 3x + 5
2 x 2 + 5x − 3
has

af
f x = x 3 − 4, when x > 0 Find f ′ −1 . b g no derivative at x = − 3 .
Answers:
1. Does not exist 8. Prove that the following functions have no
2. Does not exist derivative at the indicated points.
3. 1 4. 4
Type 3: Problems based on finding the value of d.c of
af
(i) f x = sin
1
x
at x = 0

the function which is undefined at a point x = a

x−4
af
(ii) f x = cos
1
x
at x = 0
dy
1. If y = , can the value of be obtained
at x = 0 ?
2 x dx
af
(iii) f x = tan
1
x
at x = 0
1− x dy Answers:
2. If y = , can the value of be obtained at
1+ x dx 1. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated
x=–1? point.
2x − 3 dy 2. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated
3. If y = can the value of be obtained at point.
3x + 4 dx
3. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated
4
− ? point.
3 4. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated

af
4. If f x =
x
x
, can the value of
dy
dx
be obtained
point.
5. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated
point.
at x = 0 ?
6. No, as the function is not defined at the indicated
5. Prove that the function f x = af sin x
1 − cos x
has no point.

derivative at x = 0
636 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

17
Derivative as Rate Measurer

General definition: If a variable z is a function of Notes:

another variable y, then the rate of change of z with dy
dz 1. If is positive, then the rate of change of y with
respect y is . dx
dy

That is, z = f (y) ⇒

dz d f y
=
af which is known
respect to x is positive. This means that if x increase,
then y also increases and if x decreases, then y also
dy dy decreases.
as rate of change of z with respect to y or rate at which
dy
z changes with y. 2. If is negative, then the rate of change of y with
A case of great practical importance occurs when dx
the independent variable represents time. respect x is negative. This means that if x increases,
That is, we may have y = f (t) and we wish to find then y decreases and if x decreases, then y increases.
the rate of change of y with respect to time ‘t’. It is Remember:
sufficient to calculate
dy
dt
af
= f ′ t directly.
1. The pharase “rate of change or rate of variation or
rate of increase” of a variable quantity is often used
Again, we may have y = f (x) and x = g (t). This is in reference to ‘time’ and the words “with respect to
often the case in problems of physics. If we have ‘t’ ” are omitted. This is why when no special mention
dx is made of the variable with respect to which the rate
been given , th time rate of change of x, we can
dt is calculated, it is assumed that the rate is taken w.r.t
dy time ‘t’.
calculate from the formula. 2. By the rate of change or rate of variation or rate of
dx
increase of a variable quantity is meant the change in
dy dy dx
dt
= ⋅
dx dt
= f′ x ⋅ af
dx
dt
the value of a quantity per unit of time.
dQ
Moreover, we may have y = g (t), x = f (t). 3. Whatever be the quantity ‘Q’ its derivative
dt

bg bg
dy gives how fast Q is changing with ‘t’.
dy g′ t 4. If the quantity Q increases with time ‘t’, its
= dt =
Then
dx dx f′ t bg
,f′ t ≠0
derivative
dQ
is positive.
dt dt
Thus, the rate of change of one variable can be 5. One important point to be remembered is to use
calculated if the rate of change of the other variable is the same units of measurements for the same variable.
known.
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 637

If in a problem, some distances are given in feet and dy

others in inches, we may convert them into inches. If ⇒ 2y =4
dx
the rates are given as feet per minute as well as feet
dy 4 2
per second, then we may convert them all into feet ⇒ = =
per second. dx 2 y y
Now, from y2 = 4x, when x = 4, y2 = 16 or y = ± 4
Examples
dy
dQ which ⇒ the rate = value of (at the point x = 4),
Units of rate = units of ‘Q’ / units of ‘t’. dx
dt
1 1
Where Q = volume, area, distance, … etc. i.e., (4, 4); (4, –4) = ; − (The negative sign shown
T = time 2 2
y is decreasing with increase in x at (4, – 4).
dr (ii) The radius of a spherical soap bubble is uniformly
Units of (= rate increase of radius w.r.t time ‘t’
dt increasing. Find the rate at which the volume of the
where r = radius) is cm/sec, (r is in cm and t is in secs). bubble is increasing with radius, when its radius ‘r’ is
dS 8 cm.
Units of (=rate of increase of S w.r.t time ‘t’ Solution: Volume ‘v’ of a sphere of a radius ‘r’ is
dt
4 3
where S = surface) is cm2/sec, (if distance is in cm and given by v = π r .
3
dv Rate of increase with respect to ‘r’ is given by
time is in secs) and Units of (= rate of increase of
dt dv
volume w.r.t time ‘t’ where v = volume) is cm3/sec. = 4πr2 .
dr
6. When one quantity changes or grows or varies,
LM OP
dv 2 3
we like to know the rate of change or rate of growth or
rate of variation of another related quantity. This is N Q
dr r =8
= 4π 8 = 256 π cm / cm

why it is some times called related rates. We are Note:

concerned with the rate of changes of one quantity 1. Increases with, varies with or changes with means
relative to other with which it is connected by some varies increase or changes w.r.t.
given relation. 2. A quantity ‘Q’ increase with uniform rate
7. If y is a function of x and x is varying with time ‘t’, dq
⇒ = k = constant.
dy dy dx dt
then = ⋅ which ⇒ rate of change of y = 3. If x and y are two variables, then the rate of change
dt dx dt
of y with respect to x at (or, when) x = a means the
rate of change of x times d.c of y w.r.t x. which in turn
dy dy LM OP a f = f ′ aaf .
can be written as
dy
=
rate of chage of y
=
dy
dt
value of
dx
at x = a =
dx N Q x =a
= f′ x

dx rate of change of x dy 4. Change in a quantity, a variable or a variable

dt
dy quantity = final value of the quantity (or, variable) –
which means that compares the rate of change of initial value of the quantity (or, variable).
dx
both y and x. dy dy dx dy
8. If the rate of change of a quantity is not w.r.t time, 5. If = ⋅ , then we can find provided
dt dx dt dx
it must be mentioned in the problem (question). e.g.,
dy dx dx
(i) If y2 = 4x, find the rate at which y is changing with and are known or we can find provided
dt dt dt
respect to x when x = 4.
dy dy
Solution: y2 = 4x and are known.
dt dx
638 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

On Language of Mathematics N.B.: We can always replace the sign ' ∝ ' by the sign
of equality ‘=’ provided we introduce a multiplying
1. Language of rate problems:
constant on one side of the equation. This constant
dr is often termed as constant or proportionality. The
= a cm/sec means rate of increase of radius is
dt symbol ' ∝ ' is termed as sign of variation, moreover,
a cm/sec where r = radius. instead of ‘is proportional to’ or ‘varies as’ the symbol
' ∝ ' if often used.
dv
= a cm3/sec means rate of increase (or change 3. Joint variation: When a variable varies directly as
dt the product of two or more than two variables, it is
or variation or growth … etc) of volume is a cm3/sec said to vary jointly as these variables.
where v = volume. If x varies jointly as y and z, then x ∝ y · z or x = k · y
dS · z where k is any constant.
= a cm2/sec means rate of increase (or change
dt dQ
or variation or growth … etc) of surface area or simply 4. is constant = Q increases or decreases with a
dt
area is a cm2/sec where S = surface. constant rate respectively where Q = any quantity
... and so on and t = time.
2. Language of variation: dQ
(i) Direct variation: When the ratio of two variables 5. tells us at what rate a physical quantity Q
dt
equals a constant, the variables are said to vary
changes or increases or decreases if Q be a certain
directly.
quantity varying with time.
If we let y and x represent any two variables, then
Or, alternatively, if Q be a certain quantity varying
y
we may state that they vary directly by writing =k dQ
x with time represents the rate at which that
dt
where k represents a constant.
quantity Q is changing.
y
Thus, = k is also symbolised as Type 1: Problems based on finding the rate of physical
x quantities like volume, area, perimeter etc.
y ∝ x ⇔ y = kx.
Working rule: In such problems where time rate of
(ii) Inverse variation: When the product of two change (rate of change w.r.t. time) of certain variable
variables equals a constant, then the variables are (variables) is (are) given and time rate of change of
said to vary inversely. some other variable (variables) is (are) to be found
If we let x and y represent any two variables, we out, we use the rule described in following four steps:
may state that they vary inversely by writing x y = k 1. Find the relation by mensuration formulas (between
where k represents a constant. the two variables) between that quantity whose rate
k
The relationship may also be expressed as y = of change is required and whose rate of change w.r.t
x time is given. The following relations are very helpful.
k A = area of a square = x2, its perimeter = 4x
or x = or alternatively we may say
y A = area of rectangle = x y, its perimeter = 2 (x + y)
y is inversely proportional to x i.e; 1
Area of trapezium = (sum of parallel sides). ×
1 k 2
y∝ ⇔ y = or x is inversely proportional distance between them.
x x 2
A = area of a circle = π r , its perimeter = 2 π r .
1 k
to y i.e: x ∝ ⇔ x= .
y y
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 639

1 2 Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t ‘t’, we

V = volume of right cone = π r h , its total get
a f
3
surface = π r r + l whereas its curved surface is dA 3 dx
π r l only. = ⋅ 2x ⋅
2
dt 4 dt
V = volume of a cylinder = π r h , its total surface
a f
A
= 2 π r r + h . Whereas its curved surface is
= 2πr h .
V = volume of a box = x y z and its surface or x = 10 x = 10
surface area = 2 (xy + yz + zx)
V = volume of a cube = x3.
2. Differentiate the equation (between the quantities
whose rate of change is required and whose rate of B C
x = 10

F I
change w.r.t. time is given which exists at any instant
3 dx
H K
or time during which the condition of the problem = ⋅ 2x ⋅ 3 3 = 3 is given
holds) w.r.t time ‘t’. Generally we differentiate any 4 dt
one of the formula of area, volume or perimeter etc of
LM dA OP 3
a substance having a geometrical shape like square,
rectangle, circle cylinder or cone etc with respect to
⇒
N dt Q x = 10
=
4
⋅ 2 × 10 × 3

time ‘t’ provided that time rate of change of a certain = 15 3 sq. ft/sec.
variable is given in the problem.
2. A spherical balloon is inflated and the radius is
3. Substitute the known quantities in the differenti- 1
ated result. increasing at inches/minutes. At what rate would
4. Solve for the required unknown.
3
the volume be increasing at the instant when its radius
N.B.: 1. We may draw the figure for convenience. is 2 inches.
2. Formulas for volumes, areas, perimeters of a Solution: let V = volume of a spherical balloon
substances having geometrical regular shape like
4 3
square, rectangle, trapezium, circle, cone, cylinder or = π r , radius = r). ...(1)
cube etc must be remembered. 3
3. While working out problems of rate measurer, we
must note the two variables, one whose rate of change
is given and the other one whose rate of change is to
be found. Then we express either variable in terms of r
the other by means of an equation. (or known formula)
and lastly we differentiate through out with respect
to time t.
Worked out Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t ‘t’ we get
Problems based on type (1)
dv 4 2 dr
1. At what rate is the area increasing when the side = π ⋅ 3r ⋅
of an equilateral triangle is 10 ft, if the side of an dt 3 dt
equilateral triangle increases uniformly at the rate of 3 4π 1 dr 1 FG IJ
ft/sec.
Solution: Let A = area of an equilateral triangle.
=
3
⋅ 3 ⋅ r2 ⋅
3
3
dt 3 H
= is given
K
3x
2
⇒
LM dv OP =
LM 4π ⋅ r OP =
16π
N dt Q N3 Q
2
= , (x = length of a side) ...(1) inch3 /minute.
4 r=2 r =2 3
640 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

3. A spherical balloon is pumped at the rate of 10 dr F

dP I
cubic inches per minute. Find the rate of increase of ⇒ a = 2π
dt
3
H
dt
=a
K
its radius when its radius is 15 inches.
dr a
4 3 ⇒ = ft/sec.
Solution: v = π r (when r and v represent radius dt 2π
3 5. A cylindrical vessel is held with its axis vertical.
and volume respectively) Water is poured into it at the rate of one unit per
second. Given that one unit is equal to 34.66 cu. Inch.
Find the rate at which the surface of water is rising in
the vessel when the depth is x inches.
Solution: let A = are of cross section of cylindrical
r vessel.
x = height of cylindrical vessel.
V = volume = A · x

dv d 4 3 4 F drI ⇒
dv
=
d
A⋅ x a f
H K
⇒ =
2
πr = × π × 3 × r × dt dt
dt dt 3 3 dt dv dx
dr F dr I ⇒ = A⋅
⇒ 10 = 4π r 2 ⋅
dt
G
H3
dt
= 10J
K
dt dt
dx 34.66
⇒ =
dr 10 dt A
⇒ = 2
dt 4×π×r dv
(3 Given = 34.66 cu. inch/sec)
LM dr OP 10 10 1
dt
⇒
N dt Q r = 15 a f
4 × π × 15 2
= =
900 π 90π inch/ ⇒
dx 34.66
dt
=
A
inch/sec.
minute.
FG dx = rate of change of x = rate of rising of the
4. The circular waves in a tank expand so that the
circumference increases at the rate of a feet per H dt
second. Show that the radius of the circle increases
a I
surface of water in the vessel J .
at the rate of
2π
feet per second.
Solution: let p = perimeter of the circular wave at
K
6. A balloon which always remains spherical has a
time ‘t’ from the start.
variable radius. Find the rate at which its volume is
= 2π r (where r is the radius of circular wave at
increasing with radius, when the latter is 7 cm.
time t from the start)
Solution: Let the radius of the balloon = r
and the volume of the balloon = v
4 3
∴ v = πr
3
rate of increase in volume with radius r
r
dv 4
= = × π × 3r 2
dr 3

a f ∴
LM dv OP =4×π× 7 bg 2
= 196π cm 3/cm.
⇒
dP d 2π r
dt
=
dt
N dr Q r=7
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 641

7. The volume v and the pressure p of a gas under Solution: Let v, x and r denote the volume, surface
constant temperature are connected by pv = c, where and radius of the spherical soap bubble respectively
dp −c at time ‘t’ from the start.
c is a constant, show that = .
dv v 2 4 3
3v = πr …(1)
Solution: 3 pv = c 3
dp s = 4π r 2 …(2)
∴ p ⋅1 + v ⋅ =0
dv Differentiating (1) w.r.t ‘t’, we get

FG c IJ dv
= 4π r
2 dr

H vK = − c
…(3)
dp p dt dt
⇒ =− =− (proved) Again differentiating (2) w.r.t ‘t’, we get
dv v v v2
ds dr
8. A sphere of metal is expanding under the action of = 8π r ⋅
heat. Compare the rate of increase of its volume with dt dt
that of its radius. At what rate is the volume increasing 2 F 2 dr I
when the radius is 2 inch and increasing at the rate of =
r H
4π r ⋅
dt K
1
inches per minute. 2 dv
3 = ⋅ [from (3)]
Solution: let v = volume of the metalic sphere at time r dt
‘t’ Problems based on cylinder, cone, cube, … etc.
r = radius at time ‘t’ 1. A cone is 10 inches in diameter and 10 inches deep
4 3 water is poured into it at 4 cubic inches per minute. At
∴v = πr what rate is water level rising at the instant when the
3
depth is 6 inches.
dv 2 dr Solution: Let A B C = a cone
⇒ = 4π r ...(1)
dt dt A D = depth of the cone = 10²
B C = diameter = 10²
dr 1
given that = inches/minute where r = 2 inches α = ∠ CAD
dt 3

F dv I = FG 4 π × 2 IJ cube inch/minute
CD 5 1
2 tan α = = =
H dt K H 3 K
∴ AD 10 2
r =2
D
F 16π I cube inch/minute B C
=
H3K
P
dv
2
Comparison: dt = 4π r x
dr
dt
α
9. The volume of spherical soap bubble is denoted
by v, its surface by s, the radius being r, show that
dv 2 dr ds 2 dv
(1) = 4π r (2) = A
dt dt dt 3 dt
642 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Let A P = depth of water = x and 3. Water runs into a circular conical tank at the
v = volume of water at time ‘t’ constant rate of 2 cubic ft per minute. How fast is the

a f
1 water level rising when the water is 6 ft deep? It being
2
∴v = π x tan α ⋅x given that the radius of the circular base of the cone
3
= 5 ft and height of the cone = 10 ft.
1 3 2 Solution: let at any time ‘t’
⇒v= π x tan α ...(1)
3 O P = h = height of water level
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t ‘t’, P R = r = radius of water surface
v = volume of water at any time ‘t’.
dv 1 2 2 dx
= π ⋅ 3 ⋅ x ⋅ tan α ⋅ Given that O N = 10 ft
dt 3 dt N M = 5 ft

1 1 FG IJ ⋅ FG dx IJ
2 dv
=2
⇒4=
3
⋅ π ⋅ 3 ⋅ 62 ⋅
2 H K H dt K x=6
dt
dh
F dx I
then to find when h = 6
4×4 4 dt
⇒
H dt K x =6
= =
36 × π 9 π
inch/min.
v=
1 2
πr h
2. Water is being poured at the rate of one cubic foot 3
per minute into a cylindrical tube. If the tube has a 1 FI
h 2
circular base of radius a ft, find the rate at which
water is rising in tube.
⇒v=
3
π
HK
2
⋅h

Solution: Let at any time t, 3

1 h 1 3
the height of water level = x ft and volume = v ⇒v= ⋅π⋅ = πh
3 4 12

N
L M

P
x T R

2
∴v = πa x
O
dv 2 dx
∴ = πa ⋅
dt dt PR OP r h 5h h
3 = ⇒ = ⇒r= =
dx F dv I NM ON 5 10 10 2
H K
2
⇒ 1 = πa ⋅ 3 Given =1
dt dt s
From is ∆
dx 1
⇒ = ft/minute. dv 3π 2 dh
dt π a 2 ⇒ = ⋅h ⋅
dt 12 dt
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 643

π 2 dh FG IJ dv 1 2 dx 1 2 dx
⇒2=
4
⋅6 ⋅
dt H K h=6
which ⇒
dt
= π ⋅ 3x ⋅
9 dt
= πx
3 dt

F dh I
1 2 dx
⇒3= πx ⋅
⇒G J
8 2
H dt K h=6
= =
36π 9π
= 0.071 ft/min.
⇒
9
3
=
dx
dt

2
4. A hallow cone whose semi vertical angle is 30º is πx dt
held with its vertex downwards and axis vertical and
water is poured into it at the steady rate of 3 c. ft/min. LM dx OP LM 9 OP
Find the rate at which the depth (measured along the
⇒
N dt Q x =3
=
MN π x 2
PQ x =3
axis) of the water is increasing when the depth of the
water is 3 ft. 9 1
= = ft/min. = the rate at which depth of
Solution: Let v = volume of water at any time ‘t’ π×9 π
α = 30º = semi vertical angel (given) water is increasing when the depth of water = 3 ft.
r 5. An inverted cone has a depth of 10 cm and a base
Now, tan α = (from rt ∠d ∆ OPR ) of radius 5 cm. Water is poured into it at the rate of
x
2.5 c.c per minute. Find the rate at which the level of
r
⇒ tan 30 = the water in the cone is rising when the depth of the
x water is 4 cm.
1 r Solution: Let the depth of the water at time ‘t’ minutes
⇒ = from the start in x cm. If the radius of the surface of
3 x
water at this time is r, then from the similar triangles
x COQ and COB, we have
⇒r= ...(1) r x
v3 =
5 10
N x
L M ⇒r= …(1)
2

P r
T R O 5
A B

x
30° = α

O´ r
P Q

10 cm
x

1 2
Again 3 v = π r x = volume of water at any
3
time ‘t’ C
2
1 x 1
∴v = π⋅ ⋅ x = π x 3 (putting from (1) 1 2
3 3 9 Again 3 v = π r = volume of water at any
x 3
r = ) time ‘t’
3
644 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

F I
1 x
2
1 ∴v = x
3

H K
3
⇒v= ⋅π⋅x= πx
3 2 12
dv 2 dx
x which ⇒ = 3x ⋅
(3 r = from (1)) dt dt

dv 1
2
2 dx
b g
= 3x 2 ⋅ .01 cube inch/hour
⇒ = π ⋅ 3x = .03x cubic inch/hour
2
dt 12 dt
dv 1 2 dx ∴
LM dv OP = .03 × 4 = .12 cubic inch per hour
⇒
dt
= πx
4 dt
...(2) N dt Q x =2

dv 5 7. A right circular cylinder has a constant height h

but we are given = c.c. per minute. but the radius r of its base varies. If v be the volume
dt 2
Putting this value in (2), we get and S the curved surface of the cylinder, prove that
dx 4×5 dv
=S.
=
dt π x2 × 2 dr

LM dx OP = LM 4 × 5 ⋅ 1 OP
Solution: let r = radius of right circular cylinder and v
is its volume at time ‘t’ from the start, then
⇒
N dt Q MN π ⋅ 4 2 PQ
x =4
2
v = πr h
2

L5O
= M P cm/minute
dv dr
a f
N8π Q ⇒
dt
= 2πrh
dt

a f
= rate of rising water when the depth of water is dr
4 cm. =S 3 S = 2πrh ...(1)
dt
6. The temperature of metal cube is being raised
steadily so that each edge expands at the rate of .01 dv dv dt
⇒ = ⋅
inch per hour. At what rate is the volume increasing dr dt dr
when the edge is 2 inches.
dv dt
Solution: let x = length of the edge of the metal cube =
A B C D E F G H at the time ‘t’ dr dt
Given that
dx
= .01 inch/hour
dt
Let v = volume of the metal cube when the edge is
x inches at any time ‘t’
E H h

F G

C
D
= S (from (1))
A x B (proved)
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 645

Problems based on proportionality ⇒ v is proportional to time ‘t’

1. If the area of the circle increases at a uniform rate,
dv
then the rate of increase of the perimeter varies Again = 2k
inversely as the radius. dt
dv
Solution: let the area of the circle A = π r
2
…(1) ⇒ = a constant
dt
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t ‘t’, we ⇒ rate of increase in velocity = constant (proved).
dA dr 3. A spherical ball of salt is dissolving in water in
get = 2πr such a manner that the rate of decrease in volume is
dt dt
proportional to the surface. Prove that the radius is
dr decreasing at a constant rate.
⇒ k = 2πr
dt Solution: let v and S denote the volume and surface
of the spherical ball of salt respectively when the
dA
(3 = uniform rate = k (say) = given) radius is r at time ‘t’.
dt
4 3
2π d r k We know that v = πr …(1)
⇒ = ...(2) 3
dt r 2
S = 4πr …(2)
Again perimeter of the circle P = 2 π r …(3)
Differentiating both sides of (3) w.r.t ‘t’, we get
dP dr
= 2π …(4)
dt dt
Putting (2) in (4), we get r

dP k
=
dt r
dP 1 dv
⇒ ∝ (proved) ∝ S (given) …(3)
dt r dt
2. Prove that if a particle moves so that the space
dv
described is proportional to the square of the time of ⇒ = − u S [ 3 v decreases with increase in
description, the velocity will be proportional to the dt
time and rate of increase of the velocity will be ‘t’], u > 0 (constant) …(4)
constant. dv 2 dr dr
Solution: letting S = the space described by the Now, = 4πr ⋅ =S⋅
dt dt dt
particle in time ‘t’.
2 dr
S ∝ t (given) ⇒ − uS = S (using (4))
dt
2
⇒ S = k t , where k = a constant dr
dS ⇒ = − u (constant)
⇒ = 2k t dt
dt ⇒ radius is decreasing at a constant rate (–ve
dS sign signifies the decreasing of r)
⇒ v = 2 k t (3 = v = velocity of the particle)
dt 4. The diameter of an expanding smoke ring at time t
…(1) is proportional to t2. If the diameter is 6 cm after 6 sec,
⇒v∝t find at what rate it is then changing.
646 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: let D denote the diameter of an expanding 4. Find the other rate by solving the equation
smoking then according to question, D ∝ t 2 dx dy
involving and .
2 dt dt
∴ D = k t , (where k is a constant) …(1)
Notes:
dD 1. Figures must be drawn for convenience, for doing
∴ = 2kt …(2) rate problems based on right angled triangle as well
dt
as formulas for volume, area, perimeter of regular
geometrical figures (as triangle, rectangle, square,
cylinder, cone, sphere or cube etc) must be
remembered.
2. We substitute the given quantities and rates in
D the differentiated results to get the required rate.
LM dQ OP
3.
N dt Q x =a
= the rate of Q when (or, at) x = a where

Now, since, it is given D = 6, when t = 6 Q = any quantity.

6 1 4. Rate at which two bodies are nearing (or being
∴ from (1), 6 = k ⋅ 36 ⇒ k = = …(3) separated) is the rate of distance ‘r’ between them
36 6
dr
Putting the value of k from (3) in (2), we have denoted .
dt
dD 1 1
=2× ×t= ×t Worked out
dt 6 3 Problems based on type (2)
lastly, when t = 6, the rate of change of 1. A man 6 ft tall walks away along a straight line
LM dD OP LM t OP from the foot of a light post 24 ft high at the rate of 3.
D=
N dt Q t=6
=
N3Q t =6
m. p. h. How fast does the end of his shadow move?
Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
6 increases.
= = 2 cm/sec. Solution: LP = height of the lamp post = 24 ft
3
MN = height of the man = 6 ft
Type 2: Problems based on right angled triangle PN = x = the distance between the foot of light
In such types of problems, we adopt the following post and the position N obtained after t second, when
working rule. the man is x feet away from the foot P of light post.
1. An question given in x and y stated in words should PR = y
be translated into symbolic equation in x and y or we NR = PR – PN = y – x
form an equation in x and y by using the properties
s
Now from similar ∆ LPR and ∆ MNR , we have
of ∆ .
PL PR
2. Then differentiate both sides of the equation =
determined w.r.t time ‘t’ which provides us a relation MN NR
24 y
dy dx which ⇒ =
(or equation) between and . 6 y−x
dt dt
y
dy dx ⇒4=
3. Use the given value for or which ever is y−x

given.
dt dt
a
⇒4 y− x = y f
⇒ 3y = 4x …(1)
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 647

L
y b
⇒ =
M x+ y a
⇒ ay = bx + by
24 ft 6 ft a
⇒ a − b y = bx f
bx
90° 90° ⇒y=
P x N ( y – x) R a −b
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t ‘t’, we dy b dx
⇒ = ⋅ ...(1)
have dt a − b dt
dy dx dx
3 =4⋅ But we are given = c = velocity of the boy
dt dt dt
dy 4 dx ∴ rate of lengthening in the boy’s shadow
⇒ = ⋅
dt 3 dt
LM OP
dy dy dx
dy 4 dx = = ⋅
⇒ = ⋅3 3
N
= 3 given
Q
dt dx dt
dt 3 dt
FG b IJ ⋅ c LM3 dy = b and dx = cOP
∴
dy
dt
= 4 miles/hour
=
H a − b K N dx a − b dt Q
∴ The end of the shadow moves at the rate 3 miles/
=G
F bc IJ meter/minute.
hour.
The rate at which the shadow lengthens
H a − bK
b g = d b y − xg
3. A lamp is at a height 376 cm from the ground. A
d NR man 188 cm tall is walking on the ground steadily at
=
dt dt the rate of 10 cm/sec, in a straight line passing through
the lamp post. Find the rate at which the end of his
=
dy dx
dt
−
dt
b g
= 4 − 3 m.p.h. = 1 m.p.h. shadow is moving.
Solution: let A be the lamp
2. A point source of light is hung a meter directly BC, the man
above a straight horizontal path on which a bot b D, the point where AC produced meets OB
meter in height is walking. How fast is the boy’s produced,
shadow lengthening when he is walking away from
A
the light at the rate of c meter per minute.
Solution: let y = length of the shadow in meter and x C
= the distance of the boy after time ‘t’
A 376 188
x (y – x)
D
90° 90°
O x B y–x D

a b then we are required to find out the rate at which D is

moving.
90° 90°
y Again let us suppose that
B x C E
OB = x
∆ ECD is ∆ EBA OD = y
648 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dx AB BC
then = 10 (given) =
dt MN NC
dy 25 2 x + y
and we have to find . ⇒ =
dt 5 y
From similar triangles AOD and CBD, we have
⇒ 5y = 2 x + 2 y
BD BC
= ⇒ 3y = 2x
OD OA
y − x 188 1 ⇒
dy 2 dx
=
which ⇒ = =
y 376 2 dt 3 dt
2
⇒ 2y − 2x = y = ⋅3
3
⇒ y = 2x = 2 miles/hour.
5. A ladder 25 ft long reclines against a wall. A man
dy dx
⇒ =2 = 2 × 10 = 20 cm/sec. begins to pull the lower extremity which is 7 ft distant
dt dt from the bottom of the wall along the ground outwards
dx at the rate of 3 ft/sec. At what rate does the other end
(3 = 10 is given in the question) begin to descend along the wall?
dt
Solution: let AB = wall
1
4. A man 5 ft tall walks away from a lamp post 12 ft AC = ladder
2
BC = 7’ = 7 feet (given)
high at the rate of 3 miles per hour. Find how fast is
his shadow lengthening. Let after t second, the foot ‘c’ be at ‘Q’
and let CQ = x
1
Solution: let AB = lamp post = 12 ft BP = y
2
MN = height of the man = 5 ft AC = 25 feet
BN = x ft = distance of a man at any time ‘t’ from From ∆ PBQ
the lamp post. 2 2 2
NC = y = length of the shadow PB = PQ − BQ

dx
given =3 U| ⇒ y = 25
2
a f − a7 + xf
2 2
...(1)
dt
dy V| Now differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t ‘t’, we
have,
then to find
dt W A
s
Now from the similar ∆ ABC and MNC, we have
A
25

P
ft

5½´ 5´ y

90° 90°
B x N y C 90°
B 7 ft C x Q
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 649

2y ⋅
dy
dt
= −2 7 + x
dx
dt
a f ⇒
d 2
dt
e 2
x + y =
d
dt
j
400 a f
⇒
dy − 7 + x
= ×
dxa f ⇒ 2x
dx
+2⋅y⋅
dy
=0
dt y dt dt dt

b7 + xg × 3 FG3 dx = 3 is givenIJ ⇒x
dx
+ y⋅
dy
=0 ...(1)
=−
y H dt K ...(2) dt dt
Now, again from the relation x2 + y2 = 400, when
Now, we know that when x = 0, y = 24 feet (when
x = 12, we have
t = 0)
Again from (2) , we have (12)2 + y2 = 400

FG dy IJ 21 7
2
⇒ 144 + y = 400
H dt K t=0
=−
24
= − feet/sec.
8 2
⇒ y = 400 − 144 = 256
(–ve sign shows that y decreases with t i.e. the
other end descends and the rate at which it descends ⇒y= 256
7 ⇒ y = 16
= ft/sec)
8 dx
6. The top of ladder, 20 feet long, is resting against a Also we are given x = 12, as well as = 2 ft/sec.
dt
vertical wall and its foot on a level pavement, when Substituting these values in (1), we have
the ladder begins to slide outwards. At the moment
when the foot of the ladder is 12 feet from the wall, it dy
12 ⋅ 2 + 16 ⋅ =0
is sliding away from the wall at the rate of 2 feet per dx
second. How fast is the top sliding downwards at dy 24 3
this instant? How far is the foot from the wall when it ⇒ =− = − ft/sec.
and the top are moving at the same rate. dx 16 2
Solution: let at any time t Hence B is sliding downwards (as the negative
AB be the position of the ladder having the length 3
sign shows) as the rate of ft/sec at the instant
= 20 feet where 2
OA = x under consideration.
OB = y where O represents the foot of the wall. If, at a particular instant, A and B are sliding at the
Now, from the right angled triangle, we have, same rate, then
dx dy
=− and then (2) provides us x = y
dt dt
B and for the reason, x2 + y2 = 400
2
20 ⇒ 2 x = 400
fe e
y t
2 400
⇒x = = 200
2
90°
O x A ⇒ x = 10 2 feet.
7. A ladder is inclined to a wall making an angle of
OA2 + OB2 = AB2
30º with it. A man is ascending the ladder at the rate
2
⇒ x + y = 20
2
a f a3 AB = 20 feet f
2
of 3 ft/sec. How fast is he approaching the wall.
650 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: AB is the position of the ladder inclined to dx

a wall OB having the length ‘L’ feet. Given that = 4 ft/sec
dt
x = distance moved along the ladder and y =
distance from the wall at time t x = 10 ft ⇒ y = 262 − 102 = 24 ft,
B
dy
30° to find: when x = 10 ft.
dt
C D
dx dy
y
x From (1), 2 x + 2y =0
dt dt
A dy x dx
O
⇒ =− ⋅
dt y dt
CD y
Now, sin 30º =
BD
=
a
L−x f FG dx IJ 10 5
b
⇒ y = L − x sin 30° g
⇒
H dt K x = 10
=−
24
× 4 = − ft/sec.
3

⇒y= L−x ⋅ a1
2
f which ⇒ the top of the ladder is sliding down at the
5
dy 1 dx rate of ft/sec.
⇒ =− ( 3 L is a constant) 3
dt 2 dt
9. A kite is 100 ft high and a length of 260 ft of the
dy 1 dx string is out. If the kite is moving horizontally at the
⇒ = − ⋅ 3 (3 = 3 feet/sec is given)
dt 2 dt 1
rate of 6 m.p.h directly away from the person who
dy 3 2
⇒ = − ft/sec is flying it, how fast the string (or, cord) is being paid
dt 2 out.
Hence, y decreases (as the –ve sign shows) at the Solution: let k be kite which is flying in the horizontal
3 direction in the height of 100 ft.
rate of ft/sec. M is the point where the man is standing and is
2
8. A ladder 26 ft long leans against a vertical wall. flying the kite. Let at time t,
The foot of the ladder is drawn away from the wall at MK = the length of the string (or, cord) which is
the rate of 4 ft per second. How fast is the top of the out = y (say)
ladder sliding down the wall when the foot of the MA = the horizontal distance of the kite from M at
ladder is 10 ft away from the wall. time ‘t’ = x (say)
Solution: let AB = ladder = 26 ft Now, from ∆ AKM we have
OA = x and K
OB = y at time t
Now from the right angled triangle, we have
x2 + y2 = (26)2 …(1) y
100 feet
B
90°
26
fee M x A
y t
y2 – 1002 = x2 …(1)
90°
since, the height of the kite is same always = 100 ft
O x A Now, differentiating (1), we get
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 651

dy dx Initially, when t = 0, Z = OA = 260

2y ⋅ = 2x ⋅
dt dt dZ 13 × 240
Hence, =
dy dx dt 2 × 260
⇒ y⋅ =x ...(2)
dt dt = 6 m. p. h
= the require rate
2 2
y = 260 ⇒ x = 260 − 100 = 240 10. A kite is moving horizontally at a height of 151.5
meters. If the kite is moving horizontally directly away
Substituting these values of x and y in (2), we
from the boy who is flying it at the rate of 10 meter/
have
sec, how fast is the string being let out when the kite
dy 13 is 250 meters from the boy who is flying the kite, the
260 = 240 ×
dt 2 height of the boy being 1.5 meters.
Solution: Let AB = x and
dy
⇒ = 6 m.p.h = the required rate. AC = y at time t.
dt AE = 1.5
Second method: DC = 151.5 m
2 2 BC = 150 m
x = MA = MK − AK

a260f − a100f
C
= = 240
2 2

K N
y 150
e t
0 fe
26 Z
x
y= 90° B
A
= 100 feet
1.5 m
90° 90°
90°
M x A O E D
Ground
MN = Z dx
1 S Also = 10 m/sec (given)
distance dt
KN = 6 ⋅ t (3 velocity = i.e, v = )
2 time t
dy
13 Then we find , when y = 250 ft.
= t = AO dt
2 Clearly, y2 = x2 + 1502 ...(i)
13
MO = MA + AO = 240 + t dy dx
2 ⇒ 2y = 2x ⋅
dt dt
and Z = MN = MO + ON = 240 + 13 t F I + a100f
2

H K
2 2 2 2 2
dy x dx
2 ⇒ = ⋅
dt y dt
dZ 13 F 13 I
⇒ 2Z
dt
= 2 240 +
2 H
t ⋅
2
+0
K When y = 250 ft, x = 200 ft, from (i)
FG dy IJ 200
13 F I ∴
H dt K =
250
× 10 ft/sec

H K
y = 250
13 240 + t
dZ 2
⇒ = = 8 ft/sec.
dt 2Z
652 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

11. If the side of an equilateral triangle increases at AC = r, BC = y, ∠ CAB = θ at time t.

the rate of 3 ft/sec and its area at the rate of 12 sq.
ft/sec find the side of the triangle.
dy
Given that = 140 ft/min
Solution: let x = each side of the equilateral ∆ at dt
AB = 500 ft
time t and A = area of ∆ PQR , then
dθ dr
P Then we have to find (i) (ii) when y = 500 ft
dt dt
y
Now, tan θ =
500
y x
2 dθ 1 dy
⇒ sec θ = ⋅
dt 500 dt

60 dθ 1 1 dy
⇒ = ×
F1 + y I × dt
90°
Q R 2

GH a500f JK
L dt 500
2
3 2
A= ⋅x ...(1)
4
1 1
∴
dA
=
3
⋅2⋅x⋅
dx = ×
F1 + y I × 1402

GH a500f JK
...(2) 500
dt 4 dt 2
dA dx
= 12 and =
FG d θ IJ
Given that 3 which when
dt dt 1 1 7

3
⇒
H dt K y = 500
= × × 140
500 2
substituted in (2), we have 12 = ×2×x× 3
4
⇒G
F d θ IJ .7
which ⇒ x = 8 ft (Ans.) H dt K y = 500
=
5
= 0.14 radian/minute

12. A balloon rising from the ground at 140 ft/minute

Also, r2 = y2 + (500)2
is tracked by range finder at a point A located 500 ft
from the point of lift off. Find the rate at which the dr dy
⇒ 2r ⋅ = 2y ⋅
angle at A and the range ‘r’ are changing when the dt dt
balloon is 500 ft above the ground.
dr y dy FG dr IJ
Solution: let the range finder be at A. ⇒
dt
= ⋅
r dt
⇒
H dt K y = 500

r (which is perpendicular to OX) at the rate of 4 mile per
θ 90°
A 500 feet
500
= × 140 = 70. 2 ft/min.
500 2
C
12. Two bodies start from O, one traveling along OX
at the rate of 3 miles per hour and the other along OY
y hour. Find the rate at which the distance between
them is increasing at time ‘t’.
Solution: let r be the distance between two bodies
B after t hours.
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 653

F distance S OA I dy dx F dx I
H
OA = 3t 3 velocity =
time
i . e. v = =
t t K
⇒
dt
= 2
dt
=
H
2v 3
dt
=v
K
F
OB = 4t H3 velocity =
distance S OB I dy
t K
i . e. v = = ⇒ = 2v
time t dt
Now, from the right angled triangle, we have Second method:
r2 = (3t)2 + (4t)2 F S = OP I
2 2
⇒ r = 9 t + 16t
2
H t tK
OP = vt 3 v =

⇒ r = 5t
F S PQ I
H t tK
PQ = vt 3 v = =

B y2 = v2 t2 + v2 t2
2 2 2
⇒ y = 2v t
a f
r
4t
⇒y= 2 v⋅t
dy
90 ∴ = 2 v
O A
dt
3t
N
dr
⇒ = 5 miles/hour which is the required rate at
dt
P
which the distance AB increasing.
13. Two cars started from a place, one going due
north and the other due west with equal uniform speed y vt
v, find the rate at which they were being separated
from each other.
Solution: let P and Q denote the position (place) of
W
the cars after time ‘t’ Q vt O
OP = OQ = x ( 3 speed is same)
PQ = y 14. Obtain the rate at which the distance between
two cyclists is widening out after an hour given that
N they start simultaneously from the junction of two
roads inclined at 60º, one in each road and that they
P
cycle with the same speed v miles per hour.
Solution: Let the distance travelled after t-second
from the junction = x now, according to the question,
y LM x OP
N
x = vt 3v =
Q
x
…(1)
t
It is clear from the data that joining the junction
90° and the position of two cyclist, we get an equilateral
W
Q x O
triangle ⇒ the distance between two cyclist = x
Now from the right angled triangle, we have Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t, we have
dx
y2 = x2 + x2 = v which is the rate at which distance between
dt
2 2
⇒ y = 2x ⇒y=x 2 two cyclists is winding.
654 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

B
Proof: In the right angled ∆ P1 0 P2 ,

r= aa − sf + ab − sf
2 2

dr 1
⇒ = ×
dt 2
ba − sg + bb − sg
2 2

F ds I
2 ba − sg + 2 bb − sg × G − J
60
H dt K
2s − aa + bf v
O A

15. Two cars start with the same velocity v miles/ =

+ b − 2 aa + bf s + 2s
2 2 2
hour from distances a miles and b miles from the a
junction of two roads inclined at 90º and travel towards
the junction. Prove that after 2 hours, they are nearing FG dr IJ b g
2 × 2v − a + b ⋅ v
each other at the rate of ⇒
H dt K t=2
=
a 2 + b2 − 2 ba + b g × 2v + 2 × b2 v g
2
2
a
4v − a + b v f
2 2
a + b − 4v a + b + 8v a f 2
miles per hour.
e3 S t =2
vt t =2
= 2 v from 1 a fj
Solution: let us suppose that A and B be the initial
=
b g
4v − a + b ν
− 4 ba + bg v + 8v
positions of two cars and P1 and P2 be their positions miles/hour
at time t. a 2 + b2 2

Given: OA = a, OB = b, ∠ AOB = 90º velocities Note: They are nearing each other at the rate of …
S means the rate of distance between them is….
of two cars are same ⇒ v = which ⇒ vt = S
t Problems based on velocity and acceleration as a rate
for both cars …(1) measure
CD = r, AC = s, BD = s To investigate generally the motion (velocity,
∴ OP1 = a − s acceleration or the position of a particle at any
OP2 = b – s time ‘t’)of a particle (or, body) moving in a straight

b g
line according to a law of motion give by y = f (t)
FG dr IJ 4v 2 − a + b v Where y = distance or velocity of the moving body
To prove:
H dt K t =2
=
b g
a + b − 4v a + b + 8v 2
2 2 represented by S or v at any time ‘t’.
The procedure to be followed may be summarised
B as follows.
dy dv
s 1. Find the expression for v = and a = by
dt dt
D differentiation.
P2
2. We perform the operations on the expression
b
dy dv
obtained for v = and a =
r
(b – s) to arrive at out
dt dt
target accordingly as the question says.
90 C
Remember:
O (a – s) s
P1 A 1. If we are required to find out the time when the
a velocity vanishes (or becomes, zero) or we are required
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 655

to find out the acceleration at a point at which the 12. If a point move in a straight line, the velocity v at
velocity of the body becomes zero (or vanish) and a given instant of time t = t0 (called the instantaneous
y = f (t), a given law of motion, then we put v = 0 in the ds
dy velocity) is defined as the derivative of the path
expression for . dt
dt s with respect to time t evaluated for t = t0.
2. Initial given conditions determine the values of
13. The acceleration a at a given instant of time t = t0
the constants appearing in the law of motion given
by y = f (t). dv
is the derivative of the velocity v with respect to
3. If we are given a law of motion y = f (t) as well as dt
initial values of velocity k1 and acceleration k2 and time t calculated for t = t0.
we have to find out the velocity and acceleration at 14. The particle or body comes to rest at a point
dv dS where v = 0.
time t, then we put t = 0, = k2 = 0 to
dt dt ds
determine the constants appearing the give law of 15. It should be noted that is positive when s is
dt
motion y = f (t).
ds
4. Initial values of velocity and acceleration means increasing and is negative when s is decreasing.
the values of velocity and acceleration when t = 0 or dt
alternatively, the initial position, initial velocity and dv
16. It should be noted that is positive when the
initial acceleration correspond to time t = 0. dt
5. Uniform velocity (acceleration) means that the velocity is increasing and negative the velocity is
velocity (acceleration) is constant. decreasing.
ds dt ds 1 Worked out problems
6. × = 1 which ⇒ =
dt ds dt dt ds Based on velocity and acceleration as a rate measurer
1. A stone projected vertically upwards with initial
dv ds
7. ⋅ = a = acceleration. velocity 112 ft/sec moves according to the law s =
ds dt 112 t – 16 t2, where s is the distance from the starting
d s
2
F I
d ds dv ds dv point. Find the velocity y and acceleration when t = 3
8. a =
dt
2
=
H K
dt dt
= ⋅
ds dt
=v⋅
ds and when t = 4.
Solution: s = (112 t – 16 t2) ft
F ds I
9. H dt K t=c
means the value of velocity at time t = c ⇒
ds
dt
b
= 112 − 32t ft/sec g …(1)
or after time t = c or at the end of time t = c or when 2
time is t = c. d s
⇒ = − 32 ft/sec2 …(2)
F d sI
2
2 dt
10. GH dt JK means the value of acceleration when
dsLM OP
t=c

the time is t = c or after time t = c or at the end of time

Now, dt N Q t =3
= 112 – 96 = 16

L d s OP =
and M
t = c or at time t = c. 2
−32 = − 32
11. In the problems considered if the path s is
expressed in meters (m), time t in seconds (s), velocity MN dt PQ
2
t=3
t=3

is v in metres per second (m/s) and acceleration a in

metres per second per second (m/s2) which is read
Again M P
L ds O
“meter per second squared”. N dt Q t =4
= [112 – 32 × 4] = 112 – 128 = –16
656 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

L d s OP
and M
2 d 2s
= −32 = − 32 (ii) Put the value of t in the expression in t for
MN dt PQ
2
t =4
t=4

4. A point moves in a plane according to the law

dt 2

2. The position of a particle in motion is given by s = dy

180 t – 10 t2. What is its velocity at the end of t x = t2 + 2t and y = 2t3 – 6t. Find when t = 0, t = 2
dx
second? At what instant would its velocity be zero.
Solution: s = 180 t – 10 t2 and t = 5.
ds
Velocity at the end of t second, = 180 – 20t dx
dt Solution: = 2t + 2 …(1)
ds dt
∴ = 0 ⇒ 180 − 2t = 0 dy 2
dt = 6t − 6 …(2)
dt
180
⇒t= = 9 sec 2
20 dy dy dt 6t − 6
Now, = =
∴ The volocity is zero when t = 9 sec. dx dx dt 2t + 2
3. A body moves in a straight line according to the
law of motion s = t3 – 4t2 – 3t. Find its acceleration at
e j = 3 et − 1j = 3 bt − 1g
6 t2 − 1 2

2 bt + 1g bt + 1g
=
the instant (time) when the velocity is zero.
Solution: s = t3 – 4t2 –3t
F dy I = 3b0 − 1g
∴G J
⇒
ds
= 3t2 – 8t – 3 …(1)
H dx K t =0
dt
2
= – 3 units
⇒
d s
= 6t − 8 …(2) FG dy IJ b g
dt
Now, we are required to find out the value of t. H dx K t=2
=3 2−1

ds = 3 units
= v = 0 . Now v = 0
FG dy IJ
when
b g
dt
2
⇒ 3t − 8t − 3 = 0 H dx K t =5
=3 5−1

⇒ 3t 2 − 9t + t − 3 = 0
b
⇒ 3t + 1 t − 3 = 0 gb g = 12 units.
5. Find the velocity and acceleration of a moving
⇒ t = 3secs point after 10 sec if its position is given by s = 5t2 + 5t
∴ The acceleration when the velocity is zero – 3 if s is measured in centimeters.
Solution: s = 5t2 + 5t –3 cm
F d sI2
b g
= GH dt JK
2
t =3
⇒
ds
dt
= 10t + 5 cm/sec …(1)

= 6.3 – 8 2
d s
= 10 units. ⇒ 2
= 10 cm/sec2 …(2)
Note: To find the acceleration when velocity is zero dt
⇔. LM ds OP
(i) First find t by putting
ds
dt
= 0 and solve the
Now,
N dt Q t = 10
= 10t + 5 t = 10
= 105 cm/sec

equation for t.
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 657

LM d s OP
2
= 10 = 10 cm/sec2.
Note: Here negative time −
5
secs points that mea-
MN dt PQ
2
t = 10
t = 10 4
surement of time is started from the position where
Remember: To find the velocity and acceleration at 5
s = 250 and the motion started − secs earlier.
time t = c or after time t =c or at the end of time t = c. 4
We find 7. An aeroplane moves a distance of (3t2 + 2t) ft in

LM ds OP LM d s OP
2 t-seconds. Find its velocity when it has flown for

N dt Q and M
N dt PQ
5 minutes.
2 .
t =c t=c
Solution: let the distance moved by the aeroplane in
t-seconds be s.
6. If s represents the distance which a body moves in
time ‘t’, determine its acceleration if s = 250 – 40t – ∴ s = 3t 2 + 2t
16t2. Determine the acceleration and time when the ds
velocity vanishes and the value of s then. ⇒ = 3 × 2 × t + 2 = 6t + 2
Solution: s = 250 – 40t – 16t2 dt
∴ velocity of the aeroplane when it has flown for
ds ds
⇒ = –40 – 32t units …(1) 5 minutes i.e. 300 seconds = the value of when
dt dt
2 t = 300.
⇒
d s
= − 32 units …(2) LM ds OP
=
N dt Q = 6t + 2
2 = 1802 ft/sec.
dt t = 300
Now, we are required to find out the time and t = 300
acceleration when velocity = 0 8. A point moves in accordance with the law v = a +
LM ds OP = 0 bt + ct2 and the initial values of the velocity and
N dt Q acceleration are 3 ft/sec and 2 ft/sec2 respectively
and at the end of the first second the acceleration is
⇒ − 40 − 32t = 0 12 ft/sec2.
Find: (i) the velocity at the end of 3 seconds:
5
⇒t=− sec ...(3) (ii) the acceleration at the end of 4 seconds.
4 Solution: we are given v = a + bt + ct2 …(1)
LM d s OP
2
= −32 = − 32 units
Differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t t we have the
Now,
MN dt PQ
5
t=− dv
t=−
5 4 acceleration = = b + 2ct …(2)
4 5 dt
Lastly, the value of S at t = − sec Now we will find the values of constants a, b and
4
FG 5 IJ − 16 × 25
c from the given initial conditions of the problem.
= s t =−
5 = 250 − 40 × −
H 4K 16
Initial velocity = 3 ft/sec2 which ⇒ v t =0
= 3 …(3)
4
LM dv OP
= 250 + 50 – 25 = 275 units Initial acceleration = 2 ft/sec2 which ⇒
N dt Q t =0
=2

(v = 0) …(4)
s=0 s = 250 s = 275
2
(3) ⇒ v t =0 = a + bt + ct =3
t=0 t = –5 t =0
4
⇒a=3
658 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

LM dv OP dy 2
(4) ⇒
N dt Q = b + 2 ct d y
t=0 2. After obtaining and , we arrive at our
t =0 dx 2
dx
=b=2 target (required law or formula) using various
Again, acceleration = 12 ft/sec2 at the end of first mathematical manipulations (like simplification,
second cancellation or substitution etc) performed upon the
⇒ acceleration = 12 ft/sec2 when t = 1 which 2
dy
LM dv OP = 12
d y
expression obtained for and .
⇒ dx 2

N dt Q t =1
…(5)
Examples worked out
dx

(5) ⇒ L O = b + 2 ct
1. If a body moves according to the law s = a + bt +
MN dt PQ
dv ct2, show that its acceleration is constant.
t =1
= b + 2c = 12 …(6)
t =1 2. If s2 = at2 + 2bt + c, show that acceleration varies
Now putting the value of b in (6), we have 1
2 + 2c = 12 which ⇒ 2c = 12 − 2 = 10 ⇒ c = 5 as 3 .
s
∴ Required velocity when t = 3 =[v]t = 3 Solution: 1. s = a + bt + ct2
a =3
2 b=2
ds
= a + bt + ct c = 5 ⇒ = b + 2ct
dt
F I
t =3
d ds
= [3 + 2t + 5t2]t = 3
= [3 + 2 × 3 + 5 × 9]
⇒
dt dt H K
= 2c

2
= [3 + 6 + 45] = 54 ft/sec. d s
⇒
L dv O
Required acceleration when t = 4 = M P
dt
2 = acceleration = 2c = k (say) = constant

N dt Q t =4 (proved).
b=2
c=5 2. Given that s2 = at2 + 2bt + c
= b + 2 ct t =4
ds
=2 + 2 × 5 × 4 ⇒ 2s = 2at + b
dt
= 42 ft/sec2. ds
⇒s = at + b …(1)
dt
Conditional Problems
2
When a law of motion of a particle (or, body) is given ds ds d s
⇒ ⋅ + s⋅ 2 = a
by a formula y = f (x) (or the law of motion stated in dt dt dt
words be written in the symbolic form) and we have (differentiating (1) w.r.t ‘t’)
to show that distance, velocity or acceleration of the
F ds I 2 2
d s
particle (or, body) obeys a differential equation of
motion we adopt the following working rule.
⇒
H dt K +s
dt
2
=a

dy d y
2
d s
2
F ds I 2
aat + bf 2
1. Find
dx
and
dx
2
by differentiating the given ⇒s
dt
2
=a−
H dt K =a−
s
2

formula given in words translated into symbolic from

FG3 ds = at + b from a1fIJ
or the given law y = f (x) with respect to the given
independent variable.
H dt s K
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 659

d s
2 2
as − at + b a f 2
e j= d
d v
2
⇒s
dt
2
=
s
2 ⇒
dt ds
e s ⋅ e j = s ⋅ e + e ⋅ = se + e
d
ds
s ds
ds
s s s s

e 2
a at + 2bt + c − a t + 2abt + b j e 2 2 2
j v F v I
= as + 1f ⋅ 3 from a1f e =
2 2
=
s
2 ⇒ 2v
dv
ds s H
G J
sK
s

e3 s 2
= at + 2bt + c
2
j dv 1 F 1I
ds 2 H sK
2
2 ⇒v = 1+ ⋅v
ac − b
= 2
s 5. If the law of motion is t = as2 + 2bs + c, show that
2 2 the acceleration varies as v3 and has a sign opposite
d s ac − b
⇒ 2
= 3
to that of a.
dt s Solution: t = as2 + 2bs …(1)
2
d s k dt
⇒ = (where k = ac – b2 (say)) ⇒ = 2as + 2ab
2 3 ds
dt x

⇒
d s
2
∞
1
(proved).
⇒v=
ds
=
1
dt 2as + 2b 2
=
1
as + b
−1
a
…(2) f
2 2
dt x
dv d ds 1 F I a fa f ⋅ FH a dsdt IK
H K
3. If the law of motion of a point moving in a straight −2
⇒ = = −1 ⋅ as + b
1 dt dt dt 2
line be ks = log , prove that acceleration f is given
v
a f a f
2
dv d s 1 −2 1 −1
2
by f = –kv ; s and v represent distance and velocity ⇒ = = − as + b ⋅a⋅ as + b
respectively. dt dt 2 2 2

F3 ds = 1 aas + bf from a2fI

H dt 2 K
1 −1
Solution: ks = log = log 1 – log v = – log v ( 3 log
v

= − a aas + bf = − ⋅ a ⋅ {aas + bf
a f 1 a f af
1 = 0)
⇒v=e
− ks
…(1)
1
4 4
−3
} −1 × 3

= − a ⋅ a2v f
dv − ks
1 af 3
⇒ = − ke = − kv (from (1) …(2) 4
ds
= − a a2v f (from (2))
dv 2
1 3
⇒v = − kv (multiplying both sides of (2) 4
ds
1 3
by v) =− a ⋅8⋅v
FG3 f = v dv IJ 4
H ds K
2
⇒ f = − kv = –2av3
= –kv3 (where k = 2a)
4. If the velocity of a point moving in a straight line is
given by v 2 = ses, prove that the acceleration is dv
which ⇒ varies as v3
1 F 1 I dt
H K
2
1+ ⋅ v , where x is a constant. Also, it is clear that if a is +ve, the acc. is –ve and
2 s if a is –ve, the ecc. is +ve, i.e., the acc. is opposite to
Solution: v2 = ses …(1) the sign of a. (proved).
660 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Solution: According the given law

6. If the equation of a rectilinear motion be s = t +1
where s is the displacement and t the time, show that s ∝ t3
the acceleration is negative and proportional to the
⇒ s = kt 3 (where k = constant) …(1)
cube of velocity.
Solution: s = t +1 ds
⇒ = 3kt 2 …(2)
dt
⇒v=
ds 1
dt 2
a f −1
= t +1 2 …(1)
⇒
ds
∝ t2
dv d F ds I F 1 I F 1 I
dt
⋅ at + 1f
dt dt H dt K H 2 K H 2 K
− 32
⇒ a= = = − d 2s d 2s
and 2
= 6 kt ⇒ 2 ∝ t .
dt dt
= − a2v f [from (1)
1 3 9. A moving body describes a distance x which is
4 proportional to sin at in time ‘t’. prove that the
= –2v3 which is negative acceleration will be proportional to the distance
= –kv3 (where k = 2) travelled by the body.
which ⇒ acceleration = a varies as cube of velocity Solution: let x = distance described in time ‘t’
and is negative. Given that x ∝ sin at
7. Prove that if a particle moves so that the space ⇒ x = k sin at …( 1)
described is proportional to the square of the time of
dx
description, the velocity will be proportional to the ⇒ = ak cos at
time and the rate of increase of the velocity will be dt
constant. 2
d x 2 2
Solution: let s = the space described by the particle ⇒ 2
= − a k sin at = − a x (from (1))
in time ‘t’. dt
2 2
s∝t d x
⇒ ∝ x (proved).
2 dt
⇒ s = kt where k = a constant
ds N.B.: The motion is simple harmonic.
⇒ = 2 kt
dt Type 1: Problems based on area, perimeter and
ds volume
⇒ v = 2 kt ( = v = velocity of the particle)
dt
…(1) Exercises 17.1
⇒v∝t
dv (A) Problems based on triangle
Again, = 2 k (differentiating (1) w.r.t ‘t’) 1. If the side of an equilateral triangle increases
dt
uniformly at the rate of 3 ft/sec, at what rate is the area
dv
⇒ a constant increasing when the side is 10 ft?
dt
⇒ rate of increase in velocity = constant. (Ans. 15 3 sq. ft/sec)
8. Prove that if a particle moves so that the space 2. If the side of an equilateral triangle increases at
described is proportional to the cube of the time of the rate of 3 ft per second and its area at the rate of
description, the velocity will be proportional to the 12 sq. ft per second, find the side of the triangle.
square of the time and acceleration will be
(Ans. x = side of the ∆ = 8 ft)
proportional to the time.
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 661

3. The area of an equilateral triangle is expanding. 2. The radius of a circle is increasing uniform by at
How many time, as fast as each of its sides is the area the rate of 3 cm/sec. At what rate is the area increasing
increasing at any instant? What is the rate of increase when the radius is 10 cm.
of the area when each of the equal sides is 15 inches (Ans. 60 π cm/sec2)
long and increasing at the rate of 10 inches a second.
3. If the radius of a circle increase at a uniform rate of
3 6 cm per second, find the rate of increase of its area
(Ans. times as fast as each of its sides; when the radius is 50 cm.
2
(Ans. 600 π cm2/sec)
75 3 square inches per sec)
4. If the radius of a circle is increasing at the constant
4. A triangle whose sides are varying with time is rate of 2 ft per second, find the rate of increase of its
always equilateral. The rates at which the area and area when the radius is 20 ft.
the height increase simultaneously at an instant at an (Ans. 80 π ft2/sec)
instant are 6 m2/sec and 3 m/sec respectively. Find
the rate of increase of the side at that instant. 5. If the circular waves in a tank expand so that the
(Ans. 2 m/sec) circumference increases at the rate of a ft/sec, show
that the radius of the circle is increasing at the rate of
(B) Problems based on square and rectangle
1. The side of a square sheet of metal is increasing at a
ft/sec.
3 cm/minute. At what rate is the area increasing when 2π
the side is 10 cm long. 6. The area of a circle is increasing at the uniform rate
(Ans. 60 cm per minute) of 5 sq. cm per minute. Find the rate in cm per minute
2. The sides of a square plate of metal are expanding at which the radius is increasing when the
uniformly at the rate of 0.3 cm per second. Find the circumference of the circle is 40 cm.
rate at which its area is (i) 30 cm (ii) 50 cm. 1
(Ans. (i) 18 sq cm/sec (ii) 30 sq cm/sec) (Ans.cm/minute)
8
3. A square plate of metal is expanding and each of
7. A spherical balloon is inflated and the radius is
its sides is increasing at a uniform rate of 2 inches per
minute. At what rate is the area of the plate increasing 1
increasing at inches/minute. At what rate would
when the side is 20 inches long? 3
(Ans. 60 sq. cm per second) the volume be increasing at the instant when its radius
4. A rectangle is of given perimeter p. Find the rate of is 2 inches.
change of the area at the instant when the length 16π
equals the breadth. (Ans. inch3/minute)
3
(Ans. 0 = zero) 8. A spherical balloon is pumped at the rate of 10
5. The breadth of a rectangle is increasing at the rate cubic inches per minute. Find the rate of increase of
of 2 cm per second and its length is always 3 times its its radius when its radius is 15 inches.
breadth. When the breadth is 5 cm, at what rate is the 1
area of the rectangle increasing. (Ans. 90 π inch/minute)
(Ans. 60 sq. cm per second)
9. If the area of a circle increase at a uniform rate,
(C) Problems based on circle show that rate of increase of the perimeter varies
1. A balloon which always remains spherical has a inversely as the radius.
3 10. A spherical ball of salt is dissolving in water in
variable diameter (2x + 3). Determine the rate of such a manner that the rate of decrease in volume is
2
proportional to the surface. Prove that the radius is
change of its volume with respect to x.
decreasing at a constant rate.
662 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
11. The volume of a spherical soap bubble is denoted
by v, its surface by S, the radius being r. Prove that
dv 2 dr ds 2 dv
(i) = 4π r ⋅ (ii) = ⋅ . (Ans. π ft3 /minute)
dt dt dt r dt
12. A sphere of metal is expanding under the action
of heat. Compare the rate of increase of its volume
with that of its radius. At what rate is the volume
increasing when the radius is 2 inches and increasing
1 (Ans. 2 cm/min)
at the rate of inches per minute.
3 Type 2: Problems based on right angled triangle
(Ans. 8 π cubic inch/sec)
(D) Problems based on cube
1. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rat
of 3 cm/sec. how fast is the volume of the cube
increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
(Ans. 900 cm3/sec)
2. When a cubical block of metal is heated, each edge
increases .1 percent per degree of rise in temperature.
Show that the surface increases .2 percent and the
volume .3 percent per degree.
3. A metal cube is heated so that its edge increases
at the rate of 2 cm/minute. At what rate the volume of
the cube increases when the edge is 10 cm long?
(Ans. 2400 cubic cm/minute)
4. The volume of a cube increases at a constant rate.
Prove that the increase in its surface varies inversely
as the length of the side.
5. The temperature of a metal cube is being raised
stead by so that each edge expands at the rate of .01
inch per hour. At what rate is the volume increasing
when the edge is 2 inches.
(Ans. 12 cu. in per hour)
(E) Problems based on cylinder
1. A cylindrical vessel is held with its axis vertical.
Water is poured into it at the rate of one point per
second. Given that one point is equal to 34.66 cubic
inches, find the rate at which the surface of water is
rising in the vessel when the depth is x inches.
34.66
(Ans. inch per second where A is
A 2
the area of cross-section)
2. Water is running out of cistern in the form of an
inverted right circular cone of semi vertical angle 45º
with its axis vertical. Find the rate at which the water
is flowing out at the instant when the depth of water
is 2 ft; given that at that instant, the level of the water
is diminishing at the rate of 3 inches per minute.
3. The volume of a right circular cone is constant. If
the height decreases at a constant rate of 8 cm/minure,
how fast is the radius of the base changing at the
instance when the height is 8 cm and the radius of the
base is 4 cm.
Exercises 17.2
(A) Problems based on the height of a man
1. A man of height 6 ft walks directly away from a
lamp post of height 15 ft at the rate of 3 miles per hour.
At what rate does his shadow lengthen?
(Ans. 2 miles/hour)
2. A man 1.6 m high walks at the rate of 50 meters per
minute away from a lamp which is 4m above the
ground. How fast is the man’s shadow lenghtning?
1
3. A man of height 5 ft approaches directly towards
2
a lamp-post along a horizontal road. If the light is 8 ft
above the level of the road, show that the length of
11
this shadow decreases at a rate of times the rate
25
at which be approaches the lamp-post.
4. A man 6ft tall walking away along a straight line
from the foot of the light post, 30 ft high at the rate of
4 ft per second; find how fast be is approaching the
wall.
5
(Ans. miles/hour)
4
1
5. A man of height 5 ft walks directly away from a
2
1
lamp-post of height 120’ at the rate of 4 miles per
hour; find how fast is his shadow lenthening.
96
(Ans. miles/hour)
58

6. A man 160 cm tall walks from a lamp-post 4m high
at the rate of 3 km/hr. Find the rate at which the shadow
of his head moving on the pavement and the rate at
the which his shadow is lengthening.
(Ans. (i) 5 km/hr (ii) 2 km/hr)
7. A man 6 ft tall walking away along a straight line
from the foot of light-post, 30 ft high at the rate of 5
miles per hour. How fast does the end of this shadow
move?
5 ft/sec.
(Ans. miles/hour)
4
8. A man 6 ft tall walks at the rate of 5 ft/sec towards
street light 16 ft above the ground. At what rate is the
tip of his shadow moving? At what rate is the length
of his shadow changing when ne is 10 ft from the foot
of the light?
(Ans. 8 ft/sec and decreasing at 3 ft/sec)
(B) Ladder problems
1. A ladder 13 ft long slides down from a vertical wall
remaining in a vertical plane all the time. What is the
velocity of the upper end when the lower end is at a
distance of 5 ft from the wall and has a velocity of 2 ft
per second?
(Ans. 5 ft/sec)
2. A ladder is inclined to a wall making an angle of
30º with it. A man is ascending the ladder at the rate
of 3 ft/sec. how fast is he approaching the wall.
2 fast is the string being paid out when the kite is 250
(Ans. ft/sec)
3
3. A ladder is inclined to a wall making an angle of
45º with it. If a man is ascending the ladder at the rate
of 4 ft/sec; find how fast he is approaching the wall.
(Ans. 2 2 ft/sec)
4. A ladder 26 ft in length is resting on a horizontal
plane inclined against a vertical wall. It slips away
from the wall at the rate of 5 ft/sec. Find the velocity
of the top of the ladder down the wall when it is at a
height of 24 ft.
25
(Ans. ft/sec)
12
5. A ladder 5 meter long standing on a horizontal
floor leans against a vertical wall. If the top of the
ladder slides downwards at the rate of 10 cm/sec.
Derivative as Rate Measurer 663
Find the rate at which the angle between the floor and
the ladder is decreasing when the lower end of the
ladder is 2 meter from the wall.
1
(Ans. radius/sec)
20
6. A ladder 25 ft long slides down from a vertical wall
remaining in a vertical plane all the time. What is the
velocity of the upper end when the lower end is at a
distance of 15 ft from the wall and has a velocity of 3
9
(Ans. ft/sec)
4
(C) Kite problems
1. A kite is 45 ft high and there is 117 ft cord out. If
the kite is moving horizontally at the rate of 13 m.p.h
directly away form the position who is flying it, find
how fast the cord is being paid out.
(Ans. 19 m.p.h)
2. A kite is 100 ft high and there is 260 ft of cord out.
1
if the kite is moving horizontally at the rate of 3
4
miles per hour directly away from the person who is
flying it; how fast is the cord being paid out.
(Ans. 3 miles/hour)
3. A kite is moving horizontally at a height of 151.5
meters. If the speed of the kite is 10 meters/sec, how
meters from the boy who is flying the kite, the height
of the boy being 1.5 meters.
(Ans. 8 m/sec)
4. A girl flies a kite at a height of 300 ft; the wind
carrying the kite horizontally away from her at a rate
of 25 ft/sec. How fast must she let out the string when
the kite is 500 ft away from her.
(Ans. 20 ft/sec)
(D) Rod Problems
1. A rod 13 ft long moves with its ends A, B on two
perpendicular lines OX and OY respectively. If the
1
end A is 12 ft from O and is slipping away at 2 ft/
2
sec; find how fast end B is moving?
(Ans. –6 ft/sec)
664 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable
2. Two rods AB and AC are inclined to each other at
an angle of 120º. A car starts from B towards A with a
velocity of 40 miles an hour and an other can starts
from C towards the same place with an equal velocity
at the same. If AB = AC, find the rate at which each is
approaching the other.
(Ans. 40 3 m/h)
3. Two straight rods OA and OB cross each other at
O at right angles; If OA = 10 miles and OB = 8 miles, a
man starts at the rate of 3 miles per hour from O to B.
Find the rate at which his distance from A is altering.
3x
(Ans.
2 seconds.
10 x + x
4. A rod AB of length 10 ft slides with ends A and B
on two perpendicular OX and OY respectively. If the
end A on OX moves with a constant velocity 2 ft/
minute, find the velocity of its med-point at the time
the rod makes an angle of 30º with OX.
(Ans. 2 ft/minute)
Problems based on velocity and acceleration
Exercise 17.2.1
1. A point moves in a straight line according to the
law:
S = 2t3 + t2 – 4
Find its velocity and acceleration at the instant of
time t = 4.
(Ans. (i) v (4) 104 m/s (ii) a (4) = 50 m/s2)
2. A point moves in a straight line as given by the
equation:
S = 6t – t2
At what instant of time will the velocity of the
point be equal to zero?
(Ans. t = 3 second)
3. Find the velocity and acceleration at the indicated
instants of time for a point moving in a straight line if
its motion is described by the following equations.
(i) S = t3 + 5t2 + 4, t = 2
(ii) S = t , t = 1
(iii) S = t2 + 11t + 30, t = 3
(Ans. (i) 32 m/s; 22 m/s2 (ii) 0.5 m/s; –0.25 m/s2
(iii) 17 m/s; 2 m/s2)
4. At time t, the distance x of a particle moving in a
straight line is given by x = 4t2 + 2t. Find the
1
velocity and acceleration when t = .
2
(Ans. 6, 8)
5. The distance S, at the time t, of a particle moving in
a straight line is given by the equation S = t4 – 18t2.
Find its speed at t = 10 seconds.
(Ans. 340 units/sec)
6. A particle is moving in a straight line in such a way
that its distance in cm from a fixed point on the line
after t seconds is given by 4t3 + 2t + 5. Find the
distance, velocity and acceleration at the end of 3
)
(Ans. (i) 119 cm (ii) 100 cm/sec
(iii) 72 cm/sec2)
7. The distance S meters moved by a particle
travelling in a straight line in t seconds is given by S
= 45t + 11t2 – t3. Find the time when the particle comes
to rest.
ds
[Hint: solve = 0]
dt
(Ans. 9 seconds)
8. A particle is moving on a line where its position S
in meters is a function of time t in seconds given by S
= t3 + at2 + bt + c, where a, b, c are constants. It is
known that t = 1 second, the position of the particle is
given by S = 7 meters, velocity is 7 m/sec and the
acceleration is 12 m/sec2. Find the values of a, b and
c.
(Ans. a = 3, b = –2, c = 5)
9. Find the acceleration of a moving point at the
indicated instants of time if the velocity of the point
moving in a straight line is given by the following
equation:
(i) v = t2 + t – 1, t = 3
(ii) v = t2 + 5t + 1, t = 3
(Ans. (i) 7 m/s2 (ii) 11 m/s2)
10. A point moves in a straight line according to the
law S = t2 – 8t + 4. At what instant of time will the
velocity of the point turn out to be equal to zero?
(Ans. t = 4s)
11. A point moves in a straight line according to the
law:
S = sin2 t
 Derivative as Rate Measurer 665

Find the instant of time at which its acceleration is More problems on physical application of derivatives
equal to 1.
π Exercise 17.2.3
(Ans. t = ± + π k , k ∈z )
6
12. A point moves in a straight line according to the 1. The law of change of temperature T of a body with
law: time is given by T = 0.2t3. At what rate does this body
S = sin2 t get warm at the instant of time t = 10?
Find the instant t at which its acceleration is equal 2. A body of mass 10 kg moves in a straight line
to zero. according to the law:
S = 3t2 + t + 4
π πk 2
F I
(Ans. t =
4
+
2
, k ∈z )
Find the kinetic energy of the body
mv
2 four GH JK
1 3 seconds after it started.
13. If S = t − 16t , find the acceleration at the
a f LMN dsdt OPQ a f
3
time when the velocity vanishes. [Hint: (i) v 4 = = 6t + 1 t =4
= 25 m/sec
t =4
(Ans. 8 units/sec2)
(ii) Determine the kinetic energy of the body at t = 4

af
Conditional problems 2 2
mv 25
which is = 10 × = 3125 J ]
2 2
Exercise 17.2.2 3. The strength of current I changes with time ‘t’
according to the law:
1. If a particle vibrates according to the law: I = 0.4t2, (I is expressed in amperes, t in seconds)
y = a sin (Pt – e), show that the velocity and Find the rate of change in strength of current after
acceleration at any instant are aP cos (Pt – e) and – expiry of the 8th second.
P2 y respectively.
F dI I a f
2. The motion of a particle moving in a straight line is
given by x = 3 cos 2t with usual symbols. Show that
[Hint:
H dt K t =8
= 0.8t t =8
= 0.8.8 = 6.4 A/m]
4. The temperature T of a body changes with time t
its acceleration is proportional to the distance
obeying the law:
travelled by the particle and determine the distance x
T = 0.5t2 – 2t
when the speed is zero.
At what rate does this body get warm at the instant
3. If a particle moves so that the space described
of time t = 5?
varies as the square of the time of description, prove
(Ans. 3 deg/s)
that the velocity varies as the time and the acceleration
5. A body of mass 100 kg moves in a straight line
is constant.
according to the law:
4. If the law of motion is t = s2 + s – 1, show that S = 5t2 –2
acceleration varies as v3. Find the kinetic energy of the body in two seconds
5. If the law of motion is t = as2 + bs + c, show that after the beginning of motion.
the rate of change of velocity is proportional to the (Ans. 20,000 J)
cube of the velocity and has a sign opposite to that 6. The change in the strength of current I with time t
of a. is given by the equation I = 2t2 – 5t (I is amperes, t in
6. If t = 2s2 + 3s + 1, show that acceleration is seconds). Find the rate of change in the strength of
current after the expiry of 10th second.
proportional to the cube of the velocity.
(Ans. 25 A/S)
666 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

18
Approximations

Mathematics is a language.
J. Willard Gibbs

Let y = f (x) af
⇒ ∆ y = f ′ x ⋅ ∆ x + ∈∆ x …(3)
dy ∆y where the second term on the r.h.s of the equation (3)
(A) We should recall that = lim …(1)
dx ∆ x → 0 ∆ x of (B) is very small and can be neglected (since ∈→ 0
when ∆ x is very small , we write, and ∆ x → 0 ⇒ ∈⋅ ∆ x → 0 on using the product

dy ∆ y
af
theorems on limits) and the first term f ′ x ∆ x is
= the larger part of ∆ y (in equation (3) of (B)) which is
(nearly) …(2)
dx ∆ x known as the principal part. The principal part ∆ y is
called the differential of y and is denoted by dy i.e.
af
dy
∴∆ y = ⋅ ∆ x (when ∆ x is small) …(3) But if we let dy = f ′ x ∆ x …(4)
dx
dy ∆y ∴ ∆ x = dx , using this result in (4) for y = x, we
(B) Again we should recall = lim
dx ∆ x → 0 ∆ x
…(1)
af
have, therefore, dy = f ′ x dx which tells the
∆y differential of y is obtained by differentiating the given
when ∆ x is not sufficiently small, then will in function f (x) w.r.t its independent variable x and then
∆x
af
multiplying d.c of that function f ′ x by the
af
general differ from f ′ x . If ∈ is the difference differential of x (i.e. dx).
∆y dy dy ∆y
between and , we have = lim
∆x dx (C) We know that
dx ∆ x → 0 ∆ x
…(1)
∆ y dy
− = ∈ which implies and when ∆ x is very small,
∆ x dx
dy ∆ y
∆ y dy = (approximately)
− +∈ dx ∆ x
∆ x dx
dy
⇒ ∆y = ⋅ ∆ x (nearly, approximately, approx)
⇒
∆y
∆x
af
= f′ x +∈ dx

(where ∈→ 0 as ∆ x → 0 ) …(2)
a f af
⇒ f x + ∆x − f x =
dy
dx
⋅ ∆x
 Approximations 667

a f af a f
4. Use the formula f a ± h = f a ± h f ′ a af af
af
dy
⇒ f x + ∆x = f x + ⋅ ∆ x which pro- when f (a), f ′ a and h are known. h is a small number
a f
dx
vides us an approximate formula and can be written in which is positive or negative and a ± h = given
following way: number for the independent variable. f a ± h a f
a f af
f a +h = f a + f′ a ⋅h af a n
f a f
= n a ± h , a ± h , log a ± h , sin a ± h , cos a f
where x = a and ∆ x = h are given numerical values. aa ± hf , tan aa ± hf , cot aa ± hf , sec aa ± hf ,
cosec aa ± h f , sin aa ± h f , cos aa ± h f , tan
–1 –1 –1

aa ± hf , cot aa ± hf , sec aa ± hf , cosec

Remember:
–1 –1 –1
1. If the increament of the variable on which y depends
(i.e. ∆ x ) is small enough then ∆ y ~ dy . aa ± hf , log aa ± hf , e a f , …etc. some examples.
a±h

2. The fact that differential dy is the approximation of Which provides us the required approximate value
∆ y when dx is small may be used to approximate of the function for the given value of the independent
variable.
errors.
Second working rule:
∆ y dy
= 1. In finding the value of f (c) approximately we
a f
3. (nearly) if the increament of the variable
∆ x dx express the given number c as a ± n to choose
on which y depends is very small (or small enough). x = a s.t f (a) can be determined as a rule as a whole
a f af
4. ∆ y = f x + ∆ x − f x ≠ dy in general. number b where a = any number whose nth root,
power n, t-ratio, inverse t-ratio, log, e, etc are known
5. Relative error in y; let y = f (x), then relative error in to us and n = ∆ x = h = any number +ve or –ve. After
y at x = a is
this step, we
bg
f′ a
LM dy OP
=
bg
f a
⋅h
2. Use the formula ∆ y =
N dx Q x =a
⋅ ∆x = f ′ a ⋅h. af
af
derivative of the function f x at x = a
3. Lastly are find the required approximate value using
the formula:
=
times the increament
value of the function at x = a af
y + ∆y = f a + f ′ a ⋅h af
Now we shall explain different types of problems where y + ∆ y = f (a + h)
on approximations and errors besides their techniques Note:
to solve them. 1. There are two types f notations for the approximate
Type A value of a function of an independent variable.
To find the approximate value of a function of an a f
(i) y + ∆ y (ii) f x + ∆ x or f (a + h) where ∆ x = h
independent variable x when the independent variable
LM dy OP
x is replaced by a number, we adopt the following is written for easiness and ∆ y =
N dx Q ⋅ ∆x

af
working rule: x=a
= f ′ a ⋅ h.
First working rule:
1. For finding f (c) we choose a and h such that f (c) 2. Generally h = a decimal fraction +ve or –ve or an
= f (a + h) where f (a) is easily obtainable and h is integer +ve or –ve like ± 0.001, ± 0.002, ± 0.003,
small ± 0.009 incase of given number c is a decimal fraction
af
2. Find f ′ x by differentiating f (x) and ± 1, ± 2, … etc in case of given whole number c.

3. Find f (a) and f ′ a af 3. If h = –ve integer or –ve decimal fraction, we use

the formula:
668 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

a f
f a−h = f a −h f′ a af af FG IJ b g
.

and if h = +ve integer or +ve decimal fraction, we use H K

= b + ⋅ 9 ... − b + 1

given number = bb + 1g + ∆ x where ∆ x = − ve

the formula:
a f
f a+h = f a −h f′ a af af e.g.: 31.98 + 31 + .98 ⇒ x = a = b + 1 = 31 + 1 = 32
4. Usually incase of decimal fraction c the value of a (where b = 31) and ∆ x = 31.98 – 32 = –0.002 = –ve
is taken as the nearest integer. a = 2 is to be considered decimal fraction given number 32 + ∆ x = 32 – 0.002
so that a + h = 1.999 gives us h = – 0.0001 (3 2 – 0.001
= 1.999), if c = 1.999. ⋅9 k l m ...
3. If a given number = n
where k, l, m, …
5. Usually incase of whole number a to be 10
considered, we express the given number c as a ± n = digits from 1 to 9 then x = 1
where x = a is s.t. f (a) is known to us already where
⋅ 9 k l m ...
f ⇒n , ( )n, sin, cos, sin–1, cos–1, log, e or any ∆x = h = n
−1
10
other operator.
given number = 1 + ∆ x where ∆ x = –ve
6. When y = f (x), then ∆ x = dx and ∆ y = dy
e.g.: ⇒ x = a = 1 and ∆ x = 0.998 – 1 = –0.002
provided that ∆ x is small enough (or, provided that
∆ x is nearly equal to zero which means ∆ x → 0 ). given number = 1 + ∆ x = 1 – 0.002
N.B.: Type (A) has two types of problems which are
∆ y dy
7. = nearly ∆ x is small enough. explained below
y y
8. Notation = , ~ , = or ≈ means approximately Type 1: To find the approximate value of a function
equal to. when the independent variable x is replaced by a
whole number, decimal fraction or a whole number +
Some useful hints to find the values of a and h in decimal fraction.
some problems
Type 2: Conditional problems.
1 k Problems based on finding the approximate value of
1. If a given number c = b + n
where or b +
10 10n logarithmic, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric
k = digits from 1 to 9, b = any whole number, n = +ve function of an independent variable replaced by a
integer, then b = a = x. number.

1 k Examples worked out:

∆x = n
or n and given number = x + ∆ x 1. Given loge 2 = 0.6931, find the approximate value of
10 10 loge 2.01.
where ∆ x = + ve Solution: 2.01 = 2 + 0.001
∴ x = 2 (= a) …(1)
3
e.g.: 3.003 = 3 + = x + ∆ x or a + h if x = a = 3 ∆ x = 2.01 – 2 = 0.01 …(2)
10 n
Now on letting y = loge x, we have
and ∆ x = h = 0.003
dy d log x 1
Given number = 3.003 = 3 + 0.003 = =
. dx dx x

a f LMN dydx OPQ LM 1 OP

2. If a given number c = b + ⋅9 ... where dots after 1
.
recurring decimal ⋅9 denote any one or more than
f′ a =
x=a
=
NxQ x=2
=
2
one digit from 1 to 9, then x = a = b + 1 and ∆ x = h
L dy O
Now, ∆ y = M P ⋅ ∆x = f ′ a ⋅ ∆x bg
= given decimal fraction – (b + 1)
N dx Q x =2
 Approximations 669

=
1
2
× 0.01 (from (2)) af
f′ a =
1
2
⇒ f′ 1=af 1
=
1
=
1+ 1 1+ 1 2
1
1+ a
hence, required approximate value = y + ∆ y
af
Hence, f (a + h) = tan–1 (0.99) = f a + f ′ a × h af
a f
1 π 1
= log 2 + × 0.01 = + × −0.01
2 4 2
= 0.6931 + 0.005 π
= 0.6981 = − 0.005 .
4
2. Given 10 = 0.0175C, find the approximate value of Derivation of a formula for approximate calculation
cos 610. of powers
Solution: letting, f (x) = cos x where given number To compute the approximate value of the function
= 60 + 1 = x + 1 which ⇒ ∆ x = 10 = 0.0175 , f (a + h) = (a + h)n
On applying the formula f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a , af
x=
π
3
b g
=a we have

Further, f ′ a x f = − sin x a f a f af n n
f a +h = a +h ; f x = x , f ′ a =na , af
−1 n

f ba g = cos60°
Hence, (a + h)n = an + nan–1 h (approx)
Where x = a = a whole number which is nearly
f ′ba g = − sin 60° equal to (or, approximately equal to) given number

now, ∆ y = f ′ aa f ⋅ ∆ x
which means a may be slightly (or, alittle) greater than
or less than the given number.
= –sin 60 × 0.0175 and h = given number – a.
Hence, in the light of above explanation, we provide
− 3
= × 0.0175 the following working rule for approximate calculation
2 of powers.
Hence, required approximate value Working rule: For finding f (c)
F I 1. Express the given number c as ‘a + h’. i.e., given
= y + ∆ y = cos x x =a GH
+ −
2
3
JK
× 0.0175 number c = a + h (proper a)
2. Put f (x) = xn and find f (a). Moreover differentiate
=
1
−
3
× 0.0175
the function f (x) = xn and find f ′ a . af
2 2 3. Find h from the formula:
=
1
2
e
1 − 3 × 0.0175 j h = given number – a
4. Lastly, we use the formula
3. Find the approximate value of tan–1 (0.99). a f af
f a+h = f a +h f′ a af
i.e.; aa + hf = a + n a
Solution: y = f (x) = tan–1 x n n n −1
to get the required
⇒ f′ x =af 1
2
approximate value of the power of the given number
used as base of the power.
1+ x
now expressing 0.99 as 1 – 0.01, we have Problems based on approximate calculations of
powers
a = 1, and h = ∆ x = –0.01
Examples worked out:
a f af
∴ f a = f 1 = tan
−1
af
1 =
π
4
1. Find the approximate value of (0.998)8
Solution: 0.998 = 1 – 0.002 = a + h
670 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Let f (x) = x8 now, using the formula

af
∴ f ′ x = 8x
7 af
f (a – h) = f (a) – h f ′ a i.e. (a – h)n = an – n an–1
h, we have
taking x = a = 1 and h = –0.002
af
f (1) = (1)8 and f ′ 1 = 8 × (1)7 = 8 × 1 = 8
(2 – 0.0001)6 = (2)6 – 0.001 × 192
= 64 – 0.192
(0.998)8 = (1 – 0.002)8 = f (1 – 0.002) = 63.808
on using the formula
a f af af
Second approach
f a − h = f a − h f ′ a i.e. (a + h)n = an + n Let y = x6
an – 1, we have dy 5

b g bg bg
f .998 = f 1 − .002 × f ′ 1 (approx)
∴
dx
= 6x

=1−
2
×8
af af
∴ f ′ a = f ′ 2 = 6 × 2 = 192
5

1000 again a + ∆ x = 1.999

= 1 – 0.016
= 0.9840 (approx). ∴ 2 + ∆ x = 1.999
2. Find the approx value of (0.9999)6 ∆ x = 1.999 – 2 = –0.001
Solution: 3 0.9999 = 1 – 0.0001 now, on using the formula
∴ (0.9999)6 = (1 – 0.0001)6
Let f (x) = x6
af
∆y = f ′ a ⋅ ∆x
= 192 × (–0.001)
af
∴ f ′ x = 6x
5
= –0.192
taking x = a = 1 and h = –0.0001 ∴ Required approximate value = y + ∆ y
f (a) = f (1) = 16 = 1 = 26 – 0.192
af af
and f ′ a = f ′ 1 = 6 × 1 5 = 5af = 192 – 0.192
= 63.808
now, using the formula
a f af af
4. Find the approximate value of (4.012)2
f a − h = f a − h f ′ a i.e. (a + h)n = an + n Solution: 3 4.012 = 4 + 0.012
an–1, we have ∴ (4.012)2 = (4 + 0.012)2
f (1 – 0.0001) = (1 – 0.0001)6 af
let f (x) = x2 ∴ f ′ x = 2 x
= (1)6 – 0.0001 × 6
= 1- 0.0006 af
taking x = a = 4 and h = 0.012, f (4) = 42 = 16 and f ′ 4
= 0.9994 (approx). = 2 × 4 = 8. Hence approximate value of f (a + h) = f (a)
Note: 1 is the integer nearest to .999. af
+ h f ′ a i.e.; (a + h)2 = a2 + 2ah
3. Find the approximate value of (1.999)6. ∴ (4.012)2 = (4 + 0.012)2 = 42 + 2 × 4 × 0.012
Solution: First method: = 16.096 (approx).
3 1.999 = 2 – 0.001
Deriving formula for approximate solution of
∴ (1.999)6 = (2 – 0.001)6
af
equation
let f (x) = x6 ∴ f ′ x = 6 x 5 Let a root of the equation f (x) = 0 be approximately
Taking a = 2 and h = –0.001 equal to ‘a’.
f (a) = f (2) = 26 = 64 We are able to obtain a better value of the root by
af af
f ′ a = f ′ 2 = 6 × 25 = 6 × 32 = 192 using the concept of derivative and differential.
 Approximations 671

Let ' a + ∆ a ' be the exact root, N.B.: The above method is practically more easier

a
Then f a + ∆ a = 0 f …(1)
than any other method to find the nth (approximate
value of the) root of a given number.
afaf b af g
Again, ∆ f x = f ′ x ⋅ ∆ x or ∆ y = f ′ x ∆ x Second method:

⇒ f aa + ∆ a f − f aa f = f ′ aa f ∆ a
By the use of the formula:
…(2)
[since the increament in the function is
af
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a also, we can find

a
f a + ∆a − f a f af approximate nth root of the given number where
f ⇒ n and hence f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a can be af
as x changes from a to a + ∆ a ]
written as
a f
now putting f a + ∆ a = 0 , from (1), into (2), we
have
1
a
(given number) n = a + ∆ a f 1
n
= n
a+
h
n −1
af af
n
n x
0 − f a = f ′ a ⋅ ∆a
⇒ − f aa f = f ′ aa f ⋅ ∆ a
where h = given number – a = increament and a = a
whole number approximately equal to the given num-
− f aa f ber which means a whole number which is a little (or,
f ′ aa f
⇒ ∆a = …(3) slightly) greater than or less than the given number
and which can be expressed as nth power (or, perfect
on adding ‘a’ to both sides of (3), we have the re- square incase of square root)
af
f a Remember: In the formula f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a af
quired formula a + ∆ a = a −
af
f′ a
which ⇒ a
af
1. h f ′ a denotes the differential of a function at
better approximation of the root ' a + ∆ a ' is the value ‘a’ of the independent variable x. Thus to
obtain the value of the differential of a function, it is
f a af necessary to know two numbers: the value of the
a−
f′ aaf …(4) independent variable x and its increament h.

b g is fruitful for
e.g.: Calculate the differential of the function y = x2
f a for a change in x from 3 to 3.1.
f ′ ba g
This formula a + ∆ a = a −
approximate computation of roots.
af
Solution: dy = f ′ x ⋅ ∆ x = h ⋅ f ′ a af
= 2x x=a ⋅h
Hence, in the light of above explanation, we can
provide a rule to find the nth approximate root of a = 2x x =3
(the independent variable = a = 3 and h
given number.
= final value – initial value = 3.1 – 3 = 0.1)
Working rule: ∴ dy = 2 × 3 × 0.1 = 6 × 0.1 = 0.6
1
1. Let x = (given number) n and x = a, a whole number 2. ‘a’ always denotes the approximate value of an
whose nth power is approximately equal to the given independent variable ‘x’ obtained as a result of
number. measurement and (a + h) denotes its true or given
2. Solve the equation xn = given number value. then ‘a’ determines the approximate value of
3. Put f (x) = xn and differentiating it (i.e. f (x)),find the function f (x) and ‘(a + h)’ gives the value of the
af af
f ′ x and f ′ a . Moreover we find f (a) from f (x). function f (x + h).
3. Given value indicates the changed value or final
4. Last we use the formula
f a af value of the independent variable so it must be

af
a− which provides us the required expressed as (a + h) so that we may have the initial
f′ a value as well as the increament of independent
approximate value of the root of the given number. variable.
672 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
4. Increament may be positive or negative. If the final
1 − 45 1
value is greater than initial value, increament is f′ x = x = 4
positive. If the final value is smaller than initial value, 5 5 ⋅ x5
increament is negative. Increament is always Now, taking x = a = 32 and h = –0.02
determined by the formula h = final value – initial f (a) = f (32) = 2
value = given number – a.
Problems based on approximate calculation of roots af
f′ a =
1
=
1
5 × 16 80
Examples worked out:
∴ Required approximate value of the root
1. Find the approximate value of 3198
. a f 1
5
with the af
= f (a – h) = f (a) – h f ′ a
help of calculus. 1
Solution: First method: = 2 − 0.02 ⋅
5 × 16
Let x = 3198 a f 1
. 5 ⇒ x = 2 (approximately) = a
=2−
2
(say) 8000
Now we have to solve the equation 1
=2−
x5 = 31.98 4000
5
⇒ x − 31.98 = 0 = 2 – 0.00025
= 1.99975
again let f (x) = x5 – 31.98
af
∴ f ′ x = 5x
4 2. Find the approximate value of 80.999a f 1
4

Solution: First method:

f (2) = 32 – 31.98 = 0.02
af
f ′ 2 = 5 × 2 = 5 × 16 = 80
4 a f 1
Let x = 80.999 4 ⇒ x = 3 (approximately) = a
(say)
∴ Required approximate value of the root Now we have to solve the equation
af
f a x4 = 80.999
=a−
af
f′ a 4
⇒ x − 80.999 = 0
0.02 again let f (x) = = x4 – 80.999
=2−
80 af
∴ f ′ x = 4x
3

160 − 0.02 f (3) = 34 – 80.999 = 81 – 80.999 = .001

=
80 af
f ′ 3 = 4 × 33 = 4 × 27 = 108
159.98 ∴ Required approximate value of the root
=
80 af
f a

=
15.998
=a−
af
f′ a
8 0.001
= 1.99975 =3−
108
Second method:
31.98 = (32 – 0.02) 324 − 0.001
=
a
⇒ 31.98 f = a32 − 0.02f
1
5
1
5
108
323.999
1
5
= = 2.9999
Now on letting f (x) = x 108
 Approximations 673

Second method: Second method:

80.999 = (81 – 0.001)
145 = 144 + 1 = f (a + h) where f (x) = x ,a
af
Let f ′ x = x
1
4
= 144, h =1

f ′ axf = ⋅ x
1 − 43
=
1
3
af
∴f′ x =
1
2 x
4 4 ⋅ x4
Now using the formula,
Now putting a = 81, h = –.001 in
af
f (a – h) = f (a) – h f ′ a , we have
af
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a

4
a f
80.999 = f 81 − 0.001 ⋅ f ′ 81 a f a f
⇒ f 144 + 1 = 12 + 1 ×
2
1
144

⇒ f a145f = 12 +
1 1 1
=3− ×
1000 108 2 × 12
= 3 – 0.00009259 1
= 2.99990741 = 12 +
24
3. Find the approximate value of 145 . = 12 + 0.04
Solution: First method: = 12.04.
a f 1
Let x = 145 2 ⇒ x = 12 (approximately) = a a f
4. Find the approximate value of 33 5 .
1

(say) Solution: First method:

Now we have to solve the equation
x2 = 145 a f 1
Let x = 33 5 ⇒ x = 2 (approximately) = a (say)
2 Now we have to solve the equation:
⇒ x − 145 = 0 x5 = 33
again let f (x) = x2 – 145
af
5
⇒ x − 33 = 0
∴ f ′ x = 2x
Again let f (x) = x5 – 33
f (12) = 144 – 145 = –1
a f
f ′ 12 = 2 × 12 = 24 af
∴ f ′ a = 5x
4

Required approximate value of the root f (2) = 32 – 33 = –1

af f a af
f ′ 2 = 5 × 2 × 4 = 80
=a−
aff′ a ∴ Required approximate value of the root

a−1f af
f a
= 12 −
24
=a−
af
f′ a

= 12 +
1 a−1f
f ′ a 2f
24 =2−

=
288 + 1
F −1I
24 =2−
H 80 K
289
= 1
24 =2+
= 12.04 80
674 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Now we have to solve the equation

160 + 1
= x3 = 215
80
3
⇒ x − 215 = 0
161
= Again we let f (x) = x3 – 215
80
= 2.0125
Second method:
af
∴ f ′ x = 3x
2

f (6) = 23 – 215 = 216 – 215 = 1

a33f = a32 + 1f
1
5
1
5 and 32 a f 1
5 =2 af
f ′ 6 = 3 × 36 = 108
1 1 ∴ Required approximately value of the root
bg
5
Hence, if we write f (x) = x , then 33 5 = f (a + h) for
a = 32, h = 1 f a
f ′ ba g
=a−
af
∴ f 2 = 25 = 2
1

f a6f
f ′ a6f
=6−
f ′ a xf = x
1 − 45 1
= 4
5 5x 5 1
=6−
108
af
f′ 2 =
1
5 × 32 a f 4
5 =
648 − 1
108
Now, using the formula
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a af =
647
108
b
⇒ f 32 + 1 = 2 + g 1
×
1 = 5. 9907
5 32 b g 4
5 Second method:

=2+
1 af
f x = x3
1

5 × 24
f ′ axf = × x
1 − 23 1
1 =
=2+
2
3 3x 3
5 × 16
1 Now, we write
=2+
80 f (a + h) = 215 a f 1
3

160 + 1
= where f (x) = 3
x , a = 216, h = –1
80
e j
1
3 3
161 f (a) = f (216) = f (63) = 6 =6
=
80
161. bg
f′ a =
1
=
1
=
e j 3 × 62
2

3 × 63
3
8
= 2.0125.
1 1
5. Find the approximate value of 215 a f 1
3
= =
3 × 36 108
Solution: First method: Now, using the formula,

a f
Let x = 215
1
3 ⇒ x = 6 (approximately) = a (say) f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a af
 Approximations 675

a f 648 − 1 647
a f a f = e5 j
1
1 3
∴ f 216 − 1 = 6 − = =
1 3
∴ f a = 125 3 =5
1 × 108 108 108
= 5.9907 (approx)
bg
f ′ a = f ′ 125 = b g 1
×
1 1 1
= × 2 =
1

a f e5 j
2
1 3 3 3 3 5 75
6. Find the approximate value of 127 3 .
Solution: First method: Now, using the formula,
a f
Let x = 127
1
3 af
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a , we have

b g
3
⇒ x = 127 1 2
f 125 + 2 = 5 + 2 × =5+ = 5.0266
⇒ x = 5 (approximately) = a (say) 75 75
Now we have to solve the equation Third method:
x3 = 127
af e j
1 1
3 3
Let y = f x = x = 5 =5
3
3
⇒ x − 127 = 0
Again we let f (x) = x3 – 127
∆y =
dy
⋅ ∆x = f ′ a ⋅ ∆x =
1
bg×2
af
∴ f ′ x = 3x
2 dx
∴ Required approximate value
75

f (5) = 125 – 127 = –2

af
f ′ 5 = 3 × 25 = 75
= y + ∆ y = 5 + .0266 = 5.0266

∴ Required approximate value of the root 7. Find approximately 4 627 .

bg Solution: First method:

a f
f a
=a−
bg
1

f′ a Let x = 627 4 ⇒ x = 5 (approximately) = a

f b5g (say)

f ′ b5g
=5− Now we have to solve the equation
x4 = 627

=5−
a −2f 4
⇒ x − 627 = 0
75
Again on setting f (x) = x4 – 627
2
=5+
75 af
⇒ f ′ x = 4x
3

375 + 2 ∴ f (a) = f (5) = 625 – 627 = –2

=
75 bg bg
f ′ a = f ′ 5 = 4 × 53 = 4 × 125 = 500
377 ∴ Required approximate value
=
75 f a af
= 5.0266
Second method:
=a−
f′ aaf
Expressing given number = 127 = 125 + 2 = 53 + 2 f a5f
f ′ a5f
On letting x = 53 = 125 = a (say) =5−

af
f x = x3
1

=5+
2
=5+
1
c 13 −1h 1 − 23
af 1 500 250
⇒ f′ x = × x = ⋅x = 5.004
3 3
676 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Second method:
We observe that 627 is close to 625 of which fourth =1−
b
− 0.006 g
root is 5. 2
3 627 = 625 + 2 0.006
on setting x = a = 625, h = 2 =1+
2
af af
f x = x
1
4
2.006
= = 1003
.
1 c h
we have, f ′ a x f = x
− 43 2
Second method:
4
∴ f aa f = f a625f = a625f = e5 j
1
1 4 4 (1.006) = 1 + 0.006 = f (a + h) where f (x) = x , a = 1,
4
=5
h = 0.006
f ′ aa f = f ′ a625f = a625fc h
1
af
− 34
1
4 ∴f′ x =
2 x
4 c− 4 h
e j af
3
1 1 −3
= × 5 = × 5 f (a) = f (1) = 1
4 4
=
1
=
1
=
1
= 0.002
af
f′ a = f′ 1 =
1
2
af
4×5
3
4 × 125 500
Now, using the formula: f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a af Now, using the formula,
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a af
We have: f (625 + 2) = f (625) + 2 ⋅ f ′ 625 a f 1
= 5 + 2 × 0.002 = 5 + 0.004 = 5.004 = 1 + 0.006 ×
2
8. Find the approximate value of 1006
. .
2 + 0.006
Solution: First method: = = 1.003
a f 1
2
Let x = 1006. 2 ⇒
x = 1 (approximately) = a Remember: The formula:
(say) f a af
Now, we have to solve the equation
x2 = 1.006
a + ∆a = a −
f′ aaf
2 is also applicable to find the approximate root of the
⇒ x − 1.006 equation f (x) = 0 which is nearly equal to a given root
Again, let f (x) = x2 – 1.006 x = a.
af
∴ f ′ x = 2x Examples based on approximate solution of the
f (1) = 1 – 1.006 = – .006 equation
af
f′ 1 = 2×1= 2 1. Find the root of the equation x4 – 12x + 7 = 0 which
is near to 2.
If α is small, then we can use the formula: Solution: 3 f (x) = x4 – 12x + 7 and a = 2

1+ α ≅1+
α
. af
∴ f ′ x = 4 x − 12
3

2 f (2) = 24 – 12 × 2 + 7 = –1
∴ Required approximate value of the root af 3
f ′ 2 = 4 × 2 − 12 = 20
f a af af
=a−
f′ a af ∴ Required root = a −
f a
af
f′ a
(approx)
 Approximations 677

af f 2
af
f′ x =−
1
=2−
aff′ 2 x
2

a−1f
=2−
20 af
⇒ f ′ x ∆x = −
1× ∆x
2
=
∆x
2 …(3)
x x
1 40 + 1 41
=2+ = = = 2.05 Now using the formula:
20 20 20
2. Find the root of the equation x4 – 12x2 – 12x – 3 = 0 a f af
f x + ∆ x = f x + f ′ x ∆ x , we have af
which is approximately 4. 1 1 ∆x
Solution: Let f (x) = x4 – 12x2 –12x – 3 and a = 4 ≈ − 2
x + ∆x x x
af 3
∴ f ′ x = 4 x − 24 x − 12 a f af
[i.e.; f a + h ≈ f a + h f ′ a ] af
f ′ a4f = 4 × 4 – 24 × 4 – 12
3
Problems based on approximate computation of
= 256 – 108 reciprocal quantities
= 148 Examples worked out:
f (4) = 44 – 12 × 42 – 12 × 4 – 3 1
1. Find the approximate value of .
= 256 – 192 – 48 – 3 1004
.
= 256 – 243 = 13 Solution: 1.004 = 1 + 0.004
∴ Required approximate root On setting x = a = 1, h = ∆ x = 0.004
f aaf af 1
=a−
f′ aaf f x =
x
f a4f
=4−
f ′ a4f af
f′ x =−
1
2
x
13
=4− f (a) = f (1) = 1
148 af af
f ′ a = f ′ 1 = −1
592 − 13 Now, using the formula,
=
148 f (a + h) = f aa f = h f ′ aa f , we have
579
= 1
= 1 − 0.004 × 1 = 0.996
148 a+h
= 3.91
1
Derivation of a formula for approximate calculation 2. Find the approximate value of 4 when x = 2.04.
x
of reciprocal quantities
1
Let us consider the function: Solution: Let f (x) = 4
af
f x =
1
x
…(1)
x = 2.04 = 2 + 0.04
x

We let the argument x receive a small increament on setting, x = a = 2, h = ∆ x = 0.004

∆ x , then

a
f x + ∆x =
1
f 3f x =af 1
4
…(2) x
x + ∆x
678 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

N.B.: Sometimes ∆ x = h is provided in the given

af
f′ x =−
4
5 problems to be approximated which means there is no
x
need of finding ∆ x .
a f 161
f 2 = Remember:
1. Approximate change in
f ′ b 2g = −
4 1
8 5
=−
LM dy OP
N dx Q
2 y= ⋅ ∆x
Now, using the formula: x = approx value of the given value for x

a f
f a+h = f a +h f′ a af af = f ′ aa f ⋅ h
af
= f 2 +h f′ 2af 2. Approximate value of y = y x =a + dy = f (a) +
1 F 1I dy, when x = given value
=
16 H 8K
+ 0.04 × −
3. Given number (or value of x) may be whole number
or simply pure decimal fraction like 26, 65, 0.9993 etc,
1
= − 0.005 then to find a and h we should consult the hints
16 given earlier in the topic on finding the approximate
1 − 0.005 × 16 value of a function of an independent variable replaced
=
16 by a number (i.e. in type (A)).
4. Given value of x always requires a result of
1 − 0.080
= applying increament or changed value or final value
16 of the argument x in the problems of approximation.
0.920 Worked out example on conditional problems
=
16 1. Find the approximate value of (1.001)5 –
= 0.0575
a f
4
4 5
2 1.001 3 + 3 by considering y = x − 2 x 3 + 3 .
Conditional Problems Solution: Since, x = 1.001 which can be expressed as
k 1 + 0.001 on setting x1 = a = 1
When x = a + is provided where a = an integer
n h = ∆ x1 = 0.001
10
= x1 (say) and h = ∆ x =
10
k
n
= a a decimal fraction, af 5
f x = x − 2x 3 + 3
4

We have, f (1) =
and the expression in x is to be approximated, we
adopt the following working rule. f (a) = 1 – 2 + 3 = 2
Working rule:
1. Let y = given expression in x af
f ′ x = 5x −
4 8 13
3
x
2. Suppose a = x1 = a given integer before decimal

and h = ∆ x1 =
k
the decimal fraction (the number
af
f′ 1 = f′ a =5− af 8 7
=
3 3
af
n
10
Hence, f (1 + 0.001) = f (a + h) = f (a) + f ′ a ⋅ h
after the decimal).
3. Use the formula:
a f a f a f
f x1 + ∆ x1 = f x1 + f ′ x1 ∆ x1
=2+
7
3
× 0.001 a f
or, f aa + hf = f aa f + f ′ aa f ⋅ h
= 2.0023
 Approximations 679

2. Find the approximate value of y + ∆ y . = 39 + 58 × 0.01

= 39 + 0.58
When y = 2x2 – 3x + 5, x = 3 and ∆ x = 0.1 = 39.58
Solution: y = 2x2 – 3x + 5, a = 3 N.B.: Exact value of the function for x = 2.01
dy = 5 × (2.01)3 – 2 × 2.01 + 3
⇒ = 4x − 3 = 39.583005
dx
5. Find the approximate value of y = x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1
F dy I af a f when x = 1.998.
∴
H dx K = f ′ a = 4x − 3 x =3
Solution: f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1
af
x=a

= 4 × 3 – 3 = 12 – 3 = 9 f ′ x = 3x2 – 6x + 2

LM dy OP Now on setting 1.998 = 2 – 0.002

and ∆ y =
N dx Q x=3
⋅∆x Where x1 = a = 2 and ∆ x1 = h = –0.002
( 3 ∆ x = given value of x – a)
= 9 × 0.1 = 0.9 ∴ f (2) = f (a) = 23 – 3 × 22 + 2 × 2 – 1
Hence, the required approximate value
bg bg
= 8 – 12 + 4 – 1
= f a + ∆y = y x =3
+ ∆y = –1
= 14 + .9 af af
f ′ 2 = f ′ a = 3 × 22 – 6 × 2 + 2
= 14.9 (approx) = 12 – 12 + 2
3. Evaluate 3x2 – 7x + 5 when x = 3.02 =2
Solution: f (x) = 3x2 – 7x + 5 Now, using the formula:
af
∴ f ′ x = 6x − 7 f (a + h) = f (a) + h ⋅ f ′ aaf
on setting x1 = a = 3 we find
h = ∆ x = 0.02 af
f (1.998) = f (2 – 0.002) = f (2) + (–0.002) × f ′ 2
we have f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ′ a which ⇒ af = –1 – 0.002 × 2
f ( 3.02) = f (3 + 0.02) = f (3) + 0.02 × f ′ 3 af = –1 – 0.004
= –1.004
f (3) = 11 and f ′ 3 = 11 af N.B.: To check the closeness of this method, we
∴ f (3.02) = 11 + 0.02 × 11 substitute 1.998 in the given (original) function to get
= 11.22 (approx) the exact value for this point and hence we get
4. Find the approximate value of a function by using a f
y + ∆ y = f a + h = – 1.003988008
differential when f (x) = 5x3 – 2x + 3 and x = 2.01. Which shows that the method of approximation
Solution: f (x) = 5x3 – 2x + 3 by differentials holds very closely (or nearly).
af
f ′ x = 15x − 2
2 6. Find the approx value of x3 + 5x2 – 3x + 2 when
x = 3.003.
on setting x1 = a = 2 and ∆ x1 = h = 0.01 , we have Solution: f (x) = x3 + 5x2 – 3x + 2
f (a) = f (2) = 5 × 23 – 2 × 2 + 3 = 39
af
f′ a = f′ 2 af = 15 × 22 – 2 = 60 – 2 = 58
af 2
⇒ f ′ x = 3x + 10 x – 3
on setting x = a = 3 and h = 0.003, we have
Now using the formula: f (3) = 33 + 5 (3)2 – 3 (3) + 2 = 65
a f
f a +h = f a + f′ a ⋅h af af af
f ′ x = 3 × (3)2 + 10 (3) – 3 = 54
we find Now, using the formula of approximation
a f af
f 2.01 = f 2 + f ′ 2 × 0.01 af af
f (a + h) = f a + h f ′ a af
680 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

af
we find
af
1 −3
f (3.003) = f (3) + 0.003 × f ′ 3 =4+ × 4
5
= 65 +
3
× 54 FG3 1024 = 4 a f = oa4f t
5/
1
IJ
H K
5 1 5/
1000 ⇒ 1024 5
=4
162
= 65 +
1000 1
=4+
= 65.162 3
5×4
7. Find the approximate value of the increament in
= 4 + 0.0031
the function y = 2x3 + 5 for x = 2 and ∆ x = 0.001.
= 4.0031
Solution: We have ∆ y = dy = 6x2 dx = 6x2 ∆ x
Verbal problems on approximation
bg
= 6 × 22 × 0.001
= .024 The formula ∆ Q = f ′ q ∆ q is practically fruitful
for calculating approximate change or simply change
∴ The exact value of the increament:
a 3
f
∆ y = 2 x + ∆ x + 5 − 2x − 5
3 in the function Q (i.e. dependent variable Q) due to
2
= 6x ∆ x + 6 x ∆ x + 2 ∆ x
2
a f 3
a f small change in the independent variable q, i.e. if
Q = f (q) be a functional relation between q and Q and
= 6 × 4 × 0.001 + 6 × 2 × 0.000001 + 2 × 0.000000001 ∆ q is the small change in q, then the consequent
= 0.024012002
a f af af
change in Q is given by the formula:
( 3 ∆ y = f x + ∆ x − f x = f ′ x dx = dy)
8. Given that 45 = 1024, find the approximate value of bg
∆Q = f ′ q ∆q ,
fifth root of 1028. Where, Q = any dependent quantity, dependent
1
Solution: let y = x 5 = f x af variable or dependent physical quantity like volume,
area, perimeter, … etc.
Since 45 = 1024, we set x = a = 1024 and ∆ x = final q = independent quantity, independent variable or
value – a independent physical quantity like radius, length,
= 1028 – 1024 height, thickness, … etc.
=4=h
∆ q = q f − qi
af
3f x = x
1
5
qf = final value of independent variable
qi = initial value of independent variable
∴ f ′ axf = x
b g LMN dQ OP
1 − 45

f ′ qi =
dq Q
5

f b1024g = f ba g = b1024g
1 q = q2
5
Working rule:

f ′ a1024f = f ′ aa f = × a1024f
1 − 45 dQ
1. Find and ∆ q = q f − qi
5 dq
Now, using the formula: LM dQ OP
af
f (a + h) = f a + f ′ a h af 2. Compute
N dq Q q = qi
we find
a f a f
f 1024 + 4 = f 1024 + h f ′ 1024 a f 3. Lastly use the formula:
LM dQ OP
= a1024f + 4 × a1024f
= ∆Q = × ∆q
1 − 45
N dq Q
1
5
q = qi
5
 Approximations 681

which gives us the required change or approximate

change in the dependent physical quantity Q.
Note:
1. Approximate change in a quantity Q or change in
a quantity Q due to a small change in q.
= ∆Q = f ′ q ⋅ ∆q bg
2. Whenever, we have a formula of a physical
quantity like volume, area, perimeter etc, differentiation
is performed w.r.t the variable whose increament in

LM dQ OP
the problems of approximate is given to us.
= ∆Q = × ∆q
N dq Q
Verbal problems on approximate change of a quantity
q = qi Examples worked out:
Thus, (i) approximate change in volume V, change 1. If the radius of the sphere changes from 3 cm to
in volume V due to small change in r 3.01 cm, find the change in the volume.

= ∆V =
LM dV OP × ∆r
Solution: Volume of the sphere = V = π r
4 3
…(1)
N dr Q r = ri = initial value of r
3
Change in the radius = increament in the radius
(ii) Approximate change in area A, change in area A = 3.01 – 3 = 0 01 cm = ∆ r

LM dA OP Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t the variable involved

= ∆A=
N dr Q r = ri = initial value of radius r
× ∆r in it (i.e. r)
dv 4 2
2. In example 3 thickness suggests change (or, = ×π×3×r
dr 3
increament) in the argument (or, independent vari-
able) q. Hence, ∆ q = thickness provided q is the dv 2
⇒ =4×π×r …(2)
independent variable. dr
3. If we have LM dv OP 2
2
volume of a circular cylinder V = π r h N dr Q r=3
= 4 × π × 3 = 4 × 9 × π = 36 π
surface area of a right circular cone
N.B.: r1 = r
A = π r r 2 + h2
r2 = r + ∆ r
i.e. a function of two variables, then any one of the
two variables whose increament is given or can be lastly, using the formula:
determined should be regarded as a variable w.r.t
LM dV OP
which differentiation is performed. Moreover in the
function of two variables, the variable which is a con-
∆ V = change in V =
N dr Q r=3
⋅ ∆r

stant is always mentioned by stating that it remains we have

fixed or by giving its numerical value. ∆V = 36 π × 0.01
e.g. (1) What is the approximate volume of a thin cir- 3
cular cylinder with fixed height h? ⇒ ∆V = 0.36 π cm
Explanation: The problems says h remains fixed
which means h is a constant.
Remark:
1. The approximate value of a dependent physical r1 = r
quantity r1 + ∆ r
a f
= f a +h = f a + f′ a ⋅haf af ∆rr
whereas approximate change in a dependent physi-
cal quantity
682 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

2. Find the approximate increase in the area of circular ∴ Required approximate volume
ring of inner radius 4 cm and outer radius 4.04 cm.
FG dV IJ
Solution: 3 A = π r
2 = ∆V =
H dr K r = 7 .5
∆r

dA
∴ = 2πr = 0.25 × 900 × π
dr
LM OP
dA
a f = 225 π cm
3
and
N Q
dr r = 4
= 2π r r =4
= 2π × 4 = 8π
On small errors
Now change in radius = change in r = ∆ r Question: What do you mean by error?
= 4.04 – 4 = 0.04 Answer: Errors are increaments or changes in the
lastly approximate increase in the area values of x and y and are taken as ∆ x and ∆ y
LM OP
dA respectively,
= ∆A=
N Q
dr r = 4
⋅ ∆r
Where y = dependent quantity, dependent variable
2 or dependent physical quantity.
⇒ ∆ A = 8 × π × 0.04 = 0.32 π cm And x = independent quantity, independent
3. Find approximately the volume of a metal in a hallow variable or independent physical quantity.
cylindrical pipe 60 cm in length, 7.5 cm inside radius Derivation of formula for calculation of small errors
and 0.25 cm thick.
The result:
af
2
Solution: Volume of the hallow sphere = V = π r h
∆ y = f ′ x ⋅ ∆x + ∈∆x
...(1) obtained in the beginning of this chapter shows that
Where h = height = 60 cm (given)
2
af
∆ y = f ′ x ⋅ ∆ x approximately
⇒ V = 60 π r …(2) this fact is symbolically expressed by writing

⇒
dV
= 60 π 2r = 120 π r af
∆ y = f ′ x dx
dr which is useful for finding small errors in dependent
F dV I variable.
⇒
H dr K = 120 × π × 7.5 = 12 × π × 75 = 900 π Use of the formula:
a f
r = 7 .5
∆ Q = f ′ qi ∆ q
and ∆ r = thickness = 0.25 cm
The formula:
a f
∆ Q = f ′ qi ∆ q
is practically fruitful for calculating small errors in the
dependent physical quantity Q due to small errors in
the independent quantity q, i.e. if Q = f (q) be a func-
cm
0.25
tional relation between q and Q and ∆ q is the small
errors in q, then the consequent small error in Q in
given by the formula:
a f
∆ Q = f ′ qi ∆ q
15 cm where, Q = any dependent quantity like volume, area,
perimeter, temperature, … etc.
q = any independent quantity like radius, length,
height, thickness, … etc.
 Approximations 683

∆ q = qf – qi Solution: Volume of the cube = (a side)3 = s3 …(1)

3
qf = final value of independent quantity ⇒V = s
qi = initial value of independent quantity
L dQ O
dV 2
⇒ = 3s
f ′ aq f = M P
N dq Q
ds
FG dV IJ
i
q = qi
∆ Q = approximate error in Q or simply error in Q. ⇒
H ds K x=4
3 × 4 2 = 3 × 16 = 48cm3/cm

Remember: …(2)
1. In the problems of small errors, the approximate
and we are given ∆ s = 0.05 cm …(3)
error (or, value) of a dependent physical quantity like
volume, area, … etc is subjected to an error in the Putting (2) and (3) in the formula:
independent physical quantity like radius, length,
F dV I
thickness, height, … etc.
The error in independent quantity like radius and
dV =
H ds K x =4
× ∆s

length = ∆ r and ∆ L respectively are generally given We have ∆V = 48 × 0.05 = 2.40 cm3 = possible
in the problem and we are required to find dV, dA, … error in the volume.
etc. 2. The volume of a cone is found by measuring its
2. The approximate error (or, change) of a dependent height and the diameter of a base as 7" and 5"
physical quantity Q subjected to an error independent respectively. It is found that diameter is not correctly
physical quantity q measured to the extent 0.03. Find the consequent error
FG dQ IJ in the volume approximately.
∆Q =
H dq K q = qi
∆q
Solution: The volume of a cone = V =
1 2
πr h
3
3. Error in Q = ∆ Q (where h is a constant)
4. Approx error in Q = dQ = ∆ q
1 R F I 2
5. The error to which a variable q is subject (or,
subjected) means the error in q which is symbolised
=
3
π
2 H K × h (where R = diameter = 2r)

as ∆ q = dq. π 2
6. Max error, possible error or greatest error in = hR ...(1)
12
dependent quantity is to be determined means we are
Now, differentiating (1) w.r.t R, we have
required to find the error in dependent physical
quantity, i.e. ∆ Q . dV 1
= ×π×R×h
7. ∆ q is also called absolute error or total error in dR 6
independent variable q. F dV I 1
8. q is not measured correctly to the extent or q is
⇒
H dR K R =5
=
6
×5×h×π
measured with uncertainty, … etc means the
increament in q, where q = independent quantity or and ∆ R = 0.03" as well as h = 7"
which a physical quantity Q depends.
F dV I
Verbal problems on errors Putting these values of ∆ R , h and H dR K R =5
in
Examples worked out:
the formula:
FG dV IJ
1. A box in the form of a cube has an edge of length
= 4cm with a possible error of 0.05. what is the possible
error in volume V of the box.
∆V =
H dR K R =5
× ∆R
684 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

we have
FG dA IJ LM π×4 OP
∴
H dr K r=2
=
MN 4 + 36
+π 4 + 36
PQ
L
= Mπ 40 +
4π OP
h = 7”
N 40 Q
…(2)

and we are given ∆ r = 0.02 cm …(3)

Putting the values of (2) and (3) in the formula:
d = 5”
LM dA OP
π
∆A=
N dr Q r=2
⋅ ∆r
∆V = × 5 × 7 × 0.03 inch 3
6 We have:
22 1 3
= × ×5×7×
7 6 100
22 5 × 3
= × h = 6 cm
6 100
22 5
= ×
2 100

=
110
=
55
2 × 100 100
= .55 inch a f 3 r = 2 cm

LM
∆ A = π 40 +
OP × b0.02g 4π
N 40 Q
= error in the volume.
3. The altitude of a right circular cone is 6 cm. The
measurement of the radius of the base is 2 cm with an
uncertainly of 0.02 cm. Find approximately the greatest L π × 40 + 4π OP × b0.02g
⇒∆A=M
possible error in the computed lateral surface area.
Solution: The lateral surface area of a right circular
N 40 Q
cone with base radius r and height =
44 π
40
b g
× 0.02 cm 2
2 2
h= A=π ⋅ r ⋅ r +h
Verbal problems on relative errors
Here h = 6 cm (a constant)
If Q = f (q) be a functional relation between two
2
∴ A = πr r + 36 quantities Q and q and ∆ q is a small error in q, then
dQ ∆q
dA 1 × 2r is called the relative error in Q and is called
which ⇒ = π⋅r⋅ +π r 2 + 36 Q q
dr 2 r 2 + 36 the relative error in q. But since we use dy for an
…(1) ∆Q
approximate value of ∆ y , for this reason
Q
dA πr 2
suggests the convenience of finding first log Q and
⇒ = + π r 2 + 36
dr r + 36
2
dQ
then calculating d (log Q) = .
Q
 Approximations 685

Hence, in the light of above explanation, we can Verbal problems on relative errors
provide the following working rule to find the relative Examples worked out:
error in Q. 1. The radius of a sphere is found to be 10 cm with a
First working rule: possible error 0.02 cm, what is the relative error in the
Let Q = f (q) be a functional relation between two computed volume?
quantities Q and q Solution: First method:
4 3
1. Take first log of both sides of Q = f (q). We have V = π r …(1)
2. Differentiate both sides of log Q = log f (q). 3
3. Multiply both sides of the simplified form of the Taking log of both sides of (1), we have

af
4 3
equation:
d
log Q =
d
log f q by dq. log V = log π + log r
dq dq 3
4
Which provides us the required relative rate in Q. = log π + 3 log r …(2)
3
4. Put the given values of q and ∆ q = dq in the Now, differentiating both sides of (2) w.r.t r, we get
expression obtained for the relative error in Q. 1 dV 1
⋅ = 3⋅ …(3)
Second working rule: V dr r
To find the relative error in Q = f (q) at q = qi = initial Multiply both sides of (3) by dr, we obtain
value of a quantity q, we proceed in the following dV 3 dr
way: = …(4)
a f
V r
1. Find f ′ qi and then multiply it by
Putting the given values r = 10 cm and ∆ r = dr =
h = ∆ q = q f − qi 0.02 in (4), we have the required relative rate in V.
a f
2. Divide the product f ′ qi ⋅ ∆ q by the value of dV
=3×
0.02 0.06
= = 0.006
the function at q = qi (i.e. by f (qi)) which provides us V 10 10
the required relative rate, i.e. Second method:

a f
f ′ qi ⋅ ∆ q 4 3
af F4 × π × r I
H3 K
3
dQ V = πr ⇒ V =
Q
=
f qi a f 3 r = 10
r = 10
4
Remember: = × π × 1000 …(1)
∆y 3
1. Relative error in y is defined by if ∆ y is the dV 4 2 4 2 2
y = × π × 3 × r = × 3 × π × r = 4 π r …(2)
dr 3 3
∆y
F dV I
dy
e j
error in y and may by approximated by if the
H dr K
2
y y = 4πr = 4 × π × 100 …(3)
r = 10 r = 10
increament of the variable (the quantity being
measured) on which y depends is small enough. and we are given dr = 0.02 …(4)
2. Method (1) (or first method) is convenient.
Putting the values of (1), (3) and (4) in the formula:
a f
Whenever we have a formula for volume, area or
perimeter etc in the form of power of an independent dQ f ′ qi
variable or in the form of product, whereas method (2)
or, second method is applicable in all cases.
Q
=
f qi a f
× ∆ q where Q = V and q = r} in

this problem
686 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dV bg
f ′ ri 4 × π × 100 × .02 × 3 2
Solution: A = π r ⇒ A =
1
πd
2
i.e.
V
=
f ribg⋅ ∆r =
4 × π × 1000 4
FG3 d = 2r = r ⇒ d = rIJ
=
0.06 H 2 K
10 1 2
= 0.006 = π x (where x = diameter) …(1)
4
2. Show that the relative error in xn is n times the
Taking log of both sides of (1), we have
relative error in x.
Solution: First method: Fπ x I
H4 K
2
log A = log
y = xn
n
⇒ log y = log x = n log x π 2
= log + log x
d d 4
⇒ log y = n log x π
dx dx = log + 2 log x
1 dy 1 4
⇒ =n⋅
y dx
dy n dx
x
⇒
d
dx
log A =
d
dx
a
2 log x f
⇒ =
y x 1 dA 1 2
⇒ ⋅ =2⋅ =
Second method: A dx x x
Let y = xn dA dx
dy n −1
⇒ =2 …(2)
⇒ = nx …(1) A x
dx Now, putting the given values: x = 10 and ∆ x =
Now, we are required to show
dx = 0.01 inch in (2), we have,
∆y ∆x
=n⋅ …(2) dA 0.01 0.02
y x =2× = = 0.002
Now, using the definition A 10 10

af
∆ y = f ′ x ⋅ ∆x = nx
n −1
∆x …(3) Verbal problems on percentage errors
Definition: Percentage error in a quantity means 100
(applying for small ∆ x and using (1)) times relative error in that quantity, i.e.
n −1 dx
∆y nx ∆x ∆x 1. 100 = percentage error in x
∴ = n −1 =n x
y x ⋅x x
= k1 (say)
N.B.: If y is a function of x, then y = f (x) and = a number written before the percentage symbol
dy d f x
=
af
or f ′ x . af %
dx dx x × k1
which ⇒ dx = error in x =
Moreover, ∆ y = f ′ a x f ⋅ ∆ x (approximately) 100

And dy = f ′ a x f ⋅ dx (accurately)
= k1 % of x (or k1 % in the value of x)
where x = an independent variable
3. What is the relative error in the area of a circle if dy
the diameter is found by measurement to be 10 inches, 2. 100 = percentage error in y
y
with a maximum error of 0.01 inch?
 Approximations 687

= k2 (say) 3. Apply the percentage error formula

= a number to be determined
dQ
y × k2 ⋅ ∆q
which ⇒ dy = error in y = dQ dq
which ⇒ × 100 = × 100
100 Q Q
= k2 % of y (or k2 % in the value of y)
Second working rule:
where y = dependent variable (i.e. a quantity being
dQ
measured). 1. Find by differentiating w.r.t the independent
dq
Note:
1. If y = f (x) be a functional relation between x and y, variable q.
then percentage error in dependent variable y is dQ ∆ Q
caused by the percentage error in independent 2. Use =
dq ∆q
variable x or in other words;
Let y = f (x) be a functional relation between two LM∆ Q = dQ ⋅ ∆ q OP
quantities x and y.
3. Divide
N dq Q
divided by Q)
by Q (both sides be

If ∆ x is k1 per cent (or, k1 %) error in x (or, in the

value of x), then ∆ y will be k2 per cent (or, k2 %) dQ
⋅ ∆q
∆Q dq
error in y (or, in the value of x). which ⇒ =
Now in the light of above explanation, we can Q Q
provide the following working rule to find the
where ∆ q = error in q = k % of q (or, k % in the value
percentage error or percentage increase, … etc in a
function (i.e. dependent quantity) = y. of q)
To find the percentage error in a dependent Remember:
quantity Q implies we are required to use the formula 1. Error in Q = ∆ Q and error in q = ∆ q
which is =
dQ ∆Q
× 100 where Q = f (q) = y = a 2. Relative error in Q = and relative error in
Q Q
dependent quantity, a dependent physical quantity dq
q= .
like volume, area, etc. q
And q = independent quantity on which Q
∆Q
depends like length, radius, height or thickness etc. 3. Percentage error in Q = × 100 and percentage
Q
First working rule:
∆q
dQ dy error in q is = × 100 .
1. Find = by differentiating the given q
dq dx 4. ∆ Q = dQ and ∆ q = dq
function, the formula for volume, formula for area, …
Verbal problems on percentage
etc obtained by mensuration formula, … etc w.r.t the
independent variable involved in the formula or given Examples worked out:
function. 1. If the radius of a spherical balloon increases by 0.1
dQ % find approximately the percentage increase in the
2. Use the formula ∆ Q = ⋅ ∆q volume.
dq
Solution: The volume of a sphere of radius r is
which ⇒ dQ =
dQ
dq
a
⋅ ∆ q 3 ∆ Q = dQ f V =
4
π r3 …(1)
3
688 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dV 4 2 dT dL dT
⇒ = ×π×r ×3 ⇒ = ⇒ × 100
dr 3 T 2L T
dV ∆V dL
But ~ = 4 πr 2 = × 100
dr ∆r 2L
.5
⇒ ∆ V ~ 4πr 2 × ∆r …(2) = = 0.25 (from (2))
2
There is a percentage increase in r of
= percentage error in T.
r × 0.1 3. If p is a small percentage error in measuring the
0.1% = = ∆r
100 radius of a sphere, find the percentage error in the
calculated value of volume and surface.
2
100 × ∆ V 100 × 4 π × r 4 2
⇒ = × ∆r Solution: V = πr …(1)
V 4 3
×π×r 3
3
dr
× 100 = p (given) …(2)
400 × 3 r r
= × = 0.3
4r 1000 Now differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t r after
2. The time period for one complete oscillation taking the logarithm of both sides, i.e.
of a simple pendulum of length L is given by logV = log 4 − log 3 + log π + 3 log r
T = 2π × L
g . Find the approximate error in T
1 dV 1
⇒ =3
V dr r
corresponding to an error of .5 % in the value of L, g
is a constant. dV dr
⇒ =3
Solution: The time for one comple oscillation is T V r
T T
(Which means) units of time i.e. second for dV dr
2 2 ⇒ × 100 = 3 × 100 …(3)
V r
T = 3p (on putting (2) in (3))
“tick” and second for “tock”)
2 2nd part:
And T = 2 π × L
g …(1) surface area = S = 4 π r 2 …(1)

dL dr
× 100 = .5 = k (say) …(2) × 100 = p …(2)
L r
(given in the problem) Taking logarithm of both sides of (1),
since (1) consists of product, so taking logarithm of log S = log 4 π + 2 log r …(3)
both sides Differentiating both sides of (3) w.r.t ‘r’ we get
1 1 1 dS 1
log T = log 2π + log L − log g …(3) =0+2⋅
2 2 S dr r
Now differentiating both sides of (3) w.r.t ‘L’ noting dS dr
⇒ =2
that g is constant S r
1 dT 1 1 dS dr
⇒ =0+ ⋅ −0 ⇒ × 100 = 2 × 100 …(4)
T dL 2 L S r
 Approximations 689

= 2p (on putting (2) in (4)) 3 π

= percentage error in calculated value of required = cot 36º × × × 100
60 180
surface area.
4. Find the percentage error in x3 corresponding to a =0.12 %
small error of r % in the value of x. 3 π
Solution: Let y = x3 …(1) error A = dA = 3′ = ×
60 180
dx
error of r % in the value of x ⇒ × 100 = r …(2) Type 1: Problems based on finding the approximate
x values of numbers:
y = x3
(A) Problems based on finding the approx values of
⇒ log y = 3 log x
numbers.
1 dy 3
⇒ = Exercise 18.1
y dx x
dy dx 1. Find approximately
⇒ =3
y x (i) 4 627
(ii) 3
dy dx 66
⇒ × 100 = 3 × 100
y x (iii) 3
122
dx (iv) 4
252
= 3r (from (2), × 100 = r )
x (v) 4
82
Verbal problems on percentage errors continued:
5. If b and c are measured correctly. A = 36º with a a f
(vi) 28
1
3

possible error of 3’, find the possible % error in ∆ .

(vii) a63f
1
3
1
Solution: ∆ = bc sin A
(viii) a126f
1
2 3

∆ = area of triangle has been given as a product,

(ix) 401
we use logarithmic differentiation.

log ∆ = log
1
+ log b + log c + log sin A
a f
(x) 15
1
4

(xi) a235f
2 1
4
Now differentiating w.r.t A, we have
d log ∆ d ∆ d log sin A d sin A 2. Find the approximate values of the following
⋅ = 0+ 0+ 0+ ⋅ number
d∆ dA d sin A dA
(i) 0.0037
1 d∆ 1
⇒ ⋅ = ⋅ cos A (ii) 3 0.009
∆ dA sin A
(iii) (0.998)8

⇒
d ∆ cos A
∆
=
sin A
⋅ dA = cot A · dA = relative error a
(iv) 3198
. f 1
2

(v) 4
80.999
in A.
1
d∆ (vi)
⇒ × 100 = cot A × dA × 100 100.5
∆
690 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

(vii) 4.08 376

(viii)
(viii) 3
65 75
(ix) 20.025
a f
(ix) 1000.1
1
3 (x) 1.96875

a3.998f 3
(xi) 3.9961
(x) 2
2. (i) 0.060833
(xi) (02.97)3 (ii) 0.208
(xii) .82 (iii) 0.9840
(iv) 1.99975
(xiii) 6.23 (v) 2.99990741
(xiv) 3
8.01 (vi) 0.09975
(vii) 2.02
1
a2.001f
(xv) (viii) 4.02083
2
(ix) 10.0003
3. By use of differentials, calculate approximately the (x) 7.994
values of the following: (xi) 26.19
(i) 792 (xii) 0.956
(ii) 1032 (xiii) 2.496
(iii) (9.06)2 (xiv) 2.00083
(iv) (1.012)3 (xv) 0.24975
(v) (9.95)3 3. (i) 6240
(vi) (1.005)10 (iii) 82.08
(vii) (0.975)4 (iv) 1.036
4. Calculate approximately the reciprocal of 997 and (v) 985
102. (vi) 1.05
5. Find the approximate values of the following (vii) 0.9
quantities: 4. Approximate value of reciprocal of 102 = 0.0098.
1 5. (i) 1.01
(i)
0.99 (ii) 0.1007
1 (iii) 0.992
(ii)
9.93 (B) Conditional problems
1
(iii) a1.004f 2 Exercise 18.2

Answers 1. Find the approximate values of the following

1. (i) 5.004 quantities:
(iii) 4.96 (i) sin 31º when 1º = 0.175 radians
(v) 3.009 (ii) cos 29º when 1º = 0.175 radians
82 (iii) sin 60º 2' given sin 60º = 0.86603 and 1' = 0.00029
(vi) radians
27 (iv) tan 44º given 1º = 0.0175 radians
191 (v) tan 45º 30' when 1º = 0.0175 radians
(vii) (vi) cos 30º 1' when 1º = 0.01745 radians
48
 Approximations 691

(vii) tanº when 1º = 0.01745 radians
(viii) loge 10.01 when loge 10 = 2.3026
(ix) loge (3.0001) when loge3 = 1.0986
(x) loge (3.001) when loge3 = 1.0986
2. Find the approximate value of the function
f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + 1 when x = 1.0001
3. Find the approximate value of the function
f (x) = x3 + 5x2 – 3x + 1 when x = 3.003
4. Find the approximate value of the function
f (x) = sin x + 2 cos x when x = 46º
5. Find the approximate value of the function
f (x) = 3x2 – 8x + 11 when x = 8.007
6. Find the approximate value of the function
f (x) = x4 + 2x2 + 5 when x = 1.998
2. What is approximate error in the volume and
surface of a cube of edge 8 inches, if an error of 0.03
inch is made in measuring the edge?
3. Find the approximate error in the curved surface of
a cylinder of diameter one foot and height 4 feet, if
there is a possible error of 1 inch in the height.
4. The radius of a sphere is found by measurement
1
to be 10 inches with a possible error of of an inch.
10
Find the consequent errors possible in (i) the surface
area and (ii) the volume as calculated from the
measurement.
5. The time of oscillation ‘T’ of a simple pendulum of

Answers: length ‘L’ is given by T = 2 π L . If L is creased

g
1. (i) 0.5152
by 1 % (one per cent), show that the percentage error
3 in T is 0.5.
(ii)
2 6. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower at a
(iii) 0.86632 point 200 ft away from its base is 45º. Find the
(iv) 0.965 approximate error in the height of the power due to an
(v) 1.0175 error of 2 % in the angle of elevation.
(vi) Find 7. Find the percentage error in calculating the area of
(vii) Find a triangle when one of its angles has been measured
(viii) 2.3036 as 45º with an error of 1'.
(ix) 1.098633 8. A metal cube of side 3 cms is heated. Find the
(x) 1.0989 approximate increase in its volume if its side becomes
2. –0.0001 3.0001 cms.
3. 65.162 9. Find the percentage error in x3 corresponding to
4. Find small error of r % in the value of x.
5. 139.28 Answers
6. 28.92 1. 2 π sq inch
Verbal problems on approximations and errors 2. 5.76 cu in and 2.88 sq in
3. π in
Exercise 18.3 4. (i) 8 π sq inch (ii) 40 π cu. in.
5. 2 π ft
1. The radius of a circle is 10 inches and there is an 6. 0.029
error of 0.1 inch in measuring it. Find the consequent 8. 0.002700
error in the area. 9. 3r
692 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

19
Tangent and Normal to a Curve
Give me a place to stand on and I will move the earth.
Archemedes (287–212 BC)

The concepts of tangent and normal are based on the A Y

following concepts.
1. Inclination: The inclination of a line is the angle
between the line (or its extension) and the positive
direction of the x-axis (the direction from a point on
the left (the point of intersection of the line and the
x-axis) to an other point on the right situated on the M il
x-axis) measured by convention in the anticlockwise
B O X
direction from the x-axis to the part of the line
(intersecting the x-axis) above the x-axis.
Y A
Notation: An angle of inclination is generally denoted
by the symbol ‘i’ or ‘ θ ’.
C Y

M il
O B X

N il Explanation:
D O X
(i) The inclination of the line CD is the angle XNC.
(ii) The inclination of the line AB is the angle XMA.
Y C
2. Slope of a line. The slope of a line is the tangent
(or trigonometric tangent) of its inclination.
Notation: The slope of a line is represented by
∆y
m= = tan i , where ∆ y = y 2 − y1 difference of
∆x

N il
a f a
y-coordinates of two points x1 , y1 and x2 , y2 f
on the line whose slope is sought.
O D X
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 693

∆ x = x2 − x1 difference of x-coordinates of two (b) The slope of the line AB is negative.

a f a f
points x1 , y1 and x2 , y2 on the line whose slope Y

is sought.
Nomenclature: ∆ y = delta y A
∆ x = delta x
Explanation: The slope of the line FG = tan i
il
Y C F
O M X
R B
Now, let us procede to have a clear idea of the
concepts of tangent and normal to a point on the
curve. Ordinarily, it is known that a line l cuts a circle
in two points, but a tangent line cuts it in one point
only.
T il
From this special case, we are led to describe a
O S X
G tangent as a line which cuts the curve at only one
point.
SR
= l
TS B
=m A

To remember: O
(a) When the inclination of a line is an acute angle,
90
the slope of a line is positive.
(b) When the inclination of a line is an obtuse angle, P T
the slope of a line is negative.
Now this above description is all right in case of a
(c) The inclination is acute (0º < θ < 90º) or obtuse circle, but it is not applicable to a tangent to a curve in
(90º < θ < 180º) accordingly as the line leans to the general.
right or to the left of the point of intersection of the x-
Y
axis and the line. Further, the inclination of a line Q
parallel to the axis is 0º and the inclination of a line P
parallel to the y-axis is 90º.
Explanation:
(a) The slope of the line CD is positive.
Y C
O T

For example, in the figure given below, the tangent

line to the curve at a point namely P intersects the
curve at another point namely Q. This is why in
Calculus “a tangent to a curve is a straight line which
N cuts the curve at only one point” is not applicable as
il
a definition. But it is endeavored to arrive a suitable
O D X
definition of the tangent line at a point on the graph
of the function f defined by y = f (x).
694 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Definitions of “Tangent and Slope of Pθ

Normal to a Curve”
=
∆ y f x − f x−∆x
=
bg b g …(1)
It is common to define a tangent line (or simply a ∆x ∆x
tangent) at a point P in two ways:
Y
Definition I: (In terms of the limit of a secant line of a P Tangent at P (x, y)
curve): The limit or the limiting position of a secant y =f x ( )
ant
(x – x, sec y = f (x) – f (x – x)
line (or simply a secant) of a curve y = f (x) through a y – y) Q
fixed point P and a variable point Q on the curve
when the variable point Q moves from either side of P x
arbitrarily close to P, but never coincident with the
fixed point P (i.e., the distance between the fixed point
P and the variable point Q is non-zero and less than O (x – x) x X
any given small positive number ∈) is called the tangent
In accordence with earlier discussion, its limit as
to a curve y = f (x) at a fixed point P on the curve.
b
∆x → 0 ∆x > 0 or ∆x < 0 , i.e., g
∆y
t lim (if exists)
Tangen ∆ x→0 ∆ x
P
dy
Q” = , …(2)
y = f (x) dx
which is said to be the slope of the tangent line at
Q’ (x, y) and consequently the tangent is defined to be
the line through P (x, y) with the slope given by (2).
Q Length of the tangent to a curve: It is the segment (or
part or portion) of the tangent joining the point of
Let P be a fixed point and Q be a variable point on tangency (the point where the tangent touches the
the same curve y = f (x). Then the line PQ is called a curve) and the point of intersection of the tangent
secant line of the curve y = f (x). Now, when the variable with the x-axis.
point Q is made to move along the curve y = f (x), y
towards the fixed point P, the positions of the secant
y = f (x)
line PQ changes. The different positions of the secant P
(x, y)
line are shown in the figure by dotted lines when the
variable point Q is made to move to the point Q´, Q´´,
etc. The limiting position of the secant line PQ when
the variable point Q moves from either side of P
indefinitely close to but never coincident with the x
fixed point P is called the tangent at the fixed point P 0 T
on the curve y = f (x).
Thus, PT is the length of the tangent.
Definition II: (In terms of slope of a curve): A tangent
line to a curve y = f (x) at a point P (x, y) on the curve Normal to a curve at a given point: The normal at
dy any given point P on (to or of) a curve defined by
is a line through P (x, y) with a slope at P (x, y). y = f(x) is a line which passes through P and is
dx
i.e., the tangent to a curve y = f (x) at a point P (x, y) on perpendicular to the tangent at P on the curve
the curve is the line which passes through P (x, y) y = f(x). The point P is called the foot of the normal.
dy Length of normal to a curve: It is the segment (or
and which has the same slope as the curve at
dx part or portion) of the normal (or normal line) joining
the point of tangency on the curve and the point of
P (x, y).
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 695

intersection of the normal with the x-axis. Thus PN is = QM – LP = ∆ y

the length of the normal. Thus PN is the length of the = QM – LP
normal.
= y1 + ∆ y − y1
y y = f (x)
= ∆y
y = f() x y

)
+
y 1
90
o
P (x, y) y x,
Perpendicular

+
x1
N

(
t

Q
en

)
or

1
,y
ng

m
al
Ta

1
(x
T’
φ

P
il il N
x
O T subtangent subnormal N
G
Subtangent: The projection on the x-axis, of the part ψ= i φ= i
(or portion or the segment) of the tangent joining the O T R L x M x
point of tangency on the curve and the point of
Again, PN = LM = OM – OL = ∆ x
intersection of the tangent with the x-axis is called
the subtangent or length of the subtangent, i.e. the 3 OM = x + ∆ x , OL = x
projection of the length of the tangent is called the = x1 + ∆ x – x1
length of subtangent. Thus, TG is the subtangent. Q (x1 + x,
y1 + y )
Subnormal: The projection on the x-axis, of the
segment (or part or portion of the normal joining the
point of tangency on the curve and the point of
y
intersection of the normal with the x-axis is called the
subnormal or length of subnormal, i.e. the projection
of the length of the normal is called the length of the ∅ x
subnormal or simply the subnormal. Thus, GN is the P (x1, y1) N
subnormal or the length of subnormal. Since, PN is parallel to OX ⇒ ∠ NPQ = φ
Remark: The slope of the tangent line to a curve at a NQ
dy ∴ tan φ = tan NPQ =
point is equal to the slope of the curve, i.e. m = PN
dx QM − LP
at (x, y) = slope of the tangent at (x, y) on the curve =
LM − OL
= slope of the curve defined by y = f (x) at a given
∆y
point (x, y) where x = a point on the domain of f. = …(1)
∆x
dy
Geometrical meaning of : Supposing that P (x, y) Let the tangent T´ PT at P intersect the x-axis at T
dx
is a point on the continuous curve C whose equation and makes an angle ψ with the positive direction of
is y = f (x). Again supposing that Q is a point on the the x-axis.
given curve y = f (x), whose co-ordinates are ∴ ∠ XTP = ψ
a x + ∆x, y + ∆x . f We observe that as Q moves along the curve
C towards P, then the chord QP tends to the tangent
Construction: We draw perpendiculars PL, QM upon
PT ⇒ If we suppose that ∆ x → 0 , then M → L
OX and PN ⊥ QM . We join PQ and produce it to
(i.e., Q → P along the curve C) ⇒ The chord QP
meet OX at R.
tends to the tangent at P ⇒ PQ → PT ′. Hence
Let PQ make (or, QR) make an angle θ with OX.
∆x → 0 , ∆y → 0 ⇒ φ → ψ ⇒ tan φ = tan ψ
Now, NQ = QM – MN
696 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Hence, lim tan φ = lim

∆y
=
dyLM OP Note: 1. In general, if the function f (x) has a finite
φ→ ψ ∆ x→0 ∆x dx N Q b
P x1 , y1 g
derivative at every point x ∈ X , then we can write
af
the derivative f ′ x as a function of x which is also

LM dy OP
defined on x.

a f LMN dydx OPQ

dy
∴ tan ψ = = value of
N dx Qb x1 , y1 g dx
at the point
2. f ′ x1 =
x = x1
(x1, y1).
But tan ψ represents the slope of the tangent PT. 3. We also use the symbol y ′ = f ′ x , the dash af
dy indicating that it is the derived function.
Hence, at P (x, y) represents the gradient of the
dx
To find the equation of the tangent and normal at
dy
tangent at that point i.e., gives the value of the (x1, y1) of the curve C = y = f (x).
dx
slope of the tangent at P (x, y) or the slope of the y = f (x)
curve at (x, y). Y

Facts to know: N
dy T
1. = 0 at a point ⇒ tan ψ = 0 ⇔ The tangent Tangent
dx
at that point is parallel to the x-axis. A (x1, y1)
π2
Normal at A
θ
O T’ N’ X

Refresh your memory:

Definition of normal to a curve at a point P (x1, y1) on
the curve:
The normal to a curve at the point A (x1, y1) on it is the
dx
2. If = 0 then ψ = 90 ⇔ the tangent is parallel line through the point A perpendicular to the tangent
dy
at the point.
to the y-axis.
Remember:
y 1. If the slope of the tangent is m, then the slope of
1
the normal is − .
m
2. Equation of a line passing through (x1, y1) and

having the slope m is

y − y1
x − x1
= m ⇔ y − y1 = m x − x1 b g
π which is the point slope form of the equation of a
2 straight line.
x
0
3. The normal is a line passing through a point
3. Notation: The slope of the curve at a point (x 1, y 1) lying on the curve and having the slope
P (x1, y1) is denoted by
LM dy OP F dy I F dy I
L dy O =−
1
⇔
y − y1
=−
1
(where m = tan θ =
dy LM OP
N dx Q or H K or M P
or H dx K
N dx Qa m x − x1 m dx p N Q
p dx p f a fx1 , y1 x1 , y1
= derivative of a function at a general point x , y ) is b g
or for the purpose of simplicity, we write f ′ a x f . 1
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 697

the equation of the normal (a line) passing through

(x, y).
=−
f′ x
1
af x = x1
a
× x − x1 f
y = y1
4. Two lines are perpendicular to each other if the
product of their slopes is
−1 ⇒ if m1 m2 = –1, then lines having the slopes
=−
f′ x
1
af a
× x − x1 f
x = x1
m1 and m2 respectively are perpendicular to each other
⇔ Slope of one line is equal to the negative re- Alternative proof based on definition of tangent to a
ciprocal of the slope of the other line means two lines curve at a point.
are perpendicular to each other. Let us suppose that the equation of the curve is
N.B.: Normal and tangent to a curve are y = f (x) …(1)
perpendiculars to each other. Derivation of the Let P (x1, y1) be a point lying on the curve C given
equation of the tangent and normal at (x1, y1) lying on a
by (1) and Q x1 + ∆ x , y1 + ∆ y be any point f
the curve C = y = f (x). adjacent to P on C.
TAT ' and NAN ' are respectively tangent and normal C
y = f (x )
at A (x1, y1) to the curve C, y = f (x).
y
dy S
∴ By the geometrical meaning of , Q
dx y
T

LM dy OP P (x1, y1)

N dx Qa x1 , y1 f
= The slope m of the tangent TAT ' x M

i1
∴ Now we know that the equation of the straight O T’ S’ S” x
N’
line passing through (x1, y1) and having a slope m is
y – y1 = m (x – x1) …(1) Then by the co-ordinates geometry, the equation
A tangent is a line passing through (x1, y1) and
L dy O of the secant line PQ is y − y1 =
∆y
∆x
a
x − x1 …(2) f a f
having a slope m = M P
N dx Qa x1 , y1 f
…(2) Now, the slope of the tangent is the limit of the
slope of the secant ⇒ the equation of the tangent is
∴ Putting (2) in (1), we get the required equation

of the tangent, y − y1 =
LM dy OP b x1 − x1 .g a
given by y − y1 = lim f ∆y
a
x − x1 f
N dx Qb g
∆ x →0 ∆x

g FGH dydx IJK b x − x g

x1 , y1
Again since the normal is perpendicular to the
tangent, slope ‘m’ of the normal
b
⇒ y − y1 =
P
1

1 which is the required equation of tangent where

=−
F dy I …(4)
LM dy OP
H dx K a
dy
x1 , y1 f N dx Q b
p x1 , y1 g
= value of
dx
at (x1, y1).

Therefore, the normal has the equation

Angle between two curves: The angel between two
y − y1 = −
1
LM dy OP b
× x − x1 g intersecting curves is the angle between the tangents
at their common point of intersection.
N dx Qb x1 , y1 g
698 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

y C 1 = f 1 ( x) = Value of d.c. of f2 (x) at the point of intersection

C1 P (x1, y1).
(x1, C2
C 2 = f 2 ( x) y1) Orthogonal Curves: Two curves are said to be
P
orthogonal if they intersect each other at right angles.
θ Thus, for the curves C1 = y = f1 (x) and C2 = y
= f2 (x) to be orthogonal, they must make at an angle
π
at their point of intersection
i1
2
i2
π
T1 T2 x ∴ i2 = + i1
2
Derivation of the formula: Supposing that ⇒ tan i2 = − cot i1
y = f1 (x) ⇒ tan i1 ⋅ tan i2 = − 1
y = f2 (x) are the two equations of the two curves ⇒ m1 ⋅ m2 = − 1
C1 and C2 respectively intersecting at P (x1, y1). Let ⇒ derivative of f1 (x) at (x1, y1) × derivative of
the tangents PT1 and PT2 to the curves C1 and C2 f2 (x) at (x1, y1) = –1.
make angles i1 and i2 with OX.
Remember: 1. Angle between two curves or angle
Let the angle < T1PT2 between the tangents be θ .
between two intersecting curves at a point of
LM dy OP LM d f b x g OP intersection or angle of intersection of two curves are
Now, tan i1 =
N dx Q =
1

N dx Q
synonyms by which we mean the angle between their
x = x1
C1 y = y1 tangents at the point of intersection of two curves.
= tan i1 = m1 2. If the angle between the tangents to the two curves
π
LM dy OP LM d f a xf OP at the point of intersection of two curves is = θ,
and tan i2 =
N dx Q =
N dx Q
2
2
C2 x = x1 then the two curves are said to be orthogonal or to
y = y1
cut orthogonally.
= tan i2 = m2 3. ‘Ortho’ means right and gonal means angular.
Now, since θ = i2 − i1

tan θ = tan i2 − i1 = b g tan i2 − tan i1

1 + tan i1 ⋅ tan i2
C 2 ≡ f 2 ( x)
T2
m2 − m1 tangent to y = f 2 (x)
=
1 + m1 m2
L m − m OP ,
C 1 ≡ y = f 1 (x)

∴ θ = tan M
T 1 tangent to y = f 1 ( x)
−1 2 1

N1 + m m Q 1 2 4. Tangent of an angle between two curves

L d f a x f OP
where m = M
Difference of slopes at their
N dx Q
1
common point of intersection
1
x = x1 =
y = y1 1+ product of slopes at their
common points of intersection
= Value of d.c of f2 (x) at the point of intersection

L df b xg OP
=M 2
5. When the two curves touch at (x1, y1), θ = 0
⇒ tan θ = 0 ⇒ m1 = m2 ⇒ when the slopes of
N dx Q
P (x1, y1) and m2
x = x1 the tangents (or curves) at their common point of
y = y1 intersection are same, the curves touch each other.
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 699

6. The equations of the curves may be explicit or 3. Find the angle of inclination using tan i = tan α
implicit. When the given equation is explicit function which ⇒ i = α .
of x only, the derived function contains only x and
when the given equation is implicit function of x and Note: 1. Actually (x1, y1) is taken to be the point of
y, the derived function contains both x and y. This is contact of the tangent and the curve which is given
why we put only x-coordinate of point of intersection in the problem.
in the derived function of explicit function while b g FG
f′ x x= x I = tan i = tan α
H y = y JK
2. 1
finding the slopes at the point of intersection of two 1
given curves while we put x co-ordinate and y co- dy
ordinate both of point of intersection in the derived 3. If = an expression in x only, we put only the
dx
function of implicit function while finding the slopes dy
at the point of intersection of two given curves. value of x coordinate of the given point and if =
dx
Types of the problem: f (x, y), we put x coordinate and y coordinate both of
1. Finding the inclination or slopes when x1 and /y1 the given point in f (x, y).
is given.
b g FG
f′ x I
x = x1

H y = y JK
2. Finding the equation of the tangent and normal 4. = value of f ´ (x) at x = x1 and y = y1
when x1 and /y1 is given. 1

3. Finding intercepts and proving the result based which are the coordinates of the point of contact of
on equation of tangent and normal. the curve and the tangent.
4. Finding (x1, y1) = co-ordinates of the point where
the tangent … and finding the length of perpendicular. Examples worked out:
5. Finding the angle of intersection or proving Question 1: Find the inclination of the tangent at the
3
orthogonal or touch … etc. x 2
point where x = 1 to the curve y = − x +2.
6. Proving the equation of tangent and normal to the 3
curve y = f (x) at any point (x1, y1) to a straight line ax Solution: Given equation of the curve is
+ bx + c = 0. x3
7. Finding the angle between two tangents to a curve y= − x2 + 2 …(1)
3
at two given points. Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get
8. Finding the area of a triangle. 2
dy x 2
9. Finding the length of subtangent and subnormal. =3 − 2x + 0 = x − 2x …(2)
dx 3
af
Refresh your memory: In every type of problem, the 2 2
equation of the curves in planes may be given in Now, f ′ x x =1
= x − 2x = 1 − 2 = 1− 2 = − 1
x =1
three forms:
(i) Explicit form: y = f x .bg ⇒ tan i = − 1 = tan 135 ⇒ i = 135º
b g
(ii) Implicit form: f x , y = 0 or constant
y

(iii) Parametric form: x = f 1 t bg

y = f2 t bg
Problems based on finding inclination:
P (x1, y1)
Working rule:
1. Find y1 i.e. find d.c of the given equation of the
line. i
x

a f FH
O
2. Find f′ x x = x1
y = y1
IK which is the slope of the Note: If f ′ x af x = x1
y = y1
= − ve ⇒ Angle of inclination
tangent line.
= tan i is an obtuse angle.
700 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

Question 2: Find the inclination of the tangent at ⇒ tan i = tan 45º

(1, 1) lying on the curve y = x2 – x + 1.
Solution: Given equation is y = x2 – x + 1 …(1) ⇒ i = 45º …(3)
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x Hence, the inclinations of the two tangents to the
dy curve at the points (1, 0) and (2, 0) are 135º and 45º
⇒ = 2x − 1 + 0 = 2 x − 1 respectively.
dx
Now, f ′ x bg x =1
= 2x −1 x =1
= 2 ⋅1 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1 Problems based on finding the slope of a curve at a
given point
⇒ tan i = 1 ⇒ tan i = tan 45º Working rule:
⇒ i = 45º
dy
y 1. Find by differentiating both sides of the given
dx
equation w.r.t x.
P (x1, y1)
2. Find f ′ x a f FH x = x1
y = y1
IK = Value of
dy
dx
at the point

(x1, y1) which is given in the problem.

The slope of the curve = The slope of the tangent.
i
x Remember:
O
1. Slope of the given curve = the slope of the tangent
Question 3: Find the inclination of the tangents at the
at the same point.
points (1, 0) and (2, 0) to the curve y = (x – 1) (x – 2).
Solution: Given equation of the curve is y = (x – 1) 2. If x = a ⇒ y = ± b and tangents are required to
(x – 2) …(1) find out at x = a then (x1, y1) = (a, b) and (x2, y2)
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get = (a, – b) are the two points on the curve where the
dy tangents are to be found out.
= ( 2x – 3)
dx 3. If y = c ⇒ x = a , b , then (x1, y1) = (a, c), (x2, y2)

af dy F I
Now, f ′ x x =1 = The value of
y =0 dx H K
at (1, 0)
= (b, c) are two points on the curve where tangents
are required to find out.
=[2x – 3]x = 1 = 2 – 3 = –1 Hence, we see that common x-coordinate or y co-
⇒ tani = –1 ordinate is included in both points.
⇒ tan i = tan 135º Note:
⇒ i = 135º ...(2) af
1. If f ′ x = a function containing only x terms

af F I
dy
Again, f′ x x=2
y=0
= value of H K
dx
at (2, 0)
and no y terms, then we put only the x coordinate of
LM dy OP
=[2x – 3]x = 2 = 2 × 2 – 3 = 1 the given point in derived function ⇒
N dx QFH x =a
y =b
IK
y
LM dy OP .
=
N dx Q x =a

2. If f ′ a x f = a function containing only y terms

135° 45°
(2, 0)
x and no x terms, then we put only the y coordinate of
O (1, 0)
the given point in the derived function
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 701

LM dy OP = LM dy OP . N.B.: In such type of problems, we must find the

⇒
N dx QFH IK N dx Q
x =a
y =b y =b
missing coordinate of the point by putting its value
in the given equation of the curve provided that
3. If f ′ a x f = derived function = a function con- derived function does not contain the variable whose
taining both x terms and y terms, then we put x- coordinate is given.
coordinate and y-coordinate of the given point in the Question: In the curve y2 = 4x, obtain the slope of
derived function. the curve at the point where y = 2.
LM dy OP a f FH IK
Solution: Given equation is y2 = 4x …(1)
∴
N dx QFH
x =a
y =b
IK = f′ x x =a
x =b
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get

4. If f ′ a x f
y
= derived function = a function
containing only constant but no x and y terms, then
we do not put x-coordinate and y-coordinates of the
2)
given point in the derived functions. 1,
P(
Question: How to find the x-coordinate or y-
coordinate of the point lying on the curve whose x
O
equation is given and only one coordinate of the x-
coordinate and y-coordinate is given?
Solution: Since the point lies on the curve, equation
of the curve will satisfy the given equation, i.e. we LM dy OP = 4
put x-coordinate or y-coordinate in the given equation
2y ⋅
N dx Q
a f
of the curve and solve for x or solve for y which will dy 4 2
provide us the value of x or value of y representing x- ⇒ = = ; y≠0
dx 2 y y
coordinate or y-coordinate of the points lying on the
curve. LM dy OP LM 2 OP 2
Example: In the curve y2 = 4x, obtain the slope of
the curve at the point where y = 2.
⇒
N dx Q y =2
=
NyQ y=2
=
2
=1

Solution: Before finding the slope of the curve at a which is the required slope.
point whose y-coordinate is provided in the question Question: Find the slope of the curve y2 = 4x at the
as y = b (Use y = 2) x-coordinate should be determined point where x = 1.
first. Solution: Given equation is y2 = 4x …(1)
Hence, y = 4 x ⇒ y = 4 x ⇒ 2 or 4x ⇒ 4
2 2 2
x = 1 ⇒ y2 = 4 ⋅ 1 ⇒ y = ± 4 = ± 2
⇒ x=1 Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get
Therefore, required point of the curve y2 = 4x is (x, dy
y) = (1, 2) 2y ⋅ =4
dx
LM dy OP LM OP ⇒ L dy O
N Q MN dx PQFGH
dy 4 2
Notation:
N dx QFH x = x1
y = y1
IK = value of derived function at ⇒ =
dx 2 y
=
y x =1
y =2
IJ
K
x = x1 and y = y1.
=
LM 2 OP 2
Examples worked out:
N y QFGH x =1 I= =1 ...(2)
Type 1: Finding the slope of a curve at a given point J
y = 2K
2

whose x and /y-coordinate is produced.

702 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

L dy O L2O 3 Given coordinates are (a, 0) and (0, b)

and ⇒ M P F I = MN y PQ F
2
N dx QGH x =1
y = –2
JK GH
x =1 I
J
y = −2K
=
−2
= −1 ...(3) y

(0, b)

y (a , 0)
x
O

x
O
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get
2x 2 y dy
2
+ 2
=0
a b dx
Hence (2) and (3) are the required slopes.
FG x y dy IJ
Ha K
Question: What is the slope of the curve y = 2x2 – + =0
or 2
6x + 3 at the point in the curve where x = 2? b 2 dx
Solution: Given equation of the curve is
F I ⇒ L dx O
JK MN dy PQFG
b2 x
GH
dy
y = 2x2 – 6x + 3 …(1) ⇒ =− 2 =0
x =a I
y = 0JK
dx a y
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get
dy
H
= 4x − 6
dx ⇒ cot i = 0
y π
⇒ i= .
2
⇒ tangent at (a, 0) is perpendicular to x-axis.
P
LM dy OPF I=0 ⇒ i = 0 which
Similarly,
N dx QGH x=0
J
y = bK

i
x ⇒ Tangent at (0, b) is parallel to x-axis.
O T
Question: Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
Now, the slope of the curve at the point x = 2 y = 2x2 + 3 sin x at x = 0.

LM dy OP
What is the slope of the normal at x = 0?
Solution: Given equation is y = 2x2 + 3 sin x …(1)
∴
N dx Q x=2
= 4x − 6 x =2
= 4 × 2 − 6=8− 6= 2
y
2 2
x y
Question: Find the slope of the ellipse 2
+ 2
=1
a b
P
at the point where (i) x = a and (ii) y = b.
Solution: 3 Given equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
+ =1 …(1)
a2 b2 i
x
When x = a, y = 0 [from the given equation] O T
When y = b, x = 0 [from the given equation]
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 703

dy Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get

⇒ = 4 x + 3 cos x
dx
dy LM OP
dy
dx
2
= 3x + 2 x − 4 = f ′ x af
⇒
N Q
dx x = 0
= 4 x + 3 cos x x =0
⇒ f′ x af x =1 =3+2−4=1
y = −2
= 4 · 0 + 3 cos 0 = 0 + 3 · 1 = 3
LM dy OP ⇒ tan ψ = 1
⇒
N dx Q x=0
= 3 = Slope of the tangent to the ⇒ tan ψ = tan 45º
⇒ ψ = 45º ⇒ inclination = 45°.
curve at x = 0.
Now again, we know that slope of the normal is Question: Find the slope of the curve y2 = 4x at the
negative reciprocal of the slope of tangent at the point (1, 2).
same point which means slope of the normal Solution: Given equation of the curve is
y2 = 4x …(1)
1 1
LM dy OP
=− =− Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x
.
3
N dx Q x =0
y

Question: Find the slope of the curve y2 = x at the

point x = 1. P
Solution: (1) Given equation is y2 = x
When x =1, y = ± 1 ⇒ Points are (1, 1) and(1, –1).
(2) Differentiating the given equation w.r.t x, we get
i
dy dy 1 x
2y = 1⇒ = O T
dx dx 2 y
dy
⇒ 2y ⋅ = 4⋅1
y dx
dy 4 2
⇒ = =
dx 2 y y
P
LM dy OP LM 2 OP LM 2 OP 2
⇒
N dx Q x =1
y=2
=
N yQ x =1
y =2
=
NyQ y =2
=
2
=1

Question: Given the curve y = 6x – x2, find the slope

i
x of the curve at (x1, y1) and (0, 0).
O T
LM dy OP 1 1
Solution: Given equation of the curve is y = 6x – x2
(3) Slope at (1, 1) =
N dx Q x =1
y =1
= =
2 ⋅1 2 y

Slope at (1, –1) = L O

MN dx PQ
dy 1 1
x =1
y = −1
=
a f
2 ⋅ −1
=−
2 P

Question: Find the slope and inclination of the curve

y = x3 + x2 – 4x at the point (1, –2) lying on the curve.
Solution: Given equation of the curve is i
x
y = x3 + x2 – 4x …(1) O T
704 How to Learn Calculus of One Variable

dy Solution: Given equation of the curve is x = y2 –4y

⇒ = 6 − 2x …(1)
dx Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get
LM dy OP dy dy
⇒
N dx Q x = x1
y = y1
= 6 − 2x x = x1
y = y1
= 6 − 2 x1 1 = 2y
dx
−4⋅
dx
dy 1
⇒ The slope of the tangent at (x1, y1)= 6 – 2x1 ⇒ = …(2)
dx 2 y − 4
⇒ The slope of the given curve at (x1, y1) 2
Since the curve x = y – 4y cuts the y-axis where
= 6 – 2x1 x=0
Now, the slope of the tangent at (0, 0)
LM dy OP
2
a f
∴ x = 0 ⇒ y − 4 y = 0 ⇒ y y − 4 = 0 ⇒ y = 0 ,4
=
N dx Q x =0
y =0
= 6 − 2x x=0
y=0
=6 ⇒ The two points are (0, 0)and (0, 4) where the
curve crosses the y-axis.
(Slope of the curve at P is the slope of the tangent Now, the slope of the curve at (0, 0)
at P).
LM dy OP LM 1 OP = 1
Question: Find the slope of y = 2
x
at the origin.
=
N dx Q x=0
y=0
=
N2y − 4Q 2 ⋅ 0 − 4
x −1
Solution: Given equation of the curve is −1
x = ...(3)
y= 2 4
…(1)
x −1 y
Now, differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t x, we get (0, 4)
y

(–4, 2)
V

P x
O

Again the slope of the curve at (0, 4)

i
x LM dy OP LM 1 OP
O T =
N dx Q x =0
=
N2 y − 4 Q x =0

dy
=
x − 1− 2 x
2 2
=
e
− 1+ x
2
j 1
y =4 y =4

=
e j e x − 1j
2 2
dx 2
x −1
2
2×4−4
1 1
= = ...(4)
∴ The slope of the curve at the origin (0, 0) 8−4 4

L dy O LM −e1+ x j OP 2
b g = −1 = − 1
− 1+ 0
Important results to be committed to memory:
=M P
MN e x − 1j PPQ
=M =
N dx Q
1. The geometrical meaning of differential coefficient
x =0
y =0
2
2
x =0 b0 − 1g 1
2
dy
y=0
at the point (x, y) of a curve is the tangent of the
dx
angle which the tangent line to the curve at (x, y)
Question: Find the slopes of the curve x = y2 – 4y at
makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
the point where it crosses the y-axis.
 Tangent and Normal to a Curve 705

2. (i) The equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) Step 1: Find y1 if it is not given in the following way:
LM dy OP ax − x f ,
Put the given x-coordinate of the point P (x1, y1)
at the point (x1, y1) is y − y1 =
N dx Q a
p x1 , y1 f
1 on the curve y = f (x) in the given equation of the
curve y = f (x) i.e., y1 = f (x1).

LM dy OP dy dy
N dx Q a
where stands for the value of at the Step 2: Find by differentiating the equation of
dx
p x1 , y1 f dx
the given curve w.r.t x using the rule of explicit and
point P whose x-coordinate