Summary of Annotations

Page 2

#1 Underline

powerplant. The .:omplctc ins1allat11m n l an aircraft engine. propeller. and all accessories needed
for its proper function.

#2 Highlight

DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANTS

#3 Highlight

The Principle of Heat Engines

#4 Underline

heat engine. A mechanical dev1ce that con\·crts chemical energy in a fuel into heal energy. and !hen
into mechanical energy.

#5 Underline

Chemical energy stored in the fuel is released as heat energy that causes air to expand. The
expansion of this air is what perfonns useful work, driving either a piston or a turbine.

#6 Highlight

two basic types of heat engines: external-combustion and internal-combustion.

#7 Underline

interna l-combustion engine. A form of heat engine in which the fuel and air mixture is burned inside
the engine.

#8 Underline

external-combustion enj!ine. A form of heat cng111e in which the fuel releases it~ energy outside of
the eng111c.

#9 Highlight

External-Combustion Engines

#10 Underline

e most familiar to us as steam engines.

#11 Underline

Dr. Samuel Langley

#12 Underline

used small steam engines to power

#13 Underline

unmanned machines he called Aerodromes

#14 Underline

Aerodrome. The name given hy Dr. Samuel Langle) to the flying machines built under his supervision
between the years of 1891 and 1903.

#15 Underline

piston. The movable plug 111s1de the cylinder of a rec iprocating engine.

#16 Underline

turbine. A wheel fitted with vanes or a1rfoib radiat111g out from a central disk. Used to extract
energy from a stream of moving fluid.
Aerodrome. The name given

Page 3

#1 Underline

The expanding air can drive reciprocating pisLons or '>p in Lurhines.

#2 Highlight

Internal-Combustion Engines

#3 Underline

Dr. Nikolaus Otto ufGcnnany made practical engines using the

four-stroke cycle that bears hi s narne, and it is the principal cycle upon which almost all aircraft
reciprocating engines operate.

#4 Underline

Otto cycle of energy transformation. The four-stroke. ri vc-evenr. constant-volum,· cycle of energy
transformation uscd 111 a reciprocating engine.

#5 Underline
Gas turbine engines in the form of turboj et, turbofan, turboprop, and
turboshaft engines have revolutionized aviation
#6 Underline

gas turbine engine. An internal n•mht1'tion cngint! that burns I(S fucJ Ill ol COlhtantpressurc cycle and
uses the c\pa1hiun or the air to drive a turb1nt.: \\llldl. in turn. rotates a compressor. Encr_!!y he·\ und
that needed to rotate the comprcssor 1s used to produce torque or thrust.

#7 Underline

turbojet engine. A gas turbine cngine that produces thrust by <1<xclcrati11_!! the mass of air flowing
through it.

#8 Underline

turbofan engine. A type ur ga' tu rhino: eng111.: in which kngthcncd comprt.:,snr or turbine blades
accelerate air around the· outside or the core engine

#9 Underline

tu1·boprop engine. A tu rbine engine in which energy extracted from the accelerated gases is used to
drive a propeller.

#10 Underline

turboshaft engine. A turbine engine in which energy extracted rrom the accelerated gases 1s used to
drive helicopter rotor:>. generators. or pumps.

#11 Highlight

Aircraft Reciprocating Engines

#12 Underline

Aviation as we know it today was born at the beginning of the 1900s with
powered flights made by Wilbur and Orville Wright.

#13 Underline

first solved the problem of lift with kites, then the problem of control with gliders,

#14 Underline

The engine, builttotheirdesign by Mr. Charles Taylor, had four cylinders

in-line and lay on its side.

#15 Underline

On December 17, 1903, this engine powered the Wright Flyer on its
historic flight of 59 seconds, covering a distance of 852 feet on the windswept sand at Kitty Hawk,
North Carolina.
#16 Underline

reciprocating engine. A type or heat engine that changes the reciprocating (hack-and-forth) motion of
pistons inside the cylinders into rotary motion or a crankshaft.

#17 Underline

brake horsepower. The actual horsepower delivered to the propel ler shaft or an aircraft engine.

#18 Underline

cylinder. The component of a reciprocatmg engine which hou~es the piston. valves. and spark plugs
and forms the combustion chamber.

#19 Underline

Because of Dr. Langley's success with his Aerodromes, the U.S. government gave him a contract to
build a full-scale man-carrying machine.

Page 4

#1 Underline

But Manly's engine

#2 Underline

On October?, 1903, the full-scale Aerodrome with Manly as the pilot was
launched from atop the houseboat.

#3 Underline

was in no way responsible for the fai lure of the Aerodrome to achieve powered flight.

#4 Underline

Glenn Curtiss

#5 Underline

became involved in furnishing the powerplants for Dr. Alexander Graham Bell's Aerial Experiment
Association

#6 Underline

Cmtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation merged with the Wright Aeronautical Corporation to form
the giant Curtiss-Wright Corporation.

#7 Underline
World War I
#8 Underline

was a time of rapid growth in aviation

#9 Underline

One of the most popular configuration of engines built in this era was the
rotary radial engine.

#10 Underline

rotary radial engine. A fo1m of reciprocating engine in which the crankshaft is rigid ly attached 10 the
airframe and the cyli nders revolve with propeller.

#11 Underline

crankshaft. The cenrral component of u reciprocating engine. This high-,trcngth alloy steel shaft has
hardened and polished h.:aring surfaces that ride in bearings rn the crankcase. Offset throws. formed
on the crankshaft. have ground and polished surfaces on which the connecting rods ride. The
connectrng rods change the 1nand-out motion of the pistons into rotation of the crankshaft.

#12 Underline

crankcase. The housing that encloses the crankshaft. camshaft. and many of the accessory dri\'e
gears of a reciprocating engine. The cylinders arc mounted on the crankcase. and the engine attaches
to the airframe by the crankcase.

#13 Underline

There were only two aircraft engines designed and built in quantities in
the United States during this time, and both were V-engines.

#14 Underline

'-engine. A form of reciprocating engine in which the cylinders are arranged in two banh. The banks
are separaied h~ an angle of between ..+5° and 90°. Pistons in two cylinders. one in each
brink. are connected to each throw of the crankshaft.

#15 Underline

d irigible. A large. cigar-shaped. lighterthan-air flying machine. Dirigibles differ from balloons in that
they arc powered and can be steered.

Page 5

#1 Underline

Curtiss Jenny Curtiss JN..i-1>) . .\ Worl,I War 1 training airplane powered hy a Curtiss OX -5 engine:. It v.
as w1ck· ly available after the war and hclp..:d inlruducc :i v1a1ion to th<.' :-:n, r;1 ,>uhlJ,·
#2 Underline

The years between World Wars I and II are cal led the golden years of aviation

#3 Underline

Standard .J-L ,\ World War 1 training airplane powered hy a Curtiss OX-5 engine.

#4 Underline

DeHaviland DH-4. An English designed obsen ation airpl,111c built in large 4uamit1es in Amt:rica
during World War I. After the war. surplus DH--b wen: uscd for carrying rhc U.S. \fail.

#5 Underline

These airplanes and engines, while limited in utility, were so abundant and cheap that manufacturers
were discouragt:J i'rom developing new engines until these were used up.

#6 Underline

the 220-horsepower WrightJ-5

#7 Underline

the engine that powered Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis on its successful 33-hour nonstop

#8 Underline

During World War II the radial engine was the most popular configuration in the United States.

#9 Underline

radial engine (static radial). A fo rm of reciprocating engine in which the cylinders radiate out from a
small cemral crankcase. The pistons in the cylinders drive a central crankshaft which in turn dnvcs the
propeller.

#10 Underline

The Prati & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major,

#11 Underline

with four rows of seven cylinders, was the largest practical aircrap reciprocating engine.

#12 Underline

Horizontally opposed engines first became popular as powerplants for very light aircraft

#13 Underline

the mid 1990s, the only configuration of FAA-certificated reciprocating engines produced in the
United States.
Page 6

#1 Underline

amateur-built aircraft. Aircraft built by. individuals as a hobby rather than by factories as commercial
products. Amateur-built or homebuilt aircraft do not fall under the stringent requirements imposed
by the FAA on commercially built aircraft.

#2 Underline

Amateur-built aircraft do not require FAA-certificated engines, and as a

result, there is a strong movement in the conversion of automobile engines for aircraft use.

#3 Underline

second century

#4 Underline

the gasoline reciprocating engine, in spite of its inefficiency, continues to be used, but not without
competition.

#5 Underline

rotating combustion (RC) engine. A form of internal combustion engine in which a rounded.
triangular-shaped rotor with sliding seals at the apexes forms the combustion space inside an
hourglassshaped chamber. Expanding gases from the burning fuel-air mixture push the rotor around
and turn a geared drive shaft in its center. The RC engine was conceived in Germany by Felix Wankel
in 1955.

Page 7

#1 Underline

The first practical use of turbines in aviation was the turbosupercharger

developed by Dr. Sanford Moss duting World War I.

#2 Highlight

Aircraft Turbine Engines

#3 Underline

turbosupercharger. A centrifugal air compressor driven by exhaust gases flowi ng through a tu rbi ne.
The compressed air is used to increase the power produced by a reciprocating engine <It altitude.

#4 Underline

Turbosuperchargers allow reciprocating engines to maintain their sea-level power to a high altitude
#5 Underline

centrifugal compressor . r\n air compressor that uses a scroll-type impeller. Air is taken into the
center of the impeller and slung outward by centrifugal force into a diffuser where its velocity 1s
decreased and its pressure is increased.

#6 Underline

The gas-turbine engine is a logical progression from a turbosupercentrifugal compressor . r\n air
compressor that uses a scroll-type impeller. Air is taken into the center of the impeller and slung
outward by centrifugal force into a diffuser where its velocity 1s decreased and its pressure is
increased.
8
charger

#7 Underline

Though the compressor requires a tremendous amount of power, the turbine produces enough, with
some left over for torque or thrust.

Page 8

#1 Underline

thr ust. The aerodynamic l11J~ C' prnducnl by a propeller or turbojet cng111l' ;i,
11
forces a mass of air to the rear. hclu nd the aircraft. A propeller produces its thrust by accc·l
erating a large mass of air by a re lative!) small amount. A turbojet engine produces its thrust by
accelerating a smaller mass of air by a much larger amount.

#2 Underline

torqtu·. 1\ I"''" 1ha1 prndun·, or tries 10 prodt1cL rnl.1111111

#3 Underline

A propeller produces thrust by delivering a small change in momentum

Lo a large mass of air

#4 Underline

a jet engine delivering a far larger change in momentum to a much smaller mass of air

#5 Underline

The thrust produced by a turbojet would increase as the aircraft flew faster and would be efficient at
high altitude.
#6 Underline

The General Electric Company was licensed to build the Whittle engine in the United States.

#7 Underline

because of their experience with turbosuperchargers

#8 Underline

and because the two primary aircraft engine manufacturers, Pratt & Whitney and Wright
Aeronautical, had more than they could handle in the continued development of reciprocating
engines

#9 Underline

Turbine engines have a far greater versatility than reciprocating engines because they can be
operated either as a thrust or torque producer.

#10 Underline

Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by accelerating a mass of air.

#11 Underline

Turboprop and turboshaft engines produce torque to dri ve propellers or helicopter rotors, or
generators and air compressors for auxiliary power units.

Page 9

#1 Underline

power. The time rate of doing wPrk. Power is found by divid111g the an1<nllll ol work clone.
measured in foo1-p1111mh. h~ the time in seconds or minull'' lhl'd 10 do the work. Power may be
cxprc,,cd 111 loot-pound;
of work per m111ull' 1u 111 lwr,epower. One horsepower j,
:n.rnio loot-pounds of work
done in one m1nu1c. or .'\50 loot-pounds of work drnw in one 'ccond.

#2 Underline

Power requires movement. so thru st hor:-.erowcr must take into consideration the speed of the
aircra ft

#3 Underline

thrust horsepower. The horsepowe1 cq111\ a lent of the thrust produced b~ c' 1urbo1e1 engine.
Thrust horsepower i' found h) multiplying the net thrust of the engine. measured in pounds. by the
speed of the aircraft. measured in miles per hour. and then dividing this by 37'5.
#4 Underline

Thrust horsepower =
thrust horsepower. The horsepowe1 cq111\ a lent of the thrust produced b~ c' 1urbo1e1 engine.
Thrust horsepower i' found h) multiplying the net thrust of the engine. measured in pounds. by the
speed of the aircraft. measured in miles per hour. and then dividing this by 37'5.
Net thru st (pounds) · Aircraft speed (miles per hour) 375 mile-pound I hour

#5 Underline

The power-to-weight ratio of the turboprop engine is 3.5 times as high as that of the reciprocating
engine.

Page 10

#1 Underline

ultra-high-bypass engines

#2 Underline

f urhofan engines have almost completely replaced turbojet engines,

#3 Underline

UHB e ng ine~

#4 Underline

drive short, multiblade, contrarotating propeller~ and have high propulsive efficiency, low noise, low
thrust specific fuel consumption. and a high power-to-weight ratio.

#5 Underline

TSFC (thrust specific fuel consumption). A measure of the efficiency of a turbojet or wrhofan engine.
TSFC is the number of pound~ of fue l burned per hour for each pound ol thrust produced.

#6 Underline

The Unducted Fann.• engine is an ultra-high-bypass turbine engine that promises quiet operation
with low fuel consumption at a speed higher than that used by turboprop-powered aircraft.