Properties Part A

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Plastic Materials/Properties
and Applications
For all kind of plastic requirements .
visit www.deekayengg.com
mrfs:Moulds,Plastic products and consultants.
As indicated in Chapter 2, the family of plas- cluded in the process, for example, ethylene
tics is extraordinarily varied and complex. and propylene, the resulting plastic is a copoly-
There are, however, some fairly broad and mer.
basic guidelines for engineering and designing The two basic groups of plastic materials are
products made of plastic materials. This chap- the thermoplastics and the thermosets. Ther-
ter provides a brief introduction to the range of moplastic resins consist of long molecules, each
materials that comprise the family of plastics. of which may have side chains or groups that
For each, a description of its important prop- are not attached to other molecules (i.e., are
erties is provided, along with some specific not crosslinked). Thus, they can be repeatedly
processing requirements and examples of prod- melted and solidified by heating and cooling so
ucts in which the polymer is used. For a quick, that any scrap generated in processing can be
broad comparison, see Table 3-1 on pages 48- reused. No chemical change generally takes
50. To find information on a specific resin, the place during forming. Usually, thermoplastic
reader should consult the index to this book. polymers are supplied in the form of pellets,
which often contain additives to enhance pro-
cessing or to provide necessary characteristics
THE FAMILY OF PLASTICS in the finished product (e.g., color, conductiv-
ity, etc.). The temperature service range of
Plastics generally are organic high polymers thermoplastics is limited by their loss of phys-
(i.e., they consist of large chainlike molecules ical strength and eventual melting at elevated
containing carbon) that are formed in a plastic temperatures.
state either during or after their transition from Thermoset plastics, on the other hand, react
a small-molecule chemical to a solid material. during processing to form crosslinked struc-
Stated very simply, the large chainlike mole- tures that cannot be remelted and reprocessed.
cules are formed by hooking together short- Thermoset scrap must be either discarded or
chain molecules of chemicals (monomers) in a used as a low-cost filler in other products. In
reaction known as polymerization. When units some cases, it may be pyrolyzed to recover in-
of a single monomer are hooked together, the organic fillers such as glass reinforcements,
resulting plastic is a homopolymer, such as which can be reused. Thermosets may be sup-
polyethylene, which is made from the ethylene plied in liquid form or as a partially polymer-
monomer. When more than one monomer is in- ized solid molding powder. In their uncured
47
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PLASTIC MATERIALS / PROPERTIES A N D APPLICATIONS 51
condition, they can be formed to the finished above 140"F, polyethylenes resist bases and
product shape with or without pressure and acids at room temperature. Their resistivity
polymerized by using chemicals or heat. (both volume and surface) and dielectric
The distinction between thermoplastics and strength are high.
thermosets is not always clearly drawn. For ex- Polyethylenes can be crosslinked to form in-
ample, thermoplastic polyethylene can be ex- fusible thermosetting materials with high heat
truded as a coating for wire and subsequently resistance and crack resistance. Applications
crosslinked (either chemically or by irradia- are in wire and cable coating, foams, and ro-
tion) to form a thermoset material that no longer tationally molded products.
will melt when heated. Some plastic materials Polyethylenes are classified by density as
even have members in both families; there are, follows: (a) 0.880 to 0.915 g/cu cm (called
for instance, both thermoset and thermoplastic ultra- or very low density), (b) 0.910 to 0.925
polyester resins. g/cu cm (low density), (c) 0.926 to 0.940 g/cu
cm (medium density), and (d) 0.941 to 0.965
THERMOPLASTIC RESINS g/cu cm (high density). The primary differ-
ences among the types are in rigidity, heat re-
The first thermoplastics discussed in this sec- sistance, chemical resistance, and ability to
tion are the so-called commodity thermoplas- sustain loads. In general, as density increases,
tics and their chemical relatives. These poly- hardness, heat resistance, stiffness, and resis-
mers have found their way into wide tance to permeability increase. So-called con-
commercial use, with millions of tons pro- ventional low-density polyethylenes (LDPE)
duced annually. Their ranks include the poly- are produced in high-pressure reactors. Such
olefins, the styrenics, and the vinyls. Also cov- polymers have highly branched structures with
ered here are the acrylics and the cellulosics. moderate crystallinity (50-65 %).
The remaining thermoplastic materials gen- Low-density polyethylenes are quite flexi-
erally are categorized as engineering resins or ble, with high impact strength and relatively
engineering thermoplastics (ETPs). These res- low heat resistance (maximum recommended
ins are produced in substantially smaller quan- service temperature is 140-175"F), although
tities than the commodity thermoplastics, are grades are available with heat resistance up to
priced higher, and tend to compete with metals 200°F.
rather than with glass, paper, and wood, as the Traditional markets for LDPE are in pack-
commodities do. aging films, extrusion coating of paper, wire
Discussions of thermoplastic elastomers and and cable coating, injection molding, and pipe
of alloys and blends concludes the section, and tubing. Since the introduction of linear low-
along with a list of some types of these mate- density polyethylene (see below), conventional
rials that have been commercialized to date. LDPE has been gradually displaced in some of
these areas.
The Polyolefins The high-pressure route also is used to make
copolymers of ethylene with polar monomers
Polyethylenes. Polyethylenes are character- such as vinyl acetate or ethyl acrylate. The
ized by toughness, near-zero moisture absorp- EVAs and EEAs that are produced have low-
tion, excellent chemical resistance, excellent temperature flexibility and are used in tough
electrical insulating properties, low coefficient films and as a component of multilayer con-
of friction, and ease of processing. structions for low-temperature heat sealing.
In general, they are not outstanding load- Acid copolymers (with acrylic or methacrylic
bearing materials, but high-density polyethyl- acid) are used for their hot tack and adhesive
ene can be used for some short-term light loads. properties. Neutralized with metallic ions, these
Few thermoplastics have the excellent chem- materials become clear ionomers, used in coat-
ical resistance and dielectric properties of poly- ing applications.
ethylenes. Soluble
mrfs.blow moulds in some organic solvents Linear polyethylenes,plastic
plastic injection moulding as the injection
name suggests,
moulds
52 SPI PLASTICS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
have very little branching along the polymer low-density polyethylenes (ULDPE and
chains. The polymerization of linear polyeth- VLDPE) are essentially synonymous designa-
ylenes at low pressures has been used to man- tions for linear polyethylenes with densities
ufacture high-density resins since the mid- down to 0.880 g/cu in. Produced in gas-phase
1950s. Methods for making linear low-density reactors, they are finding application as impact
polyethylenes (LLDPE) did not become com- modifiers for other polyolefins and in film and
mercial until the 1970s. sheet markets.
Commercial LLDPE resins are made in gas- Linear high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
phase reactors; the polymers typically contain can be produced via a slurry process or in gas-
up to 10% alpha olefin comonomers (butene, phase reactors identical to those used to make
hexene, methyl pentene, or octene). The reac- LLDPE. HDPE polymers are highly crystal-
tor output is in granular form, but normally is line, tough materials that can be formed by
extruded and pelletized to incorporate additive most processing methods. Much HDPE is
systems. blow-molded into containers for household and
LLDPE polymers, with little long-chain industrial chemicals. It is injection-molded into
branching, have much greater elongation than items such as crates, housewares, pails, and
LDPE. Their higher tear, tensile, and impact dunnage containers; extruded into pipe, tubing,
strength, along with improved resistance to en- and wire insulation; blown into film for pack-
vironmental stress cracking, allow stronger aging; and rotationally molded into containers,
products to be produced with less material. This toys, and sporting goods. (See Fig. 3-2.)
has been particularly important in film markets, Within the density range of HDPEs, the stiff-
where considerable downgauging has been ac- ness, tensile strength, melting point, and chem-
complished. (See Fig. 3-1.) Ultra- and very ical resistance all improve at the high end.
However, materials with the highest densities
‘I have lower stress crack resistance and low-tem-
perature impact strength.
High molecular weight HDPE polymers are
a special class of linear resins with molecular
weights in the 200,000 to 500,000 range. To
obtain processability along with end-use prop-
erties, control of the molecular weight distri-
bution is critical. Some materials are produced
with a “bimodal” molecular weight distribu-
tion to obtain the necessary balance.
HMW-HDPE is made into blown film for
packaging, extruded into pressure pipe, and
blow-molded into large shipping containers.
Extruded sheet is used to form truck bed liners
and pond liners.
At the highest end of the spectrum is ultra-
high molecular weight high-density polyethyl-
ene. Its weight average molecular weight is
over 3 million. Because the resin does not flow
when melted, it normally is compression-
molded into thick sheets or ram-extruded.
High strength, chemical resistance, and lu-
bricity make UHMW-HDPE ideal for gears,
slides, rollers, and other industrial parts. It also
Fig. 3-1. Bag for ice cubes from linear low density is used to make artificial hip joints. In fiber
polyethylene. (Courtesy of Union Carbide Chemicals and form, the UHMW-HDPE’s linear structure ex-
Plasrics ) hibits liquid crystal properties that are useful in
PLASTIC MATERIALS /PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS 53
Fig. 3-2. Examples of high-density polyethylene products. ( Courresy of Onion Carbide Chemicals aid Plasfirs)
reinforcing composite structures. The fiber also Polypropylene. This polyolefin has turned
can be woven into lightweight ultrastrong fab- out to be the most versatile of the family, ac-
rics. counting for the continuing rapid increase in its
use. First produced in the 1950s, early poly-
propylenes (PPs) suffered from low yields in
polymerization, high percentage (about 10%)
Polymethylpentene (PMP). Based on of atactic polymer, and poor control of molec-
4-methylpentene-l , this crystalline polyolefin ular weight.
is characterized by transparency (90% light The development of high-activity catalysts
transmission), low specific gravity (0.83), and in the 1970s improved the yields dramatically
a high melting point (464°F). Its drawbacks are and almost eliminated production of the atactic
brittleness and poor UV resistance. PMP has form. The resulting isotactic polymers were
found application in making injection-molded highly stereoregular.
and blow-molded laboratory ware and medical Polypropylenes have better resistance to heat
products, food processing equipment, and mi- (heat distortion temperature at 66 psi: 200-
crowavable packaging. Glass fiber-reinforced 250°F) and resist more chemicals than do other
grades, with heat distortion temperatures up to thermoplastic materials of the same cost. Also,
440"F, can compete with more expensive en- polypropylenes have negligible water absorp-
gineering resins for electrical/electronic and tion and excellent electrical properties, and they
automotive applications. are easy to process.
In much the same way that density is impor- tion temperature is lower than that of the ho-
tant in determining the mechanical properties mopolymer, 150 to 205°F under 66 psi load.
of polyethylenes, the stereoregularity (related These materials are used in blow-molded con-
to the repeated units in the stereoregular mo- tainers (including oriented and multilayer bot-
lecular chain) of a polypropylene very often de- tles), injection-molded packaging, and flexible
termines the characteristics of the material. An monolayer and coextruded films.
increase in the stereoregularity of a polypro- Impact copolymers are produced in a sec-
pylene will sharply increase the yield strength ondary reactor. The ethylene comonomer pro-
of the material. The hardness, stiffness. and vides a flexible component in the otherwise
tensile strength also increase. On the other rigid, crystalline structure. Impact copolymers
hand, as the stereoregularity decreases, elon- have replaced impact PPs made by blending the
gation and impact strength increase. homopolymer with ethylene-propylene rubber.
The ability to carry light loads for long pe- PP impact copolymers are tough, even at low
riods and over wide temperature ranges is one temperatures, and yet retain a high percentage
of the properties that make polypropylenes val- of the stiffness of the homopolymer. Injection
uable in engineering applications. Polypropyl- molding applications include automobile bat-
enes do not have outstanding long-term creep tery cases, interior and exterior trim parts,
resistance, but their fatigue endurance limit is housewares, and furniture. Coextruded with
excellent. In fact, polypropylene often is re- bamer polymers such as EVOH and PVDC,
ferred to as the “living hinge” thermoplastic. impact PP is made into multilayer sheet that is
One of the limitations most often mentioned thermoformed into food packages that can
for polypropylenes is their low-temperature withstand freezer storage and microwave cook-
brittleness (-4°F). However, polypropylene ing. (See Fig. 3-3.)
copolymers have been developed with brittle-
ness points of about -20°F. I
Like all other polyolefins, polypropylenes
have excellent resistance to water and to water
solutions, such as salt and acid solutions that
are destructive to metals. They also are resis-
I
tant to organic solvents and alkalis. Above
175”F, polypropylene is soluble in aromatic
substances such as toluene and xylene, and in
chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloreth-
ylene.
Polypropylenes have excellent electrical re-
sistivity (both volume and surface), and their
dielectric strength is high.
The greatest commercial uses for homopoly-
mer PP are in fibers and filaments. PP fibers
are woven into fabrics and carpets, and they
also are used to produce nonwoven fabrics for
disposables. Slit tape-filaments are used as jute
replacements in carpet backings and sacks. PP
also is made into unoriented and oriented films
for packaging, which have largely replaced cel-
lophane and glassine. Homopolymer PP is in-
jection-molded into caps and closures, appli-
ance components, and auto parts.
Random copolymer PP (with up to 7 % eth-
ylene) has higher impact strength and better Fig. 3-3. Multilayer package from polypropylene with
mrfs.blow moulds
clarity than the homopolymer. Its plastic injectionEVOH
heat distor- moulding plastic injection moulds
barrier. (Cortrtesy of Rampart Packaging, Inc. )
The rigidity of polypropylenes can be im- Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH). Copoly-
proved significantly by the addition of inexpen- mers of ethylene and vinyl alcohol provide ex-
sive mineral fillers. Filled PPs and even glass- cellent barriers to the permeation of oxygen and
reinforced PPs are made into chemically other gases, odors, and flavors. EVOH resins
bonded compounds that are truly engineering generally are used within packaging structures
thermoplastics. because of their strong tendency to absorb
moisture, which leads to deterioration of the
Polybutylene. Polybutylene resins are flexi- barrier properties.
ble, linear polyolefins offering a unique com- Multilayer structures that contain EVOH are
bination of properties. They are produced from produced by coating, laminating, coextrusion,
1-butene as homopolymers and as copolymers or coinjection molding. In such structures, the
with ethylene. Some of their important char- EVOH is encapsulated by other polymers, often
acteristics are: excellent resistance to creep at polyolefins, which keep moisture out. In most
room and elevated temperatures-no failures cases, adhesive tie layers are required to bond
after long-term loading at 90% of yield the hydrophilic EVOH to hydrophobic poly-
strength; good toughness (high yield strength, mers. A notable exception is with nylon, where
high impact strength, high tear strength, high bonding is achieved without adhesives.
puncture resistance); and exceptional resis- The major use of EVOH barrier packaging
tance to environmental stress cracking. is for food products although there are appli-
Other important advantages include good cations involving solvents and other chemicals.
moisture bamer properties, excellent electrical The most common combination is with poly-
insulation characteristics, and resistance to propylene. Blow-molded bottles for ketchup,
most chemical environments. barbecue sauces, and salad dressings and ther-
Polybutylene can be processed on the same moformed containers for jellies, sauces, and
equipment used for low-density polyethylene, prepared foods all are sold commercially.
but it should be noted that after cooling the
polymer undergoes a crystalline transforma-
tion. During this change, the tensile strength, Styrenic Plastics
hardness, specific gravity, and other crystallin-
In general, styrenics are characterized by ease
ity-dependent properties attain their ultimate
of processing, hardness, and excellent dielec-
values. This behavior presents opportunities for
tric properties. They are relatively limited in
post-forming techniques such as the cold form-
heat resistance and are attacked by aliphatic and
ing of sheeting or molded parts. The delay in
aromatic hydrocarbon solvents.
aging does not pose any unusual processing
problems.
The most important commercial application ABS Resins. ABS materials are composed of
for polybutylene is in plumbing pipe for resi- acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene in varying
dential and commercial use. Large-diameter proportions, combined by a variety of methods
polybutylene pipe is used for transporting ab- including graft copolymerization and physical
rasive fluids. The material's abrasion resistance blending. Originally an outgrowth of polysty-
also is put to use in sheet form for vessel and rene modification, the materials long have been
chute linings. in a category of their own.
Polybutylene is used to make hot melt ad- ABS materials provide a balanced combina-
hesives and sealants and as a carrier resin for tion of mechanical toughness (Izod impacts can
additive and color concentrates. High loadings range from 2 ft-lb/in. of notch to 12 ft-lb/in.
(up to 80%)can be achieved. The resin also is of notch), wide service temperature range (-40
used as a modifier for other polyolefins; in to 240"F), good dimensional stability, chemi-
polypropylene it improves processability , im- cal resistance, electrical insulating properties,
pact, and weld line strength, and in polyethyl- and ease of fabrication.
ene it imparts processability and stress crack ABS materials are produced in a wide range
mrfs.blow
resistance.moulds plastic injection moulding plastic injection moulds
of grades including medium- and high-impact,
heat-resistant, plateable fire-retardant, and both for foam molding. Although most ABS mate-
low- and high-gloss varieties. rials are opaque, a transparent grade has been
ABS is used as a component in alloys with developed, using methyl methacrylate to match
other plastics, notably polycarbonate, nylon, the refractive index to that of the rubber com-
PVC, polysulfone, and SMA. Because of their ponent.
stiff melt flow, most ABS polymers are difficult The range of applications for ABS plastics is
to color. ABS makers have installed sophisti- extremely broad. Falling in between the com-
cated color matching and compounding equip- modity plastics and the engineering resins, ABS
ment to meet customers' needs. fills the property requirements for many parts
ABS materials have relatively good electri- at a reasonable price. In the automotive market
cal insulating properties, which make them (Fig. 3-4), ABS is used to injection-mold in-
suitable for secondary insulating applications. terior panels and trim (Iow-gloss grades),
In general, ABS materials have very good grilles, wheelcovers, and mirror housings
resistance to a wide range of chemicals. They (electroplatable grades); flame-retardant grades
exhibit low water absorption, are very good in are used to mold housings and keyboards for
weak acids, and in both weak and strong al- computers. General purpose ABS is the current
kalis; are generally good in strong acids; and material of choice for 3~-inch computer disc
are poor in solvents such as esters, ketones, al- housings, and it has long been used to mold
dehydes, and some chlorinated hydrocarbons. telephones, calculators, and business machines
ABS is somewhat hygroscopic and has to be and appliances. ABS sheet is thermoformed
dried before processing. into refrigerator door liners and food storage
ABS materials are available as compounds compartments. Grades of ABS are made into
for injection molding, blow molding, extru- DWV pipe for the building and construction
sion, and calendaring, as sheet for thermoform- market and are joined with injection-molded
ing or cold forming, and in expandable grades ABS fittings. Other ABS applications include
mrfs.blow moulds
Fig. 3-4. Auto interior plastic
trim injection
parts from ASS. (moulding
Courtesy of the Do,,' plastic
ChemiralC/ injection moulds
housewares, luggage, toys, and sporting goods. (cups, lids, take-out containers), housewares,
ABS has been used to blow-mold bumper fair- office products, and video and audio cassettes.
ings for large trucks. Ignition-resistant grades are used in radio and
TV housings.
Polystyrene (PS). General-purpose polysty- Foamed crystal polystyrene has cushioning
rene is the low-cost member of the family. and insulation properties at very low densities.
Properties of the amorphous polymer include Extruded foam sheet is used as a protective
hardness, rigidity, optical clarity, dimensional wrapping material and is thermoformed into
stability, and excellent processibility . Most fast food packages, egg cartons, and meat and
crystal polystyrene is injection-molded. Appli- produce trays for supermarkets. Expandable
cations include packaging for food, cosmetics, polystyrene (EPS) in supplied in the form of
and pharmaceuticals, audio cassette cases, dust small beads containing a chemical blowing
covers, disposable drinking cups, and cutlery agent. The beads are pre-expanded with steam
(see Fig. 3-5). Oriented crystal PS sheet is to establish the density of the finished product
thermoformed into trays and blister packaging, and then steam-chest-molded into lightweight
and foamed crystal PS is used in a wide variety products such as coffee cups, cooler chests, and
of insulating and packaging applications (see protective package inserts. (See Fig. 3-6.)
below).
Modified or impact polystyrene (with poly- Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN). These copoly-
butadiene elastomers) extends the uses of polymers are transparent, amorphous materials with
styrenes into those areas where high impact higher heat and chemical resistance than crystal
strength and good elongation are required. Most polystyrene has. Because they are polar in na-
products of this type have the rubber molecu- ture, SAN resins are hygroscopic and require
larly grafted to the polystyrenes; however, drying before processing. SAN is injection-
some are produced by mechanical mixing. molded into such products as dishwasher-safe
High-impact polystyrene is generally recog- housewares, refrigerator shelves, medical de-
nized as the best styrenic material for load- vices, ovencaps, connectors for PVC tubing,
bearing applications. The other types of poly- and lenses.
styrene offer various improvements in chemi- When olefin-modified, SAN becomes a
cal, thermal, and optical performance, usually tough, weatherable polymer that can be ex-
at the sacrifice of mechanical properties. High- truded into sheets and profiles as well as injec-
impact polystyrene is a very rigid material, but tion-molded. Its primary use, however, is as an
it does not withstand long-term tensile loads as extruded capstock for ABS and other less ex-
well as some other thermoplastics do. pensive substrates to provide weatherability for
Typical applications include food packaging applications such as spas, boats, swimming
pools, and recreational vehicles.
Styrene-Butadiene (SB) Copolymers. These

block copolymers combine transparency and
high impact strength. Unlike SAN, SB copoly-
mers do not have to be dried before processing.
Packaging is a major market in items such as
cups, lids, trays, and clamshells for the fast-
food industry.
Styrene-Maleic Anhydride (SMA) Copoly-

mers. With heat distortion temperatures
reaching almost 250"F, SMA copolymers can
Fig. 3-5. Crystal polystyrene case for compact audio disk. be used in applications outside the range of
(Courtesy of Hunisman Chemical Corp. ) other styrenics. The maleic anhydride compo-
Fig. 3-6. Foamed polystyrene insulation panel. (Coitrresy of Huntsmnr~ Cherninil Corp. )
nent also imparts extra adhesion to glass fibers der compounds are made by combining the in-
in reinforced grades. Impact grades are pro- gredients in a high-intensity mixer. Pelletized
duced by copolymerization with butadiene or compounds are made on twin-screw extrusion
by alloying with ABS. SMA materials require lines.
thorough drying before processing. Flexible PVC compounds contain plasticiz-
Applications for SMA include automotive ers to soften the resin. These additives are high-
instrument panels, headliners, and interior trim, voiling solvents for PVC such as dioctyl
instrument panel supports (glass-reinforced), phthalate (DOP) and didecyl phthalate (DDP).
appliances, business machines, and pumps. The plasticizers also act as processing aids.
Electroplatable grades are used to mold auto- Because it degrades relatively easily and be-
motive and appliance parts. cause the degradation products are corrosive,
the processing of PVC requires special care.
Vinyl Plastics Machinery surfaces that come in contact with
the polymer should be corrosion-resistant (e.g.,
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Polyvinyl chlo- chrome-plated). Flow paths should be as
ride is one of the world’s most widely used smooth as possible with no “dead areas” where
plastics. Its acceptance comes from the poly- material can collect and degrade. With proper
mer’s versatility; it can be utilized in rigid precautions, rigid PVC can be processed as
compounds or blended with plasticizers to pro- easily as other thermoplastics.
duce flexible grades. PVC resin is self-extinguishing. In a fire,
Most PVC is made via suspension polymer- however, it produces hydrochloric acid and
ization. A small amount is made by mass other toxic and corrosive chemicals. It can be
polymerization, and plastisols and organosols burned in a properly designed incinerator with-
are produced by the emulsion process. out releasing any of these chemicals into the
Rigid PVC compounds normally contain atmosphere.
resin, a heat stabilizer, and an impact modifier A chief limitation of PVC is its heat resis-
such as ABS or
mrfs.blow moulds chlorinated polyethylene. Pow- tance. Its heat distortion
plastic injection moulding temperature
plastic injection ismoulds
only

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Properties Part A

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Cap mould Hanger moulds

for all kind of mould requirements contact cellph. 0919855003551 (india)

for any kind of plastic related quiries you can contact us

mrfs.blow moulds plastic injection moulding plastic injection moulds

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mrfs.blow moulds plastic injection moulding plastic injection moulds

Styrene-Butadiene (SB) Copolymers. These

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