Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract: Social construction is the virtue ascribed to a subject by the general public; along with political
power, it influences the allocation of public policy benefits. Nonhuman species are socially constructed by hu-
mans, and political power is held in trust for them by human interest groups. Our goal was to determine if
the allocation of benefits to endangered species is consistent with social construction and political power. We
assessed the social construction of broad types of species using survey data collected from a national sample
of 643 respondents. We found that plants, birds, mammals, and fish have a distinctly more positive social con-
struction than reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and microorganisms. Respondents also indicated, how-
ever, that all nonhuman species should be conserved and that ecological importance and rarity are the most
important factors to consider in prioritizing species for conservation. We gauged the political power affiliated
with types of species by the number of nongovernmental organizations representing them. Birds have a sub-
stantial advantage over all other types. We employed a political science model that identifies policy subjects
based on social construction and political power and identified birds, mammals, and fish as “advantaged”
subjects, plants as “dependents,” and reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and microorganisms as “deviants.”
Numerous exceptions, especially among mammals, are best described as “contenders.” Allocation of the bene-
fits of the U.S. Endangered Species Act is consistent with predictions of the model. A myriad of values converge
to favor birds, mammals, fish, and plants in the policy arena. The most promising opportunities for species
conservation in the political arena, however, may be with plants and amphibians, for which the ratio of so-
cial construction to benefit allocation is highest.
* Address correspondence to B. Czech, 3102 East 25th Street, Tucson, AZ 85713, email czech@ag.arizona.edu
Paper submitted June 13, 1997; revised manuscript accepted November 11, 1997.
1103
número de valores que convergen a favor de las aves, los mamíferos, los peces, y las plantas en el terreno
político. Sin embargo, las oportunidades más prometedoras para la conservación de especies en el terreno
político pueden estar en las plantas y los anfibios, para los que el cociente entre la opinión pública y la dis-
tribución de beneficios es la más alta.
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
Czech et al. Social Construction of Endangered Species 1105
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
1106 Social Construction of Endangered Species Czech et al.
Table 1. Paired t tests for differences in importance of species types as ascribed by the public. a
one rank to the next were significant except for those valued nonhuman species at a level (503.03, n 5 31) not
between mammals and plants, reptiles and microorgan- significantly different from the valuation of the three
isms, and microorganisms and invertebrates (Table 2). common parties.
There was no effect of age, gender, region, type of res- We rejected the Ho that there is no difference in the
idence, hectares of property owned, education, or type importance of the seven specified factors in the valua-
of employer on total value, given the traits defined for tion of species by the public (n 5 576, Wilks’ lambda 5
each of these factors (Table 3). (For example, only two 0.285, p , 0.0001). Each factor was significantly differ-
regions, one east of the Great Plains and one from the ent from the others in its importance for evaluating spe-
Great Plains westward, were defined.) There were, how- cies for conservation, except for physical attractiveness
ever, significant effects associated with environmental and body size, which were the two least important fac-
organization and political party membership. Not sur- tors (Table 4). The most important factors were appar-
prisingly, members of environmental organizations val- ent ecological importance and rarity.
ued nonhuman species more highly than nonmembers For plants, amphibians, and invertebrates, spending is
did. Republicans valued nonhuman species significantly far less than that congruent with public valuation (Fig.
lower (469.17, n 5 179) than Democrats (533.64, n 5 2). For reptiles, birds, and fish, spending is far more than
204) and Independents (526.34, n 5 112) ( p , 0.05). congruent. More political power is held in trust for
Respondents defining themselves politically as “Other” birds, which are represented by more NGOs (57), than
Table 2. Wilcoxon signed rank tests for differences in importance of species types as ascribed by the public. a
Wilcoxon
Mean rank sign-rank Probability of
Pairs of species types Mean ranksb difference valuec Type 1 error d
Mammals/plants 2.66/3.02 0.3549 8659 0.009
Mammals/birds 2.66/3.45 0.7843 23361 ,0.001e
Plants/birds 3.02/3.45 0.4294 11317 0.001e
Birds/fish 3.45/3.74 0.2922 9947 0.002e
Fish/amphibians 3.74/5.24 1.5039 38693 ,0.001e
Amphibians/reptiles 5.24/5.75 0.5098 17536 ,0.001e
Reptiles/microorganisms 5.75/5.98 0.2314 5574 0.093
Reptiles/invertebrates 5.75/6.15 0.4000 12742 ,0.001e
Microorganisms/invertebrates 5.98/6.15 0.1686 1999 0.541
a
For each pair, H0 5 no difference in rank of importance of species types for conservation.
b
Values follow order established in previous column.
c
n 5 510.
d
Reject H0 if p , (0.05/9) 5 0.0056.
e
Reject H0 . All pairs of species types not shown had significantly different mean ranks.
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
Czech et al. Social Construction of Endangered Species 1107
Probability of
Demographic parameter Traits n R2 F ratio Type 1 error a
Age continuous 556 0.0030 1.54 0.2150
Gender male, female 573 0.0044 2.5151 0.1133
Region East, Westb 577 0.0004 0.2583 0.6115
Type of residence urban, suburban, rural 571 0.0021 0.5926 0.5532
Acres of property owned 0, ,1, 1–10, 10–100, 100–1,000, .1000 571 0.0066 0.7508 0.5857
Education did not finish high school, high school diploma, some 572 0.0049 0.4599 0.8380
college, bachelor’s degree, some graduate studies,
graduate degree, technical or trade school
Political party Democrat, Republican, Independent, Other 526 0.0274 4.9067 0.0023c
Membership in environmental yes, no 561 0.0144 8.1606 0.0044c
organization
Type of employer small business, corporation, federal government, state 553 0.0225 1.3857 0.1912
government, other government, self-employed,
unemployed, retired, school or university, other
a
Reject H0 if p , 0.05.
b
“West” means CA, OR, WA, ID, MT, WY, UT, NV, AZ, NM, CO, ND, SD, TX, OK, KS, AK, and HI; “East” means all other states.
c
Reject H0 .
are mammals (40), fish (32), plants (19), reptiles (5), in- rate was almost certainly higher, perhaps exceeding the
vertebrates (4), amphibians (1), or microorganisms (0). 45% of U.S. citizens that exercise their right to vote (U.S.
Bureau of the Census 1996).
The franchised public is of special concern in policy
analysis, and it comprises about 69% of the U.S. popula-
Discussion
tion (Barone & Ujifusa 1995). The demographic profile
Survey Response of respondents indicates that they represent a larger pro-
portion of the franchised public than of the general pub-
Dillman (1978) noted that response rates for mail surveys lic, as expected in surveys pertaining to public policy.
are generally underestimated because numerous factors Respondents, however, were older and far more likely to
prevent surveyors from determining the availability or ex- be male than either the U.S. population or the franchised
istence of addressees. For example, nine notifications public. The older age of respondents may be a function of
were received by acquaintances of deceased addressees. retirees’ having more time to respond to surveys. A larger
Probably many more addresses were associated with de- proportion of males was expected because household
ceased people for whom no one was compelled to re- telephone numbers tend to be listed under male names.
spond—likewise for the severely ill. A percentage of mail The questionnaire was designed to minimize this dispro-
gets lost or damaged unbeknownst to the sender. Some portion by instructing the recipient to have the house-
addresses belong to noncitizens, whereas only U.S. citi- hold adult with the most recent birthday respond. Kel-
zens were asked to respond, and some respondents are lert (1987), however, found that males were more
temporarily unavailable due to travel. The actual response concerned about conserving wildlife species and habitat
Table 4. Paired t tests for differences in importance of factors used by the public to prioritize species for conservation. a
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
1108 Social Construction of Endangered Species Czech et al.
Birds, fish, mammals, and plants were in the top tier and
were valued higher than the other types of species. The
differences among birds, mammals, and plants were prac-
tically insignificant, whereas fish were valued slightly
lower. For the other types, the inconsistency between
the “rankings” derived from visual analog scaling and the
directly obtained ranks (Tables 1 & 2) may be a function
of the aforementioned weaknesses of ranking tests. Some
of the inconsistency may be associated with ambiva-
lence (i.e., once the top tier is taken care of, there is less
concern about the prioritization of bottom-tier species).
There is some evidence that, within the bottom tier, in-
vertebrates and microorganisms constitute a subtier of
lowest value.
It is important to distinguish between ambivalence
about the prioritization of bottom-tier species and am-
bivalence about the conservation of species therein. The
scaled data indicate that the public considered the con-
Figure 2. Comparison of public valuation of species servation of all types of species to be important, regard-
types to average federal and state expenditure for a less of how they were prioritized. Even the lowest-rated
species of each type. Public valuation data were pro- type of species (microorganisms) was rated at 52.05 (Ta-
portionally transformed to allow comparison. ble 1). In this respect, our results seem inconsistent with
Kellert’s (1996:41) bar graph portraying the negativistic
attitude as the third most prominent of the attitudes
than were females, who tended to be more concerned held by Americans toward nonhuman species. This may
about domestic animals and individual animal welfare. If indicate a shift in public attitude. Kellert’s primary data
that still holds, then males are predisposed to respond to were gathered in 1978 and have been occasionally sup-
a survey on endangered species and more likely to con- plemented with data from smaller and localized surveys
sider the topic in electoral decisions. Although our sur- (e.g., Kellert 1993). Our results are more consistent with
vey results may include a male bias in mathematical the claim of Murphy et al. (1994:1) that “We have
terms, they may effectively provide a better approxima- reached a pivotal moment in history, a time when public
tion of voter values to be considered in the endangered understanding and appreciation of biotic diversity is at
species political arena. In general, nonrespondents were an all-time high.”
probably less likely to have an opinion on species and Alternatively, Kellert’s method for ascribing the “nega-
conservation issues. tivistic” trait may not be consistent with negativism in
the vernacular. Kellert (1980:48) considered a survey re-
sult that “60% reported being afraid to touch a snake” as
Social Constructions of Species
reflecting the negativistic attitude, and Kellert (1993:
The visual analog scaling data were considered more im- 849) reported “an aversion to insects in the home” and
portant and useful than the ranked data, a priori. First, “a fear of stinging insects, spiders, and scorpions” as evi-
we assumed that some respondents would view the dence for a negativistic attitude. Most Americans, how-
ranking question as redundant and thus give a perfunc- ever, would probably consider such sentiments to be
tory answer, especially regarding the lower ranks of spe- natural and appropriate. We do not challenge the valid-
cies. Also, care is required to answer a ranking question ity of Kellert’s (1980) cluster analyses and subsequent
with more than just a few items because each group research, but perhaps “negativism” is a misnomer as ap-
must be considered simultaneously, whereas visual ana- plied to the cluster it describes. In fact, Kellert’s (1996:
log scaling allows for individually considered judgments. 25) description of the attitude allows for a “healthy dis-
Furthermore, because ranking can force a distinction be- tancing and even respect” of nonhuman species.
tween species that are viewed equally, the significance Hayward (1994:48) acknowledged that “values always
of rank differences is suspect. These characteristics of come socially mediated” but elaborated that “This need
ranked data help to explain the relatively low sample not mean taking the view, however, that values are a
size (n 5 510) available for testing. The ranking data purely social—and therefore contingent or conven-
should be perceived in terms of providing additional in- tional—construct. For society itself is a part of that non-
sight to the rating data. contingent reality we call nature. So which values get
Rating and ranking data nonetheless supported the constructed and how is unlikely to be arbitrary, even
conclusion that there are two distinct tiers of value. though the processes involved will be complex and not
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
Czech et al. Social Construction of Endangered Species 1109
always easy to discover.” In this case, the processes are level of 80 may have rated attractiveness at a level of 40,
not even complex: fear and respect are commonly not thinking that attractiveness was unimportant but
evoked by pain-inflicting species, dangerous species, that rarity was twice as important. The third explanation
and species that are difficult for the lay person to distin- is based on Kellert’s (1996:212) insight that aesthetic
guish from dangerous species (e.g., snakes in general). perspectives tend to be manifested emotionally and utili-
We consider such attitudes as rational and positive. Al- tarian perspectives tend to be “frequently expressed and
though truly negative—abusive or irrational—attitudes therefore learned as broad belief orientations,” whereas
may be encountered, our results suggest that the por- ecologistic perspectives are “cognitive,” or rational. Re-
trayal of “negativism” as a dominant theme in the Ameri- sponding to a questionnaire, like voting, is primarily a
can psyche is no longer appropriate. cognitive event, albeit influenced by emotional and sub-
The high rating of apparent ecological importance conscious factors.
among the factors used to evaluate species reflects an The public retains a strong symbolic attitude toward
ecologistic perspective in which the primary concern is species conservation, an ancient attitude interwoven with
“for the environment as a system, for interrelationships human evolution (Shepard 1978; Wilson 1984). The im-
between wildlife species and natural habitats” (Kellert portance ratings of cultural traits and intelligence support
1980:42). The fact that even the lower tier of species is this interpretation, as do the importance ratings of birds
considered important is further evidence for an ecologis- and mammals, which are the most symbolically important
tic perspective, as is the high rating of rarity. Despite Kel- species (Kellert 1996). The inclusion of fish and plants in
lert’s (1996:43) assertion derived from the past two de- the upper tier of species may also reflect a naturalistic
cades that, “The least frequently encountered values of perspective, which “often takes expression through . . .
nature are the dominionistic, scientific, and ecologistic,” birding, fishing, hunting, whalewatching, wildlife tour-
we believe the truth of that statement no longer applies ism, visiting zoos, and the like” (Kellert 1996:12).
to the ecologistic perspective. A bar chart presented by More important than determining which perspective
Kellert (1996:45) that covers the period from 1900 to is most reflected by the prioritization of top-tier species
1976 shows that the ecologistic perspective increased is to recognize that a number of otherwise conflicting
rapidly from the early 1940s on, and nothing indicates a perspectives converge to prioritize these species. The
reversal in that trend between 1976 and today. Our re- political empowerment availed by such convergence is
sults indicate a strong ecologistic element in the public considerable, and its reflection in policy should be ex-
view of species conservation, which is not surprising con- pected and employed by conservationists, especially
sidering the efforts at public education expended by envi- considering the umbrella qualities of large, wide-ranging
ronmental organizations since the 1960s. Perhaps the as- vertebrates. Nevertheless, the Endangered Species Act is
cendancy of the ecologistic perspective has usurped frequently criticized on the basis of taxonomic equity.
psychological territory once claimed by the negativistic The National Research Council (1995) noted that the act
perspective. fails to protect invertebrates and plants below the sub-
The clearly distinguished prioritization of birds, mam- species level of taxonomy but protects distinct popula-
mals, fish, and plants, on the other hand, may point to a tions of vertebrates. It judged that division to be arbi-
number of other perspectives. It could suggest an aes- trary in a technical sense, a position shared by Murphy
thetic perspective, which “stresses the ‘charismatic (1991). Similarly, Grumbine (1992:95) noted that “The
megavertebrates’”(Kellert 1996:15). It could also suggest a act plays taxonomic favorites, giving animals stronger
utilitarian perspective; birds, mammals, fish, and plants are protection than plants (section 9). This has no justifica-
harvested by many people. The data on factors of valua- tion in conservation biology.” We disagree with these
tion seemingly contradict both interpretations because authors from a biological perspective (Czech & Kraus-
physical attractiveness, body size, and monetary value con- man 1998), but more importantly, a holistic perspective
stitute a lower tier of evaluation factors. Such factors, how- that accounts for public preference and political reality
ever, have long been primary determinants of public pref- will be more productive in the policy arena and thus for
erence for species (Burghardt & Herzog 1980; Kellert species conservation.
1985), and it is unlikely that they have been discarded.
There are three likely explanations for the low scores
Construction and Power Dynamics and Allocation of Benefits
of physical attractiveness, body size, and monetary
value. First, people may consider it politically incorrect To employ Schneider and Ingram’s (1993) social construc-
to admit a preference based on appearance or monetary tion–political power matrix, the least arbitrary way to sep-
value because it is politically incorrect to discriminate arate species based on social construction is to include
among humans on the basis of race or class. Second, the birds, mammals, plants, and fish in the advantaged-depen-
low scores may not indicate unimportance as much as dent half. Reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and micro-
they reflect the importance of ecological factors. For ex- organisms comprise the contender-deviant half. Excep-
ample, a respondent who rated rarity at an importance tions may be common in either case (Fig. 3).
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
1110 Social Construction of Endangered Species Czech et al.
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
Czech et al. Social Construction of Endangered Species 1111
activity. Exceptional species from all categories may nomic activity—do not clearly favor any type of species.
qualify as contenders, but mammals probably constitute More important, expenditures have not reflected the pri-
the majority. Although mammals are represented by 25% ority system. In fact, Simon et al. (1995) concluded that,
(40/158) of the species-oriented NGOs, they also attract regardless of the priority system, spending was highest
political opposition; this is especially true of predators on birds, mammals, and fish—the advantaged species.
and rodents (Carrier & Czech 1996), which represent a
high proportion of endangered mammals.
The consistency with which the eight types of species Conclusion
accrue benefits from the Endangered Species Act as pre-
dicted by the social construction–political power matrix The social construction–political power matrix provides
is remarkable. When testudines are distinguished from a helpful tool for interpreting why certain types of spe-
other reptiles, only mammals do not receive benefits con- cies benefit disproportionately from the U.S. Endan-
sistent with the social construction–political power dy- gered Species Act and perhaps for developing political
namic, and that can be explained by the high number of strategies for species conservation. Conservationists that
mammalian exceptions that are better classified as con- are most concerned with contenders should help to con-
tenders. Advantaged species receive the most benefits by struct their subjects with a more positive valence,
far, and benefits to dependents and deviants are slight. whereas those that are most concerned with depen-
Of course, social construction and political power are dents may produce more benefits with direct political
correlated (r 5 0.799), and causality is certainly in- action. Those most concerned about the advantaged will
volved. Nevertheless, both are important and harbor dis- find abundant support for their agendas, whereas those
tinct implications. For example, an important ratio to concerned with deviants have a great deal of social and
consider is that of social construction to benefits. It is political work to do.
possible for a policy subject to obtain enough benefits
so as to evoke ill feelings among other stakeholders, as
when the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis cau-
rina) controversy erupted in the Northwest (Yaffee Acknowledgments
1994). When that happens, a species may lose status
from advantaged to contender, and benefits may sub- We thank T. Daniels, W. Shaw, and T. Brown for their
side. If a species receives few benefits, however, it may reviews of the questionnaire and P. Jones, M. Borgstrum,
reap proportionally higher benefits from each new polit- and R. Steidl for statistical advice. For fiscal support we
ical effort. As it moves from the dependent category to thank the U.S. Forest Service, the University of Arizona’s
the advantaged, or from the deviant to the contender, its School of Renewable Natural Resources, and the Univer-
benefits will increase. Assuming that is the case, and dis- sity of Arizona’s Agricultural Extension Service.
regarding umbrella effects, then those concerned with
the conservation of species in general may be most effi- Literature Cited
cient by focusing their political efforts on plants and am-
phibians. Ratios of public valuation (Table 1) to spend- Babbitt, B. 1995. Federal and state endangered species expenditures:
fiscal year 1993. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.
ing per species in thousands of dollars (Fig. 2) were 4.95
Barker, R. 1993. Saving all the parts: reconciling economics and the En-
for plants and 2.32 for amphibians. The ratio was 1.07 dangered Species Act. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
for invertebrates; all other types of species had ratios Barone, M., and G. Ujifusa. 1995. The almanac of American politics.
ranging from 0.08 to 0.19. National Journal, Washington, D.C.
Factors other than social construction and political Bender, M., editor. 1996. Box score: listings and recovery plans as of
October 31, 1996. Endangered Species Bulletin 21(6):28.
power may affect spending practices and effect spend-
Burghardt, G. M., and H. A. Herzog, Jr. 1980. Beyond conspecifics: is
ing discrepancies. For example, the logistics involved Brer Rabbit our brother? Bioscience 30:763–768.
with migratory fish research and the magnitude of as- Carrier, W. D., and B. Czech. 1996. Threatened and endangered wildlife
sessment and mitigation projects associated with salmon and livestock interactions. Pages 39–50 in P. R. Krausman, editor.
fisheries in the Pacific Northwest are formidable (Barker Rangeland wildlife. Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado.
Czech, B., and P. R. Krausman. 1998. The species concept, species pri-
1993). The expense entailed by these logistics provides
oritization, and the technical legitimacy of the Endangered Species
an alternative or supplemental explanation for the rela- Act. Renewable Resources Journal 16(1):17–21.
tive abundance of expenditures on fish. Dillman, D. A. 1978. Mail and telephone surveys. John Wiley and Sons,
But priorities established by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife New York.
Service for species recovery have had little influence on Gordon, R. E. 1996. Conservation directory. 41st edition. National
Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C.
the applicability of the social construction–political
Grumbine, R. E. 1992. Ghost bears: exploring the biodiversity crisis. Is-
power model. The factors used to prioritize species for land Press, Washington, D.C.
recovery—including degree of threat, recovery poten- Hayward, T. 1994. Ecological thought: an introduction. Polity Press,
tial, taxonomic distinctiveness, and conflict with eco- Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998
1112 Social Construction of Endangered Species Czech et al.
Kellert, S. R. 1980. Knowledge, affection and basic attitudes toward an- Salant, P., and D. A. Dillman. 1994. How to conduct your own survey.
imals in American society. Phase III results of grant # 14–16–0009– Wiley and Sons, New York.
77–056. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Schneider, A. L., and I. Ingram. 1993. Social construction of target pop-
Kellert, S. R. 1985. Social and perceptual factors in endangered species ulations: implications for politics and policy. American Political Sci-
management. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:528–536. ence Review 87:334–347.
Kellert, S. R. 1987. Attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors toward wild- Shepard, P. 1978. Thinking animals: animals and the development of
life as affected by gender. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15:363–371. human intelligence. Viking Press, New York.
Kellert, S. R. 1993. Values and perceptions of invertebrates. Conserva- Simon, B. M., C. S. Leff, and H. Doerksen. 1995. Allocating scarce re-
tion Biology 7:845–855. sources for endangered species recovery. Journal of Policy Analysis
Kellert, S. R. 1996. The value of life. Island Press, Washington, D.C. and Management 14:415–432.
Lineberry, R. L. 1980. Government in America: people, politics, and Soulé, M. E., and G. Lease. 1995. Reinventing nature? Responses to
policy. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. postmodern deconstruction. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Murphy, D. D. 1991. Invertebrate conservation. Pages 181–198 in K. A. Stanley, H. W., and R. G. Niemi. 1995. Vital statistics on American poli-
Kohm, editor. Balancing on the brink of extinction: the Endangered tics. Congressional Quarterly Press, Washington, D.C.
Species Act and lessons for the future. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Switzer, J. V. 1994. Environmental politics: domestic and global dimen-
Murphy, D. D., et al. 1994. On reauthorization of the Endangered Spe- sions. St. Martin’s Press, New York.
cies Act. Conservation Biology 8:1–3. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1996. Statistical abstract of the United
National Research Council. 1995. Science and the Endangered Species States: 1996. United States Government Printing Office, Washing-
Act. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. ton, D.C.
Neter, J., W. Wasserman, and M. H. Kutner. 1983. Applied linear re- Wilson, E. O. 1984. Biophilia, the human bond with other species. Har-
gression models. Irwin, Homewood, Illinois. vard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
O’Malley, A. F., project manager. 1995. Who’s who in Congress. Con- Yaffee, S. L. 1994. The wisdom of the Spotted Owl: policy lessons for a
gressional Quarterly, Washington, D.C. new century. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Rubin, H. J. 1983. Applied social research. Charles E. Merrill, Colum- Zar, J. H. 1996. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
bus, Ohio. River, New Jersey.
Conservation Biology
Volume 12, No. 5, October 1998