Chemistry Notes

Which is the most unreactive group of the periodic table and why?
Group 0 / group 8 The Noble Gases because they have a full outer shell of electr
ons and are therefore stable.
'Name 3 halogens
Chlorine, Fluorine and Iodine (also Astatine and bromine).
How many electrons do halogens have on their outer shell?

7
What charge do ions of group 6 have?

2- because they have to gain 2 electrons to have a full outer shell.
How many electrons does Cl have on its outer shell?

7
What is the mass of 0.25 moles of sulphur ions?

0.25 x 32 8g
How many moles is 6g of Magnesium?

6/24 0.25 mols
How many protons, neutrons and electrons in a Li atom?

Protons3 Neutrons4 Electrons3
compounds
Type Structure State Forces between molecules

Melting and boiling points Solubility in water
Conducts electricity? Examples
Covalent Molecular Liquids and Gases Weak
Low insoluble exceptions include HCl, Sugar, NH3
No H2O, O2, CH4
Ionic Giant lattice Solids Strong
High Soluble
When molten (melted) and when dissolved in water. CaO, NaCl, MgO
Properties of giant and molecular structures

Giant Structures
* Strong bonds throughout structure
* Unreactive
* High melting points because the strong covalent bonds extend throughout th
e compound
* Does not conduct electricity except graphite
* eg NaCl, MgO, diamond, SiO2 (silicon dioxide).
Molecular structures
* Strong bonds within the molecules but have weak bonds between therefore lo
w melting points.
* Gases and liquids
* Unreactive
* eg H2, O2, CO2, ethanol C2H6
Classifying Materials
Solids
* strong forces of attraction
* molecules in fixed positions
* don’t move from their positions-definite state and volume
* vibrate about their positions-the hotter the solid becomes the more they v
ibrate, this causes the solid to expand slightly when heated
* can’t be compressed
* generally very dense
Liquids
* some force of attraction between molecules
* free to move past each other but tend to stick together
* don’t keep a definite shape but do keep a definite volume
* molecules are constantly moving, the hotter the liquid the faster they mov
e causing the liquid to expand slightly when heated
* can’t be compressed
* generally quite dense
Gases
* no forces of attraction
* free to move and only interact with each other when they collide
* don’t keep a definite shape or volume and will always expand to fill any con
tainer
* molecules constantly moving, the hotter the has becomes the faster they mo
ve causing the gas to expand or exert more pressure on the container
* can be compressed
* very low density
Melting
* when a solid is heated the heat energy goes to the molecules
* making them vibrate more and more
* eventually the strong forces of attraction are overcome and the molecules
start to move around
Evaporation
* when a liquid is heated the heat energy goes to the molecules and makes th
em move faster
* some molecules move faster than others
* fast-moving molecules at the surface will overcome the forces of attractio
n from the other molecules and escape
Boiling
* when the liquid gets hot enough virtually all the molecules have enough sp
eed and energy to overcome the forces and escape each other
* at this point big bubbles of gas form inside the liquid as the molecules b
reak away from each other
Temperature is constant during changes of state (e.g. melting or boiling).
When a substance is melting or boiling all the heat energy supplied is used for
breaking bonds rather than raising the temperature.
During freezing as the molecules fuse into a solid heat is given out as the bond
s form so the temperature won’t go down until all the substance has turned to soli
d.
Atoms
PARTICLE MASS CHARGE
Neutron 1 0
Proton 1 +1
Electron 1/2000 -1
The Mass Number - total number of protons and neutrons The Atomic Number - numbe
r or protons
Isotopes
Different atomic forms of the same element which have the same number of protons
and a different number of neutrons
Ionic Bonding
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions which are then strongly attracted to o
ne another.
Ionic Substances
* ionic bonds always produce giant ionic substances
* the ions form a closely packed regular lattice arrangement
* there are very strong ionic bonds between the all the oppositely charged a
toms
* they have high melting points and high boiling points
* dissolve to form solutions that conduct electricity
* when dissolved the ions separate and are all free to move so they carry el
ectric current
* conduct electricity when molten
Covalent Structures
Simple Molecular Substances
* the atoms from very strong covalent bonds creating small molecules of seve
ral atoms (strong intramolecular forces)
* however the forces of attraction between these molecules are very weak (we
ak intermolecular forces)
* the melting and boiling points are very low because the molecules are easi
ly parted from each other
* most are gases and liquids at room temperature
* don’t usually dissolve in water
Giant Covalent Structures

* all the atoms are bonded to each other by strong covalent bonds
* very high melting and boiling points
* don’t conduct electricity
* insoluble in water
Diamond: each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds, has only covalent bonds whi
ch are very, very strong
Graphite: each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds creating layers which
are free to move over each other and leaving free electrons so it is the only n
on-metal which conducts electricity
Metallic Structures
* also consists of a giant structure
* have free electrons which produce all the properties of metals
* these conduct heat and electricity
* hold the atoms together in a regular structure
* also allow the atoms to slide over each other causing metals to be malleab
le
Common Tests
1. Chlorine bleaches damp litmus paper
2. Oxygen relights a glowing splint
3. Carbon Dioxide turns limewater milky
4. Water- has a boiling point of 100°C, turns whit anhydrous copper sulphate to
blue hydrated copper sulphate, turns anhydrous cobalt chloride paper from blue
to pink
5. Hydrogen- makes a lighted splint give off a squeaky pop
Earth Materials
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
* crude oil is a fossil fuel formed from the buried remains of plants and an
imals
* crude oil provides the fuel for most modern transport
* crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons of different sized molecules
* the bigger and longer the molecules the less runny the hydrocarbon is
* fractional distillation splits crude oil up into its separate fractions
* the shorter the molecules the lower the temperature at which that fraction
condenses
General Practitioners Never Know Death Or Birth

Gas, Petrol, Naphtha, Kerosene, Diesel, Oil, Bitumen
Hydrocarbons
As the size of the molecule increases:
* the boiling point increases
* it becomes less flammable
* it gets more viscous (doesn’t flow so easily)
* it gets less volatile (doesn’t evaporate so easily)
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
* hydrocarbons are often used as fuels because they burn well
* the complete combustion of any hydrocarbon in oxygen will produce only car
bon dioxide and water as waste products which are both quite clean and non-poiso
nous
* when there’s plenty of oxygen the gas burns with a clean blue flame
* if there isn’t enough oxygen incomplete combustion gives carbon monoxide and
carbon as waste products
* a smoky yellow flame is an indicator of insufficient combustion
Cracking Hydrocarbons
* cracking is the splitting up of long chain hydrocarbons
* long chain hydrocarbons like tar aren’t very useful so they are cracked to b
ecome shorter molecules that are more useful
* cracking is a form of thermal decomposition which just means breaking mole
cules down into simpler molecules by heating them
* cracking also produces extra alkenes that are needed to make plastics
Industrial Conditions for Cracking

* vaporised hydrocarbons are passed over a powdered catalyst at about 400-70
0°C
* the catalyst used is aluminium oxide
* the long chain molecules split apart or crack on the surface of the bits o
f catalyst
Alkanes
* have single bonds
* called saturated hydrocarbons because they have no spare bonds left
* this is why they don’t decolourise bromine water because they do not form bo
nds with the bromide ions
* they won’t form polymers-no spare bonds
* burn cleanly producing carbon dioxide and water
* Methane - CH4
* Ethane - C2H6
* Propane - C3H8
* Butane - C4H10
Alkenes
* have double bonds
* called unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have one spare bond left
* they decolourise bromine water
* form polymers by opening up their double bonds
* tend to burn with a smoky flame producing soot (carbon)
* Ethene - C2H4
* Propene - C3H6
* Butene - C4H8
Polymers and Plastics

* under pressure and with a catalyst polymerisation occurs
* many small ethenes form polyethene
Uses of Plastics
* Polythene
* very cheap and strong
* easily moulded
Polypropene
* forms strong fibres
* has high elasticity
Polystyrene
* cheap and easily moulded
* can be expanded into foam
PVC
* cheap and easily moulded
* can be expanded into foam
Most plastics aren’t biodegradable-they’re not broken down by micro-organisms so the

y don’t rot so it’s best to recycle plastics.
Metal Ores from the Ground
* a rock is a mixture of minerals
* a mineral is any solid element or compound found naturally in the Earth’s cr
ust
* a metal ore is defined as a mineral or minerals which contain enough metal
in them to make it worthwhile extracting metal
* metals are extracted from ores using carbon or electrolysis
* Iron ore is Haematite which is Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
* Aluminium ore is Bauxite which is aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
* Copper ore is Malachite which is copper (II) carbonate (CUCO3)
* iron is extracted by chemical reduction using carbon or carbon monoxide
* aluminium is extracted by electrolysis
* gold is one of the few metals that is found as a pure metal rather than in
an ore
* the more reactive a metal is the harder they are to extract from their ore
s
Reduction or Electrolysis
* metals higher than carbon in the reactivity series have to be extracted us
ing electrolysis
* metals below carbon in the reactivity series have to be extracted by reduc
tion using carbon
Extracting Iron: The Blast Furnace

* raw materials: iron ore, coke and limestone
* coke is almost pure carbon, this is for reducing the iron oxide to iron me
tal
* limestone takes away the impurities in the form of slag
* hot air is blasted into the furnace making the coke burn much faster than
normal
* the coke burns and produces carbon dioxide (carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
)
* the carbon dioxide then reacts with the unburnt coke to form carbon monoxi
de (carbon dioxide + carbon → carbon monoxide)
* the carbon monoxide then reduces the iron ore to iron (carbon monoxide + i
ron oxide → carbon dioxide + iron)
* the main impurity is sand which stays solid even at the high temperature,
this is removed by limestone
* the limestone is decomposed by the heat into calcium oxide and carbon diox
ide (limestone → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide)
* the calcium oxide then reacts with the sand to form slag which is molten (
calcium oxide + silicon dioxide (sand) → molten slag
* the cooled slag is solid and is used for road building and fertiliser
Extracting Aluminium: Electrolysis

* bauxite is mined and purified to leave a white powder
* this is pure aluminium oxide which has a very high melting point of over 2
000°C
* for electrolysis to work a molten state is required but heating to this te
mperature would be far too expensive
* instead the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (a less common
ore of aluminium)
* this bring s the temperature required down to 900°C which is much cheaper an
d easier
* the electrodes are made of graphite
* the graphite anode needs replacing quite often because it keeps reacting t
o form carbon dioxide
* when the aluminium oxide is molten the positive aluminium ions are free to
move and are attracted to the cathode
* they pick up electrons and turn into aluminium atoms, these sink to the bo
ttom and flow out
* this is a REDOX reaction
Purifying Copper by Electrolysis

* copper is very unreactive and is extracted from its ore by reduction with
carbon
* in a solution containing copper ions a cathode of pure copper and an anode
of impure copper
Uses of Iron
* iron is cheap and strong
* however it is also heavy and prone to rusting
* iron is made into steel
* iron and steel are used for construction
* cars, lorries, trains and boats but not planes
* stainless steal doesn’t rust and is used for pans and for fixtures on boats
Uses of Aluminium
* has a low density, is strong and resistant to corrosion
* malleable
* doesn’t corrode due to the protective layer of oxide which always quickly co
vers it
* a good conductor of heat and electricity
* not as strong as steel and more expensive
* used for ladder, aeroplanes, car body panels, cans, window frames and big
power cables
Uses of Copper
* good conductor, easily bent and doesn’t corrode
* ideal for water and gas shapes-can be bent by hand
* wires-easily bent around corners and very good conductor
* forms useful non-corroding allows such as brass and bronze
* quite expensive and not strong
Limestone
Building Material
* great for making into blocks for building with although acid rain can be a
problem
* used for carving-statues and patterns
* crushed up into chippings and used for road surfacing
Neutralising Acid in lakes and soil
* ground into a powder can be used to neutralise acidity in lakes and soil c
aused by acid rain
* works better and faster if turned into slaked lime first
Slaked Lime
* heating the limestone (calcium carbonate) forms calcium oxide
* calcium oxide reacts violently with water to produce slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide)
Cement
* clay contains aluminium and silicates and is dug out of the ground
* powdered clay and powdered limestone are heated in a rotating kiln to prod
uce a complex mixture called cement
* when cement is mixed with water a slow chemical reaction takes place
* this causes the cement to gradually set hard
* cement is mixed with sand and chippings to make concrete
* concrete is a very quick and cheap way of constructing buildings
Glass
* heating up limestone and sand and soda until they melt forms glass when co
oled
Making Ammonia: The Haber Process

* nitrogen and hydrogen are needed to make ammonia
* nitrogen is easily obtained from the air
* hydrogen is obtained from water (steam) and natural gas (methane)
* steam (H2O) + methane (CH4) → carbon dioxide (CO2) + hydrogen (3H2)
* hydrogen can also be obtained from crude oil
* the Haber Process is a reversible reaction
* N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
* the forward reaction is exothermic and the change in energy is negative
* the proportion of ammonia at equilibrium can only be increased by lowering
the temperature.
* instead they raise the temperature and accept a reduced yield of ammonia
* the reason is that the higher temperature gives a much higher rate of reac
tion
* it is better to wait 20 seconds for a 10% yield than to wait 60 seconds fo
r a 20% yield.
* the unused hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled so nothing is wasted
* the higher the pressure the more ammonia produced however this would be ve
ry expensive so they use 200-250 atmospheres
* 450°C is a temperature compromise
* the catalyst is iron
Using Ammonia to make Fertilisers

* ammonia gas reacts with oxygen over a hot platinum catalyst to form nitrog
en monoxide
* 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
* the nitrogen monoxide then reacts with water and oxygen to form Nitric Aci
d
* 6NO + 3O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3 + 2NO
* nitric acid can be used to make ammonium nitrate fertiliser
* this is a straightforward reaction between an alkali and an acid giving a
neutral salt
* ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
* this is a good fertiliser because plants need nitrogen to make proteins
=Problems with excessive use of Nitrate Fertiliser
* can cause eutrophication
* if too many nitrates get into drinking water it can cause health problems
as nitrates prevent the blood from carrying oxygen (children can turn blue and d
ie)
* artificial nitrate fertilisers should be applied sparingly and not when it’s
about to rain
Equations
Nine types of Chemical Change
* Thermal Decomposition- when a substance breaks down into simple substances
when heated, often with the help of a catalyst
* Neutralisation- acid + alkali → salt + water
* Displacement- when a more reactive element reacts with a compound and push
es out a less reactive element
* Precipitation- when two solutions react and a solid form in the solution a
nd sinks, the solid is said to precipitate out and is therefore called the preci
pitate
* Oxidation- the addition of oxygen but the general definition is the loss o
f electrons
* Reduction- the loss of oxygen and the gain of electrons
* Exothermic Reactions- these give out energy as heat
* Endothermic Reactions- these take in energy as heat, heat is needed to bre
ak chemical bonds
* Reversible Reactions- reactions that go both ways at the same time
Electrolysis and the Half Equations

* requires a liquid called the electrolyte which will conduct electricity
* these are usually free ions dissolved in water
* it’s the free ions which conduct the electricity
Percentage mass of an element = Ar x No of atoms (of that element) x 100 in a co
mpound Mr (of whole compound)
Calculating Volumes
Volume of Gas (in cm3) = Mass of Gas 24 000 Mr of Gas
Electrolysis Calculations
* treat the two products each as one side of a usual equation
* then use the usual calculations
One mole of atoms or molecules of any substance will have a mass in grams equal
to the Relative Formula Mass (Ar of Mr) for that substance
e.g. Carbon has an Ar of 12 so one mole of carbon weighs 12g Carbon Dioxide has
an Mr of 44 so one mole of carbon dioxide will weigh 44g
Number of Moles = Mass in g Mr A one molar solution will contain one mole of an
element or compound per litre
Number of Moles in a Given Volume = Volume in Litres x Molarity
Air and Rock
The Evolution of the Atmosphere

Phase 1
* the earth’s surface was originally molten for many millions of years
* eventually it cooled and a thin crust formed, but volcanoes kept erupting
* they mainly gave out carbon dioxide but also steam, ammonia and methane
* the early atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water
vapour
* there was virtually no oxygen
* the water vapour condensed to form the ocean
Phase 2
* green plants evolved over most of the earth
* a lot of the early carbon dioxide dissolved into the ocean
* the green plants steadily removed carbon dioxide and produced oxygen by ph
otosynthesis
* much of the carbon dioxide from the air became locked up in fossil fuels a
nd sedimentary rock
* methane and ammonia reacted with the oxygen releasing nitrogen gas
* ammonia was also converted into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
* nitrogen gas was also released by living organisms like denitrifying bacte
ria
Phase 3
* the build up of oxygen in the atmosphere killed off early organisms that c
ouldn’t tolerate it
* it also enabled the evolution of more complex organisms that made use of t
he oxygen
* the oxygen also created the ozone layer (O3) which blocked harmful rays fr
om the sun and enabled even more complex organisms to survive
* there is virtually no carbon dioxide left now
Today’s Atmosphere
* 78% Nitrogen
* 21% Oxygen
* 0.04% Carbon Dioxide
* 1% Noble Gases (mainly Argon)
Finding the Percentage of Oxygen in the Air

* measure the initial volume of the air
* then push it back and forth over the heated copper
* when no more copper is turning black let it cool
* measure the amount of air left
* calculate the percentage
The Carbon Cycle
* one arrow going down-photosynthesis
* both plant and animal respiration return carbon dioxide to the air
* plants convert the carbon in the air into fats, carbohydrates and proteins
* these can be eaten, decay or be turned into useful products by people
* these plant and animal products ultimately decay or are burned and carbon
dioxide is released
* animals also form shells which are eventually washed into the sea, these f
orm limestone and chalk which when heated produce carbon dioxide
Acid Rain
* when fossil fuels are burned they mostly release carbon dioxide
* they also release sulphur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides-which are bo
th harmful
* when these gases mix with clouds they form sulphuric acid and nitric acid
* this then falls as acid rain
* acid rain causes lakes to become acidic killing aquatic plants and animals
* it also kills trees and damages limestone and stone statues
The Greenhouse Effect

* this is causing the Earth to warm up very slowly
* it is mainly caused by an increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the a
tmosphere
* the carbon dioxide traps the heat that reaches the Earth from the sun
* this causes a change in climate
* it could possibly induce flooding and the melting of polar ice caps
The Ozone Layer

* ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms, O3
* there’s a layer of ozone high up in the atmosphere
* it absorbs harmful UV rays from the sun
* CFC gases react with ozone molecules and break them up
* the thinning of the ozone layer allows harmful UV rays to reach the surfac
e of the earth
* CFCs are from aerosols
Rocks
* particles get washed to the sea and settle as sediment
* over millions of years these sediments get crushed into sedimentary rocks
* at first they get buried but they can either rise to the surface again to
be discovered or can descend into the heat and pressure below
* at first they get buried but they can either rise to the surface again to
be discovered or can descend into the heat and pressure below
* if they descend the heat and pressure alters their structure and they beco
me metamorphic rocks
* these metamorphic rocks can either rise to the surface and be discovered o
r descend further and melt to become magma
* when magma reaches the surface it cools and sets and is called an igneous
rock
* extrusive igneous rocks cool above the surface
* intrusive igneous rocks cool below the surface
Metamorphic Rocks
* Slate: formed from mudstone or clay, thin sheets that are ideal roofing ma
terial
* Marble: formed from limestone, decorative stone
* Schist: formed from very hot mudstone
Igneous Rocks
* Granite: an intrusive igneous rock with big crystals because it cools slow
ly, very hard and decorative
* Basalt: an extrusive igneous rock with small crystals because it cools qui
ckly
Sedimentary Rocks
* only sedimentary rocks contain fossils
* fossils are a useful way of identifying rocks of the same age
* sandstone, limestone and mudstone are all sedimentary rocks
* Sandstone: commonly used for buildings
* Limestone: formed from seashells
Weathering
* the process of breaking rocks up
Physical Weathering
* rain water seeps into cracks in rocks
* if it gets very cold the water turns to ice and the expansion pushes the r
ocks apart
* eventually bits of rock breaks up as the water keeps thawing and refreezin
g
Chemical Weathering
* caused by acidic rain on limestone
* limestone will react with the acid and just dissolve away
Biological Weathering
* plants push their roots through cracks in rocks
* as the roots grow they gradually push the rocks apart
Erosion and Transport
* the wearing away of exposed rocks by any means
* transport is the process of carrying away of the rock fragments
The Water Cycle

1. Water evaporates off the sea
2. Water transpires from plants
3. It turns to clouds and falls as rain
4. Then it runs back to the sea
Periodic Trends
History of the Periodic Table
* Newlands’ Octaves
o noticed that every eighth element had similar properties
o left no gaps in his work so it was ignored.
* Dmitri Mendeleev
o arranged them in order of atomic mass
o left gaps in order to keep elements with the same properties in vert
ical groups
o the gaps predicted the properties of unknown elements
The inner electron shells provide shielding so that the further away the outer e
lectron shell is from the nucleus the more shielded it is from the attraction.
Group 0 – The Noble Gases

* all colourless, monatomic gases
* helium- has a very low density and won’t set on fire like Hydrogen does, use
d in airships and party balloons
* neon- when current is passed through it gives out a bright light
* argon- used in light bulbs-stops the hot filament from burning away
* all three are used in lasers too
As you go down the Group:
* the density increases (because the atomic mass increases)
* the boiling point increases
Group 1 – The Alkali Metals

* very reactive-have to be stored in oil because they would react with air o
r water, handled with forceps because they would burn the skin
* cut easily, they’re shiny when freshly cut but soon go dull as they react wi
th the air
* have low density-they all float
* become bigger atoms (extra electron shells)
* become more reactive because the outer electron is less easily lost
* have a higher density (greater atomic mass)
* become softer to cut
* have a lower melting point
* have a lower boiling point
Reactions of the Alkali Metals

* when lithium, sodium or potassium are put in water they react very vigorou
sly
* they move around the surface fizzing furiously
* they produce hydrogen
* potassium gets hot enough to ignite it
* sodium and potassium melt in the heat of the reaction
* the form a hydroxide in solution
* they react with acids to form neutral salts
* all alkali metal compound are ionic so they form crystals like salt
* they also dissolve easily
Group VII – The Halogens
* all non-metals with colour vapours
* fluorine-very reactive, poisonous, yellow gas
* chlorine- fairly reactive, poisonous dense green gas
* bromine- dense, poisonous, red-brown volatile liquid
* iodine- dark grey crystalline solid or purple vapour
* all form diatomic molecules
* do both covalent and ionic bonding
* must always use a fume cupboard when using them
* become bigger atoms
* become less reactive
* become darker in colour
* go from gas to solid
* have a higher melting point
* have a higher boiling point
Reactions of the Halogens
* the halogens react with metals to form salts
* more reactive halogens will displace less reactive ones
* halogens reaction with hydrogen
* hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid
* HCl → H+ + Cl-
* the hydrogen ions make it acidic
* hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide also dissolve easily to form strong a
cids
Industrial Salt
* hot countries obtain salt by pouring sea water into a big, flat open tank
and letting the sun evaporate the water to leave salt
* this does not work in cold countries because there is not enough sunshine
* in Britain, salt is extracted from underground mines especially in Cheshir
e
* this is called Rock salt and is a mixture of mainly sand and salt
* rock salt is used for de-icing roads-the salt melts the ice by lowering th
e freezing point of water to around -5°C
* when rock salt is filtered to give pure salt it is added to foods to enhan
ce the flavour
Electrolysis of Brine
* salt dissolved in water is called brine
* when concentrated brine is electrolysed it gives three useful products:
* hydrogen gas is given off at the cathode
* chlorine gas is given off at the anode
* sodium hydroxide is left in solution
* Chlorine: used in bleach and for sterilising water

* Hydrogen: used in the Haber Process to make ammonia
* Sodium Hydroxide: used for soap and oven cleaner
Uses Of Halogens
* Fluorine
o can be added to drinking water and toothpastes to help prevent tooth
decay
* Chlorine
o used in bleach
o used for sterilising water
o used to kill germs in swimming pools
* Iodine
o used as an antiseptic
* Silver Halides
o silver is very unreactive
o it form halides but they’re very easily split up
o visible light has enough energy to do so
o photographic film is covered with colourless silver bromide
o when light hits it the silver bromide splits up into silver and brom
ine
o the silver metal appears black, the brighter the light the darker it
goes
o this produces a negative
Acids and Alkalis

* acids are substances which form H+ ions when added to water
* alkalis are substances which form OH- ions when added to water
* acid + alkali → salt + water
* indigestion is caused by too much hydrochloric acid in the stomach so indi
gestion tablets contains alkalis which neutralise the excess acid
* fields with acidic soils are improved by adding lime which is an alkali
* lakes affected by acid rain can also be neutralised by adding lime
Acids reacting with Metals

* acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
* the more reactive a metal the faster it will react
* any metal that is more reactive than hydrogen will react with acid
Acids with Oxides and Hydroxides

* some metal oxides and hydroxides dissolve in water to produce alkali solut
ions
* they react with acids to form a salt and water because they are alkali
* acid + metal oxide → salt + water
* acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
Non-metal oxides
* the oxides of non-metals are usually acidic
* carbon dioxide
* sulphur dioxide
* nitrogen dioxide
Acids with Carbonates

* acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
* acid + hydrogencarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Acids with Ammonia

* dilute acid + ammonia → ammonium salt
Metals
* all conduct electricity
* all good conductors of heat
* are strong but also bendy and malleable
* shiny (when freshly cut or polished)
* all have high melting and boiling points
* can be mixed together to form useful alloys
* steel is an allow of iron and about 1% carbon-it is much less brittle than
iron
* bronze is an alloy of copper and tin-it is harder than copper but still ea
sily shaped
Reacting Metals with Water

* if a metal reacts with water it will always release hydrogen
* the more reactive metals react with cold water to form hydroxides
* the less reactive metals don’t react quickly with water but will react with
steam to form oxides
* the upper third of the reactivity series will react with cold water
* the middle third of the reactivity series will react with steam
* the upper third of the reactivity series won’t react with water or steam
Transition Metals
* high melting points and high density
* good conductors of electricity
* very dense, strong and shiny
* transition metals and their compounds all make good catalysts
* iron is used in the Haber Process
8their compounds are very colourful
Non-Metals
* either dull, brittle solids or gases (excepting bromine which is liquid)
* poor conductors of heat
* don’t conduct electricity
Reaction Rates
* the speed of a reaction can be observed either by how quickly the reactant
s are used up or by how quickly the products are forming
* there are three different ways the speed of a reaction can be measured:
* Precipitation- when the product of a reaction is a precipitate which cloud
s the solution, observe a marker through the solution and measure how long it ta
kes for it to disappear
* Change in mass- any reaction that produces a gas can be carried out on a m
ass balance and as the gas is released the mass disappearing is easily measured
* The volume of gas given off- this involves the use of a gas syringe to mea
sure the volume of gas given off
* depends on the temperature, concentration, catalyst and surface area of pa
rticles
Collision Theory
* the rate of a reaction depends on how often and how hard the reacting part
icles collide with each other
* temperature increases the number of collisions because the particles have
more energy and therefore move more quickly
* concentration (or pressure) increases the number of collisions-the more pa
rticles of reactant the more collisions happen, increased pressure means smaller
space so more collisions
* surface area increases collisions-the larger the surface area to collide w
ith the more successful collisions
* a catalyst increases the number of successful collisions by providing a su
rface for the reacting particles to stick to where they can bump into each other
Catalysts
* a substance which increases the speed of a reaction without being changed
or used up in the reaction
* catalysts lower the activation energy of reactions making it easier for th
em to happen
* this means a lower temperature can be used
* catalysts work best when they have a big surface area
* catalysts help to reduce the cost in many industrial reactions simply beca
use the plant does not need to operate for as long to produce the same amount of
stuff
* a platinum catalyst is used in the production of nitric acid
Enzymes
* living things produce enzymes which act as catalysts to speed up chemical
reactions without the need for high temperatures
* enzymes are used in biological washing powders
* dishwasher powders
* treatment of leather
* enzymes stop working by 0°C and this is why things are refrigerated
Use of Enzymes
Fermentation of Beer and Wine
* yeast cells convert sugar into carbon dioxide and alcohol
* they do this using the enzyme ZYMASE
Fermentation: Bread-making
* yeast cells use the enzyme zymase to break down sugar and produce gas thro
ughout the mixture
Yoghurt and Cheese-making
* milk is mixed with specially grown cultures of bacteria
* various bacterial enzymes can be used in cheese making to produce differen
t textures and tastes
Biological Detergents
* enzymes are the “biological” ingredients in washing powders
* they’re protease and lipase which digest the stains
Simple Reversible Reactions
* e.g. the thermal decomposition of ammonium chloride-heated to make ammonia
gas and hydrochloric gas but when these cool they become ammonium chloride agai
n
* e.g. the thermal decomposition of iodine crystals-they will turn into a pu
rple vapour and then reform as grey crystals when they cool
* e.g. the thermal decomposition of hydrated copper sulphate-when heated the
water evaporates and they become white anhydrous copper sulphate powder but if
you add a couple of drops of water the blue crystals reappear
Equilibrium
* if a reversible reaction takes place in a closed system then a state of eq
uilibrium will always be reached
* a dynamic equilibrium is one in which the reactions are still taking place
in both directions but the effect is nothing because they are taking place at e
xactly the same rate in both directions
* the position of equilibrium depends very strongly on the temperature and p
ressure surrounding the reaction
* if we alter the temperature and pressure we can move the position of equil
ibrium to give more product and less reactants
* all reactions are exothermic in one direction and endothermic in another
* if we increase the temperature the endothermic reaction will increase to u
se up the extra heat
* if we decrease the temperature the exothermic reaction will increase to gi
ve out more heat
* many reactions have a greater volume on one side, either of products or re
actants
* if we raise the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produces les
s volume
* if we lower the pressure it will encourage the reaction which produces mor
e volume
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If you change the conditions the position of equilibrium will shift to oppose th
e change.
The Haber Process

* change in energy is negative
* the forward reaction is exothermic
Energy Transfer in Reactions
* an endothermic reaction is one which takes in energy from the surroundings
usually in the form of heat and usually shown by a fall in temperature
* photosynthesis is endothermic
* thermal decomposition is endothermic
* an exothermic reaction is one which gives out heat to the surroundings usu
ally in the form of heat and usually shown by a rise in temperature
* burning fuels is exothermic
* neutralisation reactions are exothermic
* energy must always be supplied to break bonds
* energy is always released when bond form
* bond breaking-endothermic
* bond forming-exothermic
* in an endothermic reaction the energy needed to break the bonds is greater
than the energy released when new bonds are formed
* in an exothermic reaction the energy released in bond formation is greater
than the energy used in breaking bonds
Energy Level Diagrams

Exothermic Reactions
* in exothermic reactions the energy change is negative
* the products are at a lower energy than the reactants
Endothermic Reactions
* in endothermic reactions the energy change is positive
* the products are higher than the reactants
Bond Energy Calculations

* break the bonds on the left hand side
* form the bonds on the right hand side
* take away the right hand side from the left hand side to find the change i
n energy
* a negative change is exothermic
* a positive change is endothermic
11.1 Homologous series

11.1.1
A homologous series is a set of compounds whose components differ by a single re
peating functional group. In the case of (straight chain) alkanes, CH2, and thei
r general formula is CnH2n+2.
11.1.2
The boiling points of alkanes increase as the chains get longer (increased numbe
r of electrons --> increased van de Waal s forces), increasing rapidly initially
but flattening off (since the number of additional CH2 units required to double
the chain length increases rapidly, so it flattens off - or you could just beli
eve it)
(missing image/diagram)
11.2 Hydrocarbons
11.2.1
Basically, each will have a CH3 group at either end (except methane has only one
CH4) and fill out the required number of CH2 groups.
11.2.2
Names:
* Methane,
* ethane,
* propane,
* butane,
* pentane,
* hexane.
11.2.3
Basically, move the groups around to make branches, C1 should have 1, C2 has 1,
C3 has 1, C4 has 2, C5 has 3.
11.2.4
These structures will be the same as 11.2.1, except two hydrogens on adjacent ca
rbons are replaced by a double bond between those hydrogens.
11.2.5
Complete combustion produces CO2 and H2O, incomplete combustion produces CO, C a
nd H2O (usually occurs with saturated alkanes, where there is a lot of hydrogen,
or where there is a limited supply of oxygen). C produces a dirty flame leavi
ng carbon deposits on everything, CO is toxic and CO2 is a greenhouse gas. Incom
plete combustion is where the carbon is not completely oxidised.
11.2.6
The combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process (otherwise there wouldn
t be much point in burning them would there...). This is a result of the fact th
at the O-H bond is stronger than the C-H bond, and the C=O bond is stronger than
the C-C. This means that, the C-C and C-H bonds breaking requires energy, but t
his is more than made up for by the energy released by the formation of the C=O
and O-H bonds.
11.3 Other functional groups

11.3.1 : Functional groups
* Alkanal - RCHO (with a double bonded O coming off the C (aldehyde)...but i

t can be moved along the chain -> keytone). Naming - (aldehyde) end in al - ie e
thanal. (keytone) end in one - ie enthanone.
* Alkanoic acid - R-COOH Naming - end in oic acid - ie ethanoic acid (common
ly called carboxilic acid)
* Alkanol - R-OH. Naming - end in ol - ie ethanol.
* Amide - RCOONH2 Naming - end in amide - ie ethylamide.
* Amine - R-NH2 The two hydrogens on the N can be replaced by R groups to gi
ve primary, secondary and tertiary structures). Naming - end in amine - ie ethyl
amine.
* Ester - R-COO-OR. Naming...Think of it like an alkanoic acid with a carbon
chain rather than a H...the alkanoic acid type bit is ...oate this is preceded
by the stem of the other half - ie Ethyl ethanoate.
* Halogenoalkane - R-X. Naming - name of halogen (fluro, chloro, bromo, iodo
) followed by R name - ie Chloroethane.
11.3.2
Functional groups can actually be isomers (though their properties are not gener
ally similar). For example ethanoic acid and methyl methanoate are isomers (CH3C
OOH vs HCOOCH3).
11.3.3
Optical isomers result if a carbon atom has 4 different groups on each bond. If
this is the case, the compound exists in 2 entantiomeric forms (ie optical isome
rs). In general they react very similarly except in the presence of other optica
l isomers (also known a chiral molecules -- the chiral center is the carbon atom
with 4 different groups). The two enantiomers are mirror images of each other w
hich cannot be superimposed on each other. Biological systems commonly have a st
rong preference for one enantiomer over the other ( one can be bitter, the other
sweet for example ). The isomers can be identified by their effect on polarised
light(by a polarimeter)...when polarised light passes through one isomer it wil
l be rotated to the left, while the other will rotate to the right.
11.3.4
O-H groups create hydrogen bonding (alcohols, alkanoic acids) -> less volatile a
nd also solubility (long chain molecules become less soluble since the non-polar
chain dominates the molecule).
C=O bonds in Alkanoic acids, Alkanals -> polar bond...dipole forces...higher bp
(more significant in small molecules). Small molecules are soluble due to polari
ty (effect decreases with long chains).
Esters...no Hydrogen bonding -> very volatile, low BP. Polar molecules, therefor
e short are soluble in water.
Amides...N-H bond is polar with extensive hydrogen bonding -> highly soluble and
all molecules have higher BP than alkanes.
Amines...Hydrogen bonding present in Primary and secondary -> soluble (when shor
t) and higher than alkane boiling points. Tertiary amines are very similar to al
kanals (but branched -> less dense packing etc).
Halogenoalkanes...short molecules will be soluble due to polar bonds, BP will be
somewhat higher
Acid Base properties...Alkanoic (carboxilic) acids are, obviously, acidic. Alcoh
ols are generally not due to the donating effect of the R group. Amines are deri
vatives of ammonia, and so are basic (though stronger due to the donating effect
of the R groups). Amides are not due to withdrawing effect of the C=O group. Th
e others, in general, are neutral (however alkanols can, in acidic conditions ac
t as a base and accept a proton, though the electron donating effect of the alky
l groups generally stop any acidic action).
11.3.5
Reactions of alkenes with stuff...hydrogen, bromine, hydrogen halides and water.
Before we begin : The C=C bond is not twice as strong as a C-C bond...the second
is weaker making it easier to break, and thus a reactive site...this reactivity
makes alkenes important starting molecules in the production of other organic m
olecules.
\mathsf{RCH=CHR + H_2 \longrightarrow RCH_2-CH_2R} - Hydrogen adds to the double
bond
\mathsf{RCH=CHR + Br_2 \longrightarrow RCHBr-CHBrR} - bromine adds onto the doub

le bond
\mathsf{RCH=CHR + HBr \longrightarrow RCH2-CHBrR} - HBr adds across the double b

ond
\mathsf{RCH=CHR + H_2O ---{}_{H_3PO_4 + water + 300ôC + 70 atm}---> RC(OH)H-CH_

2R}.
11.3.6
(addition) Polymerisation of alkenes (by a free radical mechanism)
Initiation:
\mathsf{2R2 \longrightarrow 2R^{\circ}} (R° is a free radical with a lone electron
)
\mathsf{R^{\circ} + CH_2=CH_2 \longrightarrow R-CH_2-CH_2^{\circ}}
Propagation:
\mathsf{R\sim \sim \sim \sim ^{\circ} + CH_2=CH_2 \longrightarrow R\sim \sim \si
m \sim ^{\circ}}.
Termination:
\mathsf{R\sim \sim \sim \sim ^{\circ} + {}^{\circ}\sim \sim \sim \sim R \longrig
htarrow R \sim \sim \sim \sim \sim \sim \sim \sim R}.
Polythene:
* Monomer is CH2=CH2
* General polymer is -[-CH2-CH2-]n-
Polyvinal chloride:
* Monomer is CClH=CH2 (chloroethene)
* General polymer is -[-CH2-CHCl-]n-
11.3.7
Production of an ester from an alkanol and alkanoic acid...this is an addition e
limination reaction (or addition-dehydration, since we re eliminating water)
\mathsf{CH_3CH_2OH + HOOCCH_3 ---{}_{H_2SO_4 + warming}---> CH_3CH_2OOCCH_3 + H_

2O}
Esters are commonly used as artificial flavoring agents ... Mmmmmm ... Ester ...
11.3.8
Oxidation of Ethanol to ethanoic acid:
This process requires a primary alcohol (which ethanol is) otherwise the reactio
n is stopped because the intermediate formed is a keytone rather than an aldehyd
e.
[Unparseable or potentially dangerous latex formula. Error 6 ].
Ethanal is an intermediate which is intentionally not isolated so it can be oxid

ized again.
11.3.9
The reaction is between ethanoic acid and ethanamide to form N-ethyl enthanamide
(the N means the ethyl group is connected to the N atom. It is also a dehydrati
on reaction (ie water is eliminated).
\mathsf{CH_3-CO-OH + C_2H_5NH_2 \longrightarrow CH_3-CO-NH-C_2H_5 + H_2O}
11.3.10
Condensation polymers
Nylon - hexane -1,6-diamine + hexanedioic acid
\mathsf{H_2N-(CH_2)_6-NH_2 + HOOC(CH_2)_4COOH \longrightarrow}
\mathsf{NH_2(CH_2)_6-NH-CO-(CH_2)_4-CO-NH-}
\mathsf{-(CH_2)_6-NH-CO-(CH_2)_4-CO...-NH-(CH_2)_6NH_2}.
As each new group is created, a water molecule is eliminated.
Polyester - benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid + ethane-1,2-diol
\mathsf{HOOC-Benzene-COOH + HOCH_2CH_2OH \longrightarrow}

\mathsf{HOOC-Benzene-COOCH_2CH_2OOC-Benzene-...COOH}
(once again, water is eliminated each time)
Notice the fact that two functional groups are required on each monomer. Otherwi
se the reaction would stop without producing a long chain.
11.3.11
This reaction produces a series of stronger and stronger nucleophiles until a co
mplex ion, (CH3CH2)4N+ is produced.
\mathsf{NH_3 + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow CH_3CH_2NH_2 + HBr}
\mathsf{CH_3CH_2NH_2 + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_2NH + HBr}
\mathsf{(CH_3CH_2)_2NH + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_3N + HBr}
\mathsf{(CH_3CH_2)_3N + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_4N^+ + Br^-}.
11.3.12
Formation of peptides and proteins to form 2-amino acids
Amino Acids - \mathsf{H_2N-CHR-CO-H} - carbon atom (asymmetric) is connected to
4 different species -> optically active (except glycene).
\mathsf{H_2N-CHX-CO-H + H_2N-CHY-CO-H + H_2N-CHZ-CO-H \longrightarrow}
\mathsf{-NH-CHX-CO-NH-CHY-CO-NH-CHZ-CO-}
(poly peptide) This group can join to other peptides to form a protein.
21.1 Determination of structure

21.1.1
The structure of a chemical compound can usually not be determine accurately wit
h information form only one source. This stems firstly form the great number of
possible organic compounds possible, many of which have very similar chemical pr
operties but different physical properties, similar physical properties but diff
erent chemical properties or very similar properties in both categories. There a
re a variety possible techniques which go beyond both chemical and physical prop
erties, and by combining the information form all these sources it is generally
possible to deduce the structure of a compound through the individual pieces of
evidence given by each of the sources.
21.1.2
Covalent bonds are not generally of a static length, but rather they resonate in
and out rapidly. This effect allows such bonds to absorb electro-magnetic energ
y if it is of a certain wavelength (equivalent to a certain energy). The wavelen
gth corresponding to many organic molecules just happens to be within the infrar
ed spectrum. as a result, bonds can be identified in a compound by the wavelengt
hs they absorb. This, however, is usually insufficient as it does not offer enou
gh information about the relative placement of the bonds, or their quantity. The
spectrum information is given in the data book and can be matched to any given
data.
21.1.3
We already did how it works...so skipping on...There will usually be a peak in t
he spectrum at the mass of the entire molecule. There may also be, if present, a
peak at Mr-15 representing the loss of a CH3 fragment (so there must be one in
the molecule). Mr-18 represents the loss of water, Mr-31 represents CH3O and Mr-
45 is COOH. Various other fragments could be lost, but the IB only seems to be w
orried about those listed here.
21.1.4
H NMR spectrum are based on some complex nuclear magnetic resonance stuff, but b
asically it gives information about what atoms H atoms are bonded to (though oth
er nearby functional groups have an effect, so really it identifies bits of th
e molecule), and how many bonds of each type there are. The information is in th
e data book.
21.2 Hydrocarbons
21.2.1
The C-C and C-H bonds are very unreactive due to their lack of significant polar
ity and the high bond energy.
21.2.2
Homolytic (the same) fission ... A° °B ... each atoms remains with one lone electron
-> highly reactive. Hetrolytic (different) fission ... A :B ... One atom gets a
lone pair of electron, the other gets none.
Reaction of alkanes with halogens (ie Cl-Cl)

(Initiation): In the presence of UV light, the Cl-Cl bond breaks homolytically r
esulting in two Cl° free radicals ie
\mathsf{Cl_2 --{}_{UV-light}--> 2Cl^{o}}.
(Propagation): These radicals then react with alkane (ie CH4) to form HCl and CH
3° ie:
\mathsf{ClÔ + CH_4 \longrightarrow HCl + CH_3ô}.

This CH3° free radical can then react with a chlorine molecule to form another chl
orine free radical ie:
\mathsf{CH_3ô + Cl-Cl \longrightarrow CH_3Cl + Clô}.
(Termination): This reaction is continued until two free radicals react to form
a single molecule ie:
\mathsf{Clô + Clô \longrightarrow Cl_2} or
\mathsf{Clô + CH_3ô \longrightarrow CH_3Cl} or
\mathsf{CH_3ô + CH_3ô \longrightarrow C_2H_6}.
21.2.3
The structure of Benzene was originally thought to be a ring of alternating doub
le and single bonds, however this does not fit for several reasons. Firstly, the
re the enthalpy of combustion of Benzene as compared with this model (an unstabl
e compound called cyclohexatriene). The enthalpy of combustion can be projected
from the enthalpies of cyclohexadiene and cyclohexene, but benzene is significan
tly lower (and therefore more stable) than this projected value. Also significan
t are the reactions which benzene undergoes. Double bonds, as seen with alkenes
tend to undergo addition reactions, where a double bond breaks forming a single
bond between the carbons and two new bonds. Benzene, however, does not undergo s
uch reactions, but rather has substitution where the hydrogens are replaced by o
ther electrophiles.
21.2.4
Octane rating is a scaled devised to measure how smoothly a fuel burns in a comb
ustion engine. The scale is bases around two measuring points, heptane which has
an octane rating of 0, and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane which has an octane rating of
100. A fuel with an octane rating of 60, for example, would be the same as a mi
xture of 60% 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and 40% heptane. In the past, tetraethyl lea
d (IV) was added to fuels to retard it s ignition and make the fuel burn more sm
oothly, however this has caused significant problems with lead concentrations in
the atmosphere. The other way to increase octane rating is by using highly bran
ched chains, or aromatic compounds (benzene rings) which also burn more smoothly
, thus producing high octane, lead free fuels.
21.3 Halogenoalkanes
21.3.1
Nucleophilic substitution by SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
SN1 mechanism: First, due to the electron donating effect of the alkyl groups, t
he carbon-halogen bond breaks heterolytically, resulting in (using CH3Cl as an e
xample) CH3+ and Cl- produced. This is the rater determining step (hence the 1st
order reaction). The nucleophile then attacks the positive carbon atom and form
s CH3N.
SN2 mechanism: Rather than completely breaking the bond, a polar bond is formed
between the halogen and carbon, producing a \delta ^+ charge on the carbon. This
is enough to attract the nucleophile to form an intermediate with carbon formin
g an intermediate with effectively 5 bonds...one to the nucleophile, on with the
halogen and 3 others. This is the rate determining step, hence the second order
reaction. The halide ion then breaks off hetrolytically forming again CH3N + Cl
-, but by a different mechanism. Some good nucleophiles are ROH, CN-, OH-, and R
NH2.
I think Markolnikov s rule fits in here. In this example:

When HX adds across an asymmetrical double bond, the major product formed is the
molecule where the less electronegative atom adds to the carbon with the most h
ydrogens already on it (this is since hydrogen adds on, and produces a carbocati
on intermediate...the intermediate where the C+ has the most electron donating g
roups around it will be most common - ie the most alkyl groups.)
21.3.2
SN1 reactions tend to occur with tertiary carbon (ie with 3 alkyl groups off the
carbon connected to the halogen) for two reasons. Firstly, there is not room fo
r a nucleophile to attack due to the steric hindrance caused by the bulky alkyl
groups, and secondly the inductive electron donating effect of these groups mean
it is much more likely that the C-X bond will break, rather than just becoming
highly polar. SN2 reactions, however, occur on primary carbons since there is pl
enty of space between small hydrogen atoms for the nucleophile to attack, and it
is unlikely that the C-X bond will break on it s own.
21.3.3
Different halogens will obviously have different bond strengths. the F-H bond is
strongest (and shortest) while I-H is the longest (and weakest). As a result, t
he H-I bond is easiest to break, and does so most easily therefore has the highe
st rate, while H-F is the slowest.
21.4 Alkanols
21.4.1
Dehydration to form alkenes and alkoxyalkanes
Alkenes: In the presence of H2SO4 and the proper temperature (hot for primary,
warm for secondary and cool for tertiary) alcohols can lose a water molecule and
form an alkene:
\mathsf{CH_2H-CH_2OH --{}_{H_2SO_4 + heat}--> CH_2CH_2 + H_2O}.
Alkoxyalkanes: In acidic conditions alcohols act as a base, and accepts a proton

. This produces a positive charge on the oxygen (and inductively a delta+ve on t
he carbon). the spare par of electrons on the oxygen atom of another alcohol are
attracted to the delta+ve carbon making it act like a nucleophile, and so it at
tacks the carbon atom (this assumes an SN2 reaction though SN1 is possible under
other conditions - ie tertiary alcohols). Water and a proton are then split off
producing an ether (alkoxyalkane) and water (and regenerating the acid as a cat
alyst):
\mathsf{CH_2OH + H^+ \longrightarrow CH_2OHH^+},
then:
\mathsf{CH_2OHH^+ + CH_2OH \longrightarrow CH_2OCH_2 + H_2O + H^+}.
21.4.2
Oxidation of alkanols is different depending on whether they are primary, second
ary or tertiary. For primary and secondary, a C=O bond replace the C-OH, but thi
s bond will either be on the end (an aldehyde) or in the middle (a keytone). Ald
ehydes can be reoxadized to form carboxillic acid. Tertiary alcohols will not ox
idize.
Primary: \mathsf{CH_3CH_2OH --{}_{Cr_2O_7^{2-}}--> CH_3CHO + H_2O --{}_{Cr_2O_7^

{2-}}--> CH_3COOH}
* CH3CHO is an aldehyde/alkanal,
* CH3COOH is an alkanoic acid.
Secondary: \mathsf{CH_3-CH(OH)CH_3 --{}_{Cr_2O_7^{2-}}--> CH_3-CO-CH_3}

* CH3-CO-CH3 is a keytone/alkanone.
21.5 Alkanals and alkanones
21.5.1
Carbonyl compounds are reactive because they contain a \delta ^+ carbon atom, an
d are unsaturated (both due to the C=O bond). Thus, the Pi electrons can be rela
tively easily shifted to form a new bond on both the carbon and oxygen atoms, an
d since nucleophiles are attracted to the carbon atom, the happens relatively qu
ickly.
21.5.2
This is the same as with the alcohols alkanals will react to for carboxillic aci
d as follows.
\mathsf{CH_3CHO --{}_{Cr_2O_7^{2-}}--> CH_3COOH}
21.5.3
This is the reverse of the process shown in the alcohols above...alkanals will b
e reduced to primary alkanols, alkanones will be reduced to secondary alkanols b
y LiAlH4.
Alkanals: \mathsf{CH_3CHO --{}_{LiAlH_4}--> CH_3CH_2OH} (primary alkanol)
Alkanones: \mathsf{CH_3-CO-CH_3 --{}_{LiAlH_4}--> CH_3-CH(OH)CH_3} (secondary al

kanol)
21.6 Alkanoic acids
21.6.1
Alkanoic acids can be formed by oxidizing primary alkanols with acidified dichro
mate (IV) as follows:
\mathsf{CH_3CH_2OH --{}_{Cr_2O_7^{2-}}--> CH_3CHO + H_2O --{}_{Cr_2O_7^{2-}}-->

CH_3COOH}
21.6.2
The OH group in alkanols doesn t act as an acid, but that is alkanoic acids do..
.why ? ... This is a result of the inductive effect of the C=O group. In alkanol
s, the R groups are electron donating, resulting in a negative charge being indu
ctively pushed along the chain, creating a large -ve charge on the oxygen atom.
The C=O bond, however, is electron withdrawing which results in a delta+ve carbo
n atom. This inductively increase the polarity of the O-H bond, and also produce
s a more stable anion when the proton is lost (because electron density is being
pulled away creating a smaller negative charge on the oxygen).
21.6.3
Soaps are formed basically of a long hydrocarbon chain ending in a COO-Na+, or s
imilar, head -- ie:
CH3-CH2-[-CH2-]n-COO-Na+.
They work because the head is hydrophilic (dissolves in water) while the tail is
hydrophobic (doesn t dissolve in water, but does in fats, non-polar dirt etc).
this means the molecules position themselves around small blobs of non-polar d
irt (called micielles). these are pulled out of the fabric etc by these molecule
s and are then held in suspension in the water and eventually washed away.
Collision Theory
In a chemical reaction the reacting particles need to collide. The collision mus
t also have enough energy so that the chemical bonds can be broken. Collision wi
thout enough energy will not lead to a reaction. An effective reaction is a reac
tion which does have enough energy and does lead to a reaction.
Chemical reactions occur at different speeds. Some reactions are faster while ot
hers are much slower. For example an explosive chemical reaction between two rea
ctants tells us that this is a very fast reaction whereas rusting is a much slow
er reaction.
Particles need enough kinetic energy to break the bonds and cause a chemical rea
ction to occur. The minimum amount of kinetic energy that a reaction requires to
occur is known as the activation energy. So when the particles collide there mu
st be enough kinetic energy to exceed the activation energy in order for a chemi
cal reaction to occur. Slow reactions such as rusting generally have high activa
tion energies, while explosive chemical reactions generally have low activation
energies.
Controlling the Rate of Reaction

The rate of the reaction can be controlled by changing the frequency of the coll
isions or changing the energy of the reactant particle.
Factor Effect on Rate
Explanation
Concentration Increasing the concentration of a reactant increases the rate
Increasing the concentr
ation means that the particles are more crowded, so there will be more frequent
effective collisions increasing the rate of reaction.
Temperature Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the rate
Increasing the temperat
ure increases the kinetic energy that the reactants have, which means that they
will collide more often and have more energy available to exceed the activation
energy. At lower temperatures the particles have less kinetic energy, are moving
much slower and so there are less effective collisions.
Surface area Increasing the surface area of the solid or cutting the solid in
to smaller pieces increases the rate of reaction Increasing the surface
area increases the number of particles that are exposed to the reactants which i
ncreases the number of collisions and so increases the number of effective react
ions. So a powder form of a reactant will have a higher rate of reaction than th
e same reactant in a block form.
Catalyst Adding a catalyst to the reaction changes the rate of reaction
A catalyst changes the
activation energy in a reaction. It basically speeds up a reaction without being
used up itself. It can raise the activation energy in some reactions but it usu
ally lowers it. This means that more particles will have enough kinetic energy t
o overcome the activation energy level.
Pressure Increasing the pressure of reactions involving gasses increases
the rate of reaction Once the pressure has b
een increased the gas particles are in a smaller space meaning that more frequen
t and effective reactions will occur.
Test for a carbonyl

* Reagents: 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH)
* Observation with a positive test: Orange precipitate when added to a carbo
nyl
Test for an aldehyde

* Reagents: Fehlings solution 1 and 2
* Observation with a positive test: Red precipitate when reagents are warmed
with an aldehyde
Test for an aldehyde

* Reagents: Tollen s reagent ( \mathsf{NaOH_{(aq)} + AgNO_{3(aq)} +} dilute
ammonia solution)
* Observation with a positive test: Silver mirror with an aldehyde
Test for an alcohol
* Reagents: PCl5 in dry conditions
* Observation with a positive test: Steamy fumes of HCl gas which turns damp
blue litmus paper red
Test for a carboxylic acid

* Reagents: NaHCO3(aq)
* Observation with a positive test: CO2 gas which turns lime water milky
Test for an alcohol

* Reagents: Na
* Observation with a positive test: H2 gas
Condensation Reaction
* Reagents: concentrated H2SO4 catalyst
* Conditions: Room Temperature, then add water and warm under reflux
Oxidation Reaction
* Reagents: Alkaline Potassium Manganate(VII) solution
* Conditions: Room Temp.
* Other notes: The manganate(VII) reduces to manganate(VI) and goes from pur
ple to green.
Oxidation Reaction 2
* Reagents: O2, silver catalyst
* Conditions: 2500C
Hydration Reaction
* Reagents: steam, H3PO4 catalyst
* Conditions: 300oC, 60 atm pressure
High Melting Point and Boiling Point

The bonding between the atoms in transition metals is very strong. The strong at
tractive force between the atoms is only weakened at high temperatures, hence th
e high melting points and boiling points.
For example: iron melts at 1535°C and boils at 2750°C BUT a Group 1 Alkali Metals su
ch as sodium melts at 98°C and boils at 883°C.
High density
Another consequence of the strong bonding between the atoms in transition metals
is they are tightly held together to give a high density.
For example: iron has a density of 7.9 g/cm3 and sodium has a density of 0.97 g/
cm3 (and floats on water while fizzing! water has a density of 1.0 g/cm3).
Form coloured compounds and ions in solution

Transition metals tend to form more coloured compounds more than other elements
either in solid form or dissolved in a solvent. The colours of some transition m
etal salts in aqueous solution are shown below:
Diagrams/pictures/colours missing.
1. Sc - scandium salts such as the chloride, ScCl3, are colourless and not ty
pical of transition metals
2. Ti - titanium(III) chloride, TiCl3, is purple
3. V - vanadium(III) chloride, VCl3, is green
4. Cr - chromium(III) sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3, is dark green
5. Mn - potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, is purple
6. Fe - iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, is yellow-orange-brown
7. Co - cobalt sulphate, CoSO4, is pinkish
8. Ni - nickel chloride, NiCl2, is green
9. Cu - copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4, is deep blue
10. Zn - zinc salts such as zinc sulphate, ZnSO4, are usually colourless and n
ot typical of transition metals
Catalytic Properties
The metallic elements themselves
Many transition metals are used directly as catalysts in industrial chemical pro
cesses and in the anti-pollution catalytic converters in car exhausts.
For example iron is used in the Haber Synthesis of ammonia:
Nitrogen + Hydrogen \longrightarrow Ammonia
or
\mathsf{N_2 + 3H_2 \longrightarrow 2NH_3} via the Fe catalyst atoms
The compounds of transition metals

As well as the metals, the compounds of transition metals also acts as catalysts
.
For example manganese dioxide (or manganese(IV) oxide), MnO2, a black powder, re
adily decomposes an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide \longrightarrow water + oxygen
or
2H_2O_2 \longrightarrow 2H_2O + O_2 via MnO2 as the catalyst.
Revision:Some Reminders about the Periodic Table

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e Reminders about the Periodic Table
* The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number
* Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any group
* A Group is a vertical column of like elements eg Group 1 The Alkali Metals
(Li, Na, K etc.), Group 7 The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) and Group 8 or 0 The
Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The group number equals the number of electrons
in the outer shell (eg chlorine s electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second elem
ent down in Group 7).
* A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties (mor
e metallic to more non-metallic. All the elements use the same number of electro
n shells which equals the period number (eg sodium s electron arrangement 2.8.1,
the first element in Period 3).
* On Period 4 is a horizontal row of ten elements between Group 2 and Group
3, Sc to Zn are called the first Transition Metals Series of Elements.
* Transition metals are extremely useful metals on account of their physical

or chemical properties. For example ….
* Cast iron is used for man-hole covers because it is so hard wearing
* Copper is used in electrical wiring because it is a good conductor of elec
tricity
* Copper is used in domestic hot water pipes because it is relatively unreac
tive to water and therefore doesn t corrode easily
* Zinc is used to galvanise (coat) iron or steel to sacrificially protect th
em from corrosion
* Compounds of copper, iron, chromium and cobalt are used to give bright col
ours to stained glass
Some general reactions of acids

1. \mathsf{Acid + Base \longrightarrow Salt + Water}
2. \mathsf{Acid + Carbonate \longrightarrow Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide}
3. \mathsf{Acid + Metal \longrightarrow Salt + Hydrogen}
N.B. Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series (copper, silver, gold) will
not react with acids.
* Reactions involving hydrochloric acid produce chlorides.

* Reactions involving sulphuric acid produce sulphates.
* Reactions involving nitric acid produce nitrates.
Strong and Weak Acids

* A strong acid or alkali is one which is completely ionised in water. E.g.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
* A weak acid or alkali is one which is partially ionised in water. E.g. eth
anoic acid (CH3COOH) or ammonia (NH3)
Salt Preparation
The following methods may be used to prepare a soluble salt:
1. Acid + Base, Acid + Metal, Acid + Carbonate
Brief Method: Add excess solid (base, metal or carbonate) to some acid. Filter o
ff the solid. Evaporate the remaining solution to half volume and leave to cryst
allise for a few days.
2. Acid + Alkali
Brief Method: Measure accurately, using a pipette, some alkali (e.g. 25cm3). Add
an indicator (usually phenolphthalein). Add acid from a burette until the indic
ator changes colour. Record your result. Repeat, more accurately (drop by drop n
ear end) until two results are within 0.1cm3 of each other. Then repeat without
indicator adding the same volume of acid as your accurate result. Evaporate the
resulting solution to half volume and leave to crystallise for a few days. This
method is known as titration.
* To prepare an insoluble salt: Mix two solutions of soluble salts. The meta
l ions “swap partners”, and the insoluble salt is precipitated.
Table of Solubility
Type of Compound Solubility
Group I compounds and all ammonium compounds Soluble
Nitrates Soluble
Chlorides Soluble (except lead chloride a
nd silver chloride)
Sulphates Soluble (except calcium sulphat
e, lead sulphate and barium sulphate)
Carbonates Insoluble (except group I and a
mmonium carbonates)
Testing for ions in solution

Negative Ion Test used Result of test
Carbonate (CO32–) Add dilute acid CO2 evolved—test using lim
ewater.
Sulphate (SO42–) Add barium nitrate or chloride White precipitate of barium sulp
hate formed
Chloride (Cl–) Add silver nitrate White precipitate of sil
ver chloride formed
Bromide (Br–) Add silver nitrate Cream precipitate of sil
ver bromide formed
Iodide (I–) Add silver nitrate Pale Yellow precipitate
of silver iodide formed
Positive Ion Test used Result of test

Copper (Cu2+) Add Sodium Hydroxide solution Blue precipitate of copp
er hydroxide formed
Iron (II) (Fe2+) Add Sodium Hydroxide solution Brown precipitate of iro
n(II) hydroxide formed
Iron (III) (Fe3+) Add Sodium Hydroxide solution Green precipitate of iro
n(III) hydroxide formed
Flame Test — used for solid samples

Metal Ion Colour of flame
Sodium (Na+) Orange/yellow
Lithium (Li+) Scarlet
Potassium (K+) Lilac
Copper (Cu2+) Blue/green
Calcium (Ca2+) Brick Red
Barium (Ba2+) Apple Green
Crude Oil
Crude oil is made from dead animals under the sea which were compressed between
layers of impermeable rock in sedimentary rock.
Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation takes place at an oil refinery. The process separates th
e many hydrocarbons in crude oil into useful mixtures. Hydrocarbons that are sep
arated include refinery gas which is used for gas cookers, and kerosine used for
aircraft fuel
Properties of fractions at the top

* Low boiling point
* Burn with a clear flame
* Light coloured
* More runny
* Burn readily
* Are smaller molecules
Properties of fractions at the bottom

* Have a high melting point
* Are darker in colour
* Are thicker
* Less likely to burn
* Are larger molecules
* These hydrocarbons have a high boiling point and have longer carbon chains
.
Diatomic Elements
As you should know, "di" means two and "atomic" means atom. So, n diatomic eleme
nt is an element which exists as a molecule of two atoms. Below are the diatomic
elements you need to know for Standard Grade:
Hydrogen, Iodine, Nitrogen, Chlorine, Bromine, Oxygen and Fluorine.
A simple way to remember these is why writing HINClBrOF. These are the initials
of the diatomic elements, and you need to know this mean formula writing, and so
metimes doing calculations.
Structure of the Atom

The atom consists of a tiny, massive central nucleus surrounded by electrons.
(This a diagram is missing from here)
Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass

Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron –1 0 (1/1840)
The Nucleus
Contains the protons and neutrons.
It is positively charged (protons are positively charged).
It is the heavy part of the atom (protons and neutrons have much greater mass th
an electrons).
It is small in comparison to the rest of the atom.
The electron shells

* Electrons are arranged in energy levels around the nucleus.
* The electrons are fast moving.
* Each energy level can only contain a set number of electrons. Once an ener
gy level is full any extra electrons go into the next level.
Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons. Atoms have no

overall charge. Therefore the number of protons is the same as the number of ele
ctrons.
Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The element will sometimes be represented by the following:
\mathsf{{}Â_ZX}
* Where: A = the mass number.

* Z = the atomic number.
* X = the element symbol.
e.g.
\mathsf{{}^{23}_{11}Na}
This tells us:

The atomic number of sodium = 11
The mass number of sodium = 23
We can now work out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons:
Number of protons = atomic number = 11
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons = 12
Number of electrons = number of protons = 11
Isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that have the same atomic numbe
r but different mass numbers.
* Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutron
s.
* Isotopes have similar chemical properties because chemical reactivity depe
nds upon the number of electrons but slightly different physical properties (e.g
. density).
Calculating the Relative Atomic Mass

Example: Chlorine
Chlorine exists in two forms. These two forms of chlorine differ only in the num
ber of neutrons in the nucleus.
35Cl = 75% 37Cl = 25%
Consider 100 chlorine atoms: 75 will have a mass of 35, 25 will have a mass of 3
7.
We now need to work out the average mass.
The average mass of an atom =
(needs some working out added in here)
The Arrangement of Electrons around the Nucleus

* Electrons are arranged in energy levels (or shells) surrounding the nucleu
s.
* They do not all have the same energy.
* Electrons with low energy are in energy levels close to the nucleus and on
es with high energy are in energy levels further away from the nucleus.
* There are a limited number of electrons that can be fitted into each energ
y level.
* This arrangement of electrons surrounding the nucleus is called the electr
on configuration.
The first energy level can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

The second energy level can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.
The third energy level holds 8 electrons (although can hold up to 18).
Once one energy level is full, the next is filled.
e.g. contains 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons.
The electron configuration is 2,8,1
Representing electron configuration.
e.g.
(Need diagrams of this example and of the electron sheels in general)
Uses of electron configuration

The electron configuration can tell us:
1. Which group of the periodic table the element is in. (The number of electr
ons in the highest or outer energy level tells us this.)
2. Which period of the periodic table the element is in. (The number of energ
y levels tells us this.)
All elements in the same group of the periodic table have the same number of ele
ctrons in the outer energy level.
Group I II III IV V
VI VII VIII
No. of electrons in outer shell 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8
The Noble Gas Configuration

The Noble gases (group VIII) are the most unreactive elements in the periodic ta
ble. They appear at the end of each period. They are unreactive because they hav
e a full energy level (shell) of electrons. Other elements in the periodic table
react with other elements to gain the “more stable” noble gas configuration.
Formation of Ions
* Ions are atoms which have gained or lost electrons to obtain a full outer
shell. Ions are charged, because electrons have negative charge.
* Atoms that lose electrons form positive ions because there are now more pr
otons than electrons. Positive ions are called cations.
* Atoms that gain electrons form negative ions because there are now more el
ectrons than protons. Negative ions are called anions.
E.g. Sodium
Electron configuration is 2,8,1
To gain a full outer shell the atom can either:

1. lose one electron
2. gain seven electrons
It is easier to lose one electron than to gain seven, so sodium loses an electro
n to form a cation (positive) with a charge of +1.
The lost electron will be given to another element (see notes on Ionic Bonding).
So now The number of protons = 11

The number of neutrons = 12
The number of electrons = 10
E.g. Chlorine
The electron configuration is 2,8,7
To gain a full outer shell the chlorine atom can either:

1. lose seven electrons
2. gain one electron
It is preferable to gain one electron than to lose seven, so chlorine gains an e
lectron to form an anion (negative) with a charge of –1.
The electron is gained from another element.
So now The number of protons = 17

The number of neutrons = 18
The number of electrons = 18
Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table

The chemical properties of an element depend on the number of electrons in the h
ighest energy level (shell).
* Metals lose electrons to form cations.
* Non-metals gain electrons to form anions.
An easy way to work out the charge on an ion:
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Charge on Ion +1 +2 +3 No Ions –3 –2 –1
No Ions
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural u

nits typically connected by covalent chemical bonds
A polymerization which occurs by the process of a condensation reaction.
Addition polymerization involves the breaking of double or triple bonds, which a

re used to link monomers in to chains.
A condensation reaction (also known as a dehydration reaction) is a chemical rea

ction in which two molecules react with each other with the concurrent loss of w
ater or ammonia. It may be considered as the opposite of a hydrolysis reaction,
ie, the cleavage of a chemical entity into two parts by the action of water.
Addition polymerization involves the linking together of molecules incorporating

double or triple chemical bonds.
An alkane in organic chemistry is a type of hydrocarbon in which the molecule ha

s the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms and so has no double bonds (satu
rated)
methane CH4
ethane C2H6
propane C3H8
n-butane C4H10
n-pentane C5H12
n-hexane C6H14
n-heptane C7H16
n-octane C8H18
nanane C9H20
Decane C10h22
Cracking reactions
"Cracking" breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a th
ermic or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mech
anism, that is, bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of free radicals are fo
rmed. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (us
ually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites) which promote a heterolyt
ic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, us
ually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion.
Physical properties
* Alkanes are virtually insoluble in water.
* Alkanes are less dense than water.
* Melting points and boiling points of alkanes generally increase with molec
ular weight and with the length of the main carbon chain.
* At standard conditions from CH4 to C4H10, alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12
to C17H36, they are liquids; and after C18H38, they are solids.
Chemical properties
* Alkanes have a low reactivity because the C-H and C-C single bonds are rel
atively stable, difficult to break and non-polar. They are also known as paraffi
ns (Latin para+affinis with the meaning here of "lacking affinity").
An alkene is one of the three classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain

at least one carbon-carbon double bond and have the general molecular formula of
CnH2n
* The same as alkanes.
* Physical state depends on molecular mass.
Chemical properties
Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than alkanes.
Reactions
Synthesis
1. The most common industrial synthesis path for alkenes is cracking of petro
leum.
2. Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via an elimination reaction that
removes one water molecule:
H3C-CH2-OH + H2SO4 → H3C-CH2-O-SO3H + H2O → H2C=CH2 + H2SO4
3. Catalytic synthesis of higher α- lkenes c n be chieved by re ction of eth
ene with triethyl luminium, n org nomet llic compound in the presence of nickel
, cob lt or pl tinum.
Oxid tion
1. In the presence of oxygen, lkenes burn with bright fl me to c rbon diox
ide nd w ter.
2. C t lytic oxid tion with oxygen or the re ction with perc rboxylic cids y
ields epoxides
3. Re ction with ozone le ds to the bre king of the double bond, yielding two
ldehydes or ketones
R1-CH=CH-R2 + O3 → R1-CHO + R2-CHO + H2O
This re ction c n be used to determine the position of double bond in n
unknown lkene.
Polymeris tion
Polymeriz tion of lkenes is n economic lly import nt re ction which yields pol
ymers of high industri l v lue, such s the pl stics polyethylene nd polypropyl
ene. Polymeriz tion c n either proceed vi free-r dic l or n ionic mech nism.
For det il reg rding the re ction mech nisms, see the polymeriz tion rticle.
In chemistry, h logen tion is chemic l re ction th t repl ces hydrogen tom

with h logen tom. More specific words exist th t specify which h logen: fluor
in tion, chlorin tion, bromin tion, nd iodin tion.
Refining is the process of purific tion of subst nce, usu lly used of n tur
l resource th t is lmost in us ble form, but which is more useful in its pure
form.
Alloys
An lloy is mixture with met llic properties th t cont ins t le st one met l
element. Ex mples of lloys re steel (iron nd c rbon), br ss (copper nd zinc)
, bronze (copper nd tin), nd dur lumin ( luminium nd copper). Alloys speci ll
y designed for highly dem nding pplic tions, such s jet engines, m y cont in m
ore th n ten elements.
Alloying one met l with other met l(s) or non-met l(s) often enh nces its proper
ties. For ex mple, steel is stronger th n iron, its prim ry element
Physic l properties
Met ls h ve cert in ch r cteristic physic l properties: they re usu lly shiny (
they h ve "lustre"), h ve high density, re ductile nd m lle ble, usu lly h v
e high melting point, re usu lly h rd, nd conduct electricity nd he t well.
These properties re m inly bec use e ch tom exerts only loose hold on its o
utermost electrons (v lence electrons); thus, the v lence electrons form sort
of se round the met l ions. Most met ls re chemic lly st ble, with the not bl
e exception of the lk li met ls nd lk line e rth met ls, found in the leftmos
t two groups of the periodic t ble.
Fr ction l Distill tion

(M in rticle Oil refinery)
The most import nt industri l pplic tion of fr ction l distill tion is the dist
ill tion of crude oil. The process is simil r in principle to the l bor tory met
hod described bove except for sc le, continuous feed nd oper tion, nd the f c
t th t crude oil h s m ny different compounds mixed together. The fr ction ting
column h s outlets t regul r interv ls up the column which llow the different
fr ctions to run out t different temper tures, with the highly vol tile g ses c
oming out the topmost outlet gr du ting to the less vol tile ro d t r, (bitumen)
coming out t the bottom.
Oil refinery - Definition

View of the Shell/V lero M rtinez oil refinery
Enl rge
View of the Shell/V lero M rtinez oil refinery
An oil refinery is n industri l process pl nt where crude oil is processed nd
refined into useful petroleum products.
R w or unprocessed ("crude") oil is not very useful in the form it comes in out
of the ground. It needs to be broken down into p rts nd refined before use in
solid m teri l such s pl stics nd fo ms, or s petroleum fossil fuels s in t
he c se of utomobile nd irpl ne engines.
NON METALS
* poor conductors of he t nd electricity when comp red to met ls
* they form cidic oxides (where s met ls gener lly form b sic oxides)
* in solid form, they re dull nd brittle, r ther th n met ls which re lus
trous, ductile or m lle ble
* usu lly h ve lower densities th n met ls
* they h ve signific ntly lower melting points nd boiling points th n met l
s
* non-met ls h ve high electroneg tivity
The elements gener lly reg rded s nonmet ls re:

* hydrogen (H)
* In Group 14: c rbon (C)
* In Group 15 (the pnictogens): nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
* Sever l elements in Group 16, the ch lcogens: oxygen (O), sulfur (S), sele
nium (Se)
* All elements in Group 17 - the h logens
* All elements in Group 18 - the noble g ses
Only eighteen elements in the periodic t ble re gener lly considered nonmet ls,
comp red to over eighty met ls, but nonmet ls m ke up most of the crust, tmosp
here nd oce ns of the e rth
Most nonmet ls re mon tomic noble g ses or form di tomic molecules in their ele
ment l st te, unlike met ls which (in their element l st te) do not form molecul
es t ll
The h logens or h logen elements re series of nonmet l elements from Group 17
IUPAC Style (formerly: VII, VIIA) of the periodic t ble, comprising fluorine (F
), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), nd st tine (At). The rtifici lly
cre ted element 117, provision lly referred to by the system tic n me ununseptiu
m, m y lso be h logen.
The group of h logens is the only periodic t ble group which cont ins elements i
n ll three f mili r st tes of m tter t st nd rd temper ture nd pressure.
Z Element No. of electrons/shell
9 fluorine 2, 7
17 chlorine 2, 8, 7
35 bromine 2, 8, 18, 7
53 iodine 2, 8, 18, 18, 7
85 st tine 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7
Chemistry
[edit] Re ctivity
H logens re highly re ctive, nd s such c n be h rmful or leth l to biologic l
org nisms in sufficient qu ntities. This high re ctivity is due to the toms be
ing highly electroneg tive due to their high effective nucle r ch rge. They c n
g in n electron by re cting with toms of other elements. Fluorine is one of th
e most re ctive elements in existence, tt cking otherwise inert m teri ls such
s gl ss, nd forming compounds with the he vier noble g ses. It is corrosive
nd highly toxic g s. The re ctivity of fluorine is such th t if used or stored
in l bor tory gl ssw re, it c n re ct with gl ss in the presence of sm ll mount
s of w ter to form silicon tetr fluoride (SiF4). Thus fluorine must be h ndled w
ith subst nces such s Teflon (which is itself n org nofluorine compound), extr
emely dry gl ss, or met ls such s copper or steel which form protective l yer
of fluoride on their surf ce.
The high re ctivity of fluorine me ns th t once it does re ct with something, it
bonds with it so strongly th t the resulting molecule is very inert nd non-re
ctive to nything else. For ex mple, Teflon is fluorine bonded with c rbon.
Both chlorine nd bromine re used s disinfect nts for drinking w ter, swimming
pools, fresh wounds, sp s, dishes, nd surf ces. They kill b cteri nd other p
otenti lly h rmful microorg nisms through process known s steriliz tion. Thei
r re ctivity is lso put to use in ble ching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is prod
uced from chlorine, is the ctive ingredient of most f bric ble ches nd chlorin
e-derived ble ches re used in the production of some p per products.
Re ctivity with w ter

Fluorine re cts vigorously with w ter to produce oxygen (O2) nd hydrogen fluori
de (HF):[3]
2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 HF( q)
Chlorine h s minim l solubility of 0.7g Cl2 per kg of w ter t mbient temper tu
re (21oC).[4] Dissolved chlorine re cts to form hydrochloric cid (HCl) nd hypo
chlorous cid, solution th t c n be used s disinfect nt or ble ch:
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl( q) + HClO( q)
Bromine h s solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of w ter,[5] but it slowly re cts t
o form hydrogen bromide (HBr) nd hypobromous cid (HBrO):
Br2(g) + H2O(l) → HBr( q) + HBrO( q)
METALS
Met ls in gener l h ve high electric l conductivity, therm l conductivity, luste
r nd density, nd the bility to be deformed under stress without cle ving
Alloy
An lloy is mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the m j
or component is met l. Most pure met ls re either too soft, brittle or chemic
lly re ctive for pr ctic l use. Combining different r tios of met ls s lloys
modifies the properties of pure met ls to produce desir ble ch r cteristics. The
im of m king lloys is gener lly to m ke them less brittle, h rder, resist nt
to corrosion, or h ve more desir ble color nd luster.
BASE METAL
the term b se met l is used inform lly to refer to met l th t oxidizes or corr
odes rel tively e sily, nd re cts v ri bly with dilute hydrochloric cid (HCl)
to form hydrogen.Copper is considered b se met l s it oxidizes rel tively e s
ily, lthough it does not re ct with HCl
FERROUS METAL
The term "ferrous" is derived from the L tin word me ning "cont ining iron". Thi
s c n include pure iron, such s wrought iron, or n lloy such s steel. Ferrou
s met ls re often m gnetic, but not exclusively.
NOBLE METALS
Noble met ls re met ls th t re resist nt to corrosion or oxid tion, unlike mos
t b se met ls. They tend to be precious met ls, often due to perceived r rity. E
x mples include t nt lum, gold, pl tinum, silver nd rhodium.
Chemic l Properties
Met ls
* Usu lly h ve 1-3 electrons in their outer shell.
* Lose their v lence electrons e sily.
* Form oxides th t re b sic.
* Are good reducing gents.
* H ve lower electroneg tivities.
Nonmet ls
* Usu lly h ve 4-8 electrons in their outer shell.
* G in or sh re v lence electrons e sily.
* Form oxides th t re cidic.
* Are good oxidizing gents.
* H ve higher electroneg tivities.
Physic l Properties
Met ls
* Good electric l conductors nd he t conductors.
* M lle ble - c n be be ten into thin sheets.
* Ductile - c n be stretched into wire.
* Possess met llic luster.
* Op que s thin sheet.
* Solid t room temper ture (except Hg).
Nonmet ls
* Poor conductors of he t nd electricity.
* Brittle - if solid.
* Nonductile.
* Do not possess met llic luster.
* Tr nsp rent s thin sheet.
* Solids, liquids or g ses t room temper ture.
Physic l Properties Of Met l:-

1. Physic l st te - gener lly solid
2. M lle ble
3. Ductile
4. Good electric nd he t conductivity
5. Lusturous nd c n be polished
6. H ve high density
7. Are h rd
8. H ve high melting nd boiling point
9. Are rigid
10. Are sonorus
Physic l Properties Of Non-Met ls

1. Physi c l st te - 11 re solid ,10 re g sses,1 is liquid
2. Non-M lle ble
3. Non-Ductile
4. B d electric nd he t conductivity
5. Non- Lusturous
6. H ne Low Density
7. Are soft
8. H ve low melting nd boiling point
9. Low tensil strength
10. Non Sonorus

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Chemistry Notes

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Which is the most unreactive group of the periodic table and why?

How many electrons do halogens have on their outer shell?

What charge do ions of group 6 have?

How many electrons does Cl have on its outer shell?

What is the mass of 0.25 moles of sulphur ions?

How many moles is 6g of Magnesium?

How many protons, neutrons and electrons in a Li atom?

Type Structure State Forces between molecules

Properties of giant and molecular structures

Temperature is constant during changes of state (e.g. melting or boiling).

Giant Covalent Structures

General Practitioners Never Know Death Or Birth

Industrial Conditions for Cracking

Polymers and Plastics

Most plastics aren’t biodegradable-they’re not broken down by micro-organisms so the

Extracting Iron: The Blast Furnace

Extracting Aluminium: Electrolysis

Purifying Copper by Electrolysis

Making Ammonia: The Haber Process

Using Ammonia to make Fertilisers

Electrolysis and the Half Equations

The Evolution of the Atmosphere

Finding the Percentage of Oxygen in the Air

The Greenhouse Effect

The Ozone Layer

The Water Cycle

Group 0 – The Noble Gases

Group 1 – The Alkali Metals

Reactions of the Alkali Metals

* Chlorine: used in bleach and for sterilising water

Acids and Alkalis

Acids reacting with Metals

Acids with Oxides and Hydroxides

Acids with Carbonates

Acids with Ammonia

Reacting Metals with Water

The Haber Process

Energy Level Diagrams

Bond Energy Calculations

11.1 Homologous series

11.3 Other functional groups

* Alkanal - RCHO (with a double bonded O coming off the C (aldehyde)...but i

\mathsf{RCH=CHR + Br_2 \longrightarrow RCHBr-CHBrR} - bromine adds onto the doub

\mathsf{RCH=CHR + HBr \longrightarrow RCH2-CHBrR} - HBr adds across the double b

\mathsf{RCH=CHR + H_2O ---{}_{H_3PO_4 + water + 300^oC + 70 atm}---> RC(OH)H-CH_

\mathsf{CH_3CH_2OH + HOOCCH_3 ---{}_{H_2SO_4 + warming}---> CH_3CH_2OOCCH_3 + H_

[Unparseable or potentially dangerous latex formula. Error 6 ].

Ethanal is an intermediate which is intentionally not isolated so it can be oxid

\mathsf{CH_3-CO-OH + C_2H_5NH_2 \longrightarrow CH_3-CO-NH-C_2H_5 + H_2O}

Polyester - benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid + ethane-1,2-diol

\mathsf{HOOC-Benzene-COOH + HOCH_2CH_2OH \longrightarrow}

\mathsf{CH_3CH_2NH_2 + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_2NH + HBr}

\mathsf{(CH_3CH_2)_2NH + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_3N + HBr}

\mathsf{(CH_3CH_2)_3N + CH_3CH_2Br \longrightarrow (CH_3CH_2)_4N^+ + Br^-}.

21.1 Determination of structure

Reaction of alkanes with halogens (ie Cl-Cl)

\mathsf{Cl_2 --{}_{UV-light}--> 2Cl^{o}}.

\mathsf{Cl^O + CH_4 \longrightarrow HCl + CH_3^o}.

\mathsf{CH_3^o + Cl-Cl \longrightarrow CH_3Cl + Cl^o}.

\mathsf{Cl^o + Cl^o \longrightarrow Cl_2} or

\mathsf{Cl^o + CH_3^o \longrightarrow CH_3Cl} or

\mathsf{CH_3^o + CH_3^o \longrightarrow C_2H_6}.

I think Markolnikov s rule fits in here. In this example: