Ch 2 Outline: Brain and Behavior

1. Neurons—Building a “Biocomputer”
a. Neurons & Parts
i. Individual nerve cells
ii. Dendrites—
iii. Soma—
iv. Axon—
v. Axon terminals—
b. The Nerve Impulse
i. Ions—found inside each neuron (some positive, some neg)
ii. Resting potential—electrical charge of an inactive neron
iii. Threshold—trigger point for firing
iv. Action potential—nerve impulse
v. Ion channels—pierces axon membrane; tiny tunnels/holes
1. During an action potential, the molecules acting like
“gates” pop open. Sodium ions then rush into the axon.
vi. Negative after-potential—the cell briefly dips below its resting
level and it becomes less willing to fire
c. Synapses and Neurotransmitters
i. Synapse—the microscopic space between two neurons over which
messages pass
ii. Neurotransmitters—when an action potential reaches the tips of the
axon terminals, neurotransmitters are released into the sy naptic
gap; chemicals altering activity in neurons
1. Receptor sites—special receiving areas on the next neuron;
sensitive to neurotransmitters
2. over 100 transmitter chemicals are found in the brain
iii. Neural Regulators
1. Neuropeptides—chemicals affecting subtle brain activities;
don’t carry messages directly; regulate activity of other
neurons; affect memory, pain, emotion, pleasure, moods,
hunger, sexual behavior, etc.
2. Enkephalins—released by brain, caused by pain
3. endorphins—related chemicals released by the pituitary
gland
2. The Nervous System—Wired for Action
a. Neurons and Nerves
i. Neurons—tiny cells
ii. Nerves—large bundles of axons
iii. Myelin—fatty layer coating axons
1. small gaps in myelin help nerve impulses move faster
iv. Neurilemma—a thin layer of cells wrapped around most axons
outside the brain and spinal cord
b. Neural Networks
i. Central nervous system—consists of the brain and spinal cord
 ii. The power of the brain arises from cooperation of large numbers of
neurons connected to other neural networks
iii. Peripheral nervous systems
1. intricate network of nerves carrying info to and from the
CNS
2. somatic system—carries messages to and fro the sense
organs and skeletal muscles
3. autonomic system—serves internal organs and glands
4. Sympathetic branch—“emergency” system preparing the
body for “fight or flight” during times of danger or high
emotion
5. parasympathetic branch—quiets the body, returns it to a
lower level of arousal; most active soon after an emotional
event; helps keep vital functions at moderate levels
iv. Spinal Cord
1. connects brain to other parts of the body
2. spinal nerves carry sensory and motor messages to and
from spinal cord
3. cranial nerves leave the brain directly
4. reflex arc—simplest behavior pattern occurring when a
stimulus provokes an automatic response
5. sensory neuron—a nerve cell carrying messages fro senses
toward CNS
3. Research Methods—Charting the Brain’s Inner Realms
a. Biopsychology
i. The study of how bio processes, the brain, and nervous system
relate to behavior
ii. Any of the brain functions have been identified through clinical
studies
iii. Ablation—surgical removal of parts of the brain
iv. Electrode—touches brain’s surface; small electrified wire
v. Deep lesioning—thin wire electrode, insulated except at the tip
b. Electroencephalography
i. Measures waves of electrical activity produced by the brain
ii. EEG (electroencephalograph)
1. amplifies these weak signals (brain waves) and records
them on a moving sheet of paper or a computer screen
2. scientist can record brain activity without invading the scull
using an EEG
3. various brain wave patterns reveal tumors, epilepsy, eyc
c. New Images of the Living Brain
i. CT Scan
1. Computed Tomographic Scanning
2. special X-Ray making brain more visible
3. X-Ray info is collected by a coputer and formed into an
image of the brain
 4. can reveal the effects of strokes, injuries, tumors, etc
ii. MRI
1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
2. uses a strong magnetic field to produce an image of the
body’s interior
3. processing by a computer then creating a 3D model of the
brain or body
4. any 2D plane or slice of body can be selected and displayed
as an image on a comp screen
5. fMRI—functional MRI
a. maked brain activity visible
iii. PET
1. Positron Emission Tomography
2. detects positrons emitted by weakly radioactive glucose as
it is consumed by the brain
3. PET scan shows which areas are using energy
4. The Celebral Cortex—My, What a Big Brain You Have!
a. Celebrum
i. Two large hemispheres covering the upper part of the brain
ii. Celebral cortex—outer layer
iii. Corticalization
1. increase in the size and wrinkling of the cortex
b. Celebral Hemispheres
i. Two sides of cortex
ii. Connected by thick band of fibers—corpus callosum
iii. Left side controls right side of body
c. Hemispheric Specialization
i. “split-brain” operation
1. corpus callosum is cut to control severe epilepsy
2. two brains in one body
3. causes confusion—one side doing something; the other
doing something else
ii. Right Brain/Left Brain
1. Left—language, math, time and rhythm
2. Right—simple lang and numbers; a child’s brain;
perceptual skills, recognizing patterns, faces, melodies,
puzzles, pictures, emotions
3. Right side damaged—loses ability to understand overall
context, jokes, irony, sarcasm, implications, etc.
iii. One Brain, Two styles
1. Left—analysis, sequential info
2. right—simultaneously and holistically processed info
d. Lobes of the Celebral Cortex
i. Occipital Lobes
1. primary visual area of cortex
2. tumors in the occipital lobes—blind spots in vision
 ii. Parietal Lobes
1. Located just above occipital
2. Somatosensory area of patietal lobes—touch, temperature,
pressure, etc flowing
iii. Temporal Lobes
1. Located on each side of brain
2. Auditory info projected; hearing registered
3. Left temporal lobe—language “center”
iv. Frontal Lobes
1. associated with higher mental abilities
2. Motor cortex—arch of tissue over top of brain; directs
body’s muscles; corresponds to the importance of bodily
areas (not size)
3. related to more complex behaviors;
v. Association Areas
1. association cortex—combine and process info form the
senses
2. aphasia—impaired ability to use language
3. Broca’s area—“speech center” on the left frontal lobe
4. Wernicke’s area—lies on left temporal lobe
5. Agnosia—inability to identify seen objects; mindblindness
6. facial agnosia—inability to perceive familiar faces
5. The Subcortex—At the Core of the (Brain) Matter
a. The Hindbrain
i. Brainstem—consists mainly of medulla and cerebellum
ii. Medulla—contains centers impt for the reflex control of vital life
functions—heart rate, breathing, swallowing, etc
iii. Pons—act as bridge between medulla and other brain areas
iv. Cerebellum—lies at base of brain; regulates posture, muscle tone,
stores memories related to skills and habits
v. Reticular Formation
1. lies inside medulla and brainstem
2. RF gives priority to some while turning others aside
3. influences attention
4. doesn’t fully mature until adolescence, modifies outgoing
commands to the body
5. affects muscle tone, posture, movements of the eyes, face,
head, body, limbs
6. RAS—reticular activating system
a. Bombards cortex with stimulation
b. The Forebrain
i. Thalamus—acts as final “switching station” for sensory messages
on their way to the cortex’ vision, hearing, taste, touch all pass
through this small, football shaped structure; (injury can cause
deafness, blindness, loss of senses except smell)
 ii. Hypothalamous—master control center for emotion and many
basic motives; affects sex, rage, temperature control, hormone
release, eating and drinking, sleep, waking, emotion
iii. Limbic System
1. major role in producing emotion and motivated behavior
2. helps organize basic survival responses: feeding, fleeing,
fighting, reproduction
3. amygdale—strongly related to fear
a. provides a primitive, “quick pathway” to the cortex
4. hippocampus—important for forming lasting memories
a. lies inside temporal loves
6. The Endocrine System—Hormones and Behavior
a. System
i. Made up of glands secreting chemicals directly into the
bloodstream or lymph system
ii. Hormones—carried throughout the body; affecting internal
activities and visible behavior
iii. Hormones are related to neurotransmitters
iv. Hormones activate cells in the body
b. Pituitary
i. pea-size globe hanging from the base of the brain
ii. regulates growth
iii. If too little growth hormone is released, a person may remain far
smaller than average
iv. Hypopituitary—dwarfism
v. Giantism—too much growth hormone produced
vi. Acromegaly—secretion of too much growth hormone late in the
growth period
vii. Pituitary—“master gland” because its hormones influence other
endocrine glands
viii. Directed by hypothalamus
ix. Pineal gland once considered a useless remnant of evolution
x. Pineal gland releases melatonin
c. Thyroid gland
i. Located in the neck
ii. Regulates metabolism
iii. Affects personality when metabolism is altered
iv. Hypothyroidism—an overactive thyroid: causes thinness,
tenseness, excitability, nerves
d. Instincts!
i. Epinephrine—adrenaline: associated with fear
ii. Neorepinephrine: linked with anger
iii. Adrenal glands—under back of rib cage, atop kidneys
iv. Adrenal medulla
1. inner core of the adrenal glands
2. source of epinephrine and norepinephrine
 v. adrenal cortex
1. outer “bark” of adrenal glands
2. produced a set of hormones: corticoids
a. regulate salt balance in the body
b. help body adjust to stress
c. provides secondary source of sex hormones
7. Psychology in Action
a. Hand Dominance
i. agility of your dominant hand is an outward expression of superior
motor control on one side of the brain
ii. right handed—more area on left side of brain devoted to
controlling the right hand
b. Brain dominance
i. Most right hand-ers process speech in the left hemisphere and are
left brain dominant
ii. Majority of left hand-ers produce speech fro left also
iii. Some left use both sides
c. Handedness
i. 90% are right handed
ii. hand preferences isn’t directly inherited but there is some relation
d. Advantage Left
i. Leonardo de Vinci and Michelangelo, Pablo Picasso, M.C. Escher
ii. Right hemisphere is superior at imagery and visual abilities
iii. Lateralization—specialization in the abilities of the brain
hemispheres
iv. Lefties less lateralized than right handed
v. Left handed individuals—less language loss after damage to brain
hemispheres