Ring

spac€f

Out€r
conducter Nonconductiv€
(a) insulator
(b)

FIGURE 8-8 Concentric or coaxial transmission lines: (a) rigid ainfilled; (b) solid flexible line

lower losses and are easier to construct and to install and maintain. Both types of coaxial
cables are relatively immune to extemal radiation, radiate little themselves, and can oper-
ate at higher frequencies than can their parallel-wire counterparts. The basic disadvantages
of coaxial transmission lines is that they are expensive and must be used in the unbalanced
mode.

TRANSMISSION-LINE EOUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Uniformly Distributed Lines
The characteristics of a transmission line are determined by its electricat properties, such
as wire cohductivity and insulator dielectric constant, and ia physical properties, such as
wire diameter and conductor spacing. These properties, in alrn, determine the primary elec-
trical constants: series dc resistance (R), series inductance (L), shunt capacitance (C), and
shunt conductance (G). Resistance and inductance occur along the line, whereas capaci-
tance and conductance occurbetween tlretwo conductors. The primary constants are uni-
formlydistributedthroughoutthe lengttr of the lineand, therefore, are commonly c,alleddis-
tributed parameters. To simplify analysis, distributed panmeters are commonly lumped
together per a given unit length to form an artificiat elecEical model of the line. For exam-
ple, series resistance is ge.nerally given in ohms per unit length (i.e., ohms/meter).
Figure 8-9 shows the electrical equivalent circuit for a metallic two-wire transmis-
sion line showing the rclative placement of the various lunped pardmeters. The conduc-
tance between the two wires is shown in reciprocal form and given as a shunt leakage re-
sistance (RJ.

Transmission Characteristics
The rassmission characteristics of a transmission line are called secondary constants srld
are determined from the four primary constants. The secondary constants are characteristic'
impedance and propagation constant.

Characteristic im@ance: For maximum power trarsfer from tlie source to the
load (i.e., no reflected enelgy), a transmission line must be tenninated in a pwely resistive
load equal to the choracteristic impedance of the line. The characteristic impedance (Zr) of
a transmission line ii a complex quantity that is expressed in ohms, is ideally independent of
line lengttl and cannot be measured. Characteristic im@anc€ (which is sometimes called
surge impedance) is defined as the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line or the
impedance seenlookinginto a finite length of line thatis terminated in apurely resistive load
-equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. A Eansmission line stores energy in its dis-
tributed inductance and capacitance. If the line is infinitd long, it can store energy indefi-
nitely; energy ffom the source is entering the line and none is rctumed. Therefore, the line

lransmission Lines 317

 1/G = Rs

c = capacitSnce - two conductors sepafatod

by an insulator
R = r€sistance - opposition to cur€nt flow
L = self inductancg
l/G = l€akage resistance o, dislectric
R. = shunt l€akag€ r€sistance

FIGURE 8-9 Two-wine parallel transmission line, electnical

equivalent circuit

\------rJ
z1

FIGURE 8-1O Equivalenr circuit for a

single section of transmission line
terminated in a load equal tn Zo

acts as a resistor that dissipates all the energy. An infinite line can be simulated
if a finite line
is terminated in a purely resistive load equal to Zo; allthe energy that enters
the line from the
sour@ is dissipated in the load (this assumes a totally lossless iney.
Figure 8-10 shows a single section of a transmission line terminated in a loadZ"that
is equal toZ"- The impedance seen looking into a line of z such sections is determined from
the following expression:

z7:zr4+4
n G4)
where r is the number of sections. For an infinite number of sections Z2rl
n approaches 0 if
z- :o
frr
.n l"-.-
Then, Zo= ttZ,q
where 21= R * jaL
lll
I-=-:-+
' Z, R, l/jaC
=G*jot
_t
L.=-
' G +j,'t t'

'i.'

Therefore, Zo= * 'ioLl'G+jaC E.

.

,w.
318 Chapter I *:
i:tn
.r*'
,l€f
!T..
 zo z6 z. z3 z2 z1
I I I I I
I
I
R
I
!^ I
R l* It
t"" t"" t"" I 1"" t"" t"" t""
hput __>
I
Rr
I
_ --> Rr 1--* R. I
-* Rt
I
-+ R,
I
--> R,
I
-+ R. _->
I
R. *.+
I
R.

Rel0o
R.=100Q

flGUBE g-11 Chdractecistic impedance of a transmission line of infinite sections or

@rminated in load equal to Z"

L": n**
rJG+ jrc
(8-s)

For extremely low frequencies, the resistances dominate and Equation 8-5 simplifies

Zo= (8-6)

For extrer.rely high frequencies, the inductance and capacitance dominate and Equation 8-5
simplifies to

a-tw-
o"- (8-7)
lioC-
From Equation 8-7 it can be seen that for high frequencies the characteristic imped-
ance of a transmission line approaches a constant, is independent of both frequency and
length, and is determined solely by the distributed inductance and capacitance. It can also
be ieen that the phase angle is 0"..Therefore, Z, looks purely resistive and all of the inci-
dent energy is absorted by the line.
From apurelyresistive approach, it can easily be seen that the impedance seen look-
ing into a transmission line made up of an infinite number of sections approaches the char-
acieristic impedance. This is shown in Figure 8-11. Again, for simplicity, only the series re-
sistance R and the shunt resistance R" are considered. The impedance seen looking into the
last section of tlreline is simply the sum of R and R". MathematicalLy,zlis
Zr: R+ R": 10 * lfi): 110

Adding a second sedior; Q, gives

' R z' r loo {-!!9 : * :
4.: R'+
--Z: lo
roo + rro
ro s2.38 62.38

and a third sectiorlQ, is .;

4=R.{ft
100 x 6xq
-- *
= lo 100 + 62.38
= l0 * 38.42: 48.32

A fourttr section,24, is
lm x 48'32: lo * :
zn: lQ * 169 * ot, 32.62 42.62

319
fransmission Unes
 It can be seen that after each additional section the total impedance
seen rooking
the line decreases from its previous value; however,.each time ir
crease is less than the previous value. If the process shown above
the*"gni*a..rG;
were continued, the
pedance seen looking inro the line will decrease asymptotically ir
characteristic impedance of the line.
toward 3? o, *hiljr;
If the transmission rine shown in Figure g-ll were terminated in a load
:
zt 37 .cl, the impedance seen rooking inti any number of sections wourd equal resistan,
37 o, tt
characteristic impedance. For a single section of line, Z, is

100 x 37
Zo:zt=R*#2:ro+ 3700
100+3?:10+1u:37a
Adding a second section, Zr, is

.7 Rsx Zt: lo0 x 37 _ r^, 140

Lo- -7L2-'\- R T+ RJ ro
lu + : l0 * :
Zr: 100 + 3? 1U 37 A
Therefore, if this line were terminated into a load resistan ceZ2
ter how many sections are hcluded.
- 37 A,Zo: 37 f,) no ma
The characteristic impedance of a fransmission line can also be
determined usin
ohm's law. when a source is connected to an infinitely rong rine
and a vortage is appriu
a current flo#is. Even though the load is open, the circuit
is complete through the distrib
uted constants of the line. The characteristic impedance
is simply the ratio or rou.". noti
age (E") to line current (/,). Mathem atically, Zo is

' o"-i
- -Eo (8-8

The characteristic impedance of a two-wire parallel transmission

line with an air di
electric can be determined from its physical dimensions (see
Figure 8-l2a) and the formulr

, Zo:276bg2 (8-el

l'. . "--*f
ogL
b, (bt

llGuFF
&l''physicar dimensions of snnsmission rines: (ar rwo'*e
para{el frrnsmission line; (b} coaxial-cable transmission line

320 Chapter I .}
,e.
It

i,
 where D : distance between the centers of the two conductors (in)
r : radius ofthe conductor(in)

andD >> r.

Example 8-1
Determine the characteristic impedance for an air dielectric
two-wire parallel transmission line with
a Dlr ratio = 12.22.

Solwion Substituting into Equation 8-9, we obtain

Z": 276lo9 12'22: 300 O
determined
The characteristic impedance of a concentric coaxial cable can also be
from its physical dimensions (see Figure 8-l2b) and the formula
138 D
zo: --=log;a (8-r0)
!e,
where D : inside diametei of the outer conductor (in)
d = outside diameter of the irurer conductor (in)
e, : dielectric constant (relative permativity) of the insulating material
(unitless)

Example 8-2
Determine the characteristic impedarrce for an RG-59A coaxial cable
with the following specifica-
tions: L = 0. I 18 u;IiVft, C : 2l pElft d = O.O25 in., D = 0. 15 in" and e : 2'23'

Solution Substituting into Equation 8-8 yields

z"=
E
le
: 2l x lo-t2pE/ft
=75{L

Substituting into Equation 8-10 gives us

138 ,0.15 : in.
4: ffitot o.25 in.
71.9 O

Transmission lines can be summarized thus far as follows:

and
l. The input impedance of an infinitely long line at radio frequencies is resistive
e4ualtoZo.
2. Electromagnetic waves travel down the line without reflections; such a line is
called nonresondnt-
3. The ratio of voltage to qrrent at any point along the line is equal to 2".
4. Tlre incident voltage and current at any Point along the line are in phase.
5. Line losses on a nooresmant line are ninimum per unit length.
6* Any transmission lias ftat is terminated in a purely rcsistive load equal to Zo aets
as if it were.an infiniteline.
(a) Zi: Zn
(b) There are no reflectcd waves.
(c) Vand/areinPhase-
(d) There is maximumtransfer of power from source to load'
(5illea
propagation coef--
Propagation constant Propagation constant (sometimes
(signal loss) and the phase shift per unit lenglh of
ficient)is ;sed to express fte agenuation
u torrr.irtion line. As a wave plopgates down a transmission
line, its amplitude decreases
in volt-
with distance raveled. fhe pr,fogtion constant is used to determine the reduction
ase or current with distance aTEIvt *"ue propagates down a trairsmission line. For an in-
"" of the wire as the wave
ir"nitety long line, alt the incidcntpower is dissipated in the resistance

'ransmission Unes 321

 propagates down the line. Therefore, with an infinitely long line or a
line that looks infinitr
:
long, such as a finite line terminated in a matched load (Zo Z7), noenergy is retumed
reflected back toward the source. Mathematically, the profagation constant is

-y = (t +/g (8-lj
where ^y : propagation constant
a: attenuation coefficient (nepers per unit length)
B: phase shift coefficient (radians per unit length)

The propagation constant is a complex quantity defined by

.y : VG + /.r0(6t+ /.rct (8-lr

Because a phase shift of2r rad occurs over a distance ofone waverengtrr,

2r
9= (8- I

At intermediate and radio frequencies, ^

<oL > R and <oC ) G, thus,
RGZ
(8-
22o 2 1:

and g :,rr\/rc (8- l,

The current and voltage distribution along a transmission line
that is terminated in
load equal to its characteristic impedance
1a matihed line) are determined from the formuft

I : I"e-ta (8-li
V : Vre-tt (8- 16

where 1, : current at the source end of the line (amps)

V" : voltage at the sourc€ end of the line (volis).
T: propagation constant
/: distance from the source at which the current or voltage is determined
.
For a matche d load Z2 :
Zo' and for a given length of cable /, the loss in signal volt
age or current is the rear part of "y/, and the phase shift
is the imaginary part.

TRANSMISSION{INE WAVE PROPAGATION

Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light when propagating

th-rough a vacuum ad
nearly at tre speed of light when propagating through air
Ho*"uer, in metallic transmir
sion lines where the conductor is generally and the dielectric materials vary co{r
siderably with cable type, an electromagretic"opp",
wave travels much more srowly.
Velocity Factor
velocit! factor (sometimes c alled velocity constant)is
defirned ,i*piy as the rario of the ac.
tual velocityof propagation through a given medium to
the velocity orfropugution through
free space. Mathematically, the velocity factor is

t, -v, (8- t7l

'l-;
where I/7 : velocity factor (unitless)
, Vp: actual velocity of propagation (meters per second)
c : velocity ofpropagation through free space (c : 3 X 108
m/s)
:
322 Chaprer I
 TABIE el Velocicy Fastons

Velocity Factor

Air 0.9H.97s
Rubber 0.56-0.65
Polyethylcnc 0.66
Teflon 0.70
Teflon foam 0.82
Teflon pins 0.81
Teflon spiral 0.8r

TABLE 8-2 Dielectric Constants

Dielectric Constant

Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0006
Teflon 2.t
Polyethyleue (PE) 2.27
Polystyrene 2.5
'Paper, paraffrncd 2.5
Rubber 3.0
Polyvinyl chloride @VC) 3.3
Mica 5.0
Glass 7-S

and VyX c: Vo

The velocity at which an electromdgnetic wave travels through a transmission line

depends on the dielectric constant of the insulating material separating the two conductors.
The velocity factor is closely approximated with the formula

I
vf: (8-18)
G
where €r is the dielectric eonstant of a given material (the permittivity of the material rela-
tive to the permittiviry of a vaanum--the ratio e/eo).
Dielectric constant is simply fu,relative permittivity ofa material. The rclative dielec-
tic constant of air is 1.0006. However, drc dielecric constant of materials commonly used in
ftansmission lin"-s ranges fton 12to2.8, grving velocity factors from 0.6 to 0.9. The veloc-
ity faa6m for several coilnon transrnission-line configurations arc given in Table 8-1, and
the dielectic constaffts for scveral insulating materials are listed in Thble g-2.
Dielectric constantdepends ontte type of material used. Inductors store magnetic en-
ergy and capacitors store electric€nergf. It takes a finite amount of time for an inductor or
a capacitor to take on or give up enqgl. Therefore, the velocity at which an electomag-
netic wave propagates along a transmission line varies with the inductance and capacitance
of the cable. It can be shown ftat tine 7 : tf nc.Therefore, inductance, capacitance, and
velocity of propagation arc mathernatically related by the formula
velocity X time: distance

-
v:-: distance 2
Therefore, 'P time T
(8-te)

'nansmission Unes
323
 Substituting for time yields tt-D
-
If distance is normalized to I m, the velocity " Ge
of propagation for a lossless line
is
(8-2r

lffi
'r-ffi:
,,
-
VLC
I
m/s (8_2t
where V^: velocity of propagation (meters
per second)
\/rc : seconds

Example 8-3
For a given rength of RGgAru coaxiar cabre with a
t
distribured capacitanc e C : .g6-6pF/m,
*a a ai'i"t'ic .''=
a dis
i*ilfi S;: :r.::;i:::^' constanr 2'3' l;;"nine rhe verocity
e1

Solution From Equarion g-21,

u':ffi:2-oTxlosm/s
From Quation 8-i7,
t, _2.O7 X m/s
totil- :
IOE
'/ - J-x- 0.69
From Equation 8-18.

,. I

*u'.,.nrj:.,
lesause
tion'of a TEM wave varies :1;T::i^::rF1
wittr aietectrr^c ;:,::.,the *,,y and the veroci ry or propaga.
wavelength of a TEM wave
"onr'*,, also
;ilil'f *:tr*;Hffj J*"'", ro.',.*r*ission medl other rhan rree space,

trr ,r:* c
ff f \/;,
(8.22)

Electrical Length of a Transrnission

Line
The length of a transmission rine
r.r"ri* io ii"
length of rhe wave propagaring down
an important consideration when it is
analyzirgl.""r*iirion-line o"t uul..
(long wavelengrhs), the.vortage At row frequencies
ul"ng
high frequencies, severar w"u,"r"negt'oiin"lir."t
,trJril
remains reratively constant. Howeve' for
time' Therefore, the vortage along-the may be presenr on the rine ar rhe same
Ii.," -uy'uu.y appreciably. conscquentry,
of a transmission ,ine is often gi"* i" the rength
*"J.rengths
rather than in rinear dimensions.
Transmission-line phenomena appry
to long rinls. Generany, a
as long if its length exceedr transmission rine is defined
o*-ri*Ln,rr r?" *"*rength; otherwise,
Agiven lerrgth of transmissi3l tin it is considered.short
muy appl* rto.t at one frequency
frequency' For example, and long at anofter
a l0 m r""crh;i;;smission
3CI'000 m; I0 m is onry a_sma'fractiJr line rooo rz is short Q\ = it
ora waverength). However, th.e same
is long ()r= 5 cm; the line is 200 *"'"L"*,rrr.ronq).rr-w'r rine at6GIrz
chaper, in Chapter 9, and i",+pp"nJi"
; ,t:;
*
electrical length is "oo"Jff,",li#1r",ff.
transmission-line calcu I ation, used extensiv ely for,
"nd'_t"n"" ;;;".
Delay Unes
In tfte previous section it.was shown
that the verocity of propagation
wave depends on the media in of an erectromagneric
which it it t uu"ri.,g.
in free space (i.e., a vac,'m) is 1t " ,"p.itfoi*
agneticwu\e
the
slowerthrough the Earth's atmospherc
r*"d;;il (3 x l.s o/r) *a "tno,
the verociry is srigfrrfl.
ri."., uirilrn. velocity of propagation thro ughametar:

324 Chaprer I : a.:

ri+€:.
 lic tansmission line is effected by the cable's electrical constants, inductance and capacitance.
The velocity of propagation of a metallic fan"smission line is somewhat less than the veloc-
ity- of propagation through either free space or the Earttr's atmosphere.
b"iuy tin"s are transmission lines designed to intentionally introduce a time delay in
the path of an electromagnetic wave. The amorrnt of
time delay is a function of the trans-
and capacitance. The inductance provides an opposition to
mission line's inductance
the charge and discharge times of the capacitance. Delay time is
changes in current as does
calculated as follows:
ta: IC (seconds) (8-23a)

where la= time delaY (seconds)

L = inductance (henrys)
C : caPacitance (farads)

If inductance and capacitance are given per unit lengtir of transmission line (such as
(i.e., 1.5 ns/meter).
per foot or per meter), the time delay will also be per unit length
the follow-
The time delay introduced by a length of coaxial cable is calculated with
ing formula:
ta : l'016 e (8-23b)

where e is the dielectric constant of cable.

TRANSM ISSION-LINE LOSSES

lossless. [n reality,
For analysis purposes, transmission lines are often considered totally
however, there are several ways in which power is lost in a transmission line' They ale con-
ductor loss, radiation loss, dielectric heating loss, coupling loss, and corona.

Conductor Loss
line has a finite resist-
Because current flows through a trarsmiiiion line and the transmission
and unavoidable power loss. This is sometimes c,'lled' con'ductor ot
ance, there is an inherent
and is simpty anf2R loss. Because resistance is distibuted throughout
conductor heating loss
a transmission line, conductmlossisdirecdyproportional to the square of ttre line length.Also,
the curreng conductor loss
because power dissipation is dirdly proportional to the squarc of
to ctnracteristic impedance. To reduce colductor loss, simply shorten
is inversety proportional
line or.usealagerdiameterwirc (kee'p inmindthatchanging the wire diam-
ttre transmiJsion
the cull€no'
eter also changes the charactaislic impedan@ and, consequently,
Conductor loss depends smr*hat on frequency because of an action called the stln
round wire, 6e magnetic flux associated
Sea-Whencrurent flows ttuuatr an isolated
frtl*i is in the form of concentrb circles. This is shown in Figure 8-13. ft can be seen that
t* no* density ngar the centerof tk conductor is greater than it is near ttre surface. Con-
,"q,r"nttn the iines of fluxnear 6e center of the coirductor encircle tlrc current and reduce
and causes the in-
,t *.Uifiay of the encircled etectr,ons. ftris is a form of self-inductance
"
ductance nbar the center of the cmductor to be greater than at the surfadc" Ttrerefore, at ra-
cunrnt flows along the surface (outer skin) radrer than near the
dio frequencies, most of the
ceffer ;f the conductor. This equivalent
is to reducing the cross-sectional area of the con-
oppo-
ductor and increasing the oppocitimb current flow (i.e., resistance). The additional
resiitaflce and noa a reactsnce. Therefore, the
sition has a 0" phase angte anc is, 6€rerore, a

ac resistance of the coniuctor is popoftional to the square root of fie ftequency' The
Stio
'called
the resistance ratio.
of the ac resistance to the dc resisance of a conductor is
rpp-*i."t"fy 100 MHz, the ccmer of a conductor can tb completely removed and^bove hav.e

absolutely qo effect on the total cmductor loss or EM wave propagation' ,l

'1 '

325
Transmission Lines
 9-20. Describe virtual height.
9-21. Define maximum usable frequency-
9-T2. Define skip distance and give the reasons why it varies.
9-23. Describe Path loss.
9-2. Describe fade margin.
9-25. Descritre fading.

PROBLEMS
I 9-l^ Determine the power density for a radiated power of 1000 W at distance of 20 km from an
isotroPic antenna-
9-2. Determine the power density for Pr,oblem 9-t for a point that is 30 km from the antenna.
9-3. Describe the effects on power density if the distance from a transmit antenna is tripled.
9-4. Determine the radio horizon for a transmit antenna that is 100 ft high and a receiving antenna
that is 50 ft high, and for antennns at 100 m and 50 m.
9-5. Determine the maximum usable frequency for a critical frequency of l0 MHz and an augle of
incidence of 45".
9-6. Determine the eled4c field intensity for the same point in Problem 9-1.
9-7. Determine the electric field intensity for the same point in Problem 9-2.
9-8. For a radiated power P,o4: l0 kW determine the voltage intensity at a distance 20 km from
the source.
9-9. Determine the change in power density when the distance from the source increases by a fac-
tor of.4.
9-10. If the distance from the source is reduced to one-half its value, what effect does this have on
the power densitY?
9-11. The power density at a point from a source is 0.001 pW and the power density at another point
is 0.00001 pW; determine the attenuation in decibels.
9-12. Fot a dielectric ,^tio I q. / E : 0.8 and an angle of incidence 0; : 26", determine the angle
of refraction, 0,.
9-13. Determine the distance to thc radio horizon for an anOenna located 4O ft above sea level.
9-14. Determine the distance to the radio horizon for an antenna that is 40 ft above the top of a 40O0-
ft mountain Peak-
9-15. Determine the maximum distarrce between identical antennas equidistant above sea level for
hoblem 9-13.
9-16. Determine the power density for a radiated power of 1200 W at distance of 50 km from an
isotropic antenna
9-17. Determine the power density for Problem 9-16 for a point l0O km from the siune antenna.
9-fE. Describc the effects on power density if the distance from a transmit antenna is reduced by a
factor of 3.
9-19. Determine the radio horizon for a transmit antenna that is 200 ft high and a receiving antenna
that is 100 ft high, and for antennas at 200 m and 100 m.
.:
9-20. Determine the maximum usable @uency for a critical frequency of20 MHi and an angle of
incidence of 35".
g-Zl. Determine the voltage intensity for the same point in hoblem 9-16-
9-22. Determine the voltage intensity for the same point in Problem 9-17.
9-23. Determine lhe change in powerdensity when the distance from the sourcc decreases by a fac-
tor of 8.
9-24. Determine the change in power&nsity when the distance from the"source increases by a fac-

'. torof8.
9-25. Ifthe distance from the source is reduced to one{uarter its value, whateffect does this have
on the Power densitY?

ectromagnetic Wave Propagation 369